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SYNTAX
i. (a) Draw a phrase marker for the phrase their rather dubious jokes which shows
that it contains the further phrase rather dubious jokes, which in turn contains
rather dubious as a phrase

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 b) Men from the Ministry is a phrase which contains from the Ministry and the
Ministry as phrases. Draw a phrase marker for the whole phrase.

1. I’ve not yet provided a complete analysis of sentence [4]. We have agreed that old
Sam, beside a stream, and a stream are among its constituent phrases. So we can
at least draw an incomplete phrase marker for it, as in (a)

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 FURTHER EXERCICES
The structural ambiguity of [36] in the text is a matter of whether old Sam or how
old is a constituent. All the following are structurally ambiguous. In each case,
identify the source of the ambiguity in terms of two different constituent analyses,
as I have just done with [36].

1. This story shows what evil men can do.

This story shows what (evil men) can do.

This story shows (what evil) (men can do.)

2. They only sell rotten fruit and vegetables.

They only sell (rotten fruit) and vegetables.

They only sell (rotten fruit and vegetables.)

3. More interesting meals would have been appreciated.

(More interesting) meals would have been appreciated

More (interesting meals) would have been appreciated

4. We need an agreement between workers on overtime.

We need (an agreement) (between workers) on overtime.

We need (an agreement between workers) on overtime.

5. Bill asked the man who he had seen.

Bill asked (the man who he had seen).

Bill asked (the man) (who he had seen).

Draw a phrase marker for the phrase no previous experience of syntax, showing that
it contains the phrase previous experience of syntax as a constituent, which in turn
has the phrase experience of syntax as a constituent, which in turn has the phrase
of syntax as a constituent (which, of course, is made up by of and syntax).

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 The new students are very worried is a sentence. Assume that it has two phrases
as immediate constituents: the new students and are very worried. Furthermore,
assume that the new students consists of the word the and the phrase new students.
And that are very worried consists of the word are and the phrase very worried. Try
drawing the phrase marker for the sentence in the light of all that.

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 2. SENTENCE STRUCTURE: FUNCTIONS

EXERCISES
Identify the category of the following phrases (as Noun Phrase, Verb Phrase, or
‘other’).

Noun phrases:

(d) obsolescent washing machines

(e) ten long holidays at the Hotel Mortification

Verb phrases:

(b) were being given away

(g) have made me realise that ‘cheap’ does indeed mean ‘nasty’

other:

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 (a) installed for only £199.95
(c) too far to drive in a day

(f) which I had bought only the day before

The phrase more exciting ideas is ambiguous and needs a different structural
analysis for each of its two interpretations. Draw the phrase markers, giving an
indication of which interpretation goes with which analysis.

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 Draw phrase markers for the following phrases:
(a) young car salesmen; (b) second-hand car salesmen.

(a) young car salesmen

second-hand car salesmen

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 The phrase the old Romanian history teacher has several different interpretations.
Here are three structural analyses

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 (1) Which analysis corresponds with the interpretation ‘the old teacher of
Romanian history’? → (c)
(2) Give the interpretations that correspond with the other analyses.
(a): The old teacher of history who comes from Romanian.

(b): The teacher of old Romanian history. (The Romanian history is old, not the teacher).

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 FURTHER EXERCISES
For each of the following sentences, identify the subject NP and the predicate VP
by drawing phrase markers like that in [33] on page 30. In the (two!) cases where
the sentence is not exhaustively divisible into NP followed by VP, list the extra
constituents separately.
(a) I am // accepting your invitation.

(b) The income received from fines /// can’t be taken into account.
(c) Grishkin and the man in brown /// are in league.
(d) A gorilla swinging about in the trees above our heads /// interrupted this already
lengthy story.
(e) One day /// will be enough for this job.
(f) One day, my boy, all this will be yours.
(g) Next Sunday or the Sunday after that /// would be convenient dates.
(h) Regrettably, your dancing and colourful language /// are frightening the guests.
(i) The existence of stars of such extreme density that not even light can escape

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 them/// has not been doubted recently.
(j) The temptation to identify /// less than the whole of the relevant phrase crops
up in all constituent analysis.
(k) No one who accepted that invitation to visit the slaughterhouse //// found it
quite as enjoyable as you.
(l) A lengthy discussion about the unreliability and irrelevance of parental advice ///
followed.
(m) The many meetings in Downing Street between the Prime Minister and other
leaders involved in the crisis /// have failed to yield any solution acceptable to
them or to the United Nations.

Below are five phrases and four phrase markers. On the basis of your understanding of
them, assign each phrase to the appropriate phrase marker. One of
the phrase markers is appropriate for two of the phrases. If you have problems,
re-read the discussion of the ‘sister’ relation in the chapter.

