1

WELDI
NGI
NSPECTI
ON-STEELS

CONTENTS PAGE

TERMI
NOLOGY 3

THEDUTI
ESOFAWELDI
NGI
NSPECTOR 9

CODESANDSTANDARDS 12

THEWELDI
NGPROCEDURE 14

DESTRUCTI
VETESTI
NG 20

SYMBOLS 27

MATERI
ALS 32

FOURFACTORSFORESTABLI
SHI
NGAWELD 37

WELDABI
LITY 38

RESI
DUALSTRESSANDDI
STORTI
ON 44

HEATTREATMENT 47

CALI
BRATI
ON 49

DEFECTSDETECTEDBYSURFACEI
NSPECTI
ON 50

I
NTERNALDEFECTS 54

MACROEXAMI
NATI
ON 58

NON-
DESTRUCTI
VETESTI
NG 61

REPAI
RBYWELDI
NG 66

CONSUMABLES 70

WELDI
NGPOSI
TIONS 75

WELDI
NGPROCESSES
1
2

MANUALMETALARCWELDI
NG 78

TUNGSTENI
NERTGASWELDI
NG 83

METALI
NERTGASWELDI
NG 88

SUBMERGEDARCWELDI
NG 94

AUTOMATI
CMETALARCWELDI
NG
101

ELECTRONBEAM WELDI
NG 103

ELECTRO-
SLAGWELDI
NG 105

TERMI
NOLOGY
2
 3

Useofthecorr
ectterminologyi
simportant.CSWIPusesBS499standard.Fr
equent
lyt
he
ter
ms‘weld’
and‘joi
nt’areusedincor
rectl
y.Exactdef
ini
ti
onsaregi
veninBS499PT11983
-‘ Wel
dingter
minology’andBS499Pt2: 1980‘Weldsymbols’
.

TYPESOFWELD

But
tWel
d

Fi
l
letWel
d

EdgeWel
d

Smalli
ndent
ati
ons
Ateachweld

SpotWeld
(I
ll
ust
rat
iondepi
ctsr
esi
stance
wel
d.
Spotwel
dscanbemadewi
th
MI
G
orTI
Gpr
ocesses.
)

Thef
ourbasi
cwel
dscanbeusedt
ojoi
nvar
ioust
ypesofj
oint
s.

3
4
TYPESOFJOI
NT

Thef
oll
owi
ngar
esomet
ypi
cal
joi
nts:

BUTT

-
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--

TEE

-
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--

CORNER

-
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--

LAP

PLATEEDGEPREPARATI
ONFORBUTTWELDS
4
 5

Theill
ust
rat
ionsshowst
andar
dter
minol
ogyf
ort
hev
ari
ousf
eat
uresofpl
ateedge
prepar
ati
ons.

Squareedgedcl
osedbutt Squar
eedgedopenbut
t
wit
hbackingstr
ip
3mm –sheet ,3mm -plat
e (
consi
derat
ions-penet
rat
ion
cont
rol,
backi
ng st
ri
pofthesame
materi
alandusual
lyr
emoved)

Backi
ngbar-cer
amicorcopper Fusi
blei
nser
t-el
ect
ri
cbol
t
(
e.b)
(
coppercancausel
oquat
ioncr
acki
ng) (
UsesTI
Gpr
ocess)

Si
ngl
eV Si
ngl
ebev
el

Doubl
eV Doubl
ebev
el

Si
ngl
eJ Si
ngl
eU

Doubl
eJ Doubl
eU

5
6

I
ncl
udedangl
e

Bev
elangl
e
Bev
elangl
e wi
dth

Si
dewal
l
Face
r
adi
us

Rootf
ace
Rootgap
l
and

FEATURESOFACOMPLETEDWELD

Abuttweldinpl
ate,madebywel dingfrom bothsides,hastwoweldfacesandfourtoes.I
n
aful
lpenetr
ati
onwel dmadefr om oneside,t
heprotrudingweldontheundersi
deiscall
ed
t
hepenetrat
ionbead,whichalsohast wotoes.Ther ootisdef
ined(
BS499)ast hezoneon
t
hesideofthefir
strunfart
hestfrom thewelder.

t
oe f
ace t
oe

r
oot

t
oe f
ace t
oe

I
fawel dissect
ioned,poli
shedandet ched, thefusi
onboundar ycanbeestabli
shed.Met al
l
y i
ngbet weenthetwof usi
onboundar iesiswel dmet al-ami xtur
eofdepositedmet aland
platemet al
thathasbeenmel t
ed.Thef usionzoneist heareaofhi ghestdi
l
utionbetween
fi
llermetalandparentplat
e.Adjacentt othef usi
onboundar yistheheataffectedzone
(HAZ) ,i
nwhichtheplatemat eri
alhashadi t
smet al
lurgical
st r
ucturemodif
iedbyt heheat
ofwel di
ng.

Excess
Weldmet
al
Fusi
onzone

Thr
oat f
usi
onboundar
y/
l
i
ne

HAZ
6
 7

Excessweldmet
ali
sthecor
rectt
erm,not‘
wel
drei
nfor
cement
’.Excesswel
dmet
all
yi
ng
outsi
dethepl
anej
oini
ngt
hetoesofthewel
d.

Fi
l
letwel
dshav
esi
mil
arf
eat
ures.

Toes
Face

Fusi
onboundar
y

Root HAZ

Theshapeofaf
il
leti
ncr
oss-
sect
ioni
sdescr
ibedi
nthr
eet
erms.

Mi
tr
efi
l
let Conv
exf
il
let Concav
efi
l
let

Aconv exfi
l
lethasapoortoebl
end-greaternot
cheff
ectandshar
perangleattoe,not
usedinfati
guesit
uati
ons.Aconcavef
il
lethasabett
ertoebl
endforfat
iguesit
uati
ons,
howeverareducedthroat
.Theconcav
ewel dmaybemadebywel dingaloneorby
subsequentgri
ndi
ng.

SI
ZEOFWELDS

Ful
lPenet
rat
ionBut
tWelds.
Thegener
alrul
esar
e:desi
gnthr
oatt
hickness=t
hicknessoft
hethi
nnerpartj
oined.
Capwidt
h=prepwidth+10%eithersi
de(f
oropenprep,notspeci
fi
ed
i
nBS499)

Parti
alPenetrationBut tWel ds.
Thet erm par
tialpenetrationstrictl
yimpl i
esbut tweldsthataredesignedtohavelessthan
ful
lpenet r
ati
on.Failuret oachiev efullpenetrati
onwheni tiswantedshouldbelist
edast he
defectincompl etepenet r
ation.
Thedesi gnthroatthicknessofapar ti
alpenet r
ati
onwel dist1andtheactualt
hroat
thi
cknessi st2.Withapar ti
alpenetrati
onwel dmadef rom bothsi
des, t
hedesignthroat
thi
cknessi st1+t 1andt heact ualthroatthicknessist2+t2.Notethatthedegreeof
penetrati
onmustbeknown.

t
1 t
2
t
2
t
1
t
1 t
2
t
1 t
2

7
8
t
1 t
2

t
1

t
2

Fi
l
letWel
ds.

Fil
l
etweldsizesarecalcul
atedbyreferencetoallowableshearst
ressonthethr
oatarea,
i
.e.
Throatar
ea=desi gnthroatthi
cknessxl engt
hofweld.
Thesizerequi
redisspecif
iedondrawi ngsintermsofl egl
ength(l
).
Forfi
l
letweldswithequallegl hsl
engt =1.4t1.Thisdoesnotapplytoconcav
efil
letwelds.

l t
1=t
2 t
1 t
1
t
1 t
1
t
2 t
2

I
fanasy
mmet ri
calwel
disrequi
red,
bot
hlegl
engt
hsar
especi
fi
edandt
1ist
akenast
he
mini
mum t
hroatdi
mension.

l
1

l
2
t
1

Deeppenet
rat
ionf
il
letwel
d.

Withhi
ghcurr
entdensi
typr
ocesses,e.
g.submergedarcandMIG(spr
ay),
penet
rati
on
al
ongthejoi
ntli
necanbeproduced.Thi
sgivesanincr
easei
nthr
oatthi
cknesswit
hno
changei
nleglengt
h.

8
 9
l

t
1 t
1

THEDUTI
ESOFTHEWELDI
NGI
NSPECTOR

VI
SUALI
NSPECTI
ON

Atanypoi ntint hecour seofwelding, i

.e.tacki
ng, rootpass, fil
lerpassorcappi ngpass, but
parti
cular l
yf ort her ootandcap,adet ail
edinspect ionmayber equired.Bri
tishSt andar
d
5289:1976gi v esgui danceontoolsandr esponsi bili
ti
estoget herwi thsketchesoft ypi
cal
defects.
Theinspect oratt hispointmust-
a) Obser v e,identi
fyandperhapsr ecord(measur e)thef eaturesoft hewel d.
b) Decidewhet hertheweldisaccept ableint ermsoft hepar t
icularl
evelst hatare
permitted; def ectl evel
smaybe‘ in-house’ ornational codesofpr actice.
Whent hedef ectsi zeisinexcessoft heper mi t
tedl evelthenei theraconcessi onmustbe
appli
edf or ( from acompet entper son),orthewel drejected.

AI
DSOFVI
SUALI
NSPECTI
ON

Il
luminati
on: Goodlightingisessenti
al .
Inspecti
onLenses:Themagni ficati
onshoul dnotexceed2-2. 5di
ameter
s.I
fhigher
magni f
icati
oni srequireduseabi nocul
armi croscope.
Opticalvi
ewi ngcanpr ogressivelydevel
opf r
om ey esight
,touseofahandtor
chandmi rr
or,
totheaddi t
ionofamagni f
ierandl i
ghtsource.
Inordertoachi eveaccessibili
ty,remoteprobeuni tsareavai
labl
ewhichmusthavethe
foll
owingpr operti
es.
a) Lar gef i
eldofv isi
on
b) Fr eedom f r
om di st
orti
onofi mage
c) Accur at
epr eservati
onofcol ourval
ues
d) Adequacyofi l
lumination

CODEOFPRACTI
CE

Acodeofpr acti
ceforaninspectiondepartmentshouldtakethefor
m outl
i
nedbelow.Itis
appr
eciatedthatful
limpl
ement ationofthecodewoul dbeextremel
ycostl
yandtherefor
eit
maybenecessar ytoreducetheamountofi nspect
iontolessthani
stheor
eti
cal
l
yr equir
ed.
Theinspectorshouldbefamili
arwi t
hthefollowi
ng:
a) Al lappli
cabledocument s
b) Wor kmanshipstandards
c) Al lphasesofgoodwor kshoppracti
ce
d) Tool sandmeasur ingdev i
ces

I
NSPECTI
ONBEFOREWELDI
NG

9
10
Befor
eAssembl y :
Check*Allappl i
cabl edocument s.
*Qual itypl ani saut hor i
sedandendor sedwi thsignature,dat eandcompanyst amp.
*Appl icat ionst andar disupt odat ewi t
ht helatestedit
ion,rev i
sionoramendment .
*Thedr awi ngsar ecl ear,thei ssuenumberi smar kedandt hel at
estrevisi
oni sused.
*Wel dingpr ocedur esheet s( specif i
cations)ar eavail
able,hav ebeenappr ov edand
are
empl oyedi npr oduct i
on.
*Wel derqual i
fi
cat i
onswi thident if
icationandr angeofappr ovalarev er
ifi
edandt hat
onl
y appr ov edwel der sasr equi redar eempl oyedinproduct ion.
*Calibr ationcer t
if
icat es,mat erialcertifi
cates( mil
lsheets)andconsumer
cert
ificat esar e
av ailabl eandv al i
d.
*Par entmat eri
al i
dent i
fi
cationi sv eri
fiedagai nstdocument ati
onandmar ki
ngs.
*Mat er ial composi tion, t
ypeandcondi ti
on.
*Cor rectmet hodsar eappl i
edf orcuttingandmachi ning.
*Ident i
ficat ionofwel dingconsumabl essuchasel ectr
odes, fi
ll
erwire,fl
uxes,
shieldingand backi nggasesandanyspeci alr
equirement s(e.
g.dr y
ing)aremet .
*Plantandequi pmentar einasaf econdi tionandadequat ef orthejob.
*Saf etyper mi t
se. g.hotwor kper mit,gasf reepermi t
,enclosedspacecer ti
fi
cate
are
av ailabl eandv al i
d.

Aft
erAssembly
Check*Dimensions,tol
erances,preparati
on,fi
t-
upandal
i
gnmentarei
naccordancewi
th
the
Approveddrawingsandst andards.
*Tackwel ds,
br i
dgi
ngpi eces,cl
ampi ngandty
peofbacki
ng-i
fanyusedare
cor
rect
.
*Cleanl
inessofwor kareaismai ntai
ned.
*Preheatinaccordancewi thprocedure.

NOTEGoodinspect
ionpr
iort
owel
dingcanel
i
minat
econdi
ti
onst
hatl
eadt
othef
ormat
ion
ofdef
ect
s.

I
NSPECTI
ONDURI
NGWELDI
NG

Check*thewel di
ngpr ocessmustbemoni t
ored.
*Preheatandi nterpasstemperaturesmustbemoni tor
ed.
*I
nter passcleaning-chi
pping,grindi
ng, gouging,
mustbemoni t
ored.
*Rootandsubsequentr unsequence.
*Essent i
alvari
ablessuchascur rent,voltage,
trav
el speedt
obemonitor
ed.
*Fil
lermet al
s,fl
uxesandshi el
dinggasesar ecorrect.
*Wel dingisincompl i
ancewithwel dpr oceduresheetandappl
i
cati
onstandar
d.

I
NSPECTI
ONAFTERWELDI
NG

Check*Vi
sual
inspecti
ontobecar
ri
edouttoascer
tai
naccept
abi
l
ityofappear
anceof
welds.
*Di
mensionalaccur
acyt
obeascer
tai
ned.
10
 11
*Conformitywithdrawingsandst andardsrequirements.
*Postwel dheattr
eatment ,i
fany ,
moni t
oredandr ecor
ded.
*NDTcar ri
edoutandr epor t
sassessed.
*Assessdef ect
sast oeitherrepair
ing,
orapplicati
onforconcessi
on.
*Carr
youtanynecessar yrepair
s.
*Controlofdist
ort
ion

REPAI
RS

*Repairpr
ocedureandwel dingcodeshoul dbeauthorised.
*Defectareashoul
dbemar kedposit
ivelyandclear
ly.
*Checkwhenpar ti
all
yremov edandfullyremoved(visualandNDT)
.
*Re-
wel di
ngshouldbemoni tored.
*Re-
inspectcompletedrepair.

Coll
ateal
ldocument
sandrepor
ts.Passt
hedocumentpackageont
oahi
gheraut
hor
it
yfor
fi
nali
nspect
ion,
appr
oval
andstorage.

THEWELDI
NGI
NSPECTOR

RESPONSI
BILITI
ES
Ensur
ecompli
ancewithst
andardorcode.
Ensur
eworkmanship.
Ensur
ewel
dingcri
teri
aby‘
poli
cing’
workanddocument
ati
on.

ATTRI
BUTES
Honestyandintegri
ty.
Li
teracy
.
Fi
tness-physicalandeyesi
ght
.

DUTI
ES
Obser
ve.
Measure.
I
denti
fy.

11
12

CODESANDSTANDARDS

CLASSOFWORK

Therearemanyt ypesofwor kwhi chr equireengi neer i

ngmat erialst obej oinedbywel ding,
forexampl e:
Pressur ev essels Br idges
Oilri
gs Ear t hmov ingequi pment
Aero- engines Vent il
ationsyst ems
Storaget anks Heav yv ehiclechassi s
Carbodi es Foodpr ocessingpl ant
Thequal i
tyr equirement softhejoint sinthesef abr icationsdependont heirfitness-
for-
purposeanddi ffersignifi
cantl
yfrom oneappl icat i
ont othenext .Pressurev esselsrequire
welds,whichcanwi thstandthest ressesandhi ght emper aturesexper i
encedi noper at
ion.
Oilr
igsaredesi gnedt owithst
andt heef fectofwav ef ormat i
onandwi ndloads.Ear th
mov ingequi pmenthast oaccommodat ediff
erencesi nterrai
nandear t
hcondi t
ionsandi s
subjecttofat i
guel oading.Weldsi nf oodpr ocessi ngpl antsmustwi t
hstandcor rosi
onby
hotacidicliquors.
Belowar elist
edsomet ypical codesofpr act iceandst andar dswhi chcov ervari
ous
typesofconst r
uct i
onsf abri
catedbywel ding.

Code ClassofWor k
BS5500 Unf i
redf usi
onwel dedpr essurev essels
ASMEVIII Amer i
canboilerandpr essurev essel code
BS2633 Cl
ass1ar cweldingoff erri
ti
cst eelpipewor kforcarr
yingf
lui
ds
BS4515 Processofwel dingsteel pi
peli
nesonl andandoffshore
BS5950 St
r ucturaluseofst eel
wor kinbui l
ding
AWSD1.1 St
r ucturalweldingcode( Amer ican)
BS5400 St
eel ,concreteandcomposi tebr idges
BS6235 Codeofpr acti
cef orfi
xedof fshorest ructur
e
API1104 St
andar dforwel di
ngpipel i
nesandr elatedstr
uctures

Thesedocument scanalsoprov i
deausef ulsour ceofdataf orappli
cati
onswher ecodes
donotexist
.Itshouldberemember ed,howev er,thatthepri
ncipalcri
ter
ioninthecodes
l
istedist
hequalit
yofthej oi
ntinrelati
ontot heser vi
ceconditi
ons.Therear eother
appli
cati
onswheresuccessi sjudgedbydi fferentcrit
eri
a,suchasdi mensionalaccuracy
.
Anotheri
mpor t
antconsiderat
ioniscont r
oll
ingt hecostofwel ding.Vari
ati
onsinwel d
ti
mesandquant it
iesofconsumabl escanr eadi l
yresulti
fthemet hodofmaki ngawel dis
l
efttotheweldertodeci
de.
12
 13
Theconti
nuousandsat
isfactor
yperf
ormanceofweldmentsmadet ovari
ouscodes
requi
rest
hatspeci
fi
cguidel
inesar
elaiddowntocoveral
lvari
ables.Thesegui
deli
nesar
e
usual
lygr
oupedundert
hegener al
headingofaWeldProcedure.

CODEOFPRACTI
CE

Acodeofpr act i
ceisasetofr
ulesf
ormanufacturingaspeci f
icproduct
.Itshoul
dcontai
n:
DesignRequi rement s e.g.fit
-up,pr
eparati
onandt y
peofjoi
nts
Material
s e.g.types, thi
cknessranges
Manuf acturer’
sWor kingPr
act
ice
I
nspect i
onCr iteri
a e.g.100%v isual,
percentageot
herNDT
AcceptanceCr it
eri
a e.g.def ectsize,l
imit
s,etc.
WeldingPr ocess e.g.type, consumables
TypesofTool i
ng e.g.useofst rongbacks
Contractual I
nformation

Thedi
ffer
encebet weenacodeandast andar
di st hatacodest ateshowt odoaspeci fi
c
j
obanddoesnotcont ainal
lrel
ev antinformat
ion, butreferstootherstandardsfordetai
ls.
Acodeorst andar
dgener al
l
yment ionsthreeparties-t hecustomerorclient,t
he
manufact
urerorproducerandt hei nspecti
onaut hority
.Inacodet het
erm‘ shal
l’means
mandator
y-mustbedone, andt het erm‘should’meansr ecommended-notcompul sory.
Aconcessi
oni sanagr eementbet weent hecontract i
ngpar t
iestodevi
atef r
om theori
ginal
coder
equirements.(BS5135)

13
14

THEWELDI
NGPROCEDURE

Awel
dingpr
ocedur
eisawayofcont
rol
l
ingt
hewel
dingoper
ati
on.

Pur
poseofprocedur
e:
1) Topr oveajoi
ntcanmeetdesi
gnpr e-consi
ocedur stency
2) I nst
ructi
onforwelder
3) Ensur erepeat
abil
it
y

Weldprocedur esareappr ov
edtoensuret heyarefunctionalandful
fi
lthephysi
caland
mechanical pr
oper t
iesnecessar
yt or
eacht herequiredstandard(
toestabli
shtheessenti
al
var
iabl
esf orcont r
actualobl
igat
ions)
.
Welder
sar eapprovedtoensureapar t
icularwelderiscapableofweldingt
oapr ocedur
e
andobtainingar esultt
hatmeetsspecifi
cat i
on.

Thetaskofcol
l
ectingt
hedataanddraf
ti
ngt hedocumentat
ioni
softenr
efer
redtoas
‘
writ
ing’
aweldprocedur
e.I
nmanyway sthisisanunfor
tunatet
erm ast
hewrit
ingof
documentsi
sthelasti
nasequenceoftasks.

Pr
oducingawel dpr ocedur einvolves;
Planningt het asks
Collecti
ngt hedat a
Wr i
tingapr ocedur eforuseorf ort
rial
Maki ngt estwel ds
Evaluatingt heresul t
soft het ests
Appr ovi
ngt hepr ocedureoft her el
evantcode
Preparingt hedocument ation

Ineachcoder efer
enceismadet ohowt heproceduresaret
obedev i
sedandwhether
approv
al oftheseprocedur
esisrequir
ed.Inmostcodesappr ov
alismandat
oryandtests
toconfi
rmt heskil
lofthewelderarespeci
fied.Det
ailsar
ealsogiv
enofaccept
ancecrit
eri
a
fort
hefinishedjoi
nt.

