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Chemistry Form Two

Republic of Somaliland

Chemistry Text Book

Grade: Form two

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Chemistry Form Two

Table of contents page

1. More about matter 6
1.1. Pure substances
1.2. Gases
1.3. Solutions and solubility
2. Using the periodic table 27
2.1. More about the atom
2.2 Periodic table
2.3. Trends within a group
2.4. Trends across a period
3. Bonding 42
3.1. Compounds
3.2. Ionic bonding and ionic compounds
3.3. Covalent bonding and covalent compounds

4. Air, Earth and Water 54

4.1. Air and its uses
4.2 Air pollution
4.3. Water and the water cycle
4.4. Hard and soft water

5. The mole 67
5.1. Masses of atoms
5.2. The mole
5.3. Formula
5.4. Concentration of solutions
5.5. Molar gas volume
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6. Chemical reactions and equations 90

6.1. Molecular equations and calculations
6.2. Making and breaking compounds
6.3. Oxidation and reduction
6.4. Precipitation
6.5. Neutralization
6.6. Energy changes

7. Introduction to Carbon and organic compounds 102

7.1. Carbon and its compounds
7.2. The carbon cycle
7.3. Fossil fuels
7.4. Chemicals from oil
7.5. Plastics
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Introduction

This book is designed for form 2 Somaliland secondary schools and contains all of
the topics they require. Each topic is supported theories, facts, explanations, analysis
and exercises and it’s based on newly revised curriculum.

The objective of this book is to satisfy educational needs of the learners and to help
them to develop self-reliance and complete confidence in their abilities to understand
and solve chemistry problems.
In the context of this objective, the book contains:
 Detailed notes, many examples, clear mathematical formulas, calculations, short
clarifications,
 Summaries and exercises which address all topics covered in the text
 Chapter review questions at the end of each chapter allow students to practice

This book is an excellent teaching learning tool for both teachers and students.
The language is kept simple, to improve accessibility for all students, Care is taken to
introduce and use all the special terms that students need to gain a complete
understanding of the chemical concepts introduced.

In the text, key terms are highlighted in bold. The depth and breadth of each topic is
pitched at the appropriate O level students.

The key objective of this book is to improve the quality of secondary chemistry
education; all of it has been reviewed and revised, ensuring that the new specification
is fully covered.
In addition to the main content in each chapter describing issues, applications or
events, which put the chemical content introduced into a social context.
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Chapter Exercise questions (EQs) in each chapter provide opportunities to check

understanding. They often address misunderstandings that commonly appear in
examination answers, and will help students to avoid such errors.

The key objective of Modern Education is to give learners the skills, knowledge and
attitudes they will need to succeed in a rapidly evolving world. In most developing
countries learning resources are scarce. It is therefore necessary that the teacher uses
alternative methods such as: Collection from the environment and Improvisation

The teacher should have the capacity and attitude to improvise resources from locally
available materials which are often considered waste or valueless. Improvisation helps
reduce the cost of teaching and learning since improvised resources cost very little or
have no cost at all. In addition improvisation helps demystify science and bring it home
to the learner as part and parcel of everyday life.

Developers:
1. Hamse Ibrahim Muhumed
2. Mustafe Mohamed Ahmed (Indho)
3. Abdirashid Abdirahman Hassan
4. Mohamed Ali Omar (Gaas)

Editor:

1. Ali Mohamed Amiin

2. Hamse Ibrahim Muhumed
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CHAPTER 1: MORE ABOUT MATTER.

Everything is made up of particles.

Since earliest times we humans have wondered what things were made up of. Our
ideas have developed slowly and often gone off in the wrong direction over centuries.
Matter
Matter is anything that has a mass, density and can occupy an empty space. Matter has
three phases: solid, liquid and gas.
A solid has a definite shape and definite volume. A liquid has a definite volume but not
definite shape. Its shape depends on the container. A gas has neither a definite volume
nor a definite shape. It completely fills its container. It is much lighter than the same
volume of solid or liquid.
Water can be a solid (ice), liquid (water) and a gas (steam or water vapor). It’s states
can be changed by heating or cooling.

Ice Melting, 00C Wate Evaporation, 1000C Steam

r
Freezing, 00C
Condensation, below
Even iron and Diamond can melt and boil 1000C

A few substances change straight from solid to gas, without becoming liquid, when they
are heated. This change is called sublimation and vice versa is called deposition.
E.g. CO2 and Iodine
Particle model - Introduction
You can use the idea of particles to explain the properties of solids, liquids and gases.
The strength of bonds between particles is different in all three states. It explains why
solids cannot flow, and why gases can be compressed.
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THE KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER

A physical model, known as the kinetic theory, helps us to understand the difference.
There are three basic assumptions of the kinetic theory.

1, Matter is composed of very tiny particles which have essentially no volume

2. These particles are always in motion
3. When these particles collide with each other, the total kinetic energy
remains the same.

Particle model – Solids

Steel, plastic and wood are solids at room temperature. Ice is solid water.
The particles in a solid have the following characteristics:
 they are close together
 they are arranged in a regular pattern
 they are held together by strong forces called bonds
 they can vibrate in a fixed position
 they cannot move from place to place
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The table shows some of the properties of solids and why they are like this.
Particle model - Liquids
Mercury, lemonade and water are liquids at room temperature.
The particles in a liquid are:
 close together
 arranged in a random way
 move around each other

The bonds in a liquid are strong enough to keep the particles close together, but weak
enough to let them move around each other.
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The table shows some of the properties of liquids and why they are like this.

Particle model - Gases

Air, helium and chlorine are gases at room temperature. Water vapour is water as a
gas. The particles in a gas are:
 far apart
 arranged in a random way
 move quickly in all directions
There are no bonds between the particles in a gas, so they are free to move in any
direction.

The table shows some of the properties of gases and why they are like this.

Particle model - Flowing

Liquids and gases do not have a fixed shape. They can flow and fill their containers, but
solids cannot. The particle model explains why.
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Solids
Solids cannot flow because their particles are only able to vibrate and cannot move
from place to place.
Liquids
Liquids can flow because their particles can move over each other. When water is
poured into a glass, the particles of water move over each other and into the corners of
the glass. The particles keep on moving over each other as the water takes the shape
of the glass. The animation shows how this works.
Gases
Gases can flow because their particles can move in all directions. When a Bunsen
burner is connected to a gas tap and turned on, natural gas flows through the rubber
tubing. The particles of natural gas are free to move anywhere inside the tubing, and
pressure forces them through the tubing into the Bunsen burner.

Particle model - Arrangement and movement

The table summarizes the arrangement and movement of the particles in solids, liquids
and gases. It also shows simple diagrams of the arrangement of the particles that you
should be able to draw and recognize.
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Gases
If you blow up a balloon, you fill it with air particles moving at speed. The particles
knock against the sides of the balloon an exert pressure on it. The pressure is what
keeps the balloon inflated.
Therefore the pressure depends on the temperature of the gas and the volume it fills

THE DIFFUSION OF GASES

The lighter the particles of gas, the faster the gas will diffuse.
Example: A particle of ammonia gas has about half the mass of a particle of hydrogen
chloride, so it will diffuse faster. This is shown in the experiment below. The cloud
formed when the two gases meet is nearer to the hydrogen chloride than the ammonia.

Ammonium chloride
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Gas pressure changes

How gas pressure changes with temperature

When you raise the temperature of a gas you increase the number of collisions that the
particles have with one another and with the container. They hit the container wall with
more force and more often. So gas pressure increases as temperature increases for a
fixed mass of gas.

The diagram shows if the temperature of a gas is increased, the speed of the molecules is also
increased. More molecules hit the sides of the container, each with a great impulse, so the
pressure increases.

How gas pressure changes with volume

If you reduce the size of the container i.e. the volume of the gas, the number of
collisions between the gas particles and the container wall increases since they have
less space to move within. Hence, as you decrease volume of a gas you increase its
pressure, for a fixed mass of gas.
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the diagram shows that if the volume of a gas decrease its pressure increases
as the temperature remains constant.
How gas volume changes with temperature
When a gas is heated the particles gain more energy and therefore move around
quicker bouncing off each other and the container wall with more energy. This means
that they take up a greater volume as they bounce further from one another. This
shows that increasing the temperature of a gas increases its volume, for a fixed mass of
gas.
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Changes of state
Three forms of water
In nature water can naturally occur in three states; it can exist as a liquid (water), a gas
(water vapour) and as a solid (ice). At standard temperatures and pressures, water
exists in a state of dynamic equilibrium between its liquid and gaseous states. Ice, the
solid form of water, only exists at relatively low temperatures (below water's freezing
point of zero degrees Celsius). 

Melting
When a solid is heated, its particles gain more energy and vibrate more. Due to the
increase in vibrations, the solid expands. At melting point, the particles vibrate so much
that they break away from their positions. It is at this point that a solid becomes a
liquid.

Boiling
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When a liquid is supplied with heat, its particles gain more energy and therefore move
around quicker. This increase in movement causes the liquid to expand. At boiling
point the liquid particles gain enough energy to overcome the forces holding them
together - these particles break away from one another and the liquid now becomes a
gas.

Evaporating
Not all particles in a liquid contain the same amount of energy - some have more! This
is why evaporation of a liquid can take place below its boiling point. This is called
evaporation and explains why puddles dry up on sunny days.

Condensing
When you cool a gas, the particles lose energy. This loss in energy causes the particles
to move more slowly as they move closer together. When the particles no longer have
sufficient energy to move away as they bump into one another the gas becomes a
liquid.

Freezing/Solidifying
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When a liquid is cooled, the particles once more lose energy; they vibrate less as they
slow down. Eventually they stop moving, except for vibrations in fixed positions. A solid
has now formed.

Melting and boiling points of some common compounds.

Even iron and diamond can melt and boil. Melting and boiling point of any substance
depends on the nature of particles.

The melting and boiling points of some common elements are given in the table below.
Substance Melting point0C Boiling point 0C
Oxygen -219 -183
Ethanol -15 78
Sodium 98 890
Sulphur 119 445
Iron 1540 2900
Diamond 3550 4832

Few substance changes directly from solid to gas without becoming a liquid. This
change is called sublimation. Carbon dioxide and iodine both sublime and changes
directly to gas when heated.
This means that;
1) No two substances have the same melting and boiling points.
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2) The melting and boiling point of the substance will change if you mix tiny
amount of other substance. If you mix one substance with another substance
this will make an impurity.
a) An impurity lowers the freezing points of the substance and raises its boiling
points.
b) The more impurity there is in a substance the more its melting and boiling
point changes.

The effects of impurity on the melting and boiling temperatures

Seawater is impure water. You can show this if you put some seawater in an
evaporating dish and boil away the water because of the solid residue of salt is left
behind in the dish. Seawater freezes at temperature below the freezing point of water,
which is 0Co and boils point of 100C o other impure substance behave in a
same way.

The melting and boiling points of some common substance are shown in the table
below.
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In general: the presence of impurity in a substance

 Lowers the melting point of the substance.
 Raises the boiling point of the substance.
 The more impure there are in a substance the more its freezing and boiling point
changes.
 The melting and boiling point of the substance depend on the nature of its
particles and its purity.
 This means that no two substances have the same melting and boiling points.
 By using the melting and boiling point of the substance, you can identify a
substance.

SOLUTIONS

A solution is a homogeneous mixture. A mixture of sugar and water is a clear mixture

and you cannot see the sugar particles. We can say that it has dissolved. The sugar is
the solute while water is the solvent.

Solute + solvent→ solution

When sugar and water are mixed together the water particles get between the sugars
particles and separate them. The separate particles are too small to bee seen which is
why the solution looks clear.
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Suspensions
Insoluble solids like chalk won’t dissolve in water, so there are white specks in the
water because the chalk has not dissolved. It’s insoluble in water. A mixture like this is
called suspension.
In a suspension the particles of a solid do not all separate. Instead they stay clusters
are large enough to be seen.

Types of Solutions
Solution: homogeneous mixture of two or more substances
6 types of solutions are:
(i) Gas + Gas Gas solution (Air)
(ii) Liquid + Liquid Liquid solution (Soda water)
(iii) Gas + Solid Solid solution (H2 gas in Palladium)foam
(iv) Liquid + Liquid Liquid solution (Ethanol in Water)
(v) Solid + Liquid Liquid solution (NaCl in water)
(vi) Solid + Solid Solid solution (Cu / Zn Brass)
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Crystallization is the process in which dissolved solute comes out of solution and forms
crystal.
Miscible and Immiscible liquids
If two liquids are completely soluble in each other in all proportions are said to be
miscible, but if that liquids are not soluble each other is called immiscible.

Solution can be classified as Unsaturated, Saturated and Supersaturated solutions.

Saturated Solution is when no more solute will dissolve into the solvent.

Un-Saturated Solution is a normal solution.

Super-Saturated Solution is a solution that contains more solute than it present in a

saturated solution.

Solubility
Solubility is the maximum amount of a solute that can dissolve in 100g of water at a
given temperature.

Measuring Solubility
Let at us take sodium nitrate, this is what to do:
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heating
Cooling

Step1: put 2g of sodium nitrate in a test tube, add a little of water from measuring
cylinder.