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 (a): (4)

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 (b): (2), (3)

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 (c): (5)

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 (d): (1)

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 Using just ‘phrase’ and ‘word’ (as in Exercise 2 above), draw phrase markers for
the following phrases
(a) Students doing chemistry.
(b) Students doing chemistry in September.
(c) Students with long hair doing chemistry.
(d) Several very noisy newspaper vendors.
(e) Ten fully automatic deluxe hair driers.

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 CHAPTER 3: SENTENCE STRUCTURE: CATEGORIES

EXERCISES
1.

Identify the following lexical categories in the passage below: (a) nouns, (b) adjectives,
(c) degree adverbs, (d) general adverbs, and (e) prepositions.
On the court, she openly displayed a perfectly outrageous cheek towards officials
recently appointed by the club. At home, on the other hand, she was an incredibly warm
and loving human being, full of sensitivity for people’s feelings.
GIẢI
Noun: court, cheek, club, home, hand, oficials, sensitivity, people, feelings, being.

adjective: outrageous, human, warm, loving, full

Degree advs: perfectly, incredibly
General advs: recently, openly
Prepositions: On, toward, by, at, of, for

2.

We’ve now identified two functions of Noun Phrases: subject, and complement
to a preposition. There are other functions. Bearing this in mind, identify the NPs
in the first sentence of the above passage. Remember to identify first the largest
NPs and only then any NPs that may be contained within them. Then identify the
head noun of each NP. Which NP is functioning as subject of that first sentence?
Which NPs are functioning as the complement to a preposition? Is there an NP
functioning in some other way?
On the court, she openly displayed a perfectly outrageous cheek towards officials
recently appointed by the club.

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 NPs: (a) the court (b) she (c) a perfectly outrageous cheek (d) officials recently
appointed by the club (e) the club.
HEADS: (a) court (b) she (c) cheek (d) officials (e) club.

FUNCTIONS: the court is functioning as complement of the preposition on. She

is functioning as the subject. A perfectly outrageous cheek has a function other
than subject or complement to a preposition. Officials appointed by the club
is complement to the preposition towards. The club is complement to the preposition by.

3.

Draw phrase markers for the following expressions. In some cases, you’ll find that
you don’t have all the information necessary to give a complete analysis. Where
this is so (and only where this is so!), follow the example of the preceding chapters– use
triangles

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 FURTHER EXERCISES

Between the black pages of the album, ancient photographs dimly revealed the grim
faces of ancestors nervelessly paralysed in different attitudes of thought and apparent
concentration.
Nouns: pages, albums, photographs, faces, ancestors, attitudes, thought, concentration
adjs: black, ancient, grim, different, apparent

Advs: dimly, nervelessly

prepositions: between, of, in, and

Chapter 4: The basic of Verb Phrase

A 1st look at verbs

Two kinds of verb in English: LEXICAL and AUXILIARY.

→ A full VP must contain a LEXICAL verb and it may contain AUXILIARY verbs.

LEXICAL verbs: run, eat, seem, explain, recycle, shatter, prepare, depend.

AUXILIARY verbs: be, have, do, can/could, will/would, shall/should, may/might,

must, and need.

The complements of lexical verbs

1.

Transitive verbs

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 A transitive verb is one which requires a single Noun Phrase to complement
it.
The NP that complements a transitive verb is said to function (more
specifically) as its direct object.

Intransitive verbs
An intransitive verb is one that does not require any further constituent as a
sister in the VP. ‘INtransitive’ means ‘has (and needs) no complement’.

Ditransitive verbs:
Ditransitive verbs require TWO NPs as complements: show, offer, see, tell, announce.

Intensive verbs
Intensive verbs require a single complement, which can take the form of an
Adjective Phrase, a Noun Phrase or a Prepositional Phrase.
The most obvious and commonly used intensive verb is be.
The complement of an intensive verb functions (more specifically) as a
predicative.
Note: An [intens] verb, by definition, takes a subject-predicative. A [trans] verb, by
definition, takes a direct object.

Complex transitive verbs

Complex transitive verbs take two complements: a direct object (NP)
and an object-predicative.
The predicative in a complex transitive VP characterises (attributes a property
to) the direct object, not the subject, hence the name ‘object-predicative’.

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 Prepositional verbs
(a) V[intens] + PP. The PP is a complement (subject predicative);
(b) V[prep] + PP. The PP is a complement (prepositional complement);
(c) V[intrans] + PP. The PP is an optional modifier.
Prepositional verbs are called ‘prepositional’ because they can only be
complemented by a PP

Summary

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 Discussion of in-text exercises
1. The following sentences illustrate the different uses of the words given. As a further
exercise, identify the category of the italicised word in each sentence.

Exercises:
1. Identify the major functions in the following sentences (subject, direct object, indirect
object, subject-predicative, object-predicative, and prepositional complement).
Identify the verbs and sub-categorise them

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 Further Exercises

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