Theapproachuseddependsont hecode,forexampl e:
BS2633( Cl
ass1ar cwel dingoff erri
ti
csteelpipewor kforcarryi
ngflui
ds)prov
idesgeneral
comment sonv ar
iousaspect sofasui t
ablewel dprocedure.
AWSD. 1.1(St
ructural
wel dingcode-st eel)favoursmor especifi
cinstr
ucti
onsfordif
fer
ent
j
ointsandprocessesthatar e, i
neffect,
pre-quali
fi
edpr ocedures.
Othercodesdonotdeal speci fi
call
ywi t
hthedet ail
soft heweldprocedurebutrefert
o
publi
sheddocument ati
on, e.g.BS5135‘ processofar cweldingcarbonandcarbon
manganesesteels’.
14
 15

COMPONENTSOFAWELDPROCEDURE

I
temst
obei
ncl
udedi
nthepr
ocedur
ecanbesomeoft
hef
oll
owi
ng:

ParentMet al
a.Ty pe
b.Thi ckness( forpipet hisi ncl
udesout sidedi ameter)
c.Sur facecondi tion
d.Ident i
fyingmar ks
WeldingPr ocess
a.Ty peofpr ocess( MMA, TIG,SAW et c.)
b.Equi pment
c.Make, brand, typeofwel dingconsumabl es
d.Whenappr opr i
ate,thet emper atureandt imeadopt edfordryi
ngandbaki
ngof
el
ectrodes
And/orconsumabl es
Joi
ntDesi gn
a.Wel dingposi tion
b.Edgepr epar at i
on
c.Met hodofcl eaning, degr easi
nget c.
d.Fitupofj oint
e.Jiggi ngort acki ngpr ocedur e
f.Typeofbacki ng
WeldingPosi tion
a.Whet hershoporsi tewel d
b.Arr angementofr unsandwel dsequence
c.Fil
lermat erial,composi tionandsi ze( diamet er)
d.Wel dingv ari
abl es-v oltage,current,travel speed
e.Wel dsi ze
f.Backgougi ng
g.Anyspeci fi
cf eatures, e.g.heatinputcont rol,r
un-outl
ength
Thermal Treat ment
a.Preheatandi nter
passt emper aturesi ncludingmet hodandcontr
ol
b.Postwel dtreat menti ncludingmet hodandcont r
ol

ESSENTI
ALVARI
ABLES

Anessenti
alv ar
iabl
ei sav ariablethatwi l
l i
nfluenceorchanget hemechani calor
metall
urgi
calproperti
esoft hewel dedj oi
nt-changesaf fecti
ngt heprocedureapproval
.
Anychangeinanessent i
alvariablerequiresanewwel dingprocedurespecificat
ion(
WPS) .
Essenti
alvar
iablesinclude:wal lthickness, j
ointdesi
gn,process, mat
erial
s,consumables,
weldi
ngpositi
on, di
rection,heati nput(voltage,amperage,andt ravel
speed),heat
tr
eatment.

APPROVI
NGTHEPROCEDURE

Whenthedatahasbeencoll
ect
ed,
theproceduremustbeval
i
datedbyproduci
ngand
t
esti
ngat r
ailwel
d.
I
ftheprocedurei
stobeusedonafabr
icat
ion,whi
chhasbeendesignedt
omeetthe
15
16
requir
ement sofacode, thetestweldisdoneundert hesuper vi
sionofani ndependent
witness.Thedetail
edar r
angement sforthetestaresubjecttoagr eementbetweent he
contracti
ngparti
es.
AnumberofBr it
ishStandardsmakecr oss-refer
encetoanot herstandardwhichcov er
s
approvaltesti
ng.Othercodesofpr act
iceincludethei
rownwel dpr ocedur
e/wel der
approvalinfor
mat i
on.Ingeneralt
heyincludeast andar
df ormat,whi chcanbeusedt o
reporttheresul
tsofanappr ovaltest
.

Rangeofappr oval .(
Extentofappr oval
,scopeofapproval)
Providesawor kingrangeov erwhichcertai
nvari
abl
esmayal t
erwi t
houtrequiri
nganew
weldingpr ocedur eorwel derapproval.
Variablesincludet hi
ckness( e.g.1/2downt o2xabove),di
amet er(e.g.1/2downto1/ 2
abov e)mat er
ials(diff
erentmat er
ial
scanbecov er
ed),posit
ion,process,parentpl
ate
group, andconsumabl es.

Re-
approv
alofaweldi
ngprocedureisnecessar
yift
her
eisachangeofanyoft
heessent
ial
var
iabl
esorconsi
der
abledef
ectre-occur
rence.

ABBREVI
ATI
ONS

WPS weldingpr ocedurespeci fi

cati
on-anappr ovedandaccept edwel di
ng
pr
ocedur
e;an
authoriseddocument .
PQR procedur equali
fi
cationr ecords-pr ooft heprocedur
ewor ks-recor
doft ests
undertakent oqualif
ypr ocedur e.
WAC welderappr ovalcerti
fi
cat e-requi redt oensureapar ti
cularwelderiscapable
ofwel dingtoapr ocedure.
WATC welderappr ovaltestcertif
icate.
WAR welderappr ovalrecord.
WPAR weldingpr ocedureapprov alrecor d.
WQT welderqual i
fi
cationtest.
pWPS prel
imi naryWPS-unaut hor i
sed( cont ainsallessent
ialvariabl
esand,aft
er
weldingt hetestpieceandal lNDTanddest ructiv
etestshav ebeenaccept ed,
thentheWPScanbeappr oved) .

pWPSandWPARgi
vef
inal
WPS (
var
iousWPScander
ivef
rom onepWPS)
.

DOCUMENTATI
ON

Theobjecti
vesofaprocedureorwelderapprov
altestare:
a. t oprovetheproceduremeetsthenecessar
yr equir
ementswi thr
eferencet
o
feasi
bil
i
ty,mechani
calstr
engthetc.
b. t oprovetheweldersarecompetenttoworkonapar t
icul
arjob.
Ifacustomerqueri
esit
,evidencecanandwouldbesuppl iedtoprovevali
dity
.

Appr
ovalTestSpecifi
cati
onscall
forapaperrecor
d,whi
chcanbeknownas:
Procedure/welderappr
ovalcerti
fi
cate
Procedure/welderappr
ovalrecord
Procedure/welderappr
ovalreport
Thefol
lowingrecor
dsshouldalsobekept :
16
 17
NDTr eport
s
Recordsofv i
sualexaminati
onormechanicalt
esti
ng
Testpiecesfrom dest
ructi
vetest
ing
Otherrecordsthatareequall
yimport epr
antar oofofregul
arempl
oymentonaj
obf
or
scheduli
ngr e-
test
stoav oiddupl
icati
ononprocedur
eapproval
.

WELDERAPPROVAL

Wel derappr ovaltestsar eusedt odet ermi netheabi li

tyofawel dert oproducewel dsofan
accept abl
equal i
tywitht heprocesses, mat eri
alsandwel dingposi t
ionst hatar et obeused
i
npr oduct ion.Dependantont her equirement sandadmi nist rati
ont hemanuf act ureror
cont r
actormaychooset oqualif
yt heirownwel der sortheymayempl oyout sideper sonnel
whocanmeett her equirements.Theser equir
ement susual lyspeci fyverif
icat ionoft he
testsbyanaut hor i
sedi nspectororindependentbody .Ther equirement sf ort he
qualifi
cati
onofwel der sareusuallylaiddowni nthegov erningcodeorspeci ficat i
onort he
cont r
actspeci fi
cation.
Appr ovaltestsimpr ov etheprobabi l
ityofobt ainingsatisfact orywel dsinpr oduct i
on.
Howev eritistr
uet osayt hatapprov altestwel dsar emadewi thspecialat tent i
onand
effortandsocannotshowwhet herornott hewel dercandosounderev erypr oduct i
on
condi t
ion.Fort heser easonscompl eter eli
anceshoul dnotbepl acedont hese
qualifi
cati
ons-pr oduct i
onwel dsshoul dbei nspectedr egul arlytoensur et hatt hest andard
i
sbei ngkeptup.

TypesofApprovalTest s.
Testst
hatareprescribedbymostcodesandst
andar
dsar
eint
hemai
nsi
mil
ar.Common
test
sare:
a. Pl at
eandst ructuralmembers.
b. Pi pewelding.
c. Posi t
ionsofwel di
ng.
d. Test i
ngofappr ovalt
estpi
eces.
e. Re- t
ests.

a.Plateandst r
ucturalmember s.
Ther equirement sforweldersofplat
eandst r
uctural
parts(i
ncludingpressurevessels)
usuallyrequiretheweldertomakeoneormor etestweldsonpl at
eorpipeassembl i
eswith
thequal i
fiedweldingprocedure.Eachweldistestedinaspecificmanner ,
oftenbot h
destructivel
yandnon- destruct
ivel
y.Therequi
rementsnormal l
ystatetheapplicabil
it
yof
mater i
al t
hicknessandwel dingpositi
onsthatwil
lquali
fyforproducti
onwor k.Otherdetai
ls
wil
lcov erjointtypeanddi r
ecti
onofwel di
ngwhendeposi ti
ngv ert
ical
welds( vert
ical
lyup
orvertical
lydown) .

b.Pipewel di
ng.
Ther equi
rementsfortheappr
oval
ofweldersf
orpipeweldi
ngdiffer
sfr
om thosefor
weldingplateandstr
uctur
almemberschief
lyi
nthetypeoftestassembl
iesandtest
posit
ions.Asar ul
etheweldsmustbemadeonpi peandnotplate.I
nsomecasest he
17
18
spacewithi
nwhichthetestpi
ecemustbewel dedmayberestri
ctedi
ftheproduct
ionwork
i
nv ol
vesweldi
ngincrampedconditi
ons.Asgeneral
rul
ewelderswhoquali
fyforcert
ain
j
ointsonpipeneednotquali
fyforpl
atework,
butquali
fi
cat
ionsonplat
edonotappl yto
pipework.

c.Positi
onofwel di
ng.
Approvaltest
sarenor mall
yexpectedtobemadeinthemostdi ff
icul
tposit
ionsthatwil
lbe
encounteredi
npr oducti
onweldi
ng.Forexamplequal
if
icati
oninthevert
ical
, hor
izont
aland
overheadpositi
onsusuallyqual
i
fiesforwel
dingi
ntheflatposi
ti
on.

d.Test i
ngofwel derappr ov alt
estpieces.
Allcodesandspeci fi
cationswi ll
hav edef i
niter ulesfort hetestingofappr ov alweldsto
determi necompl iance.Mostf requent l
yt hisi nvolvesther emov alofspecimensf or
mechani caltests, suchasbendt ests,andspeci mensf ormacr oexami nationf r
om speci fi
c
l
ocat i
onsi nt het estpieces.Non- destruct i
v et esti
ngmayber equi r
edinconj uncti
onwi t
h
themechani cal tests.
Otherpr oper t
iesr equiredoft hepr ocedur equal i
fi
cati
onwel dssuchast ensilestrength,
hardness, etc.ar enotgener all
yspeci fiedi nwel derappr ovaltestssincethesepr operties
dependpr imar i
l
yont hepar entandf il
lermat eri
alsusedonpr oceduredetailsthatar e
beyondt heindividual wel der'
scont r
ol.
Wel derswhoset estwel dsmeett her equi rement sarequal if
iedt ousethepr ocessandt o
weldwi tht hef i
ll
ermet alsandpr ocedur essi mi lartothoseusedi ntesti
ng.I tshouldbe
ment ionedt hatawel derwhohassuccessf ullyweldedapr ocedur etestspeci meni snot
requiredt ounder goanappr ovaltest,unl esst herequirement sofpr oductionwel dingar e
dif
ferentf rom thoseoft hepr ocedur einwhi chhehasqual if
ied.

e.Re-
tests.
Thecir
cumst ancesforthere-t
esti
ngofawel derincl
udethefoll
owing:
1. Fai lureoft hei
niti
alt
estwel ds.
2. Asi gnifi
cantchangei nweldingprocedure.
3. Awel derhasnotbeenengagedi nweldingf oranext
endedper i
od.(Usual
lyt
hree
months.)
4. Ther eisreasont oquesti
ont hewelder'sabil
it
y.
5. Changeofempl oymentwithoutthetransferofhisapproval
certi
fi
cates.

CHECKLI
STFORWELDERANDPROCEDUREAPPROVAL

1. Thet estbeingcarri
edouti st hecorrectoner equir
ed.
2. Wel dersareinpossessionofal lr
elevanti
nf ormati
onconcerningthet est.
3. Testmat er
ial
sconf i
rmi nallrespectstorequirement s.
4. Joi ntconf i
gurati
onandt olerancesar ecorrect.
5. Wel dingplantandconsumabl es.
6. Thewel der
'sident
ifi
cati
oni sclearl
ymar kedont hetestpi
ece.
7. Wher eitisspecifi
edforar ootr untobest oppedandr est
art
edinacer t
ainposi
tion,
thatt
his
Posit
ionisclearl
ymar ked.
8. I nthecaseofj oi
ntsweldedi nfixedpositi
onst hetestpieceissofixedt hati
tcannot
bemov ed.
9. Al lancill
arytoolssuchaschi ppinghammer s,wi
rebrushes,gri
nders,etc.are
18
 19
av
ail
abl
e.

Thet estsshoul dbecar riedoutwi thouti nterruptionbutwi t

hsuf fi
cientsuper vi
siont o
ensur ethatt her equi rementsar ebei ngcompl i
edwi t
h.Wher ewel derappr oval i
scar r
ied
outinaccor dancewi thASMEsect ionI Xi tstatest hattheper sonsuper vi
singthet estmay,
i
finhi sopi nionheconsi derst hatthewel derwi l
lnotmeett her equiredst andar d,terminat
e
thetestatanyt i
me.I fitisnecessar ytoappl ythisr uli
ng, i
tissuggest edthatf ullr
easons
fortermi nat i
onber ecor ded.Itisfurtherr ecommendedt hatthetestpi eceshoul dalsobe
keptf orashor tper iodasameansofbacki ngupwr i
tt
enst atement .
Ift
het estist obesuper vi
sedbyar epr esent ati
veofani ndependentaut horit
yheshoul dbe
givenal lther el
ev antdet ail
soft het estingr equired.
Wher eBr itishst andar dsarei nvolv
ed, theygener allystat
et hatifthewel derisoft he
opiniont hathi sfirstat t
emptmaynotpassanysubsequentt esti
ng, hemaywi thholditand
weldasecond.I nt hiscasei tisthesecondt estpi ecethatissubmi ttedf orexami nation
andt hef irstonemustbescr apped.

TESTCERTI
FICATE

Shouldst atecl earl

ythatitisawel derappr ovalandnotapr ocedureappr
oval
,and,
dependingont heparti
cularstandard, shoul dcontai
nt hefol
lowing:
a.wel der ’
snameandi dentitynumber
b.dat eoft est
c.standar dofcodei nful
l,e.g.Br iti
shSt andard4872PT1: 1982
d.testpi ecedet ai
l
si ncl
udingmat er i
alspecif
icati
on
e.equi pmentandconsumabl edet ails
f.extentofappr ov
al
g.sket chofr unsequence, pr epar ationanddi mensions
h.ot herf act
ors,operati
ngpar amet ersetc.
i
.thet estresult
s(v i
sual,
NDT, DTet c.)
j
.remar ks
k.wi tnessedby
l
.testsuper vi
sor
m.l ocat i
on

Mostst
andar
dsgi
veanexampl
eofat
estcer
ti
fi
cat
e.

Si
gnat
uresoncer
ti
fi
cat
esmustbeendor
sedbycompanyst
amp.

19
20

DESTRUCTI
VETESTI
NG

Destructi
vet estsonwel dedjointsareusuallymadeaspar toftheapprovalofaweldi
ng
procedureorawel der.
Commonl yuseddest ructiv
et estsare:
Bend
Tensi l
e
Char py
Fracturetests
Macr osect i
on
Thet estpiecesar ecutfrom thetestweldandt hei
rlocat
ionisoftenspecif
iedint
he
standard.TheBr iti
shstandardf orthetesti
ngofweldsisBS709: 1983Methodsoftesti
ng
fusi
onwel dedj ointsandwel dmet alinsteel
.Theareasfortestareshownbel ow.

Testwel
dal
ongcent
reofpl
ate

Di
scar
d

Bend
Macrosect
ion
tensi
l
e

Bend
Longi
tudi
nal

Bend
Tensil
e
Shor
ttr
ansv
erse bend
Discar
d
20
 21
Tr
ansv
erse

BENDTESTS

Obj
ect
: Todet
ermi
net
hesoundnessofwel
dmet
al,
heataf
fect
edzoneand
wel
dzone.
Thesetest
smayal sobeusedt
ogivesomemeasureoft
heduct
il
it
yofthe
weldzone.I
tisnotusual
tousetr
ansver
seandl
ongit
udi
nal
bendtest
sfor
thesameapplicat
ion.

Met
hod: Allspeci
menst oberemovedandpr eparedwi t
houtcausi
ngsigni
fi
cant
distor
ti
onorheati
ng.Thecapandr ootaregr oundfl
ush.Thespeci
meni s
bentbythemov ementofaf or
merofpr escri
beddiameter,t
herel
evantsi
de
ofthespecimentobeplacedintension.Angleofbendanddi amet
erof
formershouldbeasspecif
iedintheappr opr
iatest
andard.

Repor
ti
ngResul
ts:
1. Thi cknessofspecimen
2. Di rect
ionofbend( r
ootorface)
3. Angl eofbend
4. Di amet eroff
ormer
5. Appear anceofj
ointaf
terbendi
nge.
g.t
ypeandl
ocat
ionoff
laws

Rootbend f
ace
bend
For
ce f
orce

Thi
ssi
dei
ntensi
onf
orf
acebend
F F

Thi
ssi
dei
ntensi
onf
orr
ootbend R R R
R

Surf
acei
ncont
actwi
thf
ormergr
oundf
lat
. . R=r
oll
ersuppor
t F=f
ormerofspeci
fi
ed
radi
us

SI
DEBENDTEST

Obj
ect
: Todeter
minet
hesoundnessoftheweldmet alandHAZinacrosssect ion.
Thi
smaybepreferr
edtothetr
ansversebendtestonthi
ckmateri
als.Itis
al
sousedonprocessesorpr
oceduresexpecti
nglackoff
usi
on(e.g.thick
pl
ateusi
ngMIG).

Met
hod: Thetest
ingmethodi
sthesameasthatusedfort
ransver
sebendsexceptthe
capandrooti
snotgroundf
lush,
toal
l
owt est
ingacrosst
hecomplet
ewel d.

Repor
tResul
ts:
1. Wi dt
handthi
cknessofspeci
men.
2. Angl eofbend.
21
22
3. Di
ameteroffor
mer.
4. Appear
anceofjoi
ntaf
terbendi
nge.
g.t
ypeandl
ocat
ionoffl
aws.
Force
10mm
F

Thi
ckness
Ofpl
ate
R R
Thi
ssi
deint
ensi
onf
or R=r
oll
ersuppor
t
Si
debend F=f
ormerofspeci
fi
edr
adi
us

TRANSVERSETENSI
LETEST

Obj
ect
: Usedt omeasur ethetransv ersetensil
estrengthunderstat
icloadi
ngofa
buttjoi
ntempl oyi
ngbut twel ds.
Ther educedsectiontensiletestnormal l
yfailsi
ntheparentmet al
andsoiti
s
notdesignedt ogivethet ensil
est r
engthoft heweld.
Ther adiusreducedtensiletestisat estoftheasdepositeddil
utedwel
d
met al
.
Theal lweldtensil
etest,usingal ongit
udinalsecti
onfrom t
hewel donl
y,i
s
usedt ocheckt heasdeposi tedundi l
utedwel dmetal
.(Usual
lyusedby
consumabl emanuf acturers.)

Method: Thet
estpi
ecei
scl
ampedateachendandal
oadi
sappl
i
edbyahy
draul
i
cor
scr
ew
Mechani
sm.Thel
oadi
sincr
easedunt
ilf
ract
ureoccur
s.

Reporti
ngResult
s:
1. Ty peofspecimen( e.g.r
educedsect ion).
2. Whet herexcesswel dmet alisr
emov edornot.
3. Tensi l
estrength,inNewt on'spermm squar ed,iscalculatedfrom maxi
mum
l
oadandor i
ginalcrosssect i
onalarea.Whenexcesswel dmet ali
snot
r
emov ed,thecr osssectionalareashal lbet
hepr oductoft heparentmetal
t
hicknessandt hewi dthoft hespecimen.
4. Locat i
onoff ractur
e-whet heri
npar entplat
e,heataf f
ectedzoneorwel d
metal.Ift
he f
ractureisinthepar entmetal, t
hedist
ancef rom thewel dzoneshal
l
bestated.
5. Locat i
onandt ypeofanyf lawspresentont hefracturesur f
ace.

Load l
oad

Not
chi
nwel
d

22
 23

Load l
oad

Reducedsect
iont
ensi
l
etest r
adi
usr
educedt
ensi
l
etest

Thetestgivesameasur
eofper
cent
ageel
ongat
ion,
per
cent
ager
educt
ioni
nar
eaand
ul
ti
mat etensi
le
Str
ength.

UTS(
yiel
dst
ressst
rengt
h
poi
nt)

Yi
eldpoi
nt

UTS=ul
ti
mat
etensi
l
e
st
rengt
h
STRAIN
(
N)

El
ast
ic pl
ast
ic

STRESS (
mm)

Thet ensil
etestgi
vesameasur
eofDUCTILI
TY.
(InNewt on'
spermm squar
edacombinat
ionofper
cent
ageel
ongat
ionandper
cent
age
reductioninarea.

Ty
pesoff
ail
ures.

BRI
TTLE Br
eak

Sur
face

Br
it
tl
efr
act
urei
sfl
atandf
eat
urel
ess.

DUCTI
LE

Br
eak Shearl
i
ps

Sur
face

23
24
Aduct
il
efr
act
uret
ear
sat45t
othel
oad.

'
Chev
ron'
mar
ks.
I
N-SERVI
CEBRI
TTLEFRACTURE

Surf
ace
Aflatsurf
acewi
thchev
ronmar
kingst
hatpoi
ntt
othemater
ial
def
ectt
hati
nit
iat
edt
he
f
racture.

Cur
ves
FATI
GUEFAI
LURE
Sur
face

Af
latsur
facewi
thnot
iceabl
ecur
ves.

CHARPYVNOTCHI
MPACTTEST

Obj
ect
: Todet er
minet
heamountofener
gyabsor
bedi
nfr
act
uri
ngast
andar
dised
test
pieceataspeci
fi
edt
emperat
ure.