Step2: heat test-tube gently until the water is hot but not boiling, add more water if
necessary until the solid is just dissolved.

Step3: let the solution cool, while stirring with a thermometer. Note the temperature at
which first crystals appear.

 Test-tubes where the solubility occur.

 Measuring cylinder help us the water we use.
 Thermometer help us the temperature.

Calculating solubility

1. 2grams of sodium nitrate were dissolved in 12.5cm 3. on cooling, first crystals

appeared at 60C. What is the solubility of sodium nitrate in water at 60C.

Every 1Cm3 has a mass of 1gram. Therefore, 12.5cm 3 of water has a mass of 12.5g

12.5cm3 12.5g

Solution

2g of NaNO3 12.5g of H2O

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X 100g of H2O

2 g of NaNO 3 x 100 g of H 2 O
x=
12.5 g of H 2O
= 16 grams

The solubility sodium nitrate in water at 60c is 16 grams.

2. 3g of potassium sulphate where dissolved 25cm 3. On cooling, first crystals

appeared at 31C. What is the solubility of potassium sulphate in water at 31c

Solution

3g of K2SO4 25g of H2O

X 100g of H2O

3 g of K 2 SO 4 x 100 g of H 2 O
x= = 12 grams
25 g of H 2O

Therefore the solubility of potassium sulphate is 12grms

Exercise
1. 3g of silver nitrate where dissolved in 15cm3 .On cooling ,first crystals appeared at
40C.

What is the solubility of silver nitrate in water at 40C.

Solubility curves

The solubility curve is changing results from experiment into plot of graph.

Solubility of copper(ll) sulphate in water .

Solubility of copper(ll) in sulphate in water.

Temperature 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
/C
Solubility /g 14 17 21 26 29 34 40 47
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Chemistry Form Two

The solubility of salt copper(ll) sulphate at any temperature from 0 to 70C. for
example, at 15C it’s solubility 19grams . On cooling, if the solution contains 37g of the
salt in 100g of water crystals will appear just below 55C.

Solubility of gases

Solubility of gases changes with temperature and pressure.

Solubility of gases increase with decreasing the temperature

Solubility of gases increase with increasing the pressure

Look at this table below

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Solubility at 100g of water

GAS 40C 20C 0C

Oxygen 2.5 3.3 4.8
Carbon dioxide 56.6 92.2 171
Sulphur dioxide 2170 4250 7980
Hydrogen chloride 44500 47400 50500

Exercise

2. Use the solubility curve above to find the solubility of copper(ll) solphate in water

at 30C, 36C and 66C.

The Effect of Temperature on Solubility

(a) Solid Solubility and Temperature

(b) Gas Solubility and Temperature

In most cases solubility of solid substance

increases with temperature

Fractional Crystallization, separation of a mixture of substances into pure components on the

basis of their differing solubility

(a) Gas Solubility and Temperature

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Chemistry Form Two

Solubility of gases in water

usually decreases with
increasing temperature

For the solubility of gases:

 Its solubility decreases with temperature and

 Increases with pressure.

The following table summarizes the solubility of the various bases and salts,

Chapter 1 Review Questions:

1. Define these terms
a. Matter
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b. Solution
c. Suspension
d. Saturated-solution
e. Miscible
f. Solute
g. Solvent
1. Write down two properties of a solid, two of a liquid, and two of a gas?
2. Which word means the opposite of:
a. Boiling?
b. Melting?
3. Which has a lower freezing point, oxygen or ethanol?
4. Which has a higher boiling point, oxygen or ethanol?
5. Using the idea of particles, explain why:
b. You can pour liquids?
c. Solids expand on heating?
6. Draw a diagram to show what happens to the particles, when a liquid cools to a
solid.
7. Oxygen is the gas we breathe in. It can be separated from the air. It boils at –
219 8C and freezes at –183 8C.
a. In which state is oxygen, at:
i 0 8C?
ii –200 8C?
b. How would you turn oxygen gas into solid oxygen?
8. What causes the pressure in a gas?
9. Why does a balloon burst if you keep on blowing?
10. A gas is in a sealed container. How do you think the pressure will change if the
container is cooled? Explain your answer.
11.A gas flows from one container into a larger one. What do you think will happen
to its pressure?
12.Draw diagrams to explain.
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Chemistry Form Two

a Why does the scent of perfume spread?

b Why does the scent of perfume wear off faster in warm weather than in cold?
13.Of all gases, hydrogen diffuses fastest at any given temperature. What can you
tell from this?
14.Using the idea of particles explain why:
a. the smell of burnt food travels through the house?
b. when two solids are placed on top of each other, they do not mix?
c. pumping up your bike tyres gives a smooth ride?
d. smokers can cause lung damage in other people?
e. heating a gas in a closed container will increase its pressure?
f. poisonous gases from a factory chimney can affect a large area.?
15.Explain each term in your own words:
a. soluble
b. insoluble
c. aqueous solution
16. See if you can give three examples of:
a. solids you dissolve in water, at home
b. Insoluble solids you use at home.
17. Name two solvents other than water that are used in the home. What are they
used for?
18.Many gases dissolve in water. Try to give some example?
19.What does a pure substance mean?
20.You mix instant coffee with water, to make a cup of coffee. Is the coffee an
impurity? Explain.

21. Explain why melting and boiling points can be used as a way to check purity.

Chapter 2: Using the periodic table

More about the atom
Protons, neutrons, and electrons
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All atoms consist of a nucleus and a cloud of electrons that move around the nucleus.
The nucleus is itself a cluster of two sorts of particles, protons and neutrons. All the
particles in an atom are very high.

Mass is measured in atomic mass units, rather than grams. Protons and electrons also
have an electric charge.

Particles in an atom Mass Charge

Proton 1unit Positive charge
Neutron 1unit None
Electron Almost nothing Negative charge

How the particles are arranged

The sodium atom is a good one to start with. It has 11protons, 11 electrons, and 12
neutrons. They are arranged like this:

The different energy levels for the electrons are called electrons shells. Each can hold
only a limited number of electrons.
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Chemistry Form Two

The first shell can hold up to 2 electrons

Nucleu The second shell can hold up to 8
s
The third shell can also hold up to 8

Notice how the electrons are arranged in the sodium atom:

2 in the first shell (its full)
8 in the second shell (it is also full);
1 in the shell (it is not full).
The (2, 8, 1) is its electron arrangement or electronic configuration.

Proton number and mass number

Proton number: look again at the sodium atom on the opposite page. It has 11 protons.
This fact could be used to identify it, because only a sodium atom has 11 protons.
Every other atom has a different number of protons. You can identify an atom by the
number of protons in it. The number of protons in an atom is called its proton number
or atomic number. The proton number of sodium is 11. The sodium atom also has 11
electrons. So it is an equal number of protons and electrons. The same is true for every
sort of atom. Every atom has an equal number of protons and electrons. Because of
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Chemistry Form Two

this, atoms have no overall charge. The charge on the electrons cancels the charge on
the protons.
The charge on a sodium atom: 11protons, each has a charge of +1, and 11electrons,
each has a charge of -1. Therefore, if we add the total number of protons and
electrons, the sum will be zero. Let as look:
(+11) + (-11) = 0. Therefore the atom has no overall charge.

Mass number: the electrons in an atom have almost no mass. So the mass of an atom
is nearly all due to its protons and neutrons. For this reason the number of protons and
neutrons in an atom is called its mass number or nuclear number.
The mass number= the number of protons + the number of electrons in an atom.
A sodium atom has 11 protons and 12 neutrons, so the mass number of sodium Is 23.
Since the proton number is the number of protons only, then:
Mass number-proton number= Number of neutrons. So, for a sodium atom, the
number of neutrons
(23-11) = 12

Shorthand of an atom
The sodium atom can be described a short way using:
The symbol for sodium (Na)
Its proton number (11)
Its mass number (23)

23
The information is written as 11 Na. from this, you can tell that sodium atom has 11
protons, 11 electrons and 12 neutrons (23-11=12). The information is always put in the
same order:
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Chemistry Form Two

Figure of the symbol

Some different atoms

The first twenty elements: there are 105 elements all together. Of these, hydrogen has
the smallest atoms with only 1 proton each. Helium atoms have 2 protons each, lithium
atoms have 3 protons each and so on. The first twenty elements, arranged in order
according to the number of protons they have
Element Symbol Number Number Number Number of
of of of protons+neutrons
protons electrons neutrons (mass number )

Hydrogen H 1 1 0 1
Helium He 2 2 2 4
Lithium Li 3 3 4 7
Beryllium Be 4 4 5 9
Boron B 5 5 6 11
Carbon C 6 6 6 12
Nitrogen N 7 7 7 14
Oxygen O 8 8 8 16
Fluorine F 9 9 10 19
Neon Ne 10 10 10 20
Sodium Na 11 11 12 23
Magnesium Mg 12 12 12 24
Aluminium Al 13 13 14 27
Silicon Si 14 14 14 28
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Chemistry Form Two

Phosphoru P 15 15 16 31
s
Sulphur S 16 16 16 32
Chlorine Cl 17 17 18 35
Argon Ar 18 18 22 40
Potassium K 19 19 20 39
Calcium Ca 20 20 20 40

Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons, but different numbers of
neutrons. Isotopes are atoms of the element, with the same number of protons but
different number of neutrons, carbon is an example, it has three isotopes. (Chlorine
having the exact number of neutron12, chlorine having 13 neutrons, and chlorine
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having 14 neutrons)Therefore chlorine has two: 17 C, and1737C.

Trend with in a group

First, the elements are listed in order of increasing proton number. Hydrogen comes
first, since its proton number is 1.
Next, the list is sub-divided like this: The elements whose atoms have 1 outer-shell
electrons are picked out of the list in order, and called group 1. The elements whose
have 2 outer-shell electrons are picked out of the list in order, and called group2.
Group3, group4 and so on are formed in the same way.
Then the groups are arranged side by side to give the periodic table.
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Chemistry Form Two

Periodic law
The properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic numbers. The
horizontal rows of periodic table called periods or rows, seven periods each which
begins with atom have only one valence electron and ends with complete outer shell.
Structure of an inner gas, first three periods is short, consisting of 2 and 8 elements,
respectively. Period 4 and 5 are long, with 18 each, while period 6 has 32 elements
and period 7 is incomplete with 22 elements most of which are radioactive and do not
occur in nature.
The vertical columns of the periodic table are called groups or families. These
elements in a group exhibit similar or related properties. The Roman numerical group
number gives an indication of the number of electrons probably found in the outer shell
of the atom and thus an indication of one of its possible valence number.
Periodic
table
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Properties related to the periodic table

Metals are found on the left of the chart with the most active metal in the lower left
corner, nonmetals are found on the right side with the most active nonmetal in the
upper right-hand corner. The noble gases are on the far right. Since the most active
metals react with water to form bases, the group1 metals are called alkali metals. As
you proceed to the right, the base-forming property decreases and the acid-forming
properties increase. The metals in the first two groups are the light metals, and those
toward the center are heavy metals. These elements have certain characteristics of
metals and other characteristics of nonmetals. Some examples of metalloids are baron,
and silicon. Group 4 contains the elements carbon, silicon. These atoms each have 4
electrons in the outer most shell. Group 5 contains the elements nitrogen, sulphur; their
atoms each have 5 electrons in the outer shell, and so on. Zigzag line through the
group, It separates the metals from the nonmetals.
The transition metals: the atoms of these have more complicated electron
arrangements.
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Chemistry Form Two

Group one: The alkali metals

 They include: lithium, sodium, and potassium.
 They are soft metals that can be cut with knife.
 They are so light they float on water.
 Are silvery and shiny when fresh cut but quickly tarnish.
 Have low melting and boiling point compared with other metals.
 As other metals, all of them lose one outer electron during chemical
reaction to obtain a full outer shell.
 They also react in similar way for example; they react violently with
water to give hydrogen and alkaline solution. Lithium is the least
reactive of the three metals. It reacts the most slowly. Potassium is the
most reactive of the three.
Why they have similar properties
Alkaline metals have similar properties because their atoms all have 1 electron in the
outer shell.
Trend within the group
Atom Metal Melting Reactivity Boiling Melting
point/°C series point/°C and boiling
point.
7
3L Lithium 181 1342
23
11 Na Sodium 98 883
39
19 K Potassium 63 760
85
37 Rb Rubidium 39 686
Reactivity Melting and
increases as boiling points
atoms get decrease
larger

As we go down group1, reactivity increases while melting and boiling points decrease.
(This is the opposite of group7). The further the electron is from the nucleus, the easier
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Chemistry Form Two

this is. So the bigger the atom, the more reactive the metal will be, meanwhile melting
and boiling points decrease because the attraction between the atoms gets less strong
as the atoms gets larger.
Group two: the alkaline earth metals
 They include Beryllium, magnesium, calcium.
 Like group1 they are silvery and shiny metals.
 They have higher melting and boiling points than group1 elements.
 They are less reactive than group1 because they have to give up two
outer electrons to obtain a full outer shell. This is more difficult than losing
just one electron, so they are less reactive than group1 metals.
 But as the atoms get bigger it gets easier to lose the two electrons, so the
metals get more reactive as you go down the group.
Group1 and 2 share two trends: increasing reactivity down the group, and overall
decreasing the melting and boiling points.
Group7 the halogens
Fluorine (Fe), chlorine (Cl), Bromine (Br), Iodine (I) are the most common
halogens. the name halogen means salt producing when they reacting with
metal. These elements produce different salts. For example, chlorine reacts with
sodium to form NaCl salt. Other salts include CaF2.
All three are poisonous nonmetals.
 They have colored vapors,
 They exist as diatomic molecules each with two atoms.
Why they have similar properties?
The halogens have similar properties because their atoms all have 7 electrons in the
outer shell.