Met
hod: Amachi ned,notchedspeci menisbrokenbyonebl owfrom apendul
um.
Becausescatteroccur sintheresul
ts,atl
eastthr
eespecimensareusedt
o
assessthejointrepresented.
Testi
ngiscarriedoutatat emperat
urespecif
iedi
nt heappr
opri
ate
appli
cat
ionstandar d.
TheBrit
ishstandar disBS131: PT2: 1972.

Repor
ti
ngResul
ts:
1. Locat i
onandorientati
onoft henotch.
2. Test i
ngtemperature.
3. Ener gyabsor
bedi njoules.
4. Descr i
pti
onoffractureappearance.
5. Locat i
onofanydef ects.

Hammerbl
owf
rom t
hissi
de
h

10mm p
A B
55mm

10mm

24
 25
a t
r
ootr
adi
us
a-anv
il
0.
25mm t-t
estpiece
h-Hammer
d-Dialcali
brat
edinjoul
es
p-Pointreachedaft
er
f
ract
ure

2mm Ener
gyabsor
beddur
ing
f
ract
ure
45 i
spr
opor
ti
onal
to(
A
-B)

CHARPYTESTPI
ECE CHARPYI
MPACT
MACHI
NE

TheChar
pyi
mpactt
est
,measur
edi
njoul
es,
isanassessmentofTOUGHNESS.

Tr
ansi
ti
ont
emper
atur
e(cur
ve)i
nst
eel
.Duct
il
eFai
l
ure

CS
SS

Joul
es

Temperat
ure
Br
it
tl
eFai
l
ure (
highert
oughness )

FI
LLETWELDFRACTURETEST

Obj
ect
: Tobreakt
hej
ointt
hrought
heweldtopermitexami
nat
ionoft
hef
ract
ure
sur
facesf
orf
lawsandtocheckr
ootpenetr
ati
onandfusi
on.

Met
hod: Thespeci
meniscuttol
engthandasawcut ,nor
mall
y2mm deep,ismade
al
ongthecent
reofthewel
df ace.Thespeci
menisf
ract
uredbybendi
ngor
hammerblows.

Repor
ti
ngResul
ts:
1. Thi cknessofpar entmat er
ial
.
2. Thr oatt hi
cknessandl eglengt
h.
3. Locat ionoff r
acture.
4. Appear anceofjointafterf
ract
ure.
25
26
5. Dept
hofpenet
rat
ion/l
ackofpenet
rat
ionorf
usi
on.

Hammerorbend sawcut

‘
NICK’
BREAK(
BEND)TEST

Obj
ect
: Asf
orf
il
letwel
dfr
act
ure,
usedonbut
twel
ds.

Met
hod: Thespecimeniscuttr
ansverselyt
otheweld,andasawcutisappli
edalong
thecent
reoftheweldface.Thebestplacefort
hecuti
satast ar
t/stop.The
speci
meni sfr
actur
edbybendi ngorbyhammerblows.Thenickbendtest
wil
lfi
ndinter
naldef
ects.

Repor
ti
ngResul
ts:
1. Thi cknessofmat eri
al.
2. Wi dthofspeci men.
3. Locat ionoffracture.
4. Appear anceofjointafterf
ract
ure.

MACROSECTI
ON

Object
: Toexami
neacr
osssect
ionofawel
dfori
nter
nal
def
ect
sand
soundness.

Met
hod: At r
ansversesectionofthewel discutout.Thecr osssecti
oni st
henvisual
l
y
i
nspected.Thesect i
onisfi
leddownf rom roughtosmoot h,thenemeryor
wet/drypapereddownt oasur f
acefini
shof600gr i
t.Thesurfacei
sthen
etchedinNI TAL (
5%-10%ni tr
icaci
di nalcohol)
,washedof f
,ri
nsed
anddried.(Possiblyafi
nalcleanwithacetoneandmounti nBakeli
te.
)The
specimeni stheninspectedatupt o10-xmagnif i
cati
on.

Repor
ti
ngResul
ts:
1. Mat er
ial
.
2. Wel di
ngprocess.
26
 27
3. Specimenidenti
fi
cati
on.
4. Sentenci
ngstandard.
5. Thi
ckness.
6. Geomet r
icfl
aws-type, si
zeandlocati
on.
7. I
nternalf
laws-type,sizeandlocat
ion.
8. Parentmetalfl
aws-t ype,si
zeandlocati
on.
9. Acceptorrej
ect,t
ost andard,f
oreachfl
aw.

Compar
isonofmacr
osect
ionandmi
crosect
ion:

MACRO MI
CRO
Magni fi
cati
on X10 X1000
Fi
nish 600gr
it 1micr
on(highl
evel
poli
sh)
Features/defect
s cr
acks,
slag,
LOF,
etc. i
nter
granul
ar
str
ucture
Uses pr
ocedur
e/wel
derqual
i
ficat
ion r
esear
ch/
fai
l
ure
analysi
s

TYPESOFTEST

Quant
it
ati
ve(
measur
abl
e) Qual
i
tat
ive

Tensil
e Bendtest
Charpy Nickbreaks
Hardness Macro
C.T.
O.T.(
crackt
ipopeni
ngt
est
) Fi
l
letf
ractur
e

SYMBOLS

WELDSPECI
FICATI
ONS

Weldsmustbespecifi
edbycl eari
nstr
ucti
onsandallst
affi
ncludi
ngproduct
ionper
sonnel
mustunder st
andt
heweldsy mbolsspecif
ied.
I
tmaybenecessar ytospecif
ymor edetai
lsaboutt
hewelde.g.si
ze,
orelect
rodetobe
used,oreventhef
ull
detail
sofawel dproceduremaybeneeded.
Themet hodsmostcommonl yusedtospecifyaweldare:

Wr
it
tenst
atement
.
WeldXYZistobeasi
ngl
eVbut
twel
dedf
rom t
heout
sideoft
hev
essel
.Thesur
face
27
28
oft
heweldistobegroundf
lush.Therooti
stobesealedwit
hawel
drundeposi
tedf
rom
i
nsi
dethevessel
.Thecomplet
edwel dist
oberadi
ographed.

Sy
mbol
sonadr
awi
ng:

RAD123

Bot
htheabov
egi
vet
hesamei
nfor
mat
ion.

Standardsforweldsymbol s:
Alt
houghthemai nfeaturesofwel dsymbolsarei
nter
nat
ional,
vari
ati
onsindetai
l
occurfr
om countrytocount r
y.Symbol sar
especi
fi
edbynationalst
andards.
UK..
..
...
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.BSEN22553
USA...
...
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
AWS2. 4
I
nt hi
stextsymbolsar einaccordancewithBSEN22553,whichsupersedesBS499
andis i
denti
calt
ot hoseinISO2553.

WELDDETAI
LS

I
ndi
cat
ingjoi
ntposit
ion:
Anar r
owindicatest
heposi
ti
onoft
hejoi
nt.Thear
rowpoi
ntstoonesi
deofthej
oint
.
Thisiscal
ledtheARROW SI
DE.Thesi
deremotefr
om t
hearrowiscal
l
edtheOTHER
SIDE.

Ar
rowsi
de ot
hersi
de ar
rowsi
de

Ot
hersi
de

Wel
dinf ormati
on:
Informati
onaboutt hewel disgivenonar efer
enceli
neattachedtot hearr
owata
pivot.Thereferencel i
neisalway shori
zontalandthearr
owcanswi ngaboutthe
pivottopointatt hewel d.Detail
softheweldont hearr
owsi deofthej oi
ntar
egiven
ont hesoli
dline.Ot hersideinformati
onisont hedott
edli
ne, whi
chcanbeshown
abov eorbelowt hesol i
dl i
ne.

Pi
vot r
efer
encel
i
ne ar
row
si
dei
nfor
mat
ion

Ot
hersi
de
i
nfor
mat
ion
28
 29
Ar
row

Af
il
letwel
disi
ndi
cat
edbyat
ri
angl
epl
acedont
her
efer
encel
i
ne.

Atri
angl
eontheref
erencel
ine
Speci
fi
esafi
ll
etwel
dont he =
Arr
owsideofthej
oint
.

Atri
angleonthedott
edli
ne
Call
sforafi
ll
etweldonthe =
Othersi
deofthejoi
nt.
-

TYPESOFBUTTWELD

Thecommont
ypesofedgepr
epar
ati
onassoci
atedwi
thabut
twel
dar
eindi
cat
edas
f
oll
ows:

Squar
eedgepr
epar
ati
on si
ngl
eVpr
epar
ati
on

Doubl
eVpr
epar
ati
on si
ngl
eUpr
epar
ati
on

Usi
ngsy
mbol
siti
snotnecessar
ytodr
aw
the
Doubl
eUpr
epar
ati
on shapeoft
hewel
dedgepr
epar
ati
on.
Onany
Dr
awingthej
ointi
sal
way
sshownasa
si
ngl
eli
ne.

ASYMMETRI
CALPREPARATI
ONS

I
nsomej oi
nts,
onlyonecomponentisprepared,
e.g.si
ngl
ebevel
buttorsi
ngleJbut t
.In
t
hesecasesthearrowpoint
sattheedgewhi chi
stobeprepar
ed.Thevert
icalupr
ightof
t
hesymbol i
salwaystothelef
tontherefer
enceli
ne.

29
30

=
=

DI
MENSI
ONI
NGFI
LLETWELDS

Theleglengthofaf i
ll
etweldislocatedtothel
eftoft
heweldsymbol (
tri
angle).The
dimensi
oni sinmill
imetresprecededwiththel
ett
erZ.Thr
oatthi
cknessisindicatedi
nthe
samewaybuti sprecededbyt helet
tera.I
fnolet
teri
sshownonadr awing,thenassume
thedimensionisleglength.

Z10 a7
=10mm l
egl
engt
h =f
il
letwel
d
wi
th7mm
Fi
l
letwel
d desi
gnt
hroat
t
hickness

Fordeeppenet rat
ionweldsthedimensionsareindi
cat
ed e.
g. S8a6
Thisindicatesaweldof6mm desi gnthroat
,withan8mm
Actualthroatdesi
red.Theactual
throatthi
cknessis
ProceededbyS.

Int
ermitt
entf i
ll
etweldsaredimensi
onedbygi v
ing: Z nxl (
e)
Numberofwel del
ements(n)
Lengthofwel del
ement (l)
Distancebetweenweldelements(e)
Oftenthenumberofwel del
ements(n)isnotspecif
ied,usual
lybecausei
tisnotknown.
Thesymbol canalsobewr i
tt
enasl(e)l,t
helengthbeingrepeat
ed.Thelengt
hisin
centi
met res.

Asymbolt
hus z nxl
(e) onadoubl
efi
l
letmeanst
hewel
d
el
ement
saretobe
St
agger
edonei
thersi
deoft
hej
oint
.

St
agger
ed

Z6 10(
20)106mm t
hroatf
il
letwel
dsof10cm l
engt
h
wi
thagapof
= 20cm bet
weeneachelement,
staggeredonei
ther
si
deofthejoi
nt,
fort
hewholejoi
nt’
slengt
h.

COMPOUNDWELDS
Acompoundwel
disacombi
nat
ionofdi
ff
erentwel
dsont
hesamej
oint
.
30
 31

= Aful
lpenet
rat
ionsi
ngl
ebev elt
ee
Joi
ntwit
h8mm f i
ll
etr
einf
orcement
.

8
8

6 = an8mm par
ti
alpenet
rat
ion
t
eej
oint
Wi
than8mm f
il
letr
einf
orcement
and
A6mm f
il
letont
heot
hersi
deoft
he
j
oint
.

= Asi
ngl
eVbuttwel
dwit
haseali
ng
r
un alongt
her
ootsi
deoft
he
wel
d.

SURFACEPROFI
LES

Thesur
facepr
ofi
l
ecanbei
ndi
cat
edbyanext
rasy
mbol
placedont
opoft
hewel
dsy
mbol
.

= =asi
ngl
eVbut
t
wel
dwi
thaf
lat
Surf
ace.(Usual
l
yfl
ushed
aft
er wel
ding
bygri
nding)

= aconcav
efi
l
letwel
d.

= aconv
exf
il
letwel
d.
31
32

= af
il
letwel
dwi
thbl
endedt
oes.

SUPPLEMENTARYSYMBOLS

Ot
hersy
mbol
singener
aluse:

= wel
dal
lroundt
hecomponent
.

= addit
ionalinformati
on.(t
heboxont
het
ail
ofthereferencelinecancontai
n
i
nformat i
one. g.
Weldpr ocess,NDT, pai
nt,
etc.
)

= t
hiswel
dwel
dedonsi
te.(
Fiel
dwel
d)

= spotwel
d = seam wel
d

= pl
ugwel
d = seal
wel
d

= but
twel
dbet
weenpl
ateswi
thr
aisededges

BS499

I
ntheolderstyl
e,inBS499standard,t
hemaindif
fer
encewasthatt
her
ewasnodotted
r
efer
enceline,
sobel owt
hereferenceli
newasthearr
owsideandabov
ether
efer
enceli
ne
wastheotherside.

Ot
hersi
de
Ar
rowsi
de

32
 33

MATERI
ALS

ALLOYI
NGADDI
TIVES

Theterm‘steel
’isusedtodescr i
bemanydi ff
erentmetal
s.Theyareall
alloysbasedon
i
ron,butt
heal l
oyingaddit
ions, suchascarbon,manganese,si
li
con,chromium,etc.
,si
ngly
orincombinati
onpr oducear angeofmet alswithwidel
ydif
feri
ngphysicalandmechanical
proper
ti
esaswel l asqui
tedifferentwel
dibi
li
ty.

IRON Fe thebasicconst i
tuent.
CARBON C giveshardnessandst rength.
MANGANESE Mn givestoughnessandst r
ength.Neutr
ali
sessulphur.
SILICON Si adeoxident-oxider educer.Usual
lyaddedthroughfi
ll
erwi
re.
ALUMI NIUM Al anoxider educer,grai
nrefi
nerandaddst oughness.(I
nki
ll
ed
steelthe
oxygenisremov edbyal uminium.)
CHROMI
UM Cr givescorrosionresistance,hi
ght emperat
urest
rength
andcreepresistance.(Grai
ncr eepoccur sovert
imeathigh
temperat
uresduet ogr avit
y.)
MOLYBDENUM Mo giv
eshight emperaturecreepr esi
stance.
TI
TANI UM Ti TiandNbar ebothgrainrefi
ner sandstabil
isi
ngagent
s.They
pr
event
NIOBIUM Nb i
nter
granul
arcor
rosi
onandwel
ddecay
.Usedi
naust
eni
ti
c
st
eels.
VANADI UM V giv
eshardnessandst rength.
SULPHUR S acontaminant .(
Mai ncauseofsol i
dif
icat
ioncracking-‘
hot
short
ness'
)
NI
CKEL Ni giv
eslowt emper aturetoughnessandst r
ength.
COPPER Cuacont ami nant-causesliquat
ioncracks.(Thoughal
so
usedforweat heringsteelandapossiblegrai
nr efi
ner.
)
PHOSPHORUS P acontaminant .

STEELCOMPOSI
TIONS

Ri
mmi ngSteel
Compositi
on: 0.09%C 0.
9%Mn +resi
dual
s
Weldabi
l
ity: Thewel dpool wil
lrequir
etohaveaddeddeoxi
dentvi
aafil
lerr
od.
Rimmi ngsteelisveryducti
l
e,cheapandusedforpr
essi
ngand
forming.I
tislowi ncarbonandhighi
noxygen-hasnotbeenkil
led
(ki
ll
ed=deoxi dised).

LowCarbonSteel
Compositi
on: 0.
2%C 0.
9%Mn +resi
duals
Weldabi
l
ity: Thegener
alwel
dabi
li
tyisgoodbutthelevel
ofr
esi
dual
s(S)may
causeweld metal
/heataf
fectedzonecracki
ng.

Medi
um CarbonSt
eel
Composi
ti
on: 0.
45%C 0.
9%Mn +r
esi
dual
s
33
34
Wel
dabi
l
ity
: Thehighcarboncontenti
nduceshydr
ogencr
acki
ngintheHAZasthe
sect
ionsi
zei ncr
eases.Gr
eatert
han0.38%Cpossi
blyr
equi
resheat
tr
eatment.

HighCarbonSteel
Compositi
on: 0.
8%C 0.9%Mn +residual
s
Weld-abi
l
ity
: Theweldpoolissubj
ectt
osol i
difi
cat
ionty
pecr
ackingandt
heHAZ
suff
ers
hydr
ogencracki
ng.Notsui
tableforweldi
ng.At
oolsteel
.

Car
bon-ManganeseSteel
Composit
ion: 0.
2%C 1.
5%Mn +resi
dual
s mayal socontainTi,Niand
V.
Weld-
abi
li
ty: Thesehi
ghmanganesest eel
shavegoodt oughness,parti
cularl
ythe
ti
tani
um,ni
obi
um, andvanadi
um grades.Themai nweld-abil
i
t y
probl
em i
stomaintai
nthese.

QuenchedandTemperedSteel
Composition: 0.
4%C 1.
0%Mn 0.
8%Cr 0.
3%Mo +TiorAl
+
resi
duals
Weld-abi
li
ty: Thesesteel
saredif
fi
cul
ttoweld,anddef
ectfr
eeweldswit
hgood
mechanical
proper
ti
esareonlyobt
ainedbyusingt
hegreat
estcar
e.

HighTemper at
ureSt
eel
Composi t
ion: 0.
25-9%Cr 0.
25-3%Mo +tr
aces
Weld-abil
i
ty: Thewel
d-abi
l
ityoft
helowchr
omi
um i
sdi
ff
icul
t.Goodgr
aincr
eep
resi
stance.

LowTemperat
ureSt
eel
Composi
ti
on: 3.5-9%Ni +traces
Weld-
abi
l
ity
: Thehigherni
ckel
cont
entissubj
ectt
osol
i
dif
icat
ioncr
acki
ng.

MicroAll
oyedSt
eel
(HSLA)
Compositi
on: 0.
25%C 1.
5%Mn ( 0.002%V, 0.005%Nb,0.
003%Ti
minimum)
Weld-abi
l
ity
: Thesesteel
smaysuf
ferhydrogencrackingi
nthewel
dmetal
-theonl
y
weld
metalt
odoso.HSLA-HighSt rengt
hLowAl l
oy.

STAI
NLESSSTEELS

Mart
ensi
ti
cSt ai
nlessSteel
Composi
tion: 11%Cr 0.08%C +resi
dual
s
Wel
dabil
i
ty: Poorduet
ohydrogencr
acking.

Fer
ri
ti
cStainl
essSt
eel
Composi
tion: 12-27%Cr 0.
08%C +r
esi
dual
s
34
 35
Wel
d-abi
l
ity
: Poorduet
ocr
acki
ng,
bri
tt
lenessandt
emperembr
it
tl
ement
.

Austi
nit
icStainl
essSt
eel
Compositi
on: 18-27%Cr 8-22%Ni 0. 08%C +r
esi
duals
Weld-
abili
ty: Probl
emswi
thsol
idi
fi
cat
ioncracki
ngandwelddecay-butdoesnot
suf
fer hydr
ogencracki
ng.N.B.t
hi snon-
si magneticsteel
.

CARBONEQUI
VALENCY

Carbonequival
ency(C.E.
)isusedtogiveanover
allcar
bonper centagetoesti
mat ether
isk
ofcracki
ng.Thehigherthecarboncont
ent;t
heharderthesteel-themor esuscepti
blei
tis
tocracki
ng.Acarbonequival
encyof0.04%andabov egivesagr eaterr
iskofcracki
ng.

C.
E. = %C + %Mn + %Cr+Mo+V + %Ni
+Coet
c.
6 5 15
REVI
EW OFSTEELS

Ty
pesofst
eel
usedi
nwel
dedconst
ruct
ions-

a. Lowcar bon-Thesest eelsarereadilywel d-

ablebutmaybesubjectt
oweldmet al
cracki
ngi n
thecheaperqualit
ies.
b. Medi um carbon-Ast hecar boncont entappr oaches0.
4%steel
sbecomepr oneto
parent
metalcracki
ng.
c. Lowcar bon/ l
owal l
oy-Theaddi tionalalloyi
ngel ement
sacti
nginasimi
larwayto
carbon
againproducediff
icul
tiesinwelding.
d. Hi ghall
oysteels-Theaust enit
icstainlesssteelsarepronet
oweldmetalandreheat
cracki
ng
duetothermal conductiv
itycharacteri
stics.

Thel
owergr
adesofconst
ruct
ionalsteel
mayexi
stinanumberoffor
msduet
ot he
manuf
act
uri
ngmethodusedandt hesemayexer
cisesomei
nfl
uenceont
heweld-abi
l
ity
.

Rimmingst eel
hasnotbeendeoxi di
sedi ntheingotmouldandhencedur
ingsol
idi
fi
cati
on
thecarbonreactswit
ht hedissol
vedoxy genandi spar
tl
yremovedascar
bonmonoxideor
dioxi
de.Thecentreoftheingotsoli
difi
eswithlargequanti
ti
esofoxy
genentr
apped,whi
ch
maygi ver
isetoporosit
yduringwelding.

Kil
l
edsteeli
sdeoxi
disedandal
thoughtheresul
ti
ngnon-
metal
li
cincl
usi
onsmaygi
ver
ise
tosomeotherpr
obl
emspor osi
tyisnotusual
lyapri
meprobl
em.

Airbl
ownaci dorbasicBessemersteelwil
lcontai
nnitrogen,
whichlowerstheimpact
propert
iesduetoprecipi
tat
ionofFeNneedles.Thisisbecominglessofapr obl
em wit
hthe
adventoftonnageoxygenandt hebasicoxygenprocessinsteel
making.
Deoxidantsarevar
iedbutalumini
um, si
li
conandmanganesear ewidel
yused.Alumini
um
35
36
giv
esthefi
nergr
ainsize,
andhenceahardersteel
.Howev
ert
hef
inegr
ainsi
zei
slostwhen
temper
atur
esinexcessof350
Car eencount
ered.

Def
ect
sinpar
entmat
eri
als.-

Manydef ectsthatarisei nwel di

ngaredi rectl
yduet ot hequal i
tyoft heparentplate.
Thespeci f
iedcomposi ti
onpl atematerialisnotalway sachi evedinal lpl
atessupplied.This
i
sbecauset hecomposi ti
onoft hesteel i
nt heladleischangi ngwi t
ht i
mebutal lthest eel
cannotbecasti nstantaneousl y.Consequent lyiti
squitepossi blethatawel dingpr ocedur
e
thatwor ksf oroneplat emaynotwor kf oranot her.
Agr eatnumberofdef ectsar eproduceddur i
ngpour i
ngandsol idi
fi
cat i
onoft heingotand
althoughsomeoft hesemayber emov eddur inghotandcol dwor king,othersmaybe
produced.
Ingotdef ectsincl
ude: surfacedef ect
s( scabs, l
aps,etc.),soli
dif
icat
ioncr acks,
segr egati
ons, i
ncl
usions, pipingandpor osity.
Rol l
ingdefectsincl
ude: crackingandfishtail.
Int heplatethemostt roublesomedef ectsar e:laminations,segregat i
onsorbandi ng,
cracks, porosit
yandi nclusions.

MATERI
ALSI
NSPECTI
ON

Agreatvar
iet
yofmateri
alsmayrequi
retobeinspect
edwit
haviewt
osatisf
act
ory
wel
ding.Themaint
opicsinmateri
ali
nspect
ionareSi
ze,
TypeandCondi
ti
on.

Speci
fi
cation.
Itisnot,ingeneral
,safefort
heinspectortoident i
fymaterial
sbycomposi ti
onf rom
ami llsheet,
sinceverysmallvar
iat
ionsoraddi ti
onstot hemet almaygi veriseto
signifi
cantchangesinpropert
iesandwel dabili
ty.Howev erli
mitedselecti
vit
yi s
permi ssi
ble,suchaspercent
agecar bonmaxi mum et c.Thepr ocedur
ei sforthemi l
l
sheett obesubmi tt
edforapprovalandthent heinspectorrecordsandt ransfersthe
referencenumber .

Suppl
i
er.
ThiscanbefoundontheGoodsInwar
dsdocument
sorther
ecei
ptdocument
s,or
occasi
onal
lyonpackagi
ngorevenmarkedont
hemetal
.

Quant
it
y.
Thequant
it
ybeingi
nspect
edshoul
dalwaysbenot
edaswel
last
hesampl
esi
zei
f
100%inspect
ioni
snotbei
ngemployed.

Si
ze.
Si
zesmustbecheckedforsecondaryi
dent
ificat
ionaswel
lasconfor
mance.The
i
nspect
orwil
l
,asappropri
ate,begi
ventol
erancesonsizet
hatarepermi
ssi
ble.
Checkl
engt
h,br
eadth,t
hicknessanddi
amet er.

Di
stor
ti
on.
Achecki soft
enr
equi
redont
hedegr
eeofdi
stor
ti
on,
i.
e.
Fl
atness
Squareness
Str
aightness
36
 37
Oval
it
y
Consi
stentwal
lthi
ckness

Condi
ti
on.
Rust ,
paintandgr easeonthesurfaceoft hemetalareall
harmf ultoweldingand
mustusual lyber emoved,atl
eastneartot heact
ual wel
d.Guidancei snor mall
y
giventot heinspectorr
egardi
ngacceptabl el
evel
sort hetr
eatmentt hatisrequired.
Ani nspectorshouldbealertt
ogr adualchanges,suchasincreasedcorr osi
on.
Carefull
ymai ntai
nedspecimensshowi ngacceptableconditi
onsar eoftent hebest
met hod.Heatt r
eatmentconditi
on,annealed,nor
mal i
sedetc.
, shouldal
l be
recorded.

Def
ect
s.
Inwroughtproduct
st hemostcommondef ect
sarelapsandlaminati
ons( Al
so
por
osi
tyand
segregat
ionbands.)Thesewil
lnor
mal l
ybesubsur f
aceso,unl
essNDEi semploy
ed,
onlytheedgesoftheplate,
andpart
icul
ar l
ycutedges,canbeinspected.The
lap/l
aminat
ionwill
appearasanarrowbl ackli
neparal
lelt
othesurface.

St
orage.
Aft
eri
nspect
ionandapproval
foruseitisessent
ialt
hatthemetali
sst
oredinsuch
awayastomai nt
aini
tsgoodcondit
ion.Prot
ectfrom cor
rosi
onandmechanical
damage.

MATERI
ALSI
NSPECTI
ONCHECKLI
ST

I
NSPECTI
ONOF

SI
ZE TYPE CONDI
TION

t
hickness composi
ti
on phy
sical
mechani
cal
l
engt
h grade
wi
dth carbonequi
val
ent sur
face
heatt
reatment
diamet er t
radename scale
ov ali
ty oil
/grease anneal
ed
flatness i
dent
if
icat
ionmar
k pai
nt
normal
ised
quant i
ty r
ust quench
tempered
moist
ure
har
dst
amp/
pai
nt/
etch
t
her
mo-
mechani
cal
t
reat
ment
di
stor
ti
on
37
38
agai
nstmil
lsheet
/
mater
ial
cert
ifi
cat
e def
ect
s
acceptabl
e
tol
erances? accept
abl
e?
accept
abl
e?

ACCEPTANCEOFMATERI
AL

QUESTI
ONSTOBEASKED

1. Dot
hemar
kingsont
hemat
eri
almat
cht
hoseont
hepr
ocedur
esheetor
dr
awi
ng?
2. Ar
ethedi
mensionscorr
ect
?
3. I
sthesur
facecondi
ti
onsat
isf
act
oryf
orwel
ding?

THEFOURESSENTI
ALFACTORSFORESTABLI
SHI
NGAWELD

Weldingisusual
lyregardedasajoini
ngpr ocessinwhicht
hewor kpiecesareinat
omic
contactoft
enwithaf i
ll
ermetal
wi t
hbr oadlysi
mi l
arpr
opert
ies.Hencesolder
ingand
brazi
ngareexcludedbutbothsoli
dst ateandf usi
onweldi
ngar ei
ncluded.

Sol
i
dstat
eprocessesincl
ude:
Forgeweldi
ng.
Fri
cti
onwelding.

Fusi
onweldi
ngprocessesinclude:
Oxy-
acetyl
ene.
Manualmetalarc(MMA) .
Metali
nert
/act
ivegas(MI G/MAG)
.
Submergedarcwelding(SAW).
El
ectr
o-sl
agwelding(ESW) .

FUSI
ONWELDI
NGFACTORS

1. Fusi
on. Themet
almustbemel
tedwhi
chr
equi
resa
hi
gh
i
ntensi
tyheatsour
ce.

2. At
mospher
icpr
otect
ion. Cont
ami
nat
ionf
rom t
heat
mospher
emustbe
av
oided.

38
 39
3. Sur
facepr
otect
ion. Thepr
ocessmustremoveanyoxi
deandother
cont
ami
nati
onfrom t
hejoi
ntf
aces.

4. Adequat
epr
oper
ti
es. Thewel
dedj
ointmustpossessadequat
e
mechani
cal
,
met
all
urgi
cal
andphy
sical
proper
ti
es.

Exampl
esoft
hef
ourf
act
ors:

TI
G fusi
onsour ce elect
ricarcbet
weenwi r
eandworkpl
ace.
atmospher i
cprotect
ion argongas.
surfaceprotect
ion deoxi
dantsinwire,mechanicalcl
eani
ng.
properti
es fr
om fi
ll
erwire(possi
blypre/postwel
dheat
tr
eatment).

MMA f usi
onsour ce el
ect
ri
car
cbet
weenel
ect
rodeand
workpl
ace.
atmospher i
cprotect
ion gaseousshi
eldfrom fl
ux.
surfaceprotect
ion mechanical
cleaning,
slag,
fluxi
ng(
cleani
ng)
act
ion.
properti
es al
l
oyi
ngel
ement
sinf
lux,
baki
ngel
ect
rodes,
pre
and
postwel
dheatt
reat
ment
.

WELDABI
LITY

I
NTRODUCTI
ON

Asar esultoftheheati nputt owhi cht hest eel isexposedi nanyf orm ofwel dingt he
mat er i
alundergoescer tainchanges, someofwhi char epermanent .Amongstt hese
changesar estructuraltransformat ionsdur ingheat ingandcool ingandchangesi nshape
orsi zeduet othet hermal stresses.St eel,whi chcanbewel dedwithoutanydanger ous
consequencesr esultingf r
om t hesechanges, issai dt opossessgoodwel d-abil
it
y .I
f,on
theot herhand, thechangesduet oanor mal wel dingpr ocessarei nseriousdangerof
causi ngfail
ureinawel dedcomponent ,orifact ual defectssuchascr ackingoccurdur ing
wel ding,thesteelissaidt opossessl imitedwel d-abi l
it
yandcani nmostcasesbewel ded,
wi t
houtr i
sk,prov i
dedcer tainpr ecautionsar et akenorcer tainpre-orpost -welding
treatment sarecar ri
edout .Thet erm‘un- weld-abl est eels’
isunreali
stic.Anyst eel canbe
wel dedpr ovi
dedcor rectmet al
lurgicalcondi ti
onsar echosen.Somet i
mes, howev er,t
hese
condi ti
onsmaybei mpossi blet oreali
sei npr actical productionwor k.

WELDABI
LITYOFSTEEL

Wel
d-abi
li
tyi
safunct
ionofmanyinter
-r
elat
edf
act
orsbutt
hesemaybesummar
isedas:
1. Pr ocessandtechni
que.
2. Composi ti
onofparentpl
ate.
39
40
3. Joi
ntdesi
gnandsi
ze.

I
NFLUENCEOFPROCESS

Eachpr ocesswi l
lgiveacharact
erist
icintensit
yofpower .Pr
ocessesthatoff
erthehigher
poweri ntensi
tyofferadvant
agesi nfusionweldingbecauset heessenti
almelti
ngcanbe
obtainedwi t
houtexcessiveheatinputswi t
htheconsequentt hermalexpansi
onoft he
parentmet al.
Successf ulweldi
ngof t
endependsonf eedingintothewel dpoolafi
ll
erwirewhichcarri
es
adeoxi dant(orfer
rit
eformingelement s)hencepr ocesseswhichdonotusef il
l
erwi r
eare
l
imitedi nappli
cati
on.

HEATI
NPUT

Heati
nputi
sacombi
nat
ionofv
olt
age,
amper
ageandt
rav
elspeed.

HeatI
nput=v
olt
agexamperage
tr
avel
speed

HeatI
nput 0.
5 1 2 4

BeadPenet
rat
ion

Har
dness 475 450 300 275

(
wit
hhar
dness,
thehi
ghert
henumber
,thehar
dert
hemat
eri
al)

Toughness-r
esistancetobendingandi mpact
Hardness -r esi
stancetopenetrati
on
Asheati
nputincr
eases: gr ainsi
zeincreases toughnessdecreases
brit
tl
enessincreases hardnessdecreases
inci
denceofcr acki
ngdecreases

PREHEATI
NG

Ther
earef
ourgeneralfactorsthatmustbeassessedtodet
ermi
net
hel
evel
ofpr
eheat
.
1. Mat er
ialtype.
2. Combi nedt hi
ckness.
3. Heati nputpot ent
ial(wel
dingpr
ocess).
4. Joi nttype.

I
NFLUENCEOFCOMPOSI
TION

Thecomposit i
onoft hesteelanditseff
ectonwel d-abil
i
tymaybedi videdint
otwopar t
s:
1.
Segregati
onef fect
s,part
icul
arl
yt hatofsul
phur .
Whenast eelsoli
difi
es,t
hereisat endencyfortheirontosoli
difyf
astandforthe
all
oyingel
ement stobeaccumul atedinthecent r
eoft heingot.Thi
sconfigur
ati
onis
ret
ainedevenafterprolongedandsev ereroll
ingandresultsinhighconcentr
ati
onsof
40
 41
sulphurinthecent
ral
lay
ersoft
hepl
ate.Thesel
ayer
shav
eli
tt
lest
rengt
handar
eli
kel
yto
crackifstr
essed.

2.Thetendencyofthest eelt
ohar den.
Thehardeningcharacteri
sti
csofst eelarementionedi ntheheattreat
mentsecti
on.
Ast hecarbonoralloycontentofthesteel i
ncreases,
thelikeli
hoodofl owducti
li
tyand
hardenedmi cr
ostr
uct ur
esformingalsoincr easesandshoul dstressesexist
,cr
acki
ngwill
result
.

WELDANDHAZCRACKI
NG

Thesearethemai ncausesofcr acking:

a. Hi ghlevelsofcar bonandot heral l
oyelement sresultinbri
tt
lezonesar oundthe
weld.
b. Hi ghcool i
ngr atesaf terweldingi ncreaset hehar dness,whichincreasesthe
susceptibi
li
tyt ocol dcracking.
c. Joi ntrestr
aintpr eventscont ractionaf t
erwel ding, whi
chcanl eadtointernal
cracki
ng.
d. Hy dr
ogeni nthewel dbeadcanl eadt ohydr ogeni nducedcoldcracking.
e. Cont ami nantslikesul phurandphosphor uscausesegr egati
onorsol idi
fi
cati
on
cracki
ng.
f. Lamellarteari
ngcausedbyi nclusionslay eri
ngdur i
ngroll
i
ngr esul
tingin
deteri
orati
onoft het hrough-thi
cknesspr operties.

Crackingusual lyoccur sint heunmel tedar easadj acenttoawel dbead( i

nt heheat
aff
ect edzone, HAZ) .Thi szonei smadeupofanar eathathasbeenheat edt oabov eabout
800C( t
obecomeaust eni t
e),andanar eaheat edabov e723 C( andpar ti
al l
yt ransfor
med) .
Thef ullyaust enit
icregionj ustadj acentt ot hef usionzonei sof tent hemostbr it
tl
eareaof
thewel dduet othegr ai
ngr owtht hathasoccur redwhi lethemet al wasatt his
temper atur e.Thegr ainsizegr adual l
ydecr easesmov i
ngawayf r
om t hefusi onzonet ot he
parti
allytr ansformedr egi on.Gr ainrefinementoccur shere,whi chi sconsi der edbenef icial
,
thegr ainsi zebeingsmal ler.
Thecomposi ti
onoft hest eel,par t
icularl
yt hecar bonlevel, determi nest hehar dness
andbr ittl
enessofbot hthewel dandt heHAZ.Oncool ing,austeni tetransf ormst oferr
ite.
Carboni ssol ubl
ei naust enite,butlesssoi nf erri
te.Ironcarbidesar epr ecipitatedwhen
thi
str ansf ormat i
ont akespl ace.Thesecanbear rangedi nlamel larf orm( aspear li
te)
,
whichgi v est hestructurer easonabl est rengthandduct i
li
ty.
TheHAZcanbet her egionwher ethehi ghestcool ingratesoccur ,par ticular
lyin
thi
ckersect i
onplate.Hi ghcool ingrat est endt olockt hecar bi
desi nasol i
dsol uti
on,
formingmar tensit
e.Thi sleadst ohighi nternalst r
essandhar dbr i
ttl
est ructur es.

TYPI
CALWELDABI
LITYDEFECTS

1. SOLI DIFI
CATIONCRACKI NG.
Alsoknownashotcracki
ngorcentr
eli
necracki
ng.Al
waysoccursinthewel
dmetal.
Causes-Incarbonmanganesest
eels;
sulphuri
nthepar
entpl
ate,shapeoft
heweld,st
ress
-alwaysneeded.

Sul
phur
.
Dur
ingsol
i
dif
icat
iont
hecent
reoft
hewel
dist
hel
astt
ocool
.Sul
phurf
rom t
hepar
entpl
ate
41
42
for
msi ronsul phidewi thironfrom thewel dpool.Thei r
onsul phidef or
msat hinli
quidf i
l
m
onthegr ai
nboundar ies,whichhasal owermel t
ingpoi ntthani r
on,soast hewel dcoolsit
i
spushedt owar dst hecent r
eoft hewel d.Their
onsul phidehasv eryli
tt
letensilestrength,
soasi tcools,thewel di sunderst r
essandcr ackingwi l
l r
esult.Phosphorous
contaminationint hemat eri
alcanalsocausesol idi
ficati
oncr acking.
Avoidance-Reducesul phur(checkmi l
lsheetsforl
ev els0.03%) .
Cleani ng ( nooi l
,greaseetc.
).
Addmanganeset ot heparentplat
ev iathef i
ll
erwire( f
ormsmanganese
sulphidet hat meltscool satappr oximatelythesame
temper atureasst eel.Manganesesul phidei smoredi screetthereforeless
cracking. ).
Reducedi luti
onbyr educingthewel dsize.

Shape.
Deepandnar r
owwel dpreparati
onsaresuscepti
ble.Asaweldcools,gr
ainsgrowfrom the
extr
emi t
iestowardsthecentreofthewel d.I
nanar r
owprep,asthegrai
nsgrowt owards
thecentre,t
heyinter
ferewitheachother’sgrowt
h.Thisgr
ainimpingementcausesv oi
ds
betweent hegrai
nsandcr ackingwil
lresult
.
Avoidance-Wi derweldpreparati
on(i
ncreasetheincl
udedangleand/orgapsi ze)
.

2. HYDROGENCRACKI NG.
Alsoknownasunderbeadcr acki
ng,har
dzonecr ackingandhydrogeninducedcol d
cracki
ng (
HICC).Thisphenomenoncanoccurdur i
ngt heweldingof
hardenablest eels,andisnormal l
yaHAZphenomenon.Hy dr
ogeni smor esolubl
ein
austeni
tethanf err
ite-itcaneasil
ybepickedupbyt hewel dmetal.Whenf erri
teisfor
med
thehydrogensol ubil
it
ydecreases,andhy dr
ogendiffusestotheHAZwher eitcan
contri
butet ocrackpr opagation.
Therearef ourf actorsi
nv ol
vedinhydrogencracki
ng.Av oi
donefact orandhy dr
ogen
cracki
ngwi llnotoccur .

Factor
s.
1. hydrogen >15ml hydrogenper100mgwel dmet
al
2. temperat
ure<350C
3. hardness >400VPN ( Vicker
spyrami
dnumber)
4. str
ess >50%y i
eld (cannotbemeasur
edsoassumei
tis>50%
yi
eld)

Avoi
dance.
1.Hydr
ogen a)parentmat eri
aldr i
ed(freef rom moi stur
e).
b)lowhy drogenrods ( bakedt olesst han5ml per100mg) .
c)uselowerpot ent i
alhydrogenpr ocess.
(
hy dr
ogenpot ent i
al-electron<TI G<MI G/MAG<SAW, MMA( low
H) <MMA( rutile))
d)heattreatment ( pr
eandpostwel d) .
2.Temper
atur
e postweldheatt reatment .(keepatahi ghertemperatur
easl ongas
possibl
et ohelphy drogendi ffusion.NDTasl ateaspossible-72
hours.)
.
3.Har
dness a)preheating(t
or educet hecool i
ngr ate)
b)keepinterpasst emper aturet oami nimum
c)higherheatinput( gi
vesal argergrai nsize)
42
 43
d)postwel
dheatt
reat
ment-
temper
shar
dHAZ,
remov
esH2,
reduces
str
ess
4.Str
ess a)jointdesi
gn
b)fitup
c)distort
ioncont
rol
d)stressreli
evet
reat
ment (pr
eandpostwel
d)
Onhi
ghmi
croal
l
oyst
eelsitmayoccurinthewel
dmetal
,ot
herwi
seonl
yint
heHAZ.

3. LAMELLARTEARI NG.
Ast
epli
kecr
ackt
hatoccur
sint
hicksect
iont
eej
oint
sandcl
osedcor
nerj
oint
s.

st
ress

l
amel l
arteari
ng
has‘st
epl i
ke’
appearance

st
ress

Causes-Poort hr
oughthicknessducti
l
ityi
nparentplat
ewherehi
ghshrinkagestrains
(throughthicknessstress)actthr
oughtheplatethi
cknessi
ncombinat
ionwi t
hpar ent
met alincl
usions.Theinclusi
onscanbel amell
arincl
usi
ons,smal
lmicr
oi ncl
usionsor
trampel ement s.Onl
yoccur sonthelegwithst
ressesonthenon-
rol
li
ngdi r
ecti
on/t hrough
thickness.

Avoidance- Joi
ntdesi
gn(usepr e-f
ormedt ees,useopencorners).
Usebutt
eri
nglayer(possiblymor educti
l
eandwi l
ltakeupsomeoft he
shr
inkage).
UseZgradesteel(hasbeent estedintheshortt
ransversedi
rect
ionusi
nga
STRAtest-ShortTransverseReductioninArea)
.

st
ress

but
ter
ing

st
ress st
ress

pr
efor
medt
ee opencor
ner
but
ter
ing

4. WELDDECAYI
NAUSTENI
TICSTAI
NLESSSTEELS

43
44
OccursintheHAZduet othepr eci
pitati
onofchromium car bi
des.Int he550C-850C
range,t
hechromi um leachesoutoft hegrainandreactswi t
hthecar bont oform chromi um
carbi
des,duetot hechromi um hav i
ngagr eateraf
fi
nityforcarbon.Thi sresult
sina
chromium defi
ciencyinthegr ains.Thechr omium i
sinthegr ai
nsforcor r
osionresistance,
sowhent hechromi um islost
, decay (
‘r
usting’
)occur sv er
yquickly.The
l
ongerazonei sint hetemper aturerangeof550Ct o850Ct hegr eatertheareai s
suscepti
bletodecay .Thistemper aturerangeisusuall
yjustoffthewel d.

Av
oidance- Reducecar bon-Usel owcar bonrodsforexampl e316L.Butl owcarbon
reducesstrengt h,
soast abili
sedstainl
esssteelcouldbeusedwi thhigh
carboncont entbutwi thtit
ani um andniobi
um added.(Carbonhasagr eat
er
affi
nit
yfortitanium andni obium theref
oreti
tanium andniobium car
bidesare
producedinst eadofchr omi um carbi
des).
Lowerheati nput-lesst i
mei nthe550C-850Ct emperatur er
ange.
Quenchcool -lessti
mei nthe550C-850Ct emperatur
er ange.
Keepinter
passt emper aturelow.