Why they reactive?

The halogens are reactive because their atoms are just one electron short of a full outer
shell. They can gain this electron by reacting with atoms of their element.
37
Chemistry Form Two

Why they are diatomic?

They are diatomic because two atoms can gain full shells by sharing electrons with each
other.
Trends within the group
Atom element melts at…( 0c) boils at
…(0c)
Cl Chlorine (green gas) Reactivity -101 -35 Melting
Br Bromine(red liquid) decrease -7 59 and
I iodine(black solid) as atom 114 184 boiling
get larger point
increase

Group 8: the noble gases

This group contains the elements helium, neon, argon, krypton and xenon.
 These elements are all Nonmetals
 Colorless gases (they occur naturally in air).
 UN- reactive because their atoms have full outer electron shell.
 As you go down the group the density of the gases increase because the mass of
atoms increase.
For example, if you filled five balloons with the same volume temperature and let them
go, you would find: the heaviness or density of gases increase from helium to xenon.
The transition metals
The long block in the middle of the periodic table contains only metals. They have these
general properties:
They are hard and dense, with high melting points. They are not very reactive.
They form colored compounds (group1&2 form white compound).
They have variable valence. That means their atoms can combine in different ratios
with atoms of other elements for example: iron forms iron (II) chloride, FeCl 2 and iron
(III) chloride, FeCl3.Many are used in making alloys.
38
Chemistry Form Two

Hydrogen
Hydrogen stands on its own in the periodic table, this is because it has one outer
electron like the group1, but unlike them it is a gas, and it usually react like a nonmetal.
Artificial elements
Not all elements occur naturally. At least 15 are artificial, created by scientists during
nuclear reactions. Most of these are in the bottom block of the periodic table.
Trends across a period look at the elements from 3 of the periodic table

Group 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Elements Sodium Magnesium Aluminum Silicon phosphorus Sulphur Chlorine argon

Outer 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
electron
Element Metal Metal Metal metalloid Non metal Non Non Non
is... metal metal metal
Reactivit High______________________________________low______________________________
y __________high uncreative
Melting 98 649 660 1410 590 119 -101 -189
point(0c)
Boiling 883 1107 2467 2355 (ignites) 445 -35 -186
points
(0c)
Oxide Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P2O5 SO3 Cl2O7 none
formed
Oxide is Basic amphoteric Acid -
…
39
Chemistry Form Two

There are several trends to notice as you move across the period:
 The number of outer-shell electrons increase by 1 each time like the
group number.
 The elements go from metals to nonmetals. Silicon is in between like a
metal in some ways and a nonmetal in other. It is called metalloids.
 The metal atoms have few outer-shell electrons, and lose them during
reactions to achieve full shell. So sodium atoms lose 1 electron and
Aluminum atom lose3. But the nonmetals react to gain or share electrons.
 The melting and boiling points increase to the middle of the period then
decrease again.
 All the elements except argon react with oxygen to form oxides.
 The oxides on the left are Basic, which means they react with acids, to
form salts.
 Those on the right are Acidic; they react with alkalis to form salts.
 Aluminum is between it, reacts with both acids and alkalis to form salts. It
is called an amphoteric oxide.

Exercise:
1. List the alkali metals in order of reactivity, with the most reactive first?
2. Rubidium comes just below potassium in Group one. Predict the following
properties of Rubidium.
a. Is rubidium is more reactive or less reactive than potassium?
b. Is rubidium has a higher melting or boiling point than rubidium?
40
Chemistry Form Two

Chapter 2 Review Questions:

1. What is:
a. An atom?
b. An element?
2. If you could look inside an atom, what would you see?
3. The symbols for some elements come from their Latin names. See if you can
identify the element whose Latin name is:
a. natrium
b. ferrum
c. plumbum
d. argentum
4. Which element has this symbol?
a. Ca
b. Mg
c. N
5. See if you can pick out an element named after the famous scientist Albert
Einstein?
6. From the Periodic Table, name
a. three metals
c. three non-metals
7. Name the particles that make up the atom?
8. Which particle has:
a. A positive charge?
b. No charge?
c. Almost no mass?
9. An atom has 9 protons. Which element is it?
10.Why do atoms have no overall charge?
41
Chemistry Form Two

11.What does these terms mean?

a. proton number
b. nucleon number
12. Name each of these atoms, and say how many protons, electrons, and neutrons
it has:
12
a. 6C
16
b. 8 O
24
c. 12 Mg
27
d. 13 Al
64
e. 29 Cu

13.What are isotopes?

14. Name the three isotopes of carbon, and write symbols for them?
15.An element has 5 valency electrons. Which group is it in?
16.How many electron shells do atoms of Period 3 have?
17.The element krypton, Kr, is in Group 0, Period 4. Its proton number is 36.
a. Write down the electronic configuration for krypton.
b. What can you say about the reactivity of krypton?

18.Say where in the atom the nucleus is, and which particles it contains?
19.Define proton number and nucleon number?
20. Sketch the structure of an atom, showing the nucleus and electron shells state
the order in which electrons fill the electron shells?
21.Name the first 20 elements of the Periodic Table, in order of proton number, and
give their symbols?
22.Sketch the electron distribution for any of the first 20 elements of the Periodic
Table, when you are given the proton number?
23.Define the term valency electron?
24.State the connection between the number of valency electrons and the group
number in the Periodic Table?
42
Chemistry Form Two

25.State the connection between the number of electron shells and the period
number in the Periodic Table?
26. Work out the electron distribution for an element, given its period and group
numbers?
27.Say how many outer-shell electrons there are in the atoms of Group 0 elements?
28.Explain why the Group 0 elements are un-reactive?
29.Point out where the metals and non-metals are, in the Periodic Table?
30. give at least five key differences between metals and non-metals
31.Name and give the symbols for the common metals and non-metals (including
metals from the transition block of the Periodic Table) For each of the six
elements aluminium (Al), boron (B), nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), phosphorus (P),
and sulfur (S), write down:
a. i. which period of the Periodic Table it belongs to
ii. its group number in the Periodic Table
iii its proton number
iv the number of electrons in its atoms
v its electronic configuration
vi the number of outer electrons in its atoms
b. The outer electrons are also called the _____ electrons. What is the missing
word? (7 letters!)
c. Which of the above elements would you expect to have similar properties?
Why?
43
Chemistry Form Two

Chapter 3: Chemical Bonding

Why do atoms form bonds?
Like sodium and chlorine, the atoms of most elements form bonds. Why? We get a clue
by looking at the elements of Group 0, the noble gases their atoms do not form bonds.
This is because the atoms have a very stable arrangement of electrons in the outer
shell. This makes the noble gases un-reactive
.

Helium atom:
Full outer shell of 2
Electrons – stable Neon atom: full outer shell of 8
Electrons – stable
44
Chemistry Form Two

Argon atom: outer shell of 8 electrons – stable

And that gives us the answer to our question: Atoms bond with each other in order to
gain a stable arrangement of outer-shell electrons, like the atoms of Group 0. In other
words, they bond in order to gain 8 electrons in their outer shell (or 2, if they have only
one shell).
How sodium atoms gain a stable outer shell
A sodium atom has just 1 electron in its outer shell. To obtain a stable
outer shell of 8 electrons, it loses this electron to another atom. It becomes
a sodium ion

The sodium ion has 11 protons but only 10 electrons, so it has a charge of
11+
11-
0

The symbol for sodium is Na, so the symbol for the sodium ion is Na 1+.The 1+ means 1
positive charge; Na 1+ is a positive ion.
45
Chemistry Form Two

How chlorine atoms gain a stable outer shell

A chlorine atom has 7 electrons in its outer shell. It can reach 8 electrons by accepting
1 electron from another atom. It becomes a chloride ion

The chloride ion has a charge of 1- , so it is a negative ion. Its symbol is Cl 2-. An atom
becomes an ion when it loses or gains electrons. An ion is a charged particle. It is
charged because it has an unequal number of protons and electrons.
Exercise
1. Why are the atoms of the Group 0 elements un-reactive?
2. Explain why all other atoms are reactive?
3. Draw a diagram to show how this atom gains a stable outer shell of 8 electrons:
a. a sodium atom
b. a chlorine atom
4. Explain why :
a. a sodium ion has a charge of 1+
b. a chloride ion has a charge of 1-

5. Explain what an ion is, in your own words?

6. Atoms of Group 0 elements do not form ions. Why not?

The ionic bond

How sodium and chlorine atoms bond together, a sodium atom must lose one electron,
and a chlorine atom must gain one, to obtain stable outer shells of 8 electrons. So
46
Chemistry Form Two

when a sodium atom and a chlorine atom react together, the sodium atom loses its
electron to the chlorine atom, and two ions are formed

Here, sodium and chlorine electrons are shown as:

The two ions have opposite charges, so they attract each other. The force of attraction
between them is strong. It is called an ionic bond. The ionic bond is the bond that
forms between ions of opposite charge.

How solid sodium chloride is formed

When sodium reacts with chlorine, billions of sodium and chloride ions form. But they
do not stay in pairs. They form a regular pattern or lattice of alternating positive and
negative ions, as shown below. The ions are held together by strong ionic bonds. The
lattice grows to form a giant 3-D structure. It is called ‘giant’ because it contains a very
large number of ions. This giant structure is the compound sodium chloride, or common
salt Since it is made of ions, sodium chloride is called an ionic compound. It contains
one Na 1+ ion for each Cl1- ion, so its formula is NaCl
.
Ionic compounds
47
Chemistry Form Two

Sodium is a metal. Chlorine is a non-metal. They react together to form an ionic

compound. Other metals and non-metals follow the same pattern.
A metal reacts with a non-metal to form an ionic compound. The metal atoms lose
electrons. The non-metal atoms gain them. The ions form a lattice. The compound has
no overall charge.
Magnesium oxide
A magnesium atom has 2 outer electrons and an oxygen atom has 6. When magnesium
burns in oxygen, each magnesium atom loses its 2 outer electrons to an oxygen atom.
Magnesium and oxide ions are formed.

The ions attract each other because of their opposite charges. Like the sodium and
chloride ions, they group to form a lattice. The resulting compound is called magnesium
oxide. It has one magnesium ion for each oxide ion, so its formula is MgO. It has no
overall charge.

Magnesium chloride
When magnesium burns in chlorine, each magnesium atom reacts with two chlorine
atoms, to form magnesium chloride. Each ion has 8 outer electrons:
48
Chemistry Form Two

The ions form a lattice with two chloride ions for each magnesium ion. So the formula
of the compound is MgCl2. It has no overall charge.

Naming Ionic Compounds

To name the ionic compound, you just put the names of the ions together with positive
one first.

Ions in a compound Name of the compound

K+ and Cl- KCl potassium chloride

Ca2+and S-2 CaS calcium sulphide
Li +and N-3 LiOH lithium nitride
Al3+ and O-2 Al2O3 aluminium oxide

How to write the formulae

 Write down name of the compound in words.

 Write symbols for it is ions.
 The overall charge must be zero
 Write the formula without charge.

Example one

 Calcium oxide
 Ions are Ca2+ and O2-
 One Ca2+ is needed one O2- to make charge zero.
 The formula is CaO.

Example two

 Magnesium chloride
 Ions are Mg2+ and Cl-
 One Mg2+ is needed two Cl- to make charge zero

The formula is MgCl2.

Exercise
49
Chemistry Form Two

1. Draw a diagram to show what happens to the electrons, when a sodium atom
reacts with a chlorine atom.
2. What is an ionic bond?
3. Describe in your own words the structure of solid sodium chloride, and explain
why its formula is NaCl.
4. Explain why:
a. A magnesium ion has a charge of 2+?
b. The ions in magnesium oxide stay together?
c. Magnesium chloride has no overall charge?
d. the formula of magnesium chloride is MgCl 2
.

The covalent bond

Atoms bond in order to gain a stable outer shell of electrons, like the noble gas atoms.
So when sodium and chlorine react together, each sodium atom gives up an electron to
a chlorine atom. But that is not the only way. Atoms can also gain stable outer shells by
sharing electrons with each other.

Sharing electrons
When two non-metal atoms react together, both need to gain electrons to achieve
stable outer shells. They manage this by sharing electrons. We will look at non-metal
element. Atoms can share only their outer (valence) electrons, so the diagrams will
show only these.