Thekeywordi
spreci
pit
ati
on(
oft
hechr
omi
um)
.Themat
eri
ali
sthensai
dtobesensi
ti
sed-
puti
tinseawat
er,
itr
usts.

WELDI
NGOFCARBONSTEEL

Thesest eelsar ealsoknownascar bon- manganeseandpl aincar bonst eels.They

areusuallywel dedwi thmi l
dst eelconsumabl eswi t
houtpr oblems, butt hewel dabi l
ity
decreaseswi thi ncreasi ngcar bonl ev elsorC. E.(carbonequi valent )values.
Thev eryl owcar bonst eels(C<0. 15%)canpr oducepor ositywhenwel dedathi gh
speed.Thispr obl em canbeov ercomebyi ncreasingt heheati nput .
Steelswi thcar boncont entsbet ween0. 15%and0. 25%ar epr eferredf orwel ding,as
theyrarel
ypr esentwel dabili
typr oblemsi ft heimpur itylev elsar ekeptl ow.Thest eelswi th
carbonlevelshi ghert han0. 25%canbesuscept i
blet ocr acki ngi fot herhar deni ngel ement s
l
ikeMnandSi arepr esenti nf air
lyhi ghper centages.Thesest eelsar ebestwel dedwi t
hlow
hydrogenpr ocessesorel ectr
odes, andt hicksect i
onsmayr equi resomepr e-heat ingt o
reducethecool i
ngr ate.
Thehi ghcar bonst eelsareusedf ort heirwearr esistanceandhar dness( f
or
exampl etoolst eels).Theyar egener allyv erybr i
ttl
eandr equi repr e- heating,interpass
heati
ngandpostwel dst ressr el
ieftopr eventcr acking.
Mostmedi um car bonst eelsr equi reoneormor eoft heabov etreatment sdependi ng
oncar bonlevel andj ointthickness.Theyar ealway swel dedwi thl owhy drogenpr ocesses
orconsumabl esandi tisusual t
oper form awel dabilit
yt estbef orepr oduct ionwel ding.

WELDI
NGOFLOW ALLOYSTEELS

Themostcommonl owal l
oysteelsar et henickelsteels,t
hecar bon-mol ybdenum
andthechromium-molybdenum alloy
s.
Nickelf
rom 2%t o5%ina0. 15%t o0. 25%car bonsteel providesacombi nati
onof
highst
rengthandhightoughnessatlowt emper at
ures.Ifthecar bonlevelisbelow0. 18%
weldi
ngcanbedonewi t
houtpr e-
heat.Abov et hislevel,
similarprecautionstot hose
recommendedf ormedium carbonsteelsshoul dbeadopt ed.
Thecarbon-molybdenum andchr omi um- molybdenum steelsar eusedf orhigh
temperat
ureappli
cati
onsast heyhavehi ghcr eepr esist
anceandhi ghst r
ength.Below
44
 45
0.18%car bonnopr e-heatisrequi
red,butthi
ckersectionswithhighercarbonl ev
elsare
hardenableinairandt heref
orecracksensiti
ve.Forveryhighcar bonl
ev el
s( 0.
55%)wher e
weldingisnotrecommended, anausteni
ti
cstainl
essst eelconsumablecansomet imesbe
used.Thewel dwi l
lhav emor educti
li
tyandlessstrengththant heparentplateandwi l
l
reli
evesomeoft heinternalst
ress.TheHAZwi llst
ill
bebr i
ttl
e,however ,makingpre-heat
essenti
al.

WELDI
NGOFHI
GHYI
ELDQUENCHANDTEMPEREDSTEELS

Thesest eel
shavemar t
ensiti
cstructuresthatareformedbyheatt reatmentdur i
ng
manuf actur
e.Oneoft hemostcommonoft hesest eel
sisHY80, whichisusedon
submar i
nehul l
s.
Thest eel
srelyonrelati
velyhighcoolingratesforthestrongmar t
ensi t
icst
ructur
es
toform.St r
engthcanbel ostifthecoolingrateistooslow.Toohi ghacool ingrat
e,
howev er,
cancausewel dcr acki
ng.Bot hthemi ni
mum pr e-heattemperatureandthe
maximum i nter-
passtemper at
urehav etobecar efull
ycontrol
ledtoachievet hecorr
ect
str
ucturewi t
houtcracki
ng.Mat chingconsumabl esar eusuall
yused.Weav i
ngshouldbe
l
imitedtoamaxi mum of15mm t okeept heheatinputdown.

WELDI
NGOFHI
GHSTRENGTHLOW ALLOYSTEELS

Mostoft hesest eel

sdonotr el
yonheatt reatmentfort
heirstr
ength.Theyhave
ferr
iti
cstr
uctureswi thlowcar bonlevel
s(0.2%andl ess)andsmal lamountsofall
oyi
ng
elementsinsolution(Mn, Cr,Ti,V,Nb,N).
Therearemanydi ff
erentt y
peswithv ar
yingdegreesofstrength,
toughnessand
corrosi
onresistance.Theyusual lyhavegoodwel dabil
it
y,butthehighstr
engthdoesmake
them moresuscept ibletocrackingthanlowcar bonsteel.Hi
ghheatinputsareusual
ly
recommendedandpr e-heat
ingi ssometi
mesr equi r
ed.

SUMMARY

BS5135statesthatwel
d-abi
l
ityi
stheabi
li
tyofamater
ialt
obejoi
nedbymostofthewel
d
pr
ocessesandst i
ll
maint
ainmostofthephysi
cal
/mechani
cal
proper
ti
esf
orwhichitwas
or
igi
nal
lydesigned.

Goodwel dabil
it
y-lowri
skofHI CC,butsol
idif
icati
oncracki
ngriskduetopoorgr
ain
str
ucture.
Li
mi t
edwel dabi
li
ty-mayriskhardeni
ngeffectsthroughweldi
ng/cutti
ngandHICC.
Lamellartear
ing-poort
hrought hi
cknessductil
it
yandplatedefect
s.

Av
oidanceoft
heabov
eri
sksshoul
dleadt
oan‘
accept
abl
e’wel
d.

45
46
RESI
DUALSTRESSANDDI
STORTI
ON

RESI
DUALSTRESS

Metalscont ractduringsolidifi
cationandsubsequentcool ing,butifthiscont
racti
onis
preventedori nhibi
ted,residual st
resseswi l
ldevelop.Duringnor mal cooli
ngsmal l
ergr
ains
developf i
rsttowardst heedgesoft hewel dandl argergrainsdev elopinthemiddleofthe
weldasi tcool s.Mostmat eri
al pr
oduct scontai
nr esi
dual str
esses, oft
enupt oyiel
dpoint.
Pipepr oducts,forexampl e,areusual lyver
yhighlystressed.
Thet endencyt odev el
opr esidual stressesincreaseswhent heheat ingandcooli
ngar e
l
ocalised.Sowel di
ngwi thitsv erylocal i
sedheatingandt hepr esenceofl i
quidandsoli
d
metal i
ncont actcanbeexpect edt oi nduceveryhighlevelsofr esidualstr
esses.

Residualst
ressesar
eacombi
nat
ionofunequal
expansi
on/cont
ract
ioncoupl
edwi
th
rest
raint
.

Residual
stressescanbedif
fi
cultt
omeasurewithanyrealaccur
acy,butaroughguideis
thatwhenthewel dmetal
exceedstwocubi
cinches(f
ourteencubiccenti
metres)t
henthe
totalr
esi
dualstressi
saboutyi
eldpoi
nti
nmagnitude.

Nor
malwel
dsdevelopt hef
oll
owi ngresidualstr
esses:
a) al ongt heweld-longitudi
nal r
esidualst
ress.
b) acr osst heweld-transverseresidualst
ress.
c) t hrought heweld-Shor tt
ransverseresidual
str
ess.

l
ongi
tudi
nal

t
ransv
erse

shor
ttr
ansv
erse

Longi
tudi
nal
Resi
dual
Str
esses.

A B

C
Considert
hetwoplat
esAandBj oi
nedbytheweldmet al
C.TheweldmetalandtheHAZ
wanttocontr
act,
butthi
sisresist
edbythepl
ates.Sotheweldmetalandt
heHAZar e
pul
ledout(pl
acedint
ension)andthepl
atesar
epul l
edin(pl
acedi
ncompression)
.

+ + Tension
Thi
scanbeshowndi
agr
ammat
ical
l
y: -
Compressi
on
46
 47

- -

Tr
ansv
erseResi
dual
Str
esses.

c1c2c3
B

Againconsidertwopl atesAandBwi thwel dmet alC.I nordertoseehowt hestresses

devel
opwemustl ookatt hedepositionofsmal ll
engt hsofwel dC1, C2, C3et c.
Assumet hatthepl at esAandBar enotr estr ained.Lengt hC1wi llcontractanddr awt he
pl
atestogethersot hel evelofresi
dual stressesacr osst hej oi
ntwi l
lbev erylow.Lengt hC2
wil
latt
emptt ocont r actbutC1wi l
lpreventt his,so(r oughly)C1i splacedincompr ession
andC2i ntension.Lengt hC3al soattempt st ocont ractbuti snowpr event edbyC2, whi ch
i
splacedincompr essi on, andC1ispul ledi nt otension.Sowef indtherei sar eversalof
tr
ansverseresidual st ressesalongt hejoi nt.Thi spat ter
nissi mil
arforamul t
ipasswel d.

Shor
tTr
ansv
erseResi
dual
Str
esses.

A C B t
hickness

Againconsiderpl atesAandBj oinedbywel dmet alC.Theeff

ectisl
iket
hatofthe
l
ongitudinalresidualstressesift
hewel disasinglepass.Formulti
passweldsthe
conditi
onismor elikethet r
ansverseresidual
st ressesandwef i
ndtensi
l
est r
essesatt
he
surf
aceandcompr essi vestr
essesatt hecentr
e.
TotalResidual Str
esses.
Inpracticethet hreedir
ectionsinwhicht her esi
dual
str
essesdevelopcombinet
o
giv
ear esultantort otalresi
dualstress.

Effectofrest
rai
nt.
Foranygivenwel
dedjoi
ntt
hel
evel
ofr
esi
dual
str
essest
endst
oincr
easeast
he
restr
aintonthejoi
nti
ncr
eases.

Hi
gh Low

Reduci
ngr
est
rai
ntwi
l
lreducer
esi
dual
str
essandr
educet
hechanceofcr
acki
ng.
47
48

DI
STORTI
ON

Theact
ionofr
esi
dual
str
essesi
nwel
dedj
oint
sist
ocausedi
stor
ti
on.

Consi
derasimpl
ewel
dwithasi
ngl
eVpr epar
ati
on.
Thefol
lowi
ngmovement
scanbedetect
ed:

1. Contr
acti
oni
ntheweldmetalandHAZal
ongt helengt
hofthewel
d.
2. Bowing,
duetothegr
eat
ervolumeofmetal
att hetopoft
heweld.
3. Peaki
ngduetotheVangl
e.
4. Ri
pple(i
nsheet
)awayfr
om theweld.
5. Contr
acti
oni
ntheweldmetalandHAZtr
ansversetotheweld.

4
2

di
stor
ti
on
1
mov
ement
s
3 3

Cont
rolofdist
orti
oni
sachievedi noneormor eofthreemainmet hods:
1.Pr
esetti
ng-sothatthemet aldi
stort
sintotherequi
redpositi
on.
2.Cl
amping-topreventdistorti
on,butthisi
ncreasesthelevel
ofr esi
dual
str
esses.
3.Weldi
ngsequence-i.e.balanced,forexamplebackskipwelding.

Ot
hermethodsofdistor
ti
oncont
rol
incl
ude:
Preheat
ing
Changeofpr eptoamoreopenprep(
e.g.aUpr
ep)
.
Lowerheatinput.
Pulseweldi
ng.

48
 49

HEATTREATMENT

Manymet al
smustbegivenheatt
reat
mentbef
oreandaft
erweldi
ng.Theinspect
or’
s
funct
ioni
stoensur
ethatthetr
eat
mentisgi
ven,andgi
vencor
rect
ly,
tothedetail
s
suppl
ied.

Bel
owar
ethet
ypesofheatt
reat
mentav
ail
abl
e.Thet
emper
atur
esment
ionedar
eforst
eel
.

Pr
ocess Temper
atur
e Cool
i
ng Resul
t

Anneal
i
ng 920C hol
d,f
urnacecool anneali
ngisar ecrystal
i
sat i
on
i
mpr ovesduct i
li
ty (softens)
ver
ysl
owcool decreasestoughness
makesbendi ng,etc.easier
l
ower syiel
dst r
ess

Nor
mal
i
sing 920C hol
d,ai
rcool i
ncr
easestoughness
i
mprovesmechanical
pr
oper
ti
es
sl
owcool r
eli
evesi
nter
nal
str
ess

Quench,
har
den 920C hold,
quenchcool hardenscar bonsteels
preventscarbideprecipi
tat
ion
i
n austenit
icstainl
esssteels
fast preventstemperbr i
tt
leness
when (i
noilorwat
er) cooli
ngaf tertemperi
ng
preparesmet alfort
emper i
ng

Temper 550C-700C hol

d,ai
rcool i
ncr
easestoughnessof
quenched sl
ow st
eel
s

St
ressRel
i
ef 550C-700C hol
d,ai
rcool reli
evesr esidualst
ressesby
plasti
cdef or mati
on
reducesy i
eldpoint
reduceshy drogenlevels
sl
ow i
mpr ov esst abi
li
tyduring
machi ning
preventsst resscorrosion
cracking

Pr
eheatf
orwel
ding50C-250C hol
d

Hy
drogensoak 150C hol
d

Above920Ct hegrainstructureandsizeofgrai
nstr uctur
eareaffected.Below900Ct he
grai
nstruct
ureisnotaffected.Thesoakt i
meisr
elatedt othi
ckness,usuall
yonehourper
25mi l
l
imetresthi
ckness.Differingcool
ingrat
esgivedi f
fer
entproperti
estot hemetal
,so
thecooldownrateisalsocr i
tical.(
Possibl
ymoni
toringatast andofffrom theweldbeing
49
50
tr
eated.
)Forpreheati
ngandhy
drogensoakoxy
-acet
ylenei
snott
obeused(
tool
ocal
i
seda
heatsource)
,propaneist
obeused.

MONI
TORI
NGTHEHEATTREATMENT

Themet hodandl ocati

onoft heheattreatmentareimport
ant,
forexampleinaworkshop
fur
naceoronsi teusingelectrobl
anket(cooperheatt
ype)equi
pment.Thetemper
atureis
measur edwi ththermocouplesandr ecordedonachar t
.Themainpoint
sare:
cont r
oll
edheatr i
se
soakt i
me
temper at
ure
cool downr atet
ounr estri
cted
Thelastt estisahardnesst estaft
ercooling.

t
emper
atur
eri
se soakt
ime cool
down

t
emper
atur
e

ti
me
Ty
pical
heatt
reat
mentchar
trecor
ding.

Theinspectorshoul
densur ethat
:
a) Equi pmentisasspecifi
edandcal i
brated.
b) Oper atorsarequali
fi
ed.
c) Pr ocedureasspecifi
edisused.
i.
e.met hodofappli
cati
on,rateofheat
ingandcooli
ng,maxi
mum
temperatur
e,soak (
holdi
ng)ti
me, temperat
uremeasurement.
d) Al ldocumentati
onandr ecordsareinorder
.

CALI
BRATI
ONOFWELDI
NGEQUI
PMENT

Inst
rumentationfitt
edt oar cweldingequi pmentof tenbecomesi naccur
atet
hrough
neglect,
damage, wearet c.Thepresenceofer rorsint hereadingsmayr emainunknown
andt hei
rextentunchecked.Asar esult
,thev aluesoft hewel dingparameter
si ndi
cated
maywel lli
eout si
det hewor kingtolerances.Consequent lyproblemsmaybeexper i
enced
i
nachi evi
ngt hedesiredwel dquality.Asignifi
cantl evelofdef ectsmaybepr edict
edwith
consequentialcostsofr ewor ki
ng,repairorev enscr apping.
Inhighquali
tywel di
ng, regularcheckingoft hepar amet ersisthereessenti
alandshould
form amandat orypar tofinspecti
on/qual i
tycont rol.
50
 51
Therear emanydi ff
erentty
pesofcalibrationequipmentav ail
able,
includingammet ers,
volt
met ersorequipmentspecifi
call
ydesi gnedt omeasureal lt
hewel dingpar ameters.
What ev
ert hetypeofcalibr
ati
onpieceused, t
heymustal sobecal i
bratedf oraccurate
measur ement-usual l
ytoanationalstandard.TheBr i
ti
shst andardforcal i
brated
measur i
ngdev icesisNAMAS-t heNat ionalMeasur ementScheme.TheBr it
ishstandard
forarcwel di
ngequipmenti sBS7570.
Cali
brationiscarri
edoutonanyequi pmentwi thagauge; v
alidati
oniscar ri
edouton
equipmentwi thoutgauges.

CHECKLI
STFORCALI
BRATI
NGARCWELDI
NGEQUI
PMENT

Weldi
ngInspecti
onnecessar
il
yinv
olv
eschecki
ngthatt
hecor
rectweldi
ng/
cutti
ngprocess
i
sbeingused,thatt
heequipmenti
sinworkabl
econdi
ti
onandthatt
heweldingpar
amet er
s
ofamperesandv ol
tsar
ebeingadher
edto.

Weldingcur rent:
Themai npar amet ercont roll
ingheati nputandpenet r
ation.Checkwi thammet ers
forinaccur acies,usual l
ywi t
ht ongtest ersgener all
yany wher e,butpr efer
ablyas
closet ot hetorchaspossi ble.Tolerance+/ -3%.
Ar
cv oltage:
Whi chisr elatedt oarcl engt handr esponsi bleforthewel dbeadpr ofi
le.Checkwith
voltmeter( mul ti
met er)acr osst heel ectr
icalcircui
tf orinaccuraciesascl osetothe
arcaspossi ble,butnotont her eturnlead.Tol erance+/ -5%.
Wiref eedspeed:
Themosti mpor tantpar amet erinMI G/MAGandSAW.I tdetermi nest heweldi
ng
current bei ngdr awnt oa)mel tthewi reandb)f uset hewor kpiece.Checkwi tha
stopwat chf or15-30secondsorpr eferablywi that achogener atorforinconsi
stency
andi naccur acies.Thewi ref eedspeedi sconsi deredmor eaccur atethanamper age
becausei tcanbephy si
cal lymeasur ed.
Tr
av el speed:
Determi nesheati nputandpenet rati
on.
mechani sed-pr e-sett r
av elspeedandcheckmet eragai nstdistancet ravel
l
edinone
minut e.
manual -checkr unoutl engt h.

Inrecenty ear
smor eatt
entionhasbeengi v
entoqualityassuranceinar cwelding
operationsandinmanycasesi tisofparamountimpor tancetoensuret hatthecorr
ect
weldingpar amet
er sar
ebeingusedi nordertomeettheser equi
rement s.Accurat
e
cali
brationofequipmenttheref
oreisnecessaryand‘certi
fi
catesofcalibrat
ion’ar
erequi
red
forallequipment.i.
e.wel
dingequipment,measuringequipment ,
storageov ensetc.

DEFECTSDETECTEDBYSURFACEI
NSPECTI
ON

Def
ect
s,whi
chcanbedet
ect
edbyv
isual
inspect
ion,
canbegr
oupedunderf
iveheadi
ngs.

1. Cracks.
2. Surfaceirregul
ari
ti
es.
3. Cont ourdefect
s.
4. Rootdef ects.
5. Miscellaneous.
51
52

1. SURFACECRACKS

Acrackisali
neardisconti
nui
typroducedbyfractur
e.Cracksmaybelongit
udi
nal
,
t
ransv
erse,edge,
crat
er,centr
eli
ne,f
usionzone,underbead,wel
dmet al
orparentmet
al.

l
ongi
tudi
nal
,i
nthewel
dmet
al(
cent
rel
i
ne) l
ongi
tudi
nal
,i
nthepar
ent
pl
ate

t
ransv
erse cr
ater(
starcr
acki
ng)

2. SURFACEI
RREGULARI
TIES

Under
cut.
Ani rr
egulargr ooveatat oeofar uninthepar ent
met alorinpr evi
ouslydeposi tedwel dmet al.If
createdsub- surfaceitbecomesav eryeff
ect ive
sl
agt rapint hebodyoft hewel d.Undercuti s
essential
lyanot chthatint urnbecomesaf ocal
pointforstressl oading,therebyr educingt hef ati
gue
l
ifeoft hejoint.
Causes-cur renttoohi gh,voltagetoohi gh, tr
av el
speedt oohigh, electrodetoosmal l,el
ectrodeangl e.

Ov
erl
ap.
Animperfecti
onatthet oeorr ootofaweldcausedby
causedbywel dmetal f
lowingont othesurf
aceofthe
parentpl
atewithoutfusingtoit.
Causes-slowt r
avelspeed, l
argeelect
rode,
til
tangl
e,
poorpre-
cleani
ng.

Cr
aterpi
pe.
52
 53
Adepressi
onduet oshri
nkageattheendofarun
wherethesourceofheatwasremov ed.
Causes-breaki
ngthearctooquickl
y,toor
api
d
cool
ing.

Spat
ter
.
Str
ayglobul
esofweldmateri
al,
onparentpl
ateoutsi
det
heweld.
Causes-dampelect
rodes,
toohighvol
tage,
toohighcur
rent
,fl
uxmi
ssi
ng.

St
rayf
lash(strayarcing)
Thedamageont hepar entmaterialresul
tingfrom theaccidentalst
ri
kingofanar c
awayf r
om thewel d.Asmal lv
olumeofbasemat erialismeltedwhent hear cis
struck.Thismol tenpool i
squenchedduet otherapi ddif
fusionofheatthrought he
plate.Thismayl eadt othefor
mat ionofacr aterthatlendsitsel
ftocracking,ora
changei ngrainst ructur
ebycr eatingamar t
ensit
icorbr i
tt
legrainst
ructureinthe
areaoft hear cst r
ike.Thesediscontinuit
iesmayl eadt oextensi
vecrackingin
service.
Causes-oper atorer r
or.

3. CONTOURDEFECTS

Thepr ofi
l
eofaf inishedweldmayconsi der
ablyaff
ectper f
ormanceoft hej
oint
underloadbearingcondi ti
ons.Speci
fi
cati
onsnormallyincl
udedet ai
l
sofacceptabl
e
weldpr of
il
estobeusedasagui de.
(Theidealprof
il
ei stor emovethecapandl eav
ethewel dflushwiththeadj
acent
surf
aces.Thiswoul dincr
easethefat
igueli
feofthejointbyaf act
orof3.)

Excessweldmetal.
Alsoexcessconvexi
ty,excessr
einf
orcement.
Additi
onalweldmetalabovethesurf
aceplaneofthe
parentmater
ialorgr
eaterthanthedesi
redthr
oaton
fi
ll
etwelds.

Lackoffusi
on.
Acontinuousorint
ermitt
entgroovealongthesi
deof
theweldwiththeori
ginalweldprepfacest
ill
int
act
.
Causes-notenoughr uns,oper
atorerr
or.

I
ncompl
etel
yfil
ledgr oove.
Acontinuousori ntermi t
tentchannel i
nt hesur f
aceof
theweld,runningalongi tslength,duet oinsuffi
cient
weldmat eri
al.Thechannel maybeal ongt hecent r
eor
alongoneorbot hedgesoft hewel d.
Causes-notenoughr uns-pr ocedureer r
or ,
electr
ode
toosmall.Alsocal l
edi nsuff
icientt
hroat.

Bul
bouscont
our
.
53
54
NotaBS499t erm.(possiblyundercont
our/toe
blend)Unevenlysi
zedcappi ngruns.
Causes-electrodetype,
ar cvolt
agecondit
ions,
wel
der
technique.

Unequall
egs.
NotaBS499t er
m.Variat
ionofleglengt
honaf il
l
et
weld.
Causes-ti
ltangl
e,runsequence.
N.B. Unequall
egsmaybespeci f
iedaspartofthedesi
gn-
inwhichcasetheyarenotdefects.

4. ROOTDEFECTS

I
ncompl
eterootpenetr
ati
on.
Fail
ureofweldmet al
toextendintotherootoftheweld.
Causes-poorwel dprep,
rootgapt oosmall
,rootface
toobig,smalli
ncl
udedangle,heatinputt
oolow.

Lackofrootf
usion.
Lackofunionattherootofajoint.
Causes-poorweldpr ep,
unevenbev el
,rootf
acet
oo
lar
ge,l
inearmisal
ignment,cl
eaning.

Excesspenet
rat
ionbead.
Excessweldmet al
protr
udingthr
oughtherootofa
fusi
onweldmadef rom onesideonl
y.
Causes-highheatinput
,poorweldprep-l
arge
incl
udedangle.

Rootconcavi
ty.(
suck-
back,underwashi
ng)
Ashall
owgr oovewhichmayoccurintherootofa
buttweld.
Causes-purgepressure,
widerootgap,
andresidual
str
esses
inroot
.

Shr
inkagegroove.
Ashallowgroovealongeachsideofapenet
rat
ionbead.
Causes-contract
ionofthemetalal
ongeachsi
deofthe
beadwhileintheplast
iccondi
ti
on.

Bur
nthrough.(meltthrough,bl
owthrough)
Al ocal
isedcoll
apseoft hemoltenpoolresult
ingina
holeinthewel drun.
Causes-excesspenet r
ati
on,excessheatinput(usual
l
y
att heendofar un),l
ocali
sedweldprepv ar
iat
ions.
54
 55

5. MI
SCELLANEOUS

Poorr
estar
t.
Non-
standar
dter
m.Al
ocal
sur
facei
rr
egul
ari
tyat
aweldrest
art
.

Mi
sal
i
gnment .
Non-standardter
m.Mi sal
ignmentbetweent
wo
wel
dedpi ecessucht hatt
heirsur
facepl
anesar
enot
par
allelorattheint
endedangles.

Excessivedressing.
Areduct i
oninmetalt
hicknesscausedbytheremoval
ofthesur f
aceofaweldandadj acentar
eastobel
ow
thesurfaceofthepar
entmet al
.

Gr
indi
ngmar k.
Groov
esonthesurf
aceoft
hepar
entmet
alorwel
dmet
almadebyagr
indi
ngwheel
orsur
faci
ngt
ool.

Tool
mar k.
Anindentat
ioni
nthesurf
aceoft
heparentmet
alorweldmetalr
esul
ti
ngf
rom t
he
appl
icat
ionofatool
,e.
g.achi
ppi
ngtool,i
npr
eparat
ionordr
essi
ng.

Hammermark.
Anindent
ati
oni
nthesur
faceoft
hepar
entmet
alorwel
dmet
alduet
oahammer
bl
ow.

Tor
nsur
face.
Asurfacei
rr
egul
ari
tyduet
othebr
eaki
ngof
foft
empor
aryat
tachment
s.

Surf
acepitt
ing.
Animperf
ect
ioni
nthesur
faceoft
hepar
entmet
alusual
l
yint
hef
orm ofsmal
l
depressi
ons.

I
NTERNALDEFECTS

DEFI
NITI
ONS.

Lackoff
usi
on. Lackofuni
oni
nawel
d.a.bet
weenwel
dmet
alandpar
ent
metal
.
b.bet
weenpar
entmet
alandpar
ent
met
al.
55
56
c.bet
weenwel
dmet
alandwel
dmet
al.

Lackofsi
dewal
lfusi
on. Lackofuni
onbet
weenwel
dmet
alandpar
entmet
alatasi
deof
aweld.

Lackofi
nter
-r
unf
usi
on. Lackofuni
onbet
weenadj
acentr
unsofwel
dmet
ali
namul
ti
-
run
j
oint.

I
ncl
usi
on. Slagorotherfor
eignmat
terent
rappeddur
ingwel
ding.The
defecti
smor eir
regul
ari
nshapethanagaspore.

Oxi
dei
ncl
usi
on. Met
all
i
coxi
deent
rappeddur
ingwel
ding.

Tungst
eni
ncl
usi
on. Ani
ncl
usi
onoft
ungst
enf
rom t
heel
ect
rodedur
ingTI
Gwel
ding.

Copperi
ncl
usi
on. Aninclusionofcopperduetotheaccidental
mel t
ingoft
he
contacttubeornozzlei
nselfadj
ustingorcontrol
ledar
c
weldingorduetopickupbycont actbetweenthecoppernozzl
e
andthemol tenpanelduri
ngTIGwel di
ng.

Pucker
ing. Thefor mati
onofanoxidecoveredweldrunorbeadwi t
h
i
rregularsurf
acesandwithdeeplyent
rai
nedoxidefil
ms,whi
ch
canoccurwhenmat er
ial
sformingref
ract
oryoxides(e.
g.
al
umi nium andit
sall
oys)ar
ebei ngwel
ded.

Por
osi
ty. Agr
oupofgaspor
es.

El
ongat
edcav
iti
es. Astr
ingofgaspor
essi
tuat
edpar
all
elt
othewel
daxi
s.(
Linear
por
osit
y.)

Bl
owhol
e. Acavi
tygeneral
l
yov er1.
5mm indi
ameterfor
medbyent
rapped
gasdur
ingthesoli
difi
cat
ionofmol
tenmetal.

Wor
mhol
e. Anelongat
edortubul
arcav
ityf
ormedbyent
rappedgasdur
ing
thesol
idi
fi
cat
ionofmolt
enmetal.

GENERALCAUSES

Por
osi
ty. Istheresultofgasbei ngent rappedwi thi
nt hesolidif
yingwel dmet al
.
Porosit
ywi l
lbepr esentinawel difthewel dingtechnique, mater i
alsusedor
conditi
onoft hewel djointpromot esgasf ormation.Ift hemol tenwel dmetal
coolsslowlyandal l
owsal lgastor i
setot hesurfacebef oresolidi
ficat
ion,
the
weldwoul dbev i
rt
uallyfreeofpor osit
y.
Isol
atedoruni form porosity:
Thecauseoft hisf
orm ofsi ngul
arpor osit
yis
generall
yfaultyweldingt echniqueordef ectivemat eri
al orboth.
56
 57
Clust
erorgroupporosit
y:Isalocal
isedgroupofporesthatmayresul
tfr
om
i
mpr operi
nit
iat
ionorterminati
onofthewel di
ngarc.
Li
nearporosit
y:Alwaysformsast r
aightli
nealongarunofweldandis
causedbygasev olv
ingfrom cont
ami nant
s.

Ov
erl
ap. (Coldlap/rollover.
)Usual lycausedbyi ncorrectmanipul
ationofwel ding
proceduresi .
e.lowcur rentcombi nedwi t
hwr ongt
ravelspeed.Thisdef ect
canoccuront hefusionf aceaswel l
ast hecapr unifthefusi onf
ace
contai
nst ightlyadheringoxi des.(Thiswoul donlybedet ectedbyNDTand
probablyinterpret
edasl ackoff usion.)Ov erl
apmaybedef inedasasur face
connecteddi scontinuitythatformsasev eremechanicalnot chparal
leltothe
weldaxis.

Tungst
en Parti
clesoftungstentrappedi nthewel dmetaldepositedwiththeTI G
process.
I
ncl
usi
on. Usuallyoccurswhent heoper atordipsthetungstenelect
rodetipintothe
moltenpool.Asecondr easonf orthisdef
ect,notgeneral
lyrecognised,i
s
thati
ft heoperati
ngcurrentissett oohightheelectr
odet i
pwi l
lmel tand
dropletsoftungstenwillbefi
redi ntothemoltenpool bytheshiel
dinggas.

SPECI
FICCAUSESANDREMEDI
ES.

CAUSE REMEDY
Por
osi
ty.

Excessi
vehy
drogen,
nit
rogenor Uselowhydr
ogenweldi
ngprocess;fi
ll
er
metals
oxy
geni
nwel
dingat
mospher
e hi
ghindeoxi
diser
s;i
ncr
easeshiel
dinggas
fl
ow

Hi
ghsol
i
dif
icat
ionr
ate Usepr
eheatori
ncr
easeheati
nput

Di
rt
ybasemet
al Cl
eanj
ointf
acesandadj
oini
ngsur
faces

Di
rt
yfi
l
lerwi
re Usespeci
all
ycl
eanedandpackagedf
il
ler
wir
eandstorei
nacleanar
ea

I
mproperarcl
ength,
weldi
ngcur
rent Changewel
dingcondi
ti
onsandt
echni
ques
orel
ect
rodemanipul
ati
on

Vol
ati
sat
ionofzi
ncf
rom br
ass Usecopper
-si
l
iconf
il
lermet
al;
reduceheat
i
nput

Gal
vani
sedst
eel UseE7010electr
odesandmanipulat
ethearc
heattov
olat
il
isethegal
vani
sedzincahead
ofthemolt
enwel dpool

Excessi
vemoi
stur
einel
ect
rodecov
eri
ng Userecommendedpr
ocedur
esf
orbaki
ng
and
57
58
oronj
ointsur
faces st
ori
ngel
ect
rodes;
preheatt
hebasemet
al

Hi
ghsul
phurbasemet
al Useel
ect
rodeswi
thbasi
csl
aggi
ngr
eact
ions

I
ncl
usi
ons

Fai
l
uret
oremov
esl
ag Cl
eansur
faceandpr
evi
ouswel
dbead

Ent
rapmentofr
efr
act
oryoxi
des Powerwi
rebr
usht
hepr
evi
ousbead

Tungst
eni
nthewel
dmet
al Avoidcont
actbet
weent heelect
rodeand
workpi
ece;usel
argerel
ectr
ode

I
mpr
operj
ointdesi
gn I
ncr
easebev
elangl
eofj
oint

Oxi
dei
ncl
usi
ons Pr
ovi
depr
opergasshi
eldi
ng

Wel
dmet
alcr
acki
ng

Hi
ghl
yri
gidj
oint Preheat
;rel
i
ev er
esidualst
resses
mechanical
ly;mi
nimiseshri
nkagestresses
usingbacksteporblockweldingsequence

Excessi
vedi
l
uti
on Changewel di
ngcurr
entandtr
avelspeed;
weldwithcoveredel
ect
rodenegat
ive;but
ter
thej
ointfacespri
ort
owelding

Def
ect
iveel
ect
rodes Changet
onewelect
rode;
bakeel
ect
rodest
o
removemoi
stur
e

Poorf
it
-up Reducer
ootopeni
ng;
bui
l
dupt
heedgeswi
th
weldmetal

Smal
lwel
dbead Incr
easeelect
rodesize;rai
sewel
ding
curr
ent;
reducetrav
el speed

Hi
ghsul
phurbasemet
al Usef
il
lermet
all
owi
nsul
phur

Angul
ardi
stor
ti
on Changet
obal
ancedwel
dingonbot
hsi
desof
j
oint

Cr
atercr
acki
ng Fil
lcr
aterbefor
eextingui
shingt
hearc;
usea
weldi
ngcurrentdecaydevicewhen
ter
minati
ngthewel dbead

58
 59

Basemet
alcr
acki
ng

Hy
drogeni
nwel
dingat
mospher
e Uselowhy drogenweldingprocess;pr
eheat
andholdfortwohoursaf terweldi
ngorpost
weldheattreatimmediately

Hotcr
acki
ng Uselowheati
nput;
deposi
tthi
nlay
ers;
changebasemetal

Lowduct
il
it
y Usepr
eheat
;anneal
thebasemet
al

Hi
ghr
esi
dual
str
esses Redesignt
hewel dment
;changeweldi
ng
sequence;appl
yint
ermedi
atestr
essrel
ief
heattr
eatment

Hi
ghhar
denabi
l
ity Pr
eheat;i
ncr
easeheati
nput;
heattr
eat
wi
thoutcool
i
ngtoroom temper
atur
e

Br
it
tl
ephasesi
nthemi
crost
ruct
ure Sol
uti
onheat
-t
reatpr
iort
owel
ding

MACROEXAMI
NATI
ON

Thissect
ioncov
erstheint
erpr
etat
ionofi
nter
nal
def
ect
sandt
hei
rrepor
ti
ngwi
thr
egar
dto
theMacroexaminat
ion.

Dur
ingi
nter
pret
ati
oni
tisnecessar
ytoi
dent
if
yassoci
ateddef
ect
s.

exampl
e1.
59
60

1)

Repor
t1. I
ncompl
eter
ootpenet
rat
ionandr
ootf
usi
on.

Intheabov esket
chincompleterootpenetr
ationcanbeseenbut ,
becauseofthelossof
penetrat
ion,i
ncompleterootf
usionisalsopresent.
Planardefect
ssuchasi ncompletesi
dewall,i
ncompletei
nter
-r
unandi ncompleter
oot
fusi
onar everyof
tenassociat
edwi t
hthepr esenceofanonmet all
i
cinclusi
on,t
ypi
call
y
slagforMMAandSAW anddeoxi di
serresi
duef orMIGandTIG(ferri
ti
csteel
s).

exampl
e2.
pr
ocessMAG

1)

Int
hisexampl ei
ncompl et
esi
dewal
l f
usi
onispresent.Becausethedefectal
sohaswidthi
t
canlar
gelybeassociatedwit
ha‘si
l
ica’i
ncl
usi
on.
report1. Incomplet
esi
dewallf
usi
onwi thassociat
edsil
icadioxi
dei
nclusi
on-
add di mension.

Thenextsketchshowsar ootpenet
rati
on/fusi
ondef
ectcausedbecauseofeither
i
nsuffici
entr
ootgapornobackgougi ng.Onexami
nat
ionincompl
etesidewal
lfusionhas
resul
tedbecauseofpooraccess.

exampl
e3.
pr
ocessMMA

2)
3) 1)

r
epor
t1. Incompleterootpenetrat
ionandrootf
usi
on.
2.
Incompletesidewal
l f
usion.*
3.
Incompletesidewal
l f
usion.*
*Yourj
udgementwi
llbenecessaryinordertodeter
mineanyassoci
atedi
ncl
usi
on.

Aspreviouslymentioned,sl
agandsi l
icainclusi
onsareassociatedwit
hspecifi
cprocesses.
Withregardtointerpr
etat
iontheinspectormustconf i
rmthewel di
ngprocessinorderto
makeanaccur at
eassessment .Thismaybebyr efer
encetothewel di
ngprocedureorby
assessmentoft heweldface.Slaginclusionswil
lbeclear
lyvolumetri
cagainstsi
l
ica
i
nclusi
onst hatwill
havelengthandl i
mi t
edwi dt
h.

exampl
e4.
60
 61
Sl
agi
ncl
usi
onsorsi
l
icai
ncl
usi
ons?

1)

2)

r
epor
t1. Slaginclusion.
2.
Sil
icainclusion.(
incompl
etei
nter
passf
usi
onmayal
sobepr
esent
)

Ingeneralt
erms,
slagi
ncl
usi
onsar
enon-
uni
for
mint
hei
rshape;
alsov
eryof
tent
hesl
agi
s
sti
l
lvisi
ble.

Gasinclusi
ons,
ont
heot
herhand,
aregener
all
yuni
for
mint
hei
rshapeandar
eofamet
all
i
c
appearance.

exampl
e5.
Gasi
ncl
usi
ons(
por
es)
,por
osi
tyorsol
i
dincl
usi
ons?

1)
3)

2)

r
epor
t1. Slaginclusi
on.
2.
Elongatedgascav i
ty. dimensi onsrequi
red.
3.
Gaspor e.
Theinspect
orshoul
dreportanyparentmet al
def ects-laps,
laminati
onsandsegr
egat
ion
bands.
Example6.
Parentmet aldefects.

2) 3)

1) 4)

Repor
t1. Laminati
ons(str
aightandnarrow).
2.
Laminarincl
usi
ons( smal
l,st
raightandnar
row).
3.
Laps(nearsurf
aceofmat eri
al).
4.
Segr
egationbands( si
mil
artolaminati
onbutlacksdef
ini
teedges-
hazy
).

MACROEXAMI
NATI
ON

Ther
eportfortheMacr oshouldincl
ude:
Macroidenti
fi
cation,
mat eri
al,
weldingpr
ocess,sent
enci
ngst
andar
d.
Al
linter
naldefectswit
ht ypesizeandaccept
/rej
ect.
61
62
Al
lsur
facedefectswi
thty
pe,sizeandaccept
/rej
ect.
Geometr
icdefect
s(e.
g.misal
ignment)wit
htypesizeandaccept
/rej
ect
.
Name,si
gnatureanddat
e.

Alldefect
sshouldbearrowedandnumber
edont
her
epor
t.ForCSWI
Pthesent
enci
ng
standardis
ISO5817l evel
B(str
ingent)
.

NONDESTRUCTI
VETESTI
NG

ULTRASONI
CINSPECTI
ON

Ty
peofoper
ati
on:
Manualormechani
sed.

Equi
pment
:
62
 63
Mainuni
tcompr
isi
ngpul
segener
ator
,di
spl
ayosci
l
loscope,
probe(
chosent
o
sui
twork)
.

Modeofoperation:
Apul seofel ect
ricalenergyisfedt othepr obeinwhi chapi ezo-electr
ic
crystalconvertsittomechani calvibrat
ionsatanul tr
asoni cfrequency .The
vibrati
onsar etransmitted(vi
aal ayerofgr easet oexcludet heai r)through
thewor k.Iftheyencount eradefectsomear erefl
ectedbackt ot hepr obe,
wher etheyregener ateanelectri
cal si
gnal.Acat hoder ayt ubetrace, star
ted
whent heor igi
nal si
gnal i
ssent,display
st her ef
lecteddef ectsignal andf r
om
itti
me-i ndicati
ngdi stancefrom probe,andampl it
ude-i ndicatingdef ect
size,canbecal culated.

Mat
eri
als.
Mostmet
alexceptt
hosewi
thcoar
seorv
ary
inggr
ainst
ruct
ure.

Ty
pical
wel
dingappli
cat
ions.
Wel
dsinthi
ckwallvessel
s.
Wel
dswit
haccesst oonesideonl
y.

Oper
ati
ngpar ameters.
Probefrequency 1-5MHz
Portabi
li
ty Good
Access Good(canbebat
ter
yoper
ated)
Thicknessrange 5-500mm
Minimum defectsi
ze 5mm wide

Ov
eral
ladv
antages.
Immediatepresent
ati
onofr esul
ts.
Notnecessarytoevacuatepersonnel
.
Canbebat t
erypowered.
Depthl
ocationofdefects.

Ov
eral
ll
imi
tat
ions.
Trai
nedandskil
ledoper
atorneeded.
Nopict
orial
record.

Saf
ety
.
Moder
atecar
eneededasf
oral
lel
ect
ri
cal
equi
pment
.

MAGNETI
CPARTI
CLEI
NSPECTI
ON

Ty
peofoper
ati
on.
Manualormechani
sed.

Equi
pment.
Powersuppl
y.Cont
act
sorcoi
l
.Ul
tr
a-v
iol
etl
amp(
opt
ional
).Por
tabl
eorf
ixed
i
nstal
l
ati
on.

63
64
Modeofoperati
on.
Thewor ki smagnet isedeitherbypassingacur rentthroughit,
ort hrougha
coilsurr
oundi ngit.Defectsonorneart hesur f
acedisruptthemagnet icf
iel
d
(unl
esst heyar eparall
el t
oit).Amagnet icparti
clefl
uidsuspensioni sappli
ed
whichconcent r
atesar oundthedef ect
s.Thewor kisv i
ewedei therdirect
lyor
byultra-
violetli
ghtusingady ewhi chfl
uoresces-i.
e.emi tsvi
sibleli
ght(thi
s
mustbedonewher enor mallight
ingissubdued).Aftertesti
ng,wor kmaybe
demagnet isedifrequired.

Mat
eri
als.
Magnet
icmat
eri
alsonl
y-f
err
it
icst
eel
sandsomeni
ckel
all
oys.