Hydrogen
A hydrogen atom has only one shell, with one electron. The shell can hold two electrons.
When two hydrogen atoms get close enough, their shells overlap and then they can share
electrons. Like this:
50
Chemistry Form Two

So each has gained a full shell of two electrons, like helium atoms

The bond between the atoms

Each hydrogen atom has a positive nucleus. Both nuclei attract the shared electrons,
and this strong force of attraction holds the two atoms together. This force of attraction
is called a covalent bond.
A single covalent bond is formed when atoms share two electrons .
Molecules

The two bonded hydrogen atoms above form a molecule. A molecule is a group of
atoms held together by covalent bonds. Since it is made up of molecules, hydrogen is a
molecular element. Its formula is H 2.The 2 tells you there are 2 hydrogen atoms in each
molecule. Many other non-metals are also molecular. For example: iodine, I 2, oxygen,
O2, nitrogen, N2, chlorine Cl2, sulfur S8 and phosphorus, P4. Elements made up of
molecules containing two atoms are called diatomic. So iodine and oxygen are diatomic.
Can you give two other examples?

Chlorine
A chlorine atom needs a share in one more electron, to obtain a stable outer shell of
eight electrons. So two chlorine atoms bond covalently like this:
51
Chemistry Form Two

Since only one pair of electrons is shared, the bond between the atoms is called a
Single covalent bond or just a single bond

Oxygen
An oxygen atom has six outer electrons, so needs a share in two more. So two oxygen
atoms share two electrons each, giving molecules with the formula O 2, Each atom now has
a stable outer shell of eight electrons: Since the oxygen atoms share two pairs of electrons,
the bond between them is called a double bond.

Nitrogen
A nitrogen atom has five outer electrons, so needs a share in three more. So two
nitrogen atoms share three electrons each, giving molecules with the formula N 2, Each
atom now has a stable outer shell of eight electrons Since the nitrogen atoms share
three pairs of electrons, the bond between them is called a triple bond
52
Chemistry Form Two

Exercise:
1. a. Name the bond between atoms that share electrons? What holds the bonded
atoms together?
2. What is a molecule?
3. Give five examples of molecular elements.
4. Draw a diagram to show the bonding in:
a. A hydrogen
b. chlorine
5. Now explain why the bond in a nitrogen molecule is called a triple-bond

Covalent compounds
Many non-metal elements exist as molecules as you saw above. A huge number of
compounds also exist as molecules. In a molecular compound, atoms of different
elements share electrons. The compounds are called covalent compounds. Here are
three examples.
Methane
Look at the models of the methane molecule. The molecule is tetrahedral in shape,
because the four pairs of electrons around carbon repel each other, and move as far
apart as possible.
53
Chemistry Form Two

Water
Now look at the model of the water molecule above. The hydrogen atoms are closer
together than in methane. This is because the two non-bonding pairs of atoms repel
more strongly than the bonding pairs. So they push these closer together.

Hydrogen chloride, HCl

The chlorine atom shares one electron with the hydrogen atom. Both now have a stable
arrangement of electrons in their outer shells: 2 for hydrogen (like the helium atom)
and 8 for chlorine (like the other noble gas

Carbon dioxide, CO2

The carbon atom shares all four of its electrons: two with each oxygen atom. So all
three atoms gain stable shells, the two sets of bonding electrons repel each other. They
move as far apart as they can, giving a linear molecule. All the bonds are double bonds,
so we can show the molecule like this
54
Chemistry Form Two

Chapter 3 Review Questions:

1. Explain the difference between:
a. an element and a compound
b. a compound and a mixture
2. Say what the signs of a chemical change are?
3. Explain why:
a. Atoms of Group 0 elements do not form bonds?
b. Atoms of other elements do form bonds?
4. Explain the difference between an ionic bond and a covalent bond?
5. Draw a diagram to show how an ionic bond forms between atoms of sodium and
chlorine?
6. Explain what a molecule is?
7. Say that non-metal atoms form covalent bonds with each other (except for the
noble gas atoms) draw diagrams to show the covalent bonding in:
a. Hydrogen chlorine water?
b. Methane hydrogen chloride?
8. Give three ways in which ionic and molecular compounds differ in their
properties, and explain these differences?
55
Chemistry Form Two

9. Show how ionic bonds form between atoms of other metals and non-metals?
10.Describe the lattice structure of ionic compounds
11.Draw diagrams to show the covalent bonding in nitrogen, oxygen, ammonia,
methanol, carbon dioxide, and ethene?
12.Explain how the structure and bonding in metals enables them to be malleable,
ductile, and good conductors of heat and electricity?
13.Describe the structure of silicon dioxide?
14.Explain why silicon dioxide and diamond have similar properties?
15.Give examples of uses for silicon dioxide?

Chapter Four: Air and Water

The Earth’s atmosphere
The atmosphere is the blanket of gas around the Earth. It is about 700 km thick. We
live in the lowest layer, the troposphere. Air contains mixture of different gases.
.

What is in air?
This pie chart shows the gases that make up clean air:
56
Chemistry Form Two

Air contains amount of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide and small amount of water
vapour.
The composition of the air changes very slightly from day to day, and place to place.
For example:

 There is more water vapour in the air around you on a damp day.
 Pollutants such as carbon monoxide and sulfur dioxide are likely to be given out
from busy cities and industrial areas. But since air is continually on the move, the
pollutants get spread around us

Oxygen: the gas we need most

Most of the gases in air are essential to us. For example we depend on plants for food,
and they depend on carbon dioxide. And without nitrogen to dilute the oxygen, fuels
would burn too fast for us.
But the gas we depend on most is oxygen. Without it, we would quickly die. We need
it for the process called respiration, which goes on in all our cells:
Glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy
The energy from respiration keeps us warm, and allows us to move, and enables
hundreds of different reactions to go on in our bodies. (And note that respiration, in
some form, takes place in the cells of all living things, not only humans.)

Making use of air

Separating gases from the air
As you saw, air is a mixture of gases. Most of them are useful to us. But first, we must
separate them from each other. How can we separate gases? There is a very clever
way.
First the air is cooled until it turns into a liquid. Then the liquid mixture is separated
using a fractional distillation
57
Chemistry Form Two

The fractional distillation of liquid air

This method works because the gases in air have different boiling points. So when
liquid air is warmed up, the gases boil at different temperatures, and can be collected
one by one

The steps
The diagram shows the steps.
1. Air is pumped into the plant, and filtered to remove dust particles.
2. Next, water vapour, carbon dioxide, and pollutants are removed (since these
would freeze later and block the pipes). Like this:
 First the air is cooled until the water vapour condenses to water Then it is
passed over beds of adsorbent beads to trap the carbon dioxide, and any
pollutants in it.
3. Now the air is forced into a small space, or compressed that makes it hot. It is
cooled down again by recycling cold air, as the diagram shows.
4. The cold, compressed air is passed through a jet, into a larger space. It expands
rapidly, and this makes it very cold.
5. Steps 3 and 4 are repeated several times. The air gets colder each time. By
200°C, it is liquid, except for neon and helium. These gases are removed. They
can be separated from each other by adsorption on charcoal.
6. The liquid air is pumped into the fractionating column. There it is slowly warmed
up. The gases boil off one by one, and are collected in tanks or cylinders.
Nitrogen boils off first. Why?
Some uses of oxygen
58
Chemistry Form Two

Planes carry oxygen supplies. So do divers and astronauts. In hospitals, patients with
breathing problems are given oxygen through an oxygen mask, or in an oxygen tent.
A plastic or metal tent that fits over the bed. Oxygen-rich air is pumped into it.
In steel works, oxygen is used in converting the impure iron from the blast furnace into
steels

Activity 1
How much of the Air is Oxygen

When air is passed over a heated copper, the oxygen reacts with the copper forming
black copper oxide. This removes the oxygen from the air, and the volume of the air
decreases. If you measure the volume change, you can find the proportion of oxygen in
the air. This picture shows the apparatus that you can use.

Care Eye protection must be worn.

1. Start one syringe empty and the other containing 100cm 3 of air
2. Heat the copper turnings strong.
3. Use the syringe to pass air back and forth over the heated copper. Do this
several times.
4. Allow the apparatus to cool. Read off the new volume of air.
59
Chemistry Form Two

5. Repeat step 2 and 4 to check that all oxygen in the air has reacted. There should
be no further change in the volume. If there is change, repeat step 2 and 4
again. (question 2 below shows some typical results)

Exercise

1. List the five most abundant gases in the air?

2. Here are some typical results for the activity above:
Volume of air before heating=100cm3
Volume after first heating and cooling= 80cm3
Volume after second heating and cooling=80cm3
Volume after third heating and cooling=80cm3
a. Why is the tube allowed to cool before the reading?
b. Was all the oxygen used up after first heating?
c. Was all the oxygen used up after second heating? How do you know?
d. What volume of oxygen was removed?
e. What is the percentage by volume of oxygen in the air?

Some uses of nitrogen

Liquid nitrogen is very cold. (It boils at -196 °C.) So it is used to quick- freeze food in
food factories, and to freeze liquid in cracked pipes before repairing them.
It is also used in hospitals to store tissue samples. Nitrogen is un-reactive. So it is
flushed through food packaging to remove oxygen and keep the food fresh. (Oxygen
helps decay.)

Some uses of the noble gases

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Chemistry Form Two

The noble gases are un-reactive or inert this leads to many uses. Argon provides the
inert atmosphere in ordinary tungsten light bulbs. (In air, the tungsten filament would
quickly burn away.) Neon is used in advertising signs because it glows red when a
current is passed through it. Helium is used to fill balloons, since it is very light, and
safe

Pollution
Pollutions are the presence of a substance in a media which results a harmful effect.
There are different types of pollution such as: Air pollution, Water pollution and soil
pollution
The air: a dump for waste gases
Everyone likes clean fresh air. But every year we pump billions of tonnes of harmful
gases into the air. Most come from burning fossil fuels
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Chemistry Form Two

Sources of pollution
Sources of pollution can be classified into two main categories:
 Natural pollution- it generates from natural process.
 Artificial pollution – it originates due to the activity of

The fossil fuels

These are coal, petroleum (or crude oil) and natural gas Natural gas is mainly methane,
CH4. Coal and petroleum are mixtures of many compounds. Most are hydrocarbons
– they contain only carbon and hydrogen. But some contain other elements, such as
sulfur. Fossil fuels provide us with energy for heating, and transport, and generating
electricity. But there is a drawback: burning them produces harmful compounds.

Main air pollutants

Below is shown the main pollutants found in air, and the harm they do:

Carbon monoxide, CO
Colorless gas, insoluble, no smell Forms when the carbon compounds in fossil fuels
burn in too little air. For example, inside car engines and furnaces, Poisonous even in
low concentrations, it reacts with the haemoglobin in blood, and prevents it from
carrying oxygen around the body – so you die from oxygen starvation
62
Chemistry Form Two

Sulfur dioxide, SO2

An acidic gas with a sharp smell, Forms when sulfur compounds in the fossil fuels burn.
Power stations are the main source of this pollutant. Irritates the eyes and throat, and
causes respiratory (breathing) problems, Dissolves in rain to form acid rain.
Acid rain attacks stonework in buildings, especially limestone and marble – they are
calcium carbonate. It lowers the pH in rivers and lakes, killing fish and other river life. It
also kills trees and insects.

Nitrogen oxides, NO and NO2

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Chemistry Form Two

Acidic gases Form when the nitrogen and oxygen in air react together, inside hot car
engines and hot furnaces. Cause respiratory problems, and dissolve in rain to give acid
rain
Reducing air pollution
These are some steps being taken to cut down air pollution. In modern power stations,
the waste gas is treated with slaked lime (calcium hydroxide). This removes sulfur
dioxide by reacting with it to give calcium sulphate. The process is called flue gas
desulfurisation
Most countries have now banned lead in petrol, So lead pollution is much less of a
problem. But it can still arise from plants where lead is extracted, and from battery
factories.

Catalytic converters
The exhausts of new cars are fitted with catalytic converters, in which harmful gases
are converted to harmless ones. Catalytic converters for car exhausts when petrol burns
in a car engine, harmful gases are produced, including:
 oxides of nitrogen
 carbon monoxide, CO
 un-burnt hydrocarbons from the petrol; these can cause cancer
.
64
Chemistry Form Two

To tackle the problem, modern car exhausts contain a catalytic converter. In this, the
harmful gases are adsorbed onto the surface of catalysts, where they react to form
harmless gases. The catalysts speed up the reaction.

The catalysts are usually the transition elements platinum, palladium, and rhodium.
They are coated onto a ceramic honeycomb, or ceramic beads, to give a large surface
area for adsorbing the harmful gases. The harmless products flow out the exhaust pipe.

Exercise:

1. Define pollution?
2. What are the two main sources of pollution?
3. List some pollutant gases in air?
4. Briefly explain soma gas pollutants in air and their health effects?
5. How can we reduce air pollution in our environment?