Oper
ati
ngpar ameter
s.
Curr
ent 500-10,000Amps(ACorDC)
Supplyload 1-100kVA
Port
abili
ty good
Access restr
ict
ed
Mini
mum def ectsi
ze 0.025mm wi
deatsur
face
Testi
ngt i
me 10-80seconds

Ty
picalweldi
ngappl i
cati
ons.
Rapidinspecti
onofweldedstruct
uraldet
ail
s.
Producti
onr at
einspect
ionofsmallcomponents.

Ov
eral
ladvantages.
Directi
ndicati
onofdefectlocation.
Ini
tiali
nspecti
onbyunskill
edl abour.
Somei ndicat
ionofsub-sur
f acedefectsbutofl
owsensi
ti
vi
ty.
Notcr i
ti
call
ydependentonsur f
acecondit
ion.

Ov
eral
ll
imitat
ions.
Nousef ornon-magneti
cmat er
ial
s.
Defectdet ect
ioncr
iti
cal
lydependentonali
gnmentacr
ossmagnet
icf
iel
d.
Sub-surfaceflawsrequi
respeci
alprocedur
es.

Saf
ety
Moder
atecar
eneededi
nhandl
i
ngel
ect
ri
cal
equi
pmentandf
lammabl
efl
uids.

RADI
OGRAPHY

GammaRadi
ogr
aphy
.

Ty
peofoperat
ion.
Stat
ic-devel
opmentmaybemechani
sed.

Equi
pment.
Radioact
ivei
sotopei
nstor
agecont
ainer.Remot ehandl
i
nggear.Li
ghtproof
cassett
e.Phot
ographi
cdevel
opmentfacil
it
ies.Darkr
oom andi
l
luminatorfor
64
 65
assessment
.

Modeofoperation.
Gammar ays,si
mi l
art oX- raysbutofshorterwav el
engt h,areemitt
ed
continuouslyfrom thei sotope.Itcannotbe‘ swit
chedof f
’sowhennoti nuse,
iti
skepti naheav ystoragecont ainerthatabsorbsradi at
ion.Theypass
thr
ought hewor ktobei nspected.Partsofthewor kpr esenti
ngless
obstructi
ont ogammar ays,suchascav it
iesorincl
usions, all
owincreased
exposur eofthef il
m.Thef ilmisdev el
opedt oform aradiographwi t
hcav i
ti
es
orinclusionsindicatedbydar keri
mages.Sect ionthicknessi ncr
eases(such
aswel d)appearasl essdensei mages.

Oper
ati
ngparamet
ers.
Wavel
engt
hofradi
ati
on 0.
001-0.015nm
0.
01-1nm ( 1.25MeV-80KeV)
Portabi
li
ty good(exceptforcontai
ner)
Access good
Exposureti
me 1second-24hour s
Thicknessrange upto250mm
Minimum defectsi
ze 1%oft hickness

Mat
eri
als.
Mostwel
dabl
emat
eri
alscanbei
nspect
ed.

Ty
picalweldingappli
cati
ons.
Sit
ei nspect
ion.
Panor amicexposuref
orsmal
lwor
k.

Adv
ant
ages,
li
mit
ati
ons,
consumabl
esandsaf
etyasf
orX-
rayr
adi
ogr
aphy
.

X-
rayRadi
ogr
aphy
.

Ty
peofoperat
ion.
Stat
icortranspor
tabl
e.

Equi
pment.
X-r
aytube.St
andandcontrol
gear
.Light
proofcassett
e.Photogr
aphic
devel
opmentfaci
l
iti
es.Dar
kroom andil
l
uminati
onf orassessment
.

Modeofoper ati
on.
X-ray sareemi tt
edf rom thetubeandpasst hr
ought hewor kt
obeinspect
ed.
Part softhewor kpr esentinglessobstr
ucti
ont oX-r
ays,suchascavi
ti
esor
inclusions,all
owi ncreasedexposur eofthefi
l
m.Thef i
l
mi sdevel
opedto
form ar adiographwi thcav i
ti
esorincl
usionsindi
catedbydarkeri
mages.
Sect i
ont hi
cknessi ncreases( suchasweldunder-bead)appearasl
essdense
images.

Oper
ati
ngpar
amet
ers.
65
66
Tubev olt
age 10-500kV
Tubecur r
ent 10-250mA
Powerconsumpt ion 1-10kW
Portabi
li
ty fai
r
Access fair
Exposuretime 1sec-10mi n
Thicknessrange upto100mm
Minimum defectsize 0.1%oft
hicknessX0.
05mm

Mat
eri
als.
Mostwel
dabl
emat
eri
alsmaybei
nspect
ed.

Ty
picalweldingappli
cati
ons.
Pipel
ines
Pressurevessels.

Ov
eral
ladv
antages.
Accurat
epi ct
ori
alpresent
ati
onofr
esul
ts.
Radiogr
aphsmaybekeptasaper manentr
ecor
d.
Notconfinedtowelds.

Ov
eral
ll
imit
ati
ons.
Personnelmustbeclearofar
eadur
ingexposur
e.
Cracksparal
l
eltofi
l
m maynotshowup.
Fil
m expensi
ve.

Consumables.
Fi
lm.
Pr
ocessingchemi
cal
s.
Water.
I
sotoperepl
acement
s-forgammar
adi
ogr
aphy

Saf
ety
Cumul
ati
ver
adi
ati
onr
iskt
oper
sonnel
requi
resst
ri
ngentpr
ecaut
ions.

DYEPENETRANTI
NSPECTI
ON

Ty
peofoper
ati
on.
Manualormechani
sed.

Equi
pment.
Mi
nimum -aer
osol
scont
aini
ngdye,devel
oper,cleaner
.
Maxi
mum -Tanks,
workhandl
inggear,
ult
ra-
violetlamp.

66
 67
Modeofoper ation.
Aspeci aldyeisappl i
edtothesur f
aceofthear t
icl
etobet ested.Asuit
able
timei ntervalal
lowsi ttosoakintoanysurfacedefects.Thesur f
aceisthen
freedf rom surplusdy eandthedy einthecrackrevealedbyeither:
applyi
nga
whi tepowderdev eloperint
owhicht hedyeisabsorbedpr oducingacolour
indication,
or,il
lumi nati
ngwi thultr
a-vi
oletl
i
ghtunderwhi chthedy efl
uoresces,t
hatis,
emi tsv i
sibleli
ght.Thismustbedonewher enormal li
ghti
ngissubdued.

Oper
ati
ngparameter
s.
Port
abi
li
ty excel
l
ent(foraer
osols)
Access good
Mini
mum defectsi
ze 0.
025mm wi de
Ti
me 30minutesapprox.

Mat
eri
als.
Any-nonpor
ous.

Ty
picalwel
dingappli
cati
ons.
Rootrunsinpi
pebuttwelds.
Leakpathsincontai
ner
s.

Ov
eral
ladvantages.
Lowcost .
Directindi
cati
onofdefectl
ocat
ion.
Ini
tialexaminat
ionbyunski
ll
edlabour
.

Ov
eral
ll
imitat
ions.
Surfacedefect
sonlydetected.
Defectscannotreadi
lybereweldedduet ot
rappeddy
e.
Roughwel dsproducespuri
ousindicat
ions.

Saf
ety
.
Dy
eandpr
opel
l
antgaseshav
elowf
lashpoi
nts.

REPAI
RBYWELDI
NG

I
NTRODUCTI
ON

Therepairofdef
ectsthatoccurduringweldi
ngr angesfr
om si
mpl ewel
dingoperati
onsto
i
mpr ov
ewel dprofil
etoextensi
v emetalr
emov alandsubsequentweldi
ngtorecti
fy
ext
ensivecracki
ng.Repairoffabri
cati
ondefectsisgeneral
l
yeasiert
hanrepairofser
v i
ce
fai
l
uresbecauset heweldingprocedur
eusedf orfabri
cat
ionmaybef ol
lowedduringrepai
r.
Therepairofser
vicefai
luresmaybedi ff
icul
tbecauseaccessmaybehazar dousandt he
67
68
weldi
ngproceduresusedf ortheori
ginal
fabri
cat
ionmaybeimpossibletoappl
y .
Thissect
ionconsider
st heprocedur
esandt heunder
lyi
ngmetal
lur
gicalpri
nci
plesforthe
repai
rofcarbonandalloysteels,
wroughtandcastir
on,andsomenon- f
err
ousalloys.

Typesofdefects.
Defect
srequir
ingrepai
rcanbedivi
dedi
ntot
wocat
egor
ies.
1. Fabr i
cati
ondefect
s.
2. Ser v
icefai
lur
es.

FABRI
CATI
ONDEFECTS.

Thecommonestdef ect sthatoccurdur i

ngt hemaki ngofawel dincl
udepor osity,sl
ag
i
nclusi ons,under cut ,l
ackoff usion, incompl et epenet r ati
onandsol i
dificati
oncr acking.
Defect sthatcanoccurdur ingwel dingbutwhi chmaynotappearunt ilupt o48hour saf t
er
weldi ngarehy drogeni nducedcr ackingandl amel lart eari
ngoft heparentmet al.
Repai rbywel dingi nv olvingr emov al ofdef ect i
vear easandr eplacementbysoundmat erial
cancostupt otent imesasmuchasdeposi tingsimi l
arquant i
ti
esofwel dmet al correctl
y
i
nt hef ir
stplace.Ther eforei tisimpor tantt oav oidunaccept abledef ect sanditcanbean
economi cproposi tioni nmanycasest ocar ryoutf airlylargescal eprocedur etest sbef or
e
fabricati
ngcr it
icalcomponent s.
Hav ingtakenal lpossi blepr ecaut i
onst omeetaccept ancest andards,def ectsinev i
tably
occur ,especiall
ywhenwel dingi scar r
iedoutmanual l
yr atherthanbyamechani sed
met hod.Toj udgewhet hercompl i
ancewi t
ht herequi rement sofacodeofpr acticehav e
beenmet ,itisnecessar yt obeabl et odet ectanydef ectsbynon- destructivetestingand
alsot odetermi net hei rdimensi onsandor ient at
ion.Codesr ecogniset hatflawlesswel ds
areal mosti mpossi bl et oobt ainandv ariousl evelsofaccept ancearel aiddowni nrespect
ofal l
owabl edef ects-por osity,inclusionset c.Planardef ectssuchascr acksorl ackof
fusionmaynear lyal way sbepr ohibitedandt henor mal procedur ei
st or epairthewel ds,
foll
owedbyr e-
inspect ion.

Ther epairproceduremaybev erysimpl eandmer elyrequi

r ethedeposi t
ionofmor eweld
met al torecti
fyunder cutbutt her epairofdeep- seateddefect ssuchasl amel lart
earingcan
entail ext
ensiveexcav ationandr ewelding.Thewel dingprocedur eforther epairweldcan
oft
enbev erysimilartot heor i
ginal weldingi
nr espectt opreheat ,t
ypeofconsumabl eand
weldi ngcondi t
ions.Howev erifcr acki
ngi spresentt hewel dingconditi
onsmayhav et obe
changedt oav oidthisdef ectinther epairweld.Ther ear ecasesi nwhichf abricat
ion
defect sar enotdiscov eredunt il
f i
nalinspecti
onandi fasub- secti
onor i
ginallyweldedi n
thef l
atposi ti
onisi ncorporatedi ntoal argestr
uct ureitispossiblethatrepai r
smayhav eto
becar ri
edouti nlessf avourablewel dingpositi
onssuchasv ert
icall
yorov erhead.
Incriticalcomponent sther epairprocedur emayhav etobequal if
iedbypr ocedur etests
particularlyi
ffracturetestr equirement sarespeci fi
ed.

Incaseswher eext ensiverecti

fi
cationwoul dber equiredtomeetcoder equi
rements,
experiencehasshownt hatconsi
der ablesav ingsinbot hcostandt imecanbeobt ainedif
thesignifi
canceoft hedef ect
spr esentisassessedonaf i
tnessf orpurposebasis.This
i
nv olv
escal cul
at i
onoft hemaximum gr owt hofdef ectsunderf ati
guel oadi
ngandt he
requir
edt oughnessl evelsofweldmet al
, parentplateandHAZt oav oi
dbr i
tt
lefr
acture
duringthepeakl oadingsofast ructure.Theappl i
cationoff i
tnessf orpurposecri
teri
ahas
i
nsomecasesr esultedi nsomeinspect ionaut horit
iesaccept i
ngdef ectsthatexceedthe
l
imi t
sofcoder equi r
ement s.
68
 69

SERVI
CEFAI
LURE

Servicefai l
ure,inthecontextofthissection,consistsofcrackscausedmai nl
ybyf at
igue,
brit
tl
ef r
act ure,str
esscorrosionorcr eep.Insomecasespl antshutdownmaybenecessar y
i
mmedi atelyacr ackisdiscov er
edif,forexampl e,i
tisfoundbyl eaki
ngofacontainment
vessel,thecr ackhav i
ngpr opagatedfrom insidethroughthev esselwal
l.I
nsomer are
casesaf atiguecrackwillreli
evethest r
essesi nahighlystressedareaandwillr
unoutof
steam andcanbel ef
twit
houtr epair
.Inothercasesf ati
guecr ackgrowthcanbemoni t
ored
byper i
odi calinspecti
onunt i
lplantshutdownf orr
epairisconvenient
.

Brit
tl
ef ractur
eisf or
tunatel
yar elat
ivelyrareoccur rencecompar edwi thf ati
gue,butwheni t
occursitcanbef armor espectacularleadingtodi saster
ssuchast hebr eaki
ngi nhalfof
ships,orthef r
agment ati
onofpr essurev essels.Whet herrepairi
sf easibledependsont he
proporti
onoft hest r
uctureremainingint act,
andr epaircanr angefrom r emov alofthe
crackedar eaandwel ding,t
ot hepre-fabr i
cati
onofnewsub- sections, whichar ewelded
i
ntopl ace.Thel at
terexpedientisconsi deredtober ebui
l
dingr at
hert hanr epair.

Therepairofser vicecr acksmaybedi ffi

cultforoneoral lofthef ol
lowi ngr easons:
1. Accessmayber estricted.e.g.insideami newi nder.
2. Pr eheatand/orpostwel dheatt r
eatment smaybedi ffi
cultorev eni mpossi bleto
appl
y.
e.g.becauseofr iskofdamaget omachi nedsur f
aces, plasti
cseal s,electri
cal
insulationet c.ort hepr esenceoff lammabl emat eri
als.
3. Thecomponentcannotgener allyber otatedintot hemostconv enientposi ti
onf or
wel ding.Ther eforepot entialwel dingmayhav etobeused.e. g.ci rcumf erential
seamsofapr essurev esselmayhav etober epairedint heov erheadposi ti
onby
manual weldingwher east hev essel wasor i
ginal
lyfabricatedbyr otatingitundera
SAW machi ne.Thechangei nwel dingpr ocessandposi tionofwel dingcoul daf fect
thef racturet oughness.Ther eforecompl exwel dpr ocedur etestsmayber equired
fort her epairofcr it
icalit
emsofpl ant.
4. Theenv ironmentmaybehazar dous.e.g.heat ,nuclearradiation, under gr
ound.

GENERALTECHNI
QUESFORTYPI
CALREPAI
RS

Met
alRemov
al.

Thedef ectmaybei nasi nglerunf il

letwel drequir
ingonlyasmal lamountofmet altobe
remov edori tmaybeal argecr ackext endingdeepi ntopar entmet al.
Forr emov i
ngmet al r
apidlythemostconv enientmet hodisai rarcgougi nginwhicht he
met ali
smel tedbyacar bonar candi sblownoutoft hecutbyast ream ofcompr essedai
r,
whichpassest hroughhol esinaspeci all
ydesignedel ectr
odehol der .Arc-
airgougingcan
beusedonbot hf errousandnon- fer
r ousmet alsbutt hesurfacef i
nishisgener al
l
ynotas
goodasobt ainedbyoxy acet yl
enegougi ngandt hegougedsur facef ini
shallowst heuseof
non-dest ructivetest i
ngbydy epenet rantormagnet i
cpar t
icleinspect i
ontochecki f
defectshav ebeencompl etelyremov ed.
Othert her mal met hodsofmet alremov al,
lesscommonl yused, areoxy gen-arcor
oxyacet ylenegougi ng.Mechani cal met hodsincludepneumat icchisels,hi
gh-speedr ot
ary
tungstencar bidebur rsandgr indingwheel s.

69
70
Gr
oov
eshape.

Themi nimum amountofmet alshouldber emov edf oreconomi creasonsbuti snecessar y

topr oduceagr oovewi deenoughf oraccessandmani pul ati
onofthewel dingel ect rodeor
fi
ll
erwi re.Widthsmayhav etobei ncr
easedi far epairi nvolvesweldingint heov er head
positionorifthesur f aceoft hegr oovehast obebut t
er edwi thalayerofwel dmet alofone
composi t
ionbef oref i
ll
ingthegr oov ewi thwel dmet al ofadi ff
erentcomposi tiont opr event
weldmet alcracking.
Whilei ti
smor ecommont ocar r
youtr epairwi t
hwel dmet alofonecomposi tiononl y,i
t
mayst i
llbeadv antageoust ouset hebut t
eringt echni quepar t
icul
arl
yi nl
argegr oov esto
reducet heef f
ectofshr inkageacr osst hejoint.Eachl ay erofwel dmet alhasal ar gerf r
ee
surfacet hanitwoul di fthewel dconsi stedofhor izont allayersasinnor mal fabricat i
on
practiceandt hisallowscont racti
ont ot akepl acef reelywi t
hmi ni
mum st rainont hepar ent
met al.Thisreducest her i
skofcr ackingi nthewel dort heHAZandal soreducest he
tendencyf ordistortionoft hecomponent .

WELDI
NGPROCESSES

Thefusionweldingprocessescommonl yappli
edt orepai rweldingareasf
ollows:
1. Manual met alar
cwel dingwithf
luxcoatedel ectrodes.
2. Fl uxcoredar cweldingwi t
hcoil
edtubularelectrodes, ei
thergasshi
eldedorsel
f-
shi
elded.
3. MI Gweldingwi t
hcoi l
edsolidwir
eandi ner
tshi eldinggas.
4. MAGwel dingwithcoiledsoli
dwireandact iveshi el
dinggas.
5. TI Gwel di
ngwi thanon- consumabletungstenel ectrodeandaseparatelyfedf
il
ler
wir
e.
6. Oxy acet
ylenewelding.

Formostf errousalloysMMAwel dingist heprefer

redrepai
rmet hodbecauseofi ts
adaptabil
i
t ytodiff
icultsit
uationswher eaccessmayber estrict
ed,theangl eofincli
nati
on
tothewor kpiecenotbei ngascr i
ticalasthatofawel dingguni nthesemi -
automat i
cMIG
orMAGpr ocesses.
Fluxcoredar cweldingisusedext ensi vel
yi nsteel
foundri
esf orrepairofcastingswhich
canbeposi t
ionedsot hatwel dingcanbecar r
iedoutintheflatpositi
oni nwhichmaxi mum
weldi
ngcur r
entanddeposi t
ionr atescanbeused.
MI Gweldingi sgenerall
yfavour edf ornon- f
errousmateri
alsandi sthef i
rstchoicefor
weldi
ngal umi ni
um alloysbecauseoft heeaseofMI Gweldingalumi nium compar edwit
h
MMAwel dingandf orhighwel dingqual it
y .

SUMMARY

Bef
or eaweldi
ngr epairi
scarri
edoutt heneedforrepairmustbecarefull
yconsi dered.Ifa
componentorstructurecontai
nsdef ect
sofaknownsi ze,
whetherthesear efabricat
ionor
ser
vicedef
ects,af i
tnessforpurposeevaluat
ionmayshowt hem t
obei nsignifi
cant,thus
savi
ngthecostofr epair
.Thetimer equi
redtoundertakearepai
risanotherf actorthat
mustbetakenintoconsi der
ati
on.

Whenar
epai
risshowntobenecessar
y,thefactor
stobeconsider
edincl
udet
hef
oll
owi
ng:
1. Theextentofther
epai
randpossibleconsequencessuchasdi
stor
ti
on.
70
 71
2. Theaccessf orwel dingandwel di
ngposi
ti
on.
3. Requirementsf orpreheatand/orpostheat.
4. Choiceofwel dingconsumabl esandweldi
ngprocedur
etoavoi
dpreorpostwel
d
heattreat
ment .
5. Themechani cal pr
oper t
iesrequir
edi
ntheweldmetalandHAZandtheneedfor
proceduretests.

Consi
der
ationsdur ingar epai
r:
1. Repai rprocedur e.
2. Wel dersqual if
iedt orepairprocedure.
3. Repai rcorrectlyidentif
iedandmar ked.
4. Ty peofexcav ati
on.( gouging/gr i
nding)
5. Moni tori
ngr emov al.
6. Shapeofexcav ation.
7. NDTonexcav ati
on.
8. Moni tori
ngr ewel ding.
9. NDTonr epairedar ea(asperor igi
nal NDT)

Havingsui tableweldi
ngpr oceduresandf ul
fi
ll
ingthemetall
urgicalr
equir
ementsar
ethe
fi
rsttwof actorsforasuccessf ul
r epair
.
Thet hir
df actori
sahi ghlevelofwel derandsuper vi
soryski
llbecausetheappl
i
cati
onof
thefirstt
wof act
orsundert hedif
ficultconditi
onsunderwhichsomecompl exr
epair
sare
carri
edoutdependsont heexpertiseoft hesepersonnel.

CONSUMABLES

Wel
dingconsumabl
esar
e:
71
72
El
ectr
odes.
Wir
e( l
engt
hsorr
oll
s).
Fl
uxes.
Gases.

Eachconsumabl
eiscri
ti
cal
inr
espectto:
Speci
fi
cati
on/suppl
i
er. Condi
ti
on. Tr
eat
ment(
ifany
).