What is water?
Water is the commonest compound on this planet. More than 70% of the Earth’s
Surface is covered with sea, and the land masses are dotted with rivers and lakes
It is vital to our existence and Survival because It is one Of the main constituents in all
living organisms.
For example, your bones contain 72% water, your kidneys are about 82% water and
your blood is about 90% water.
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Chemistry Form Two

Water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen. Its formula is H2O, water is the
utilizable liquid in the world and it is essential for our life. You could make some times it
in the laboratory by burning a jet of hydrogen in air. The reaction is fast and may be
dangerous.
2H2O(g) + O2(g) 2H 2O(l)
Hydrogen + Oxygen Water
The water forms as a gas, it condenses to liquid on ice-cold tube.
Test for water: If a liquid is water, it will:
 turn blue when you add white anhydrous copper(II) sulphate
 turn blue cobalt(II) chloride paper pink
 boil at 100C when it is pure water
Water supply
Everyone needs water, we all need water. At home we need it for drinking, cooking,
washing things (including ourselves) and flushing toilet waste away. On farms it is
needed as a drink for animals, and to water crops.

In industry, they use it as a solvent, and to wash things, and to keep hot reaction tanks
cool. (Cold-water pipes are coiled around the tanks.)
In power stations it is heated to make steam. The steam then drives the turbines that
generate electricity. So where does the water come from?
66
Chemistry Form Two

Much of the water we use is taken from rivers. But some is pumped up from below
ground, where water that has drained down through the soil lies trapped in rocks.
This underground water is called groundwater. A large area of rock may hold a lot of
groundwater, like a sponge. This rock is called an aquifer. Is it clean?

River water is not clean – even if it looks it! It will contain particles of mud, and animal
waste, and bits of dead vegetation. But worst of all are the microbes: bacteria and
other tiny organisms that can make us ill.

Over 1 billion people around the world have no access to clean water.
They depend on dirty rivers for their drinking water. And over 2 million people, mainly
children, die each year from diarrhea and diseases such as cholera and typhoid, caused
by drinking infected water.

Providing a water supply on tap No matter where in the world you are, the steps in
providing a clean safe water supply, on tap, are the same:

In many places, our water supply is pumped from rivers. The water is cleaned up, the
germs are killed, and then it is pumped to homes. Pump water treatment plan train
soaks through aquifer (water trapped in rock) water can’t soak through this rock

What is the Water Cycle?

The water cycle describes the movement of water through the environment. Water
evaporates from the surface of the sea and moves up into the atmosphere. Water
leaves the atmosphere and falls back into the sea or falls on to land where some water
flows back into the sea as a river as shown in the picture below.
67
Chemistry Form Two

Some water remains on land either in lakes or reservoirs or the water becomes frozen
and exists as ice or snow.

How does the Water Cycle work?

The water cycle works because of heat from the Sun. Water evaporates from the
surface of the sea as warm air moves across it. Secondary sources (less important) of
water vapour in the air are volcanoes and animal respiration.

Water vapour in the air condenses into small droplets, and these droplets form clouds.
Water falls from the clouds onto land, as rain or snow. This is called precipitation.
Water on the land collects in streams, rivers and lakes, and flows back to the sea,
completing the cycle.

Activity 2
A. Make a model sand filter

You can use an old yoghurt pot to make a model of the filter used in water works.

This picture shows the idea

68
Chemistry Form Two

Get some dirty water from a pond and pour it through the filter. How well does it work?

Would the water be safe to drink after going through your filter? How would you test its
purity? (Not by drinking it)

B. Where does your water come from?

Try to find out the answers of these questions:

1. What is the name of your local water company?

2. Where is your local water supply taken from?

3. Where is water purified and treated?

4. How is water paid for? Try to have a look at some water supply bills.
5. Do you have a water meter, like electric meter or gas meter? If not why?

Our water supply

Most tap water comes from rivers and reservoirs. Water from these sources is never
completely pure, especially river water.
It may contain (bacteria, dissolved substances and solid substances). To make water
safe to drink we use waterworks.
69
Chemistry Form Two

Stages of water-works
 common filter
 sedimentation tank
 fine filter
 chlorine is added

Waste water and sewage works

All sorts of things get mixed with tap water .the mixture goes down the drain, and is
called sewage. it is piped underground to sewage works , where the water in it is
cleaned up and fed back to the river .Below is a diagram of the plant .

Hard and Soft water

Hard water when water contains many minerals such as calcium and magnesium
compounds: sulphates and hydrogen carbonates and other cations. But, soft water
when water is removed these compounds in order to get clean and usable water.
70
Chemistry Form Two

You may know if the water is hard or soft soap lathers or scum because if soap lathers
easily, it means water contains very little calcium and magnesium compounds. It is soft
water. But a grayish scum and hardly any lather shows that large amounts are present.
The water is called hard water.

Since it can be removed just by boiling, the hardness caused by calcium hydrogen
carbonate is called temporary hardness. Calcium hydrogen carbonate is the main
cause of hard water and it forms when rain water falls on rocks of limestone. The
reaction is:
H2O(l) + CO2 (g) + CaCO3(s) Ca(HCO3)2 (aq).
In the same way, rain water reacts with dolomite (CaCO 3.MgCO3) and gypsum
(CaSO4.2H2O).
Hardness caused by other compounds is called permanent harness.

Hard water

Advantages

 The dissolved substances give as as pleasant taste.

 Calcium compounds are good bones and teeth.
 There are fewer heart attacks in areas with hard water.
71
Chemistry Form Two

Disadvantages

 Hard water use more soap than soft water.

 It leaves messy scum, and tougher on laundry

Soft water

Advantages

 It makes soap lather better and gets clothes cleaner.

 Laundry uses less soap and can be done at lower temperature.
 It means less scum in your bath tub.

Disadvantages

 Soft water contains more sodium ions than hard water and
 Sodium is linked to heart disease.
 Soft water dissolves metals such as cadmium and lead. Lead is a poisons

Making hard water soft

Ways to soften to hard water:
 Boiling: this removes temporary hardness.
 Distillation: in distillation, the water is boiled and then steam collected,
cooled, and condensed.
 Adding washing soda washing soda is sodium carbonate. It removes both
temporary and permanent hardness by precipitating calcium carbonate.
 Ion exchange in ion exchange, unwanted ions are removed by replacing them
with ‘harmless’ ions.
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Chemistry Form Two

The water is hard it contains the new compound forms a hard

Calcium hydrogen carbonate scale on the
On heating this compound kettle. But the water itself is now soft
Breaks down to form calcium since
Carbonate which is insoluble calcium hydrogen carbonate has been
removed
73
Chemistry Form Two

Chapter 4 review questions

1. What percentage of air is made up of:
a. Nitrogen?
b. Oxygen?
c. Nitrogen 1 oxygen?
2. About how much more nitrogen is there than oxygen in air by volume?
3. What is the combined percentage of all the other gases in air?
4. Mount Everest is over 8.8 km high. Climbers carry oxygen when attempting to
reach its summit. Explain why?
5. Which do you think is the most reactive gas in air? Why?
6. In the separation of air into its gases:
a. Why is the air compressed and then expanded?
b. Why is argon obtained before oxygen?
c. What do you think is the biggest expense? Explain.
7. Give two uses of oxygen gas?
8. A mixture of oxygen and acetylene burns with a much hotter flame than a mixture
of air and acetylene. Why?
9. Nitrogen is used to keep food frozen during transportation. Which properties make it
suitable for this?
10. Give three uses for noble gases?
11. Natural gas or methane is a fossil fuel. In a plentiful supply of air, it burns to give
carbon dioxide and water? Write a balanced equation to show this.
12.If methane burns in a poor supply of air it will give carbon monoxide and water
instead. Write a balanced equation to show this?
13.Catalytic converters can remove carbon monoxide.
a. Give a word equation for the reaction that takes place.
b. What is the purpose of the transition element
14.What is:
a. Groundwater?
b. A microbe?
74
Chemistry Form Two

c.
15. What is a coagulant used for, in water treatment plants?
16. Why is chlorine such an important part of the treatment?
17.A fluoride compound may be added to water. Why?
18. Some water can be harmful even after treatment. Explain?
19.You need a drink of water – but there is only dirty river water. What will you do to
clean it?
20. Name four common pollutants in air?
a. give the source, for each
b. describe the harm they do
21.Explain what rusting is
22.Describe the separation of gases from the air, using fractional distillation?
23.List the harmful gases produced in car engines
24. Explain what catalytic converters are? name the metals they usually use as catalysts
25.Explain how nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide are converted to harmless gases
in
75
Chemistry Form Two

Chapter 5: The Mole

THE MASSES OF ATOMS
Relative atomic mass
Relative atomic mass or RAM is the mass of an atom found by comparing it with the
carbon- 12 atom.
RAMs and ISOTOPES
Not all atoms of an element are exactly the same. For example, when scientists
examined chlorine in the mass spectrometer, they found there were two types of
chlorine atom:
Cl-35 and Cl-37 these atoms are called the isotopes of chlorine.
The RAM of an element is the average mass of its isotopes compared with an atom of
12
C6
The RAMs of some common elements

Element Symbol RAM Element Symbol RAM

Hydrogen H 1 Chlorine Cl 35.5
Carbon C 12 Potassium K 39
Nitrogen N 14 Calcium Ca 40
Oxygen O 16 Iron Fe 56
Sodium Na 23 Copper Cu 64
Magnesium Mg 24 Zinc Zn 65
Sulphur S 32 Iodine I 127
76
Chemistry Form Two

Formula mass
Formula mass is formula that found the mass of a substance by adding up the masses
of atoms in the formula. The relative molecular mass or RMM is the mass of substances
of their molecules
Substance Formula Atoms in RAM of atoms Formula mass
formula
Nitrogen N2 2N N=14 2x14= 28
Ammonia NH3 1N N=14 1x14=14
3H H=1 3x1 = 3
Total: 17
Magnesium Mg(NO3)2 1 Mg Mg=24 1x24=24
nitrate 2N N=14 2x14=28
6O O=16 6x16=96
Total=148

THE MOLE
If you work out the RAM or formula mass of a substance, and then weigh out that
number of grams of the substance, you can say how many atoms or molecules it
contains. For example, the RAM of carbon is 12. The 12 grams of carbon contains
602000000000000000000000 or 6.02x1023 carbon atoms. This is called mole of atoms.
The number is called avogadro’s number or avogadro’s constant. One mole of
substance is 6.02x1023particles of the substance. It is obtained by weighing out the
RAM or formula mass, in grams.

Finding the mass of a mole

You can find the mass of 1 mole of any substance, by these steps:
1. Write down the symbol or formula of the substance
2. Find out its RAM or formula mass
3. Express that mass in grams
Substance Symbol or RAM s Formula mass Mass in 1
77
Chemistry Form Two

formula mole
Helium He He=4 4 4 grams
Oxygen O2 O=16 2x16=32 32 grams
Ethanol C2H5OH C=12 2x12=24
H=1 6x1=6
O=16 1x16=16
Total = 46 46 grams

Calculations on mole

To calculate the mass in a given number of moles

Mass = Number of moles X Mass of 1 mole

Example 1
Calculate the mass of
a) 0.5 moles of bromine atoms ‘
b) 0.5 moles of bromine molecules
Solutions
a) Mass = number of moles x mass of 1 mole of bromine atoms
m= n x M
= 0.5 moles x 80 grams/ mole
= 40 grams
b) Mass = number of moles x mass of 1 mole of bromine molecule
m= n x M
= 0.5 moles x 160 grams / mole
= 80 grams

To calculate the number of moles a given Mass

78
Chemistry Form Two

Number of moles (n) = mass (m)

Mass of 1 mole
(M)
Example 2
How many moles of oxygen molecules are there in 64 grams of oxygen O2?
Solution
Number of moles = mass
Mass of 1 mole
n= m
M
= 64 grams
32 grams/ mole
= 2 moles

Exercise:

1. How many moles are there in 22g of CO2?

2. How many grams are there in 2moles of CaCO3?
3. How many moles are there in 80g of MgO?
4. How many grams are there in 0.5 mole of CaCO3?

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF A COMPOUND

79
Chemistry Form Two

The percentage composition of a compound tells you which elements are in the
compound and how much of each there is, as a percentage of the total mass
Mass of percentage % = mass of element x 100%
Total mass
The law of constant composition
The law of constant composition states that every pure sample of a given compound
has exactly the same composition.
Calculating the percentage composition of a compound
1. Write down the formula of the compound
2. Using the RAMs, work out its formula mass
3. Write the mass of the element you want, as fraction of the total
4. Multiply the fraction by 100, to give a percentage
Example 1
Fertilizers contain nitrogen which plants need to make them grow. One important
fertilizer which is rich in nitrogen is ammonium nitrate, which has the formula NH 4NO3.
Calculate.
i. The percentage of nitrogen in ammonium nitrate
ii. The mass of nitrogen in a 20kg bag of fertilizer
i. The formula mass of the compound is:
2N= 2x 14=28
4H= 4x1= 4
3O= 3x16= 48
Total = 80
Mass of nitrogen as a fraction of the total mass = 28 x 100%
80
= 35%
ii. The fertilizer is 35% nitrogen
The mass of nitrogen in a 20kg = 35 x20kg = 7g
100
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Chemistry Form Two

What is a chemical Formula?

Chemical formula of a compound tells you how many atoms of different element
combine to form a compound, For example:
The formula of water is H2O it tells you how the combine together.,
2 hydrogen atoms combine with 1 Oxygen atoms
2 moles of hydrogen atoms combine with 1mole of Oxygen atom
2g of hydrogen combine with16g of Oxygen
This formula results the ration of atoms moles and grams.

Empirical Formula
The empirical formula shows the simplest ratio in which atoms combine to form a
compound. Examples below show how to calculate the empirical formula of a
compound.
Examples
1) 0.28g of silicon reacts with 0.32g of Oxygen to form silicon Oxide
Calculate the empirical formula? Number of moles is = given mass
RAM
Number of moles is = given mass Number of moles =given mass
RAM RAM
0.28g 0.32g
28g/mol 16g/mol
0.01M 0.02M
Divide the smallest number to given whole numbers

#Si= 0.01 =1mol # O= 0.02 =2mol

0.01 0.01
Mole ratio = atom ratio
Therefore empirical formula is =SiO2
81
Chemistry Form Two

2) 0.24g of magnesium reacts with 0.71g of chlorine to form magnesium chloride

Calculate the empirical formula of magnesium chloride.

# Mg = 0.24g =0.01mol #c = 0.71g =0.02mol

24g/mol 35.5g/mol

Dived the smallest one

#Mg = 0.01 = 1mol #Cl= 0.02 = 2mol

0.01 0.01
Mole ratio = atom ratio
Therefore the Empirical formula is MgCl₂

3) Calculate the empirical formula of a compound that contains 24g of Mg and 16g
of Oxygen?
# (RAMs Mg =24 and O =16)

#Mg= 24g = 1mole O = 16g = 1mole

24g/mol 16g/mole

1mole Mg : 1 mole O
Mole ratio = atom ratio

Therefore the empirical formula is MgO

82
Chemistry Form Two

Exercise
a) 0.40g of calcium react s with 0.38g of fluorine calcium fluoride what is the empirical
formula. (ca=40g/mol and f=19g/mol )
b) Determine the empirical formula of potassium per magnate whose composition is
39.6% K, 27.9% Mn , and 32.5% of O by mass(K=39g/mol, Mn=55g/mol
16g/mol).

Molecular Formula
The molecular formula shows the acts numbers of atoms that combine to form
molecule.
Finding the molecular formula for unknown compound you need to know:
a. The empirical formula of the compound
b. The actual formula mass of the compound

To calculate the molecular formulas of unknown compound use this formula:

Molecular Formula = Actual formula mass of the compound = n
Empirical formula of the compound
Multiply this number by the numbers in the empirical formula n(Empirical formula)

Compound Molecular formula Empirical formula

Ethane C2H6 CH3

Per oxide H2O2 HO

Water H2O H2O

Butane C4H10 C2H5

For example
1. Octane is an alkane group its percentage composition is 84.2% carbon and
15.8% hydrogen it is actual formula mass is 114. What is the molecular formula?
83
Chemistry Form Two

Step1. Find the empirical formula

# C = 84.2g = 7.01m # H = 15.8g = 15.8m
12g/mol 1g/mol
Dive the smallest one

7.014m = 1mole 15.8 = 1mole

7.01 7.01

Ratio 1 : 2.25

4(1 : 2.25) or 4:9

: - empirical formula is C₄H₉

: - Actual formula mass is 57

Step2. Use the formula = actual mass = 114 =2

Empirical Formula mass 57

Multiply the number in the Empirical formula

So 2 X C 4 H9 = C8 H18

The molecular formula is C8 H18

2. A compound has empirical formula CH 2 and actual formula mass of 28 what is

the molecular formula?

Molecular formula = actual formula mass

84
Chemistry Form Two

Em .formula mass

M = 28g = 2 X CH2 = C2H4

14

Exercise
1. Caffeine, a stimulant found in coffee, tea and chocolate, contains 49.48%
carbon, 5.15 hydrogen, 28.87% Nitrogen and 16.49% oxygen actual mass
194g/mol, determine the molecular formula of caffeine.

2.

Concentration of a solution
The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute, in grams or moles that is
dissolved in 1dm3 of solution.
You can calculate the concentration of a solution by using this formula
85
Chemistry Form Two

Concentration (mol/dm3) = Amount of solute (mol)

Volume of solution (dm3)
1dm3 1 liter
1dm3 1000cm3
1dm3 1000ml

Examples

(1) Find the concentration of solution that contain 2.5g of CuSO 4.5H2O in 1dm3

First convert mass into moles

n= given mass = 2.5g = 0.01/mol
Molar mass 25g/mol

Concentration = 0.01mol
1dm3
Concentration is = 0.01mol/ dm3

Example (2):
Find the concentration of a solution that contain 25grams of CuSo 4 . 5H2o in 1dm3
Convert mass into mole
n= m = 2.5g = 0.01/mol
M 25g/mol
Concentration = 0.01mol = 0.05mol/ dm3
1dm3

Exercise
1- What is the concentration of a solution containing
a) 4 moles in 2 dm3
86
Chemistry Form Two

b) 3 moles in 100cm3

Gas Volumes
At room temperature and pressure ( Rtp) 1mole of any gas occupies approximately 24
dm3 e.g 24 dm3 of Co2 and 24 dm3 of N2 both contain 1mole of molecules.
The volume of 1mole of a gas is called molar gas volume
Example (1) what volume does 0.25 moles of gas occupy at Rtp?
Volume = number of moles X 24 dm3
V = 0.25 mole X 24 dm3 =
Example (2) what volume does 22g of carbon dioxide occupy at Rtp?
The RMM of Co2 = 44g/mol
1mol 44g
X 22g
X = 0.5mole
V = 0.5 moles X 24 dm3 = 12 dm3
Example (3) calculates the volume occupied by a mixture of 0.5 moles of propane and
1.5mol of Butane gases at rtp?
1- What volume of Hydrogen will react with 24dm 3 of Oxygen to form water the
equation for the reaction is 2H2 + O2 2H2o
2volumes of Hydrogen react with 1 volume of Oxygen or
2 X 24 dm3 = 48 dm3
Exercise
1- What volume does 0.75moles of a gas occupy at rtp?
2- What volume 36g if water occupy at rtp?

Chapter 5 review questions

1. How many atoms are in 1 mole of atoms?
2. How many molecules are in 1 mole of molecules?
3. What name is given to the number 6.023 X 1023?
87
Chemistry Form Two

4. Find the mass of 1 mole of:

a. hydrogen atoms
b. iodine atoms
c. chlorine atoms
d. chlorine molecules
5. Find the mass of 2 moles of:
a. oxygen atoms
b. oxygen molecules
6. Find the mass of 3 moles of ethanol, C2H5OH.
7. How many moles of molecules are there in:
a. 18 grams of hydrogen, H2?
b. 54 grams of water?
8. Sodium chloride is made up of Na1 and Cl 2 ions.
a. How many sodium ions are there in 58.5 g of sodium chloride? ( Ar : Na 5 23;
Cl 5 35.5.)
b. What is the mass of 1 mole of chloride ions?
9. The reaction between magnesium and oxygen is:
2Mg (s) 1 O2 (g) 2MgO (s)
a. Write a word equation for the reaction.
b. How many moles of magnesium atoms react with 1 mole of oxygen
molecules?
c. The Ar values are: Mg 5 24, O 5 16.
10.How many grams of oxygen react with:
i. 48 g of magnesium?
ii. 12 g of magnesium?

11.Copper(II) carbonate breaks down on heating, like this:

CuCO3 (s) CuO (s) 1 CO2 (g)
a. Write a word equation for the reaction.
88
Chemistry Form Two

b. Find the mass of 1 mole of each substance taking part In the reaction. ( Ar :
Cu 5 64, C 5 12, O 5 16.)
c. When 31 g of copper(II) carbonate is used:
i. How many grams of carbon dioxide form?
ii. what mass of solid remains after heating
12.What does rtp mean? What values does it have?
13. What does molar volume mean, for a gas?
14. What is the molar volume of neon gas at rtp?
15. For any gas, calculate the volume at rtp of:
a. 7 moles
b. 0.5 moles
c. 0.001 moles
16. Calculate the volume at rtp of:
a. 16 g of oxygen (O2)
b. 1.7 g of ammonia (NH3)
17.You burn 6 grams of carbon in plenty of air:
C (s) + O2 (g) CO2 (g)
a. What volume of gas will form (at rtp)?
b. What volume of oxygen will be used up?
18.If you burn the carbon in limited air, the reaction is different:
2C (s) + O2 (g) 2CO (g)

a. What volume of gas will form this time?

b. What volume of oxygen will be used ?
19.How many moles of solute are in:
a. 500 cm3 of solution, of concentration 2 mol / dm3?
b. 2 litres of solution, of concentration 0.5 mol / dm3?
20. What is the concentration of a solution containing
a. 4 moles in 2 dm3 of solution?
b. 0.3 moles in 200 cm3 of solution?
21. Different solutions of salt are made up. What volume of:
89
Chemistry Form Two

a. a 4 mol / dm3 solution contains 2 moles of ?

b. a 6 mol / dm3 solution contains 0.03 moles of ?
22.The molarity (Mr) of sodium hydroxide is 40. How many grams of sodium
hydroxide are there in:
a. 500 cm3 of a molar solution?
b. 25 cm3 of a 0.5 M solution?
23.What is the concentration in moles per litre of:
a. a sodium carbonate solution containing 53 g of the salt (Na2CO3) in 1 litre?
b. a copper(II) sulfate solution containing 62.5 g of the salt (CuSO4.5H2O) in 1
litre?
24.How many atoms of hydrogen combine with one carbon atom to form methane,
CH4?
c. How many grams of hydrogen combine with 12 grams of carbon to form
methane?
25. What does the word empirical mean?
26. 56 g of iron combine with 32 g of sulfur to form iron sulfide. Find the empirical
formula for iron sulfide. (Ar : Fe 5 56, S 5 32.)
27.An oxide of sulfur is 40% sulfur and 60% oxygen. What is its empirical formula?
28.In the ionic compound magnesium chloride, magnesium and chlorine atoms
combine in the ratio 1:2. What is the formula of magnesium chloride?
29. In the ionic compound aluminium fluoride, aluminium and fluorine atoms
combine in the ratio 1:3. What is the formula of aluminium fluoride?
30. What is the difference between an empirical formula and a molecular formula?
Can they ever be the same?
31.A hydrocarbon is 84% carbon, by mass. Its relative molecular mass is 100. Find:
a. its empirical formula
b. its molecular formula

Chapter 6: Chemical reaction and equation

Introduction
90
Chemistry Form Two

This chapter we will discuss different reactions some of them are used to breakdown
compounds, some of them are used to make up different compound. Also we will
discuss the easiest way you can write a chemical reaction, Chemical equations.
Equations are part of chemistry language.

Breaking down compounds

Decomposition:

All the reaction in this unit has one thing in common, there is only one reactant and it
breaks down in to two or more simpler products many factors affect included heat,
light, electricity and even enzymes, this is called Decomposition.

1. Decomposition by heat (thermal decomposition)

For example: calcium carbonate can breakdown into calcium oxide and carbon
dioxide by using heat as show below
CaCO3 heat CaO + CO2

2. Decomposition by light
Silver chloride can be decomposed by using light, its used in photographs
For example 2AgCl light 2Ag + Cl2

3. Electrolysis
A power way to decomposition substance is to pass electricity through it
91
Chemistry Form Two

For example sodium chloride can be decomposed by using electrolysis as shawn

below:
2NaCl electricity 2Na + Cl 2
And this process is called electrolysis and it is very important for industry.

4. Fermentation
For example yeast produces an enzyme that breaks down the sugar glucose in to
alcohol carbon dioxide.
C6 H12O6 yeast 2C2 H5OH + 2CO2

5. Cracking
Cracking is another decomposition reaction in industry. For example, large
molecules that are not so commercially useful are cracked into smaller ones that
can be used in petrol. For example,
Decane can be cracked into smaller alkanes such as pentane, propane and
ethane.

Decane
92
Chemistry Form Two
Pentane propene

ethene

Building up compounds
Combination or synthesis:

Always two or more substances react to form only one product. This reaction is
called combination or synthesis.
Below is two examples of combination reactions:

Fe + S FeS
Mg + F2 MgF2

Polymerization:
Polymerization is defined small molecules join up to form long chain. There are
two types of polymerization reactions addition and condensation uses of
polymerization are made plastics.

1. Addition polymerization, occur when we add small molecules join together to

form large molecules, look what happens when the gas ethene is heated at a
very high temperature.

2.
93
Chemistry Form Two

Since this is an organic molecule, we can also

1. Condensation polymerization, occur among two different monomers join

together and small molecule is released during polymerization, the reaction is
condensation polymerization.
:

Exercise
1. Write down three in organic combination reactions?
2. List five different types of chemical reactions?
3. State some daily uses of neutralization reaction?
94
Chemistry Form Two

4. Name examples of decomposition reactions in every life?

5.

Oxidation and Reduction Reactions

Oxidation-reduction reactions always take place simultaneously and there is no
oxidation without reduction. The meaning of oxidation and reduction are listed as
follows:

Oxidation Reduction

Addition of oxygen Removal of oxygen

Removal of hydrogen Addition of hydrogen

Losing of electrons Gaining of electrons

For example, copper(II)oxide with hydrogen. You can remember

OIL means oxidation
Reduction is losing electrons.
RIG means reduction
CuO + H2 Cu + H2O
is gaining electrons
Oxidation

Copper (II) oxide + hydrogen copper + water

In the above reaction copper(II)oxide get reduced because hydrogen takes its oxygen
away. Hydrogen is reducing agent. Hydrogen gets oxidized because copper(II)oxide
gives its oxygen, therefore copper(II)oxide is the oxidizing agent. We can put it another
way. Copper has oxidation number +2, but when we add the hydrogen gas it become
95
Chemistry Form Two

neutral atom because hydrogen takes its oxygen ion. Cu 2+ + 2e Cu and

also it is oxidizing agent.

Hydrogen was neutral atom but when it takes the oxygen from the copper(II)oxide it
become oxidized because it give two electrons to oxygen. H 2 H 2+ + 2e
another time it is reducing agent.

Write this equation in terms of oxidation and reduction.

Mg(s) + SO2(g) MgO(s) + S(s)

Combustion is always called burning.

For example magnesium can burn in air to produce magnesium oxide.

2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)

Methane can burn in oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water and heat energy.

CH4(g) + O2(g) CO2(g) + H2O(g)

Precipitation
When two aqeous solutions are mixed, they may react to give a product that is not
soluble in water. For example,

Silver Nitrate + Potassium Iodide Silver Iodide + Potassium

Nitrate

AgNO3(aq) + KI(aq) AgI(S) + KNO3(aq)

Na2CO3(aq) + CaSO4(aq) CaCO3(S) + Na2SO4(aq)

AgNO3(aq) + KBr(aq) AgBr(S) + KNO3(aq)

Photography is most useful thing of precipitation reactions.

Neutralization
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Chemistry Form Two

Acid substances produce H+ when it dissolves in water.

+
Base substances accept H when it dissolves in water.

When an acid react with bases, their acidity is cancelled out the reaction is called
neutralization it always produces salt and water. Example,

2HCl(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) CaCl2 (aq) + 2H2O(aq)

Acid + Base Salt + Water

CuO(aq) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(aq)

Base + Acid Salt + Water

Uses of neutralization

 Making fertilizers
 Making salts (laboratory and industry)
 Reducing acidity of the soil
 Reducing insects stings upset stomach.

Energy changes in reactions

Your have met many different reactions so far in this chapter, but they involve
energy change all in common. For example,

Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2 (aq) + H2(g) Exothermic

AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) AgCI(S) + NaNO3(aq) Exothermic

Ba(OH).8H2O(aq) + NH4NO3(aq) NH3(g) +10H2O(aq) + Ba(NO3)(aq) Endothermic

 Exothermic is a reaction that releases heat energy to the environment.

 Endothermic is reaction that absorbs heat energy from the environment.

Examples of exothermic:

 Neutralization reactions
 All combustion reactions
 Respiration in your body
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Chemistry Form Two

Examples of endothermic:

 Decomposition of mercury
 Polymerization of ethene
 Reduction of silver ion to silver element

Ice melts through endothermic process when it is on your hand, give a reason?

Measuring the heat change

2NaOH(aq) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCI(aq) + 2H2O(aq)

In order to measure energy change of this reaction this is what you could do:

 Measure out 50cm3 of a 2M of a solution of NaOH, and 50cm3 of a 2M of HCl

acid.
 Put the NaOH in polystyrene cup.
 Add the acid, stir the solution note the temperature change.

Results
 Initial temperature 18C
 Highest temperature 31C
 Temperature rise 13C

The calculations
o 1cm3 of water has a mass of 1g
o It takes 4.2joules of energy to raise the temperature of 1g water by 1C.

Solution is not pure water, but we can assume it is. So a rise of 1C in 1g of water takes
4.2joules of energy, and rise of 13C in 100g takes 100 x 13 x 4.2joules=5460 joules
The neutralization has given out 5460 joules or 5.46kj.

Calculating the heat of neutralization

The heat of neutralization for this reaction is the heat change when 1mole of
hydrochloric acid is neutralized H neutralization ( delta means change).

1. To find the number of moles of hydrochloric acid is used.

Number of moles = Volume (dm3) x Concentration (mol dm3)
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Chemistry Form Two

= 0.05 dm3 x 2 mol dm3

= 0.1mole

2. 5460joules is given out in the neutralization of 0.1mole of acid.

Therefore 1mole is given out 5460joules of energy
H neutralization is -5460j mol or 5.46kj mol

Bond energies
H2(g) + Cl2(g) 2HCl(g)

Bond energy is the energy needed to break a mole of bonds, or energy is given out
when a mole of these bonds formed.

Energy in to break bonds:

For a mole of hydrogen molecule = 436kj
For a mole of chlorine molecule = 242kj
Total energy 678kj
Energy out from forming bonds:
For 2 moles of hydrogen chloride = 862kj

Energy in energy out

678 862 = 184kj
If the energy in, less than the energy out the reaction is exothermic.
If the energy in, is greater than the energy out the reaction is endothermic.

Exercise:
1. Define endothermic reaction?
2. Define exothermic reaction?
3. Draw an energy level diagram to show:
c. endothermic reaction
d. Exothermic reaction?
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Chemistry Form Two

Symbol equation and calculation

The reaction between carbon and oxygen
When carbon is heated in oxygen, they react together and carbon dioxide is formed.
The carbon and oxygen are called reactants, because they react together. Carbon
dioxide is the product of the reaction
1 atom of carbon + I molecule of oxygen = 1 molecule of carbon dioxide
This short way to describe the reaction is called a chemical equation.
The reaction between hydrogen and oxygen .when the hydrogen and oxygen react
together, the product is water.
2H2 + O2 = 2H2O
The number of hydrogen and oxygen atoms is the same on both sides of the
equation .this is because atoms just re-arranged.
When the numbers of different atoms are the same on both sides, an equation is said
to be balanced an equation which is not balanced is not correct.
Adding more information the equations
Reactants and products may be solids, liquids, gases or solutions. You can show their
states by adding state symbols to the equations. The state symbols are: (s) for solid,
(l) for liquid, (g) for gas, ( aq) for aqueous solution .
For the two reactions above the equations with state symbols are :
C (s) + O2 (g) = CO2 (g)
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Chemistry Form Two

2H2 (g) + O2 ( g) = 2H2O (l)

How to write the equation for a reaction

These are steps to follow when write an equation.
 Write the equation in words
 Now write the equation using symbols make sure all the formulae are
correct.
 Check that the equation is balanced , for each type of atom in turn
 Add the state symbols

Example 1
Calcium burns in chlorine to form calcium chloride a solid .write an equation for the
reaction, using the steps above
Calcium + = calcium chloride
Ca + Cl 2 = CaCl2
Ca : 1 atom on the left 1 atom on the right
Cl: 2 atom on the left 2 atom on the right
The equation is balanced
4 Ca (s) + Cl 2 (g) = CaCl 2 ( s)

Calculation from equations

What an equation tells you?
From the equation for a reaction you can tell:
How many moles of each substance take part?
How many grams of each substance take part?
Example
C ( S) + O2 (g) = CO2 (g).
This equation tells you that :
1 carbon atom reacts with 1 molecule of oxygen to give 1molecule of carbon dioxide
12gof carbon reacts with 32g of oxygen to give 44 carbon dioxide
Does the mass change during a reaction?
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Chemistry Form Two

The above reaction:

Mass of carbon of oxygen at the start: 12g+32g=44g
Mass of carbon dioxide at the end: 44g

The law of conservation of mass states that the total mass remains un-changed
during a chemical reaction

Example:1
Hydrogen burns in oxygen to form water .the equation for the reaction is
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) = 2H2O(L)
How much oxygen to burn one gram of hydrogen
The RAMS are:H=1, O=16.so H2=2 and O2=32
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) = 2H2O(L)
2moles of hydrogen molecules need 1mole of oxygen molecules
4gram of hydrogen needs 32grams of oxygen(moles change to gram)
1gram of hydrogen needs 8gram of oxygen

The reaction needs 8g of oxygen

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Chemistry Form Two

Chapter 7: Introduction to carbon and organic

compounds
Carbon and its compound
Carbon: a small amount of carbon occurs as the free element in earth’s crust it
can occur as diamond and graphite these are allotropes of carbon.
Diamond is a very hard, clear solid that can be cut and polished so that it
sparkles in light.
Graphite is dark, greasy solid; charcoal and soot are form of graphite
Carbon dioxide
Air contains a small amount of carbon dioxide gas about 1%. Even though it’s
only a small percentage we could not live without it.
Properties of carbon dioxide
1. It is a colorless gas with on smell
2. It is much heavier than air
3. When it is cooled to -78c0, it turns straight into a solid, soli carbon dioxide
is called dry ice it sublimes when it is heated.
4. Fire extinguisher make use of carbon dioxide because 1 ½ times heavier
than the air and does not support ordinary combustion.
5. It is slightly soluble in water, formed an acid solution called carbonic acid.
Uses of carbon dioxide
1. It is used in fire extinguisher s
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Chemistry Form Two

2. It is put in drinks like cola and lemonade to make them fizzy it is

only slightly soluble so it is bubbled into these drinks under
pressure
3. Solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) is used to keep frozen.

Carbonates
Carbonates are compound containing the carbonate ion CO3
Two important carbonate are:
 Calcium carbonate it occurs naturally in rocks as lime stone , chalk and marble
 Sodium carbonate it is al so known as washing soda from its use in softening
hard water

Properties of carbonates
1. They are insoluble in water , except for sodium , potassium , and
ammonium carbonate
2. They react with acids to form a salt , water and carbon dioxide
3. Most of them break down on heating to carbon dioxide and oxide
Organic compounds

Organic compounds are carbon compounds found in living things or derived from living
things .these are many thousands of these compound are more than all the other
compounds put together they include :
The proteins, carbon hydrates and fats found in your body.

 The hundreds of different compounds found in crude oil and other

fossil fuels
 Plastics and pharmaceutical made from compounds found in crude
oil .
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Chemistry Form Two

The study of these carbon compounds is called organic chemistry.

Limestone
Limestone is one of the most valuable raw materials of all. Limestone gives us some of
the most beautiful country in Somaliland.

The properties of limestone

Limestone is calcium carbonate, CaCo3. Limestone comes out of the ground in hard
lumps (stones). Some forms of limestone are used for building and cement making.
Limestone Quicklime + Carbon dioxide.

Chemical reaction of calcium carbonate

Calcium carbonate reacts with acids, all carbonates react with acids to give carbon
dioxide, water and a salt.

Calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid calcium chloride + carbon diode +

water

CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) CaCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g)

+ H2O (l)

In this reaction calcium carbonate neutralizes the acid because of this, the soil in
limestone rocks in neutral or slightly alkaline. This is why such a variety of plants grow
in limestone rocks. The acidic rain (ordinary rain) dissolves limestone in the ground to
give calcium hydrogen carbonate (hard water), this action has two results:

 One is that limestone gets slowly dissolved away, giving cliffs, valleys and caves.
 The other result is that water supplies collected in limestone rocks contain
dissolved calcium hydrogen carbonate, which makes the water hard.

CaCo3 (s) + Co2 (g) Ca (HCO3)3 (aq)

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Chemistry Form Two

Uses of limestone
 In agriculture – farmers use powdered limestone as bases to neutralize acid rain
 To prevent acid air pollution – limestone can neutralize the three acidic gasses
produced by burning fossil fuels before they can get into the can get into the air
and causes acid rain.
 To neutralize acidified lakes.

A solution of sodium hydroxide in water is called limestone. When carbon dioxide is

bubbled into this solution calcium carbonate is formed as a milky precipitate. This is a
common way of testing for carbon dioxide.

Ca (OH)2 (aq) + CO2 (g) CaCO3 (s) + H2O

.
The Carbon Cycle
All living things are made of carbon.
Carbon is also a part of the ocean,
air, and even rocks. Because the
Earth is a dynamic place, carbon
does not stay still. It is on the
move!
In the atmosphere, carbon is
attached to some oxygen in a gas
called carbon dioxide.
Plants use carbon dioxide and
sunlight to make their own food and
grow.
The carbon becomes part of the plant. Plants that die and are buried may turn into
fossil fuels made of carbon like coal and oil over millions of years. When humans burn
fossil fuels, most of the carbon quickly enters the atmosphere as carbon dioxide.

Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas and traps heat in the atmosphere. Without it and
other greenhouse gases, Earth would be a frozen world. But humans have burned so
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Chemistry Form Two

much fuel that there is about 30% more carbon dioxide in the air today than there was
about 150 years ago, and Earth is becoming a warmer place. In fact, ice cores show us
that there is now more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

The fossil fuels

Most of energy used to cook food, drink cars and keep us warm comes from coal , oil
and gas
1. Coal, oil and gas are fossil fuels , that means they are the
remains of plants and animals that lived millions of years
ago .
2. They are made of organic compounds based on carbon
3. They are used fuels because they give out plenty of heat
energy when burn
4. They produce carbon dioxide , and water vapors , and
energy when they burn
Coal: is formed from the remains of hush vegetation that once grew in warm shallow
coastal swamps .these are two stages in the process
The dead vegetation collects in the bottom of the swamp .it may start to decay , but
decay soon stop , because the microbes that cause it need oxygen , and the oxygen
dissolved in the still , warm water is quickly depleted .
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Chemistry Form Two

The vegetation gets burned under debris .

Over hundreds of thousands of years the environment changes .seas flood the swamps
heavy layers of sediment pile up on the dead vegetation, squeezing out gas and water
and turning into peat.
As the peat gets burned deeper, the increasing heat and pressure compress it into coal.
As the process continues, the coal gets harder and more compact.

Oil and natural gas

These are formed from the soft remains of sea plants and animals that fall to the ocean
floor these are the stages in the process.
The remains may start decaying. but decay soon ceases because the dissolved
oxygen get , prevents any further decay .depleted .they get burned under sediment
which prevent s any further decay.
The deeper the remains get burned get burned, the higher the temperature and
pressure. Chemical changes begin.
First they turn into a solid waxy substance called kerogen . at depths about 2-4 km ,
and temperature of 50 – 100 c0 , this start to break down into the simpler compound s
that make up crude oil and gas.
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Chemistry Form Two

These substance are less dense than water .they start migrate up wards through
permeable rock such as lime stone .
Eventually they hit impermeable rock, they can go no further. This environment is an oil
trap. The rock they collect in is called the reservoir rock. They collect in it like water in a
sponge.
The problems with burning fossil fuels
We burn huge quantities of fossil fuels .un fortunately this causes many environmental
problems. For example:
Fossil fuels many contain sulphides .iron (iv) sulphide (FeS2) is often found with coal.
Sulphides burn in air to form sulphur dioxide, which causes acid rain, Since power
stations burn huge quantities of coal, they are major contributors to acid rain.
The burn of fossil fuels upsets the natural balance of carbon dioxide in atmosphere .this
could lead to global warming.
Chemicals from the oils
Oil is a mixture of hundreds of different carbon compounds. their molecules are chains
or rings of carbon atoms with other atoms bonded on C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-

In the example the molecule contains only carbon and hydrogen atoms, so the
compounds are called hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbon contains only carbon and hydrogen
atoms .most of the compound in oil are hydrocarbons.
Using the compound from the oil
The compounds obtained from oil have thousands of different uses .that is why
countries with a lot of oil to sell to get rich.
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Chemistry Form Two

Some are used as fuels or converted into fuels

Some are used as starting point for detergent, dyes, drugs, paints and cosmetics.
Some are the starting point for polythene ( PVC) and other plastics
Separating the fractions
Some oil compounds have small molecules with only a few carbon atoms . but some
have as many as 50 carbon atoms , to make the best use of it , the is separated into
groups of compounds that have a similar number of carbon atom . is the first step in
refining the oil the groups of compound are called fractions . separating is carried out
by fractional distillation in a tall tower which is kept very hot at the base , and cooler
towards the top . Crude oil is pumped in at the base , and the compounds start to boil
off.
Those which the smallest molecules have the lowest boiling points .so they boil off first
and rise to the top of the tower. Other rise only part of the way, depending on their
boiling point, and
As molecule gets longer the fractions get less running, or more viscous. From the gas
at the top of tower to solid at the bottom .they also get less flammable. Grease burns
less easily than the petrol , for example , so the lower fractions are not used as fuels .
Refined Products and Qualities

Crude Oil Fractions

Oil is processed or refined to produce useable products such as gasoline.  The

process is very complex and involves both chemical reactions and physical
separations.  Crude oil is composed of thousands of different molecules. It would be
nearly impossible to isolate every molecule and make finished products from each
molecule.  Chemists and engineers deal with this problem by isolating mixtures of
molecules according to the mixture's boiling point range.  For example, gasoline
molecules might boil in the range from 90 to 400 oF.  Home heating oil could be from
molecular mixes that boil from 500 to 650 oF.  For convenience, the mixtures or
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Chemistry Form Two

fractions are given a name. The following chart illustrates the boiling range and name
of the petroleum fraction.
Fraction Boiling Range,oF.
Butanes and lighter <90
Light straight run gasoline (LSR)
90-190
or light naphtha (LN)
Naphtha or heavy naphtha (HN) 190-380
Kerosene 380-520
Distillate or atmospheric gas oil (AGO) 520-650
Residua 650 +
Vacuum gas oil (VGO) 650-1000
Vacuum Residua 1000 +

Refinery Operations
Refineries are composed of many different operating units that are used to separate
fractions, improve the quality of the fractions and increase the production of higher-
valued products like gasoline, jet fuel, diesel oil and home heating oil. The basic
refining operations are described in the following sections.
 

Crude Oil Distillation

Crude oil distillation is used to separate the hydrocarbons in crude oil into fractions
based on their boiling points.  The separation is done in a large tower that is operated
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Chemistry Form Two

at atmospheric pressure.  The tower contains a number of trays where hydrocarbon

gases and liquids interact.  The liquids flow down the tower and the gases up.  The
lighter materials such as butane and naphtha are removed in the upper section of the
tower and the heavier materials such as distillate and residual fuel oil are withdrawn
from the lower section. 

Catalytic Reforming
Catalytic reforming is used to improve the quality of naphtha from the crude
distillation unit.  The catalytic reforming unit uses a catalyst to allow the chemical
reactions to take place under "reasonable" temperatures and pressure and
"encourage" the desired hydrocarbons to be produced. The motivation for using
catalytic reforming can be seen in the following table:

Hydrocarbon Hexane Hexene Cyclohexane Benzene

Hydrocarbon Type Paraffin Olefin Naphthene Aromatic

Research Octane Number 25 80 83 106

Therefore this process provides higher octane material to the gasoline pool to help
meet the octane specifications on the gasoline.  The process also produces hydrogen
which is used to remove sulfur from refinery streams in the hydrotreating processes. 

Plastics
Plastics are among the many important materials made from crude oil they are made
by polymerization
 The starting point is a small molecule called monomer
 A monomer for addition polymerization is made by cracking a hydrocarbons
obtained from oil and always has a double bond.
 You may first want to alter the monomer , for example , to make ( pvc) ethene is
first changed into vinyl chloride ( chloroethene ) by reaction with hydrochloric
acid .
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Chemistry Form Two

Then addition polymerization is carried out .it usually needs heat pressure and a
catalyst , The double bonds break and very long carbon chains the new compounds
are called polymers or plastics .

Plastics can be used

 Bags
 Bottles
 Dustbins
 Pens
 Electronics

There are two types of plastics thermoplastics and thermosets.

Thermoplastic: this type of plastic when we heat it gets soft and runny.
Thermoset: This type of plastic and it is made, strong bonds between chains this is
called cross-liking.

Advantages of plastics

1. Recyclable – Plastics can be melted and used to make other products.

2. Plastic is very useful in the building and construction, electronics.
3. It lasts forever and it is very cheap to make.

Disadvantages of plastics

1. Cost of Recycling – While recycling is a plus, recycling is a much cost.

2. Volume – In the United States 20% of our landfill is made up of plastics.

Flammable – some plastics can release toxic fumes into the environment
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Chemistry Form Two

Glossary G
Acid a chemical species which can donate a proton, H+ Strong acids dissociate fully
into ions; weak acids only partially dissociate into ions.
Activation energy the energy barrier which must be surmounted before reaction can
occur.
Addition the joining of two molecules to form a single product molecule
Addition polymerization forming a polymer by a repeated addition reaction
Addition reactions a reaction in which two molecules join to form a single product
molecule
Alkali a soluble base that releases OH– ions in aqueous solution
Alkaline earth metals the elements found in Group 2 of the Periodic Table.
Anhydrous without water of crystallization
Atomic number the number of protons in the nucleus of each atom of an element
Atomic radius half the distance between the nuclei of two covalently bonded atoms
Base a substance that readily accepts a proton (H+) from an acid.
Bond enthalpy the amount of energy needed to break one mole of a particular bond
in one mole of gaseous molecules.
Catalyst a catalyst increases the rate of a reaction but is not itself used up during the
reaction.
Catalytic converter a device fitted to the exhaust system of petrol and diesel engines
which reduces the emission of pollutants by the use of heterogeneous catalysts.
Closed system a closed system can only transfer energy to or from its surroundings.
Substances cannot be exchanged.
Compound a substance made up of two or more elements chemically joined together.
Cracking the thermal decomposition of an alkane into a smaller alkane and an alkene
d-block elements a block of elements found between Groups 2 and 3 in the Periodic
Table.
Dehydration a reaction involving the removal of a water molecule
Double covalent bond two shared pairs of electrons that bond two atoms together
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Chemistry Form Two

Electrolysis the decomposition of a substance caused by the passing of a d.c. electric

current.
Electro negativity describes the ability of an atom to attract the bonding electrons in
a covalent bond.
Electrons tiny negatively charged sub-atomic particles, found in orbitals around the
nucleus of an atom.
Elements substances made up of only one type of atom. The elements are listed in the
Periodic Table.
Elimination when a small molecule is removed from a larger molecule.
Empirical formula the simplest whole-number ratio of the elements present in a
compound.
Endothermic term used to describe a reaction in which heat energy is absorbed from
the surroundings (enthalpy change is positive).
Enthalpy ΔH is the term used by chemists for heat energy transferred during
reactions.
Exothermic term used to describe a reaction in which heat energy is transferred to the
surroundings (enthalpy change is negative).
Free radical an atom or group of atoms with an unpaired electron
Functional group an atom or group of atoms which gives rise to a homologous series
Compounds in the same homologous series show similar chemical properties.
Global warming the increase in average temperature of the Earth’s surface caused by
an enhanced greenhouse effect due to increased concentration of greenhouse gases
(e.g. carbon dioxide) in the atmosphere.
Greenhouse effect natural phenomenons by which some gases present in the
atmosphere absorb infrared radiation emitted from the Earth’s surface and then re-emit
some of this infrared radiation back to the Earth’s surface.
Hydrated with water of crystallization
Hydrocarbon a compound containing only carbon and hydrogen
Hydrolysis the breakdown of a compound by water
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Chemistry Form Two

Initiation the first step in a free-radical substitution in which the free radicals are
generated by heat or ultraviolet light.
Ion a positively or negatively charged atom or (covalently bonded) group of atoms.
Ionic bonding the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions.
Ionization energy the first ionisation energy is the energy needed to remove one
electron from each atom in one mole of gaseous atoms or ions of an element.
Isotopes atoms of an element with the same number of protons but different numbers
of neutron
Mass number the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
Mass spectrometer an analytical instrument in which atoms and/or molecules are
ionised, deflected and detected. It can be used to find relative isotopic abundances of
elements and to identify unknown organic compounds.
Mole the unit of amount of substance (abbreviation: mol). One mole of a substance is
the mass that has the same number of particles (atoms, molecules, ions or electrons)
as there are atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon-12.
Molecular formula shows the total number of atoms present in a molecule of the
compound.
Monomer the small molecule used to build a polymer molecule.
Neutron a sub-atomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom. It carries no charge
and has the same mass as a proton.
Nucleus the small, dense core at the centre of an atom, containing protons and
neutrons (hence a nucleus is always positively charged).
Oxidation the loss of electrons
Oxidation number (oxidation state) a number (with a positive or negative sign)
assigned to the atoms of each element in an ion or compound. Oxidation states are
determined using a set of rules devised by chemists.
Precipitate an insoluble solid formed when two solids react, e.g. white silver chloride
formed when silver nitrate is added to sodium chloride solution.
Protons positively charged sub-atomic particles, found in the nucleus of an atom.
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Chemistry Form Two

Rate of reaction the amount in moles of a reactant which is used up or product which
is formed in a given time.
Redox reactions which involve reduction and oxidation processes
Reduction the gain of electrons
Relative atomic mass Ar, the weighted average mass of the atoms of an element
taking into account the relative abundance of its naturally occurring isotopes, measured
on a scale on which carbon-12 is given a mass of exactly 12.
Relative formula mass the mass of one formula unit of a compound relative to an
atom of carbon-12.
Relative molecular mass the mass of a molecule of a compound relative to an atom
of carbon-12
Salt a compound produced when the H+ ion of an acid is replaced by a metal ion or an
ammonium ion.
Saturated contains only C–C single bonds.
Single covalent bond a shared pair of electrons that bonds two atoms together1
Sublimes when a substance turns directly from a solid into a gas without passing
through the liquid phase
Substitution reaction when an atom (or group of atoms) is replaced by a different
atom (or group of atoms).
Thermal decomposition the breakdown of a compound by heat
Transition elements in the d-block that can form at least one ion with a partially filled
d subshell
Triple covalent bond three shared pairs of electrons that bond two atoms together.
Unsaturated contains one or more C=C double bonds.
Water of crystallization water molecules incorporated into the crystal structure of a
salt.
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Chemistry Form Two
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Chemistry Form Two

References
1) Lawrie Ryan  AQA GCSE Chemistry 3rd edition,
oxford University publisher, 2016.
2) Edexcel International GCSE Chemistry, online edition,
2009 
3) Rose maria Ghlahger Complete chemistry GCSE second
edition
4) Chemistry IGSCE