Takef orexampl eacommonMMAcov er

edelect
rode.Thi swi l
lbetoaspecifi
edt ypebut
anaddi t
ional r
equirementmaybet hatonlyoneort wosuppl iers/manufacturersare
acceptable.Theel ectr
odemustbei ngoodconditionwi thregardtocor
rosionand
mechani caldamageandsost orageandmechani cal handli
ngar ei
mportant.I
ft he
el
ectroder equiresheattr
eatmentforlowhydrogenpot enti
althent
hetemper ature,t
ime
andov encondi tionrequi
reat
tenti
on.Theissueofel ectrodestothewelderforuseandt he
proceduresf orrecycli
ngandscrapmustbedeal twi thcare.

Therearemanycodesinexist
encethatcovert
hevari
ousconsumabl
es.Theonly
reasonabl
erulei
stokeeptowhatisspecif
iedunl
ess(andonl
yunl
ess)awrit
tenorderf
or
vari
ati
onisrecei
ved.

I
DENTI
FICATI
ONOFELECTRODES

BS639.

IntheBSsyst
em (
standardBS639:1986)f
orcar
bonandcarbonmanganesest
eel
sthe
elect
rodemaybepart
ial
lyorcompl
etel
yspeci
fi
edbyalet
terornumber
.

Forexampl
eanel
ect
rodemaybespeci
fi
edt
hus:

E 51 33 B 160 2 0 (
H)

cov eredel ect

rode
strengt h
toughness
cov eri
ng
effici
ency( %)
posi t
ional capabi
li
ty
electricalcapabil
i
ty
l
owhy drogenpotenti
al

Thef
ir
stfourpart
softhecodearecompul
sor
y,compr
isi
ng:
E cover
edelect
rode
51 St r
ength
33 Toughness
B Coati
ng

(Theessenti
alsar
e“STC“-str
ength,t
oughness,
cov
eri
ng)
Thedetail
sforeachf
act
orareasfoll
ows:

72
 73
Fi
rstgroup-str
ength.
El
ectrodedesi
gnati
on. E43 E51
Tensi
lestr
ength-N/ mm2 430-550 330
Mini
mum y i
eldstr
ess-N/mm2 510-650 380

Secondgroup-t oughness.
Fir
stdi
git
. 0 1 2
3 4 5
Temperat
ur eforimpact notspecif
ied +20 0 -
20
-30 -40
val
ueof28J, C.
Seconddigit 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Temperat
ur eforimpact notspeci
fi
ed +200 -
20 -30 -
40
-50 -60 -
70
val
ueof47J, C.

Cov
eri
ng.
B Basic
BB Higheffici
ency
C Cell
ulosic
O Oxidi
sing
R Rutil
e(medi um coati
ng)
RR Rutil
e(heavycoat i
ng)
S othertypes

Ef
fi
ciency
.
%recov
eryt
othenear
est10%(
110)

Posi
ti
onal
Capabil
it
y.
1 allposi
ti
ons
2 allposi
ti
onsexceptv er
ti
caldown
3 fl
atand, forfi
l
letwel
ds,hori
zont
alvert
ical
4 fl
at
5 fl
at,vert
icaldown,andforfi
ll
etwel
dshor i
zont
al v
ertical
9 anypositionorcombinati
onofpositi
onsnotclassif
iedabov
e

El
ect r
ical
capacit
y.
Code. 0 1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9
DCr ecommended asrecommended
el
ectrodepolar
it
y. bymanufactur
er +/
- - + +/
-
- + +/- - +
ACmi nimum open notsuit
ablefor
ci
rcuitvol
tage. useonAC 50 50 50
70 70 70 80 80 80

Lowhy
drogenpot
ent
ial
.
Indi
cat
eshydr
ogencont
rol
(15ml
/100g)
73
74

EN499.

Thei
dent
if
icat
ionofcov
eredel
ect
rodesi
nEN499i
sasf
oll
ows:

E 46 3
1Ni B 54 H5

cov eredel ect

rode
strengt h
toughness
chemi calcomposi ti
on
cov eri
ng
effici
encyandel ectr
ical
capabi
l
ity
posi t
ional capabil
it
y
l
owhy drogenpot enti
al

cov
eredel
ect
rode.

str
ength.
Symbol mini
mum y
iel
dst
rengt
h(N/
mm2) t
ensi
l
est
rengt
h(N/
mm2)
minimum el
ongati
on
35 355
440-570 22%
38 380
470-600 20%
42 420 500-640
20%
46 460 530-680
20%
50 500 560-720
18%

toughness.
Symbol Z A 0 2 3
4 5 6
Temper at
urefor no +20 0 -
20 -
30 -
40 -50 -
60 mi
nimum av
erage
requi
rement
i
mpactener gyof47J,
C

chemi
calcomposi
tion.
Symbol none Mo MnMo 1Ni 2Ni
74
 75
3Ni Mn1Ni 1NiMo
% Mn 2.
0 1.4 1.4-
2.0 1.
4 1.
4
1.
4 1.4-2.
0 1.
4
% Mo - 0.
3-0.
6 0.
3-0.6 - -
- - 0.
3-0.
6
% Ni - - - 0.
6-1.
2
1.
8-2.
6 2.
6-3.8 0.
6-1.
2 0.6-
1.2

Z = anyot
heragr
eedcomposi
ti
on.

covering.
A aci
dcov ering
C cel
lulosiccov eri
ng
R rut
il
ecov ering
RR r ut
il
et hickcov er
ing
RC r ut
il
ecel lulosiccov er
ing
RA r ut
il
eaci dcov eri
ng
RB r ut
il
ebasi ccov eri
ng
B basiccov er i
ng
effi
ciency.
Symbol 1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8
Weldmet al
recovery% 105 105 105125 105125 105160
105160 160 160
Typeof
current AC+DC DC AC+DC DC AC+DC
DC AC+DC DC

posi
ti
onal
capabil
it
y.
1. al lpositi
ons
2. al lpositi
onsexceptv er
ti
caldown
3. f latbuttweld,
flatf
il
letweld,andhori
zont
alv
ert
ical
fil
l
etwel
d
4. f latbuttweld,
flatf
il
letweld
5. v erti
cal downandposi t
ionsaccordi
ngto3.

l
owhy dr
ogenpot
ent
ial
.
Symbol H5 H10 H15
hydr
ogencont
entml/100g 5 10 15

AMERI
CANWELDI
NGSOCI
ETY.

Ident
ifi
cat
ionformanual
met
alar
cwel
dingconsumabl
esf
orcar
bonand
carbon/manganesest
eel
s
A5. 1-81

75
76
E 70 1 8
G

Ar
cwel
dingel
ect
rode

Tensi
l
est
rengt
hinpoundspersquar
einch(
PSI
)

Wel
dingposi
ti
on1.
-al
lposi
ti
onal
,2.-f
lat&HVf
il
let
s

Fl
uxcov
eri
ng,
cur
rentt
ype,
andpol
ari
ty

Lowal
loysteel(
all
oycontent
)
(
contentincodeA5.5-81)

ELECTRODES.

Ruti
leelectrode.
Agener alpurposeel ect rode,whichgivesthebestappear anceandiseasyt
ouse.
Drying-easy .100Cf oronehourandst or
edatambi entforshelfl
if
e.
Basicelectrode.
Lowhy dr
ogenappl i
cations.
Drying-bakeat450Cf oronehourandst oreat150Cf orshelfli
fe(i
nacal
ibrat
ed
oven).
Issue-issuedi nsmal l batchesinheat edquiver
s( 70C).
rebakeordi scardaf t
eruse.
recordnumberofr ebakes, nor
mal l
ythreeti
mesonl y.
N.B. Ther eist heopt i
onofv acuum packedel ectr
odes,whichhaveati
mel i
mit
whenopened.
Cell
ulosicelectr
ode.
Usual l
yusedi nstovepi pewel di
ng( verti
caldown).
Highhy drogen,therefor ehighvoltage,ther
eforehighpenetrat
ion.
Nodr yingrequired,stor eindrycondi t
ions.

El
ect
rodeChecks.
Si
ze- diamet
er,
length,quanti
ty.
Type- speci
fi
cat
ion,grade,t
radename.
Condi
ti
on- f l
uxdamage.

Theelectr
odecorewir
eisideal
l
ysi
mil
ari
ncomposi
ti
ontothepar
entmat
eri
al,
though
gener
allytheel
ect
rodewir
eissimi
l
ari
ncomposi
ti
ontomil
dsteel
.

FLUX.

Thef
luxhasawi der
angeofproperti
esandusesi
ncludi
ng:
addi
ngelementstotheweldpool
shi
eldi
ngtheweldpool (prot
ect
ivesl
agcoveri
ng)
76
 77
stabili
singandshi eldi
ngt hear c
thepr otecti
vesl agcontrolsandslowscooli
ng
givesappear ancecharacterist
icst
ot hef
ini
shedwel
d
aidsini gnit
ion
directsthear c
shieldingofsol idi
fi
cati
on
fl
uxing( cleaning)acti
on
helpssuppor tweld(i.
e.av iscousfl
ux)
aidsinmet al r
ecovery

WELDI
NGPOSI
TIONS
Theeasi estposi t
ionforwel di
ngi stheflatordownhandposi t
ion.Anydeviat
ionf r
om this
position, ot herthansmal l
dev iationsi
nsl opemakessuccessf ulweldi
ngmuchmor e
diff
icult.Thi si
sbecausegr avit
ydoesnothel pi nposit
ioningoft heweldmet al.
Posit i
onal welding( ot
herthanf lat)of
tenr eli
esonar cforceandsur facetensioneffect;
thereforet hewel dingpositi
onmayaf fectt hemechani calproperti
esofthewel dandt he
l
ikelihoodofdef ects.
Forsi mpl icitythev ari
ouswel dingpositi
onsar ecodedasshownbel ow.

BS499Wel
dingPosi
ti
ons.

PE PD

PF

PC

PG

77
78

PA PB

PA Fl
at.
PB Hori
zontalvert
ical
.
PC Hori
zontal.
PD Hori
zontaloverhead.
PE Overhead.
PF Vert
icalup.
PG Vert
icaldown.

ASMEWel
dingPosi
ti
ons.
r
otat
e
r
otat
e

45

45 45

1F 1F 1F

r
otat
e

2F 2F 2FR

78
 79

3F 4F 4F

4F 5F 5F

FI
LLETWELDS

79
80
r
otat
e

1G 1G

2G 2G

3G 4G

45

5G 6G
BUTTWELDS
MANUALMETALARCWELDI
NG

Manual metalarc(MMA)wel di
ng,al
soknownasshi eldedmet alar
cwel ding(
SMAW),
sti
ck,andelectr
icarcweldi
ngisaconstantcur
rentdroopingarcpr ocess.
(Thearcprocessisdivi
dedintotwotypes–droopingandf l
at.Thisreferstot
hei
rvol
t-
amp
80
 81
out putcharacteristics.Byusi ngadr oopi ngchar acteri
stic,analter
ati
oni narcl engthgives
av erysmal lchangei ncur r
ent .)
Inmanual met alar cwel di
ngt heheatsour ceisanel ectri
car c,
whichisf ormedbet weena
consumabl eelect rodeandt hepar entpl ate.Thear ci sformedbymoment ar
il
yt ouchingthe
ti
poft heelectrodeunt othepl at eandt henl ift
ingtheelectrodet ogiveagapof3mm –6
mm bet weent het ipandt hepl ate.Whent heel ectr
odet ouchest heplate,curr
ent
commencest of l
owandasi ti swi thdrawnt hecur r
entcont inuestoflowi nthef orm ofa
smal lsparkacr osst hegap, whi chwi l
lcauset heairint hegapt obecomei onised,ormade
conduct iv
e.Asar esul tofthi st hecur rentcont i
nuest oflowev enwhent hegapi squite
l
ar ge.Theheatgener atedissuf f
ici
entt omel tthepar entplateandalsomel ttheendoft he
electrode–t hemol tenmet al sof ormedi stransfer
redassmal lglobulesacrosst hear c
i
nt othemol t
enpool .

Cor
ewi
re

Fl
uxcoat
ing
Ar
c
Sol
i
dif
iedsl
ag

Wel
dpool

Ty
peofoper
ati
on.
Manual.

ModeofOper
ati
on.

Arcmeltspar entplateandelectrodetoform awel dpoolthati

spr ot
ectedbyt he
fl
uxcover .Oper atoradjuststheelectr
odef eedrate,i
.e.handmov ement ,
tokeept he
arcl
engthconst ant.Slagmustber emov edafterdepositi
ngeachbead.Nor mal l
ya
smalldegr eeofpenet rati
on,requiri
ngplateedgepr eparati
on.Buttweldsinthick
pl
ate,orlar gefil
letsaredepositedinanumberofpasses.Thepr ocesscanal sobe
usedtodeposi tmet altoform asurfacewithalternati
vepropert
ies.

Equi
pment
.

Wel di
ngSet s.
Manual met alarcsetsar emanuf act
uredinar angeofsi zes, usuall
ydisti
nguished
bycur r
ent–not ethedut ycy cl
eatwhi chthecurrentisquot edwhencompar ing
sets.Enginepower edgener ator
sal l
owoperationawayf rom mai nssuppl i
es.
Electr
icalinputi ssingle-phaseat240v ol
tsforsmal l
erset s,and415v olt
s(2live
phasesofat hree-
phasesuppl y)forlar
gersets.
Outputi sACorDC.AConl ysetsneedanopenci rcuitvoltageof80v olt
storunall
el
ect r
odes.50v ol
tsissaf erandal l
owsmor ecur renttobedr awn, buti
slimit
edt o
general purposer util
eel ect
rodesonl y.
Acont rolont hesetadj ustscurrent–thecur r
entisshownei theronasi mplescale,
orforaccur atewor k,onamet er.

81
82

El
ect
rodehol
der Powersour
ce
El
ect
rode Wel
dinglead
on

Ar
c of
f
Wor
k

Cur
rent

MMAwel
dingset

Ear
thl
ead Wel
dingr
etur
n Pr
imar
ycabl
e

PowerSource.
Thewel di
ngmachi neconsi stsofapowersour cewi thweldi
ngleadandan
el
ectrodeholder.Thef uncti
onoft hepowersour ceistoprovi
dethevoltage
necessarytomai nt
ai nanar cbetweenthewor kpieceandtheendoftheel ect
rode.
Theamountofcur rentprovidedbythepowersour cecanbealter
edbyacont rolto
sui
tdiffer
entweldingcondi ti
ons.Powersourcemaysuppl ydir
ectcurr
entor
al
ternati
ngcurrenttot heelectr
ode.ACt r
ansformer sandDCgener at
orssupplyonly
onetypeofcur r
ent, buttr
ansformer-r
ecti
fi
erscanbeswi t
chedbetweenACandDC
output.

Wel
dingCabl es.
Thewel dingcurrentisconductedfrom thepowersour cetotheworkbymulti-
strand,insul
atedflexi
blecopperoralumi nium cables.Aret
urncabl
eisrequir
edt o
compl etetheweldingci r
cui
tbetweenthewor kandt hepowersource.Thesizeof
thecablemustbesuf f
ici
entforthemaximum out putoftheweldi
ngpowersour ce.
Theear thcableisat hi
rdcable,whichact sasasaf etydevi
ceintheeventofan
electr
icalfaul
t.

El
ect
rodeHolder.
Theholdershoul
dber el
ati
vel
yli
ght
,ful
l
yinsul
atedandr
atedf
oratl
eastmaxi
mum
powersourceoutput
.

Ret
urnClamp.
Thisi
sf ast
enedt otheworkorbenchonwhichthewor
kisplacedandcompl
etes
theweldingcir
cuit.Thesur
facecl
ampedshouldbecl
eanenoughtoall
owgood
metal
-t
o- metalcontact
.

WeldingShi eldorHelmet .
Awel dingshieldorhelmetisnecessar
yforpr
otecti
onfr
om ar
cr ayandheat ,and
t
hespat t
erfrom themoltenmetal.Thear
cisviewedthr
oughafilt
erthatreduces
t
hei ntensit
yoft heradi
ati
on,butall
owsasafeamountofli
ghttopassf orviewing
t
hewel dpool andtheendoftheelectr
ode.
Character
istics.

82
 83
El
ect
ri
cal
D.C.–Mor eport
able,usedforshopandsiteappl
icati
ons.Saf
erwithal oweropen
ci
rcuitvol
tage50v olt
s.
D.C.E.
P.–( el
ect
rodeposit
ive)Giv
esdeeppenetrati
on.Usedforf
il
letwel ds,fi
l
l+
cappasses
D.C.E.
N.–( el
ect
rodenegati
v e)Gi
vesshal
lowpenet r
ati
on.Usedf
or‘ openr oot
’
butt
s.
A.C.–Shopappl i
cati
ons.Opencircui
tvol
tage80v olt
s.

Weldi
ngVariabl
es.
Volt
s–Cont r
olsar
clengthandshapeoft heweld.
Amps–Cont rol
spenetrat
ion.
Runoutlengt
h–Cont rol
stravelspeed.
Togethert
heabovethreemai nweldi
ngparameterscont
rol
heati
nput
.
El
ectrodeAngl
es–Sl opeaffect
spenetrat
ion.Ti
l
tshouldbi
sectt
heangl
eoft
he
j
oint
.

Pr
inci
palConsumabl
es.(El
ectr
odes)
Basic–Lowhy dr
ogenpotential
.Usedon‘ crit
ical
’welds.
Ruti
le–Forgeneral
purposenon- cr
it
icalappli
cati
ons.
Cell
ulosi
c–Highinhydrogen.Usedf orv
er t
icaldown‘ st
ovepi
pe’wel
ding.
I
ronPower–Hi ghdepositi
oninflatandHVposi t
ions.Toughnessmaysuffer
.

Appl
i
cati
ons.
Pi
peli
nes
Nozzlesandnodes.
Medium andheavyfabr
icat
ions.
Si
teappli
cati
ons.

Ef
fectOfVar
iat
ionI
nPr
ocedur
e.

Ar
ctooshort
.
Tooshortanarcl
engthwi
ll
causei
rr
egul
arpi
l
ingoft
hewel
dmet
al.Ther
ippl
eswi
l
l
beirr
egul
arinhei
ghtandwi
dth.

Ar
ctool
ong.
Toolonganarclengt
hwi l
lcausethedeposi
ttobecourseri
ppledandflat
tert
han
nor
mal .Ther
ippl
eswill
beev enl
yspacedandthestop-
star
tcraterf
latandbli
ster
ed.

Tr
avel
t ooslow.
Aslowr at
eoftravelgiv
esawi der
,thickerdeposi
t,shor
tert
hannormal l
ength.Too
slowar at
eoftrav
el mayall
owt heslagt ofl
oodtheweldpoolcausingdif
fi
cultyin
contr
oll
ingdeposi
tion.Theri
ppleswillbecourseandev enl
yspaced,t
hestop-start
crat
erflat
.

Tr
avel
t oofast.
Afastr at
eoftrav
el gi
vesanar
rower,
thinnerdeposi
t,l
ongerthannor
mallengt
h.
Toof astarat
eoft r
avelmaypr
eventadequateinter
fusi
onwi t
hthepar
entmetal.
Therippleswil
lbeelongat
edandthestop-st
artcrat
erporous.
83
84
Cur
renttoolow.
Al owwel dingcurrentt
endstocausethewel
dmet al
topi
leupwithoutadequat
e
penetrationintotheparentmetal
.Toolowawel
dingcur
rentmakestheslagdif
fi
cul
t
tocont rol.Theri
ppleswill
beir
regul
arwit
hsl
agtr
appedintheval
leysandthestop-
startcraterirr
egular
.

Cur
renttoohigh.
Ahighwel di
ngcurrentgiv
esadepositt
hatisfl
att
erandwiderthannor
mal wit
h
excessiv
epenetrat
ionintothepar
entmetal
.Toohighawel di
ngcurr
entcauses
consider
ablespatt
er.Therippl
eswil
lbecourseandevenl
yspaced.Thestop-
star
t
crat
erhollowandpor ous.

Cor
rectprocedure.
Withcorrectarclength,r
ateoftr
avel
,weldi
ngconditi
onsandtechnique,t
herun
deposit
edmet al
wi l
lberegul
arinthi
cknessandwidth,wi
thaneatsmoot hfi
nely
ri
ppledsurface,fr
eef r
om porosi
tyoranyslagent
rapment.Thestop-st
artcr
aterwi
l
l
besound.

MMAWel
dDef
ect
sandCauses.

Lackoffusion/penetrati
on.
Tool argeanel ectr
odef orweldpr
eparati
on.
Incorrectangleofel ect
rodeforweldprepar
ati
on.
Cur r
entt oolow.
Travel speedtoohi gh.
Wr ongpol ar
ity.
Poori ncorporati
onoft ackwelds.
Incorrectjoi
ntprepar at
ion.
Arct oolong.

Por
osi
ty.
Dampel ectrode.
Incorrectelectrodeforparentmater i
al.
Currenttool ow.
Currenttoohi gh.
Arct oolong.
Ineffecti
vef i
ll
ingofwel dcrat
ers.
Badweav ingtechniques.
Mat erial
condi ti
on.e.g.scal
e,oil
,rust,damp,
andpai
nt.

Sl
aginclusion.
Trav elspeedtoosl ow.
Electrodet oolarge.
Inadequat einter-
runcleani
ng.
Wel dingov eri
rregularprof
il
es.
Arct ool ong.
Variationsintravelspeed.
Jointconf igur
ation.
Under
cut .
84
 85
Currentt
oohigh.
Excessiv
eweav i
ng.
I
ncor r
ectangl
e.
Excessiv
etravel
speed.

Spat
ter
.
Curr
enttoohigh.
Arctoolong.
I
ncorrectangl
eofel
ect
rode.

Ot
hert
ypicaldefect
sassoci
atedwi
thMMAi
ncl
ude:
Excesspenet r
ati
on.
Overlap.
Str
ayf lash.
Cratercracks.

TUNGSTENI
NERTGASWELDI
NG

Tungsteniner
tgasweldi
ngisaconst
antcur
rentdroopi
ngar
cprocess.I
tisalsoknownas
TIG,gastungst
enarcweldi
ng–GTAW, wolf
ram i
nertgas–WIG,andunderthetrade
namesofar gonar
candheliar
c.

Ty
peofOper
ati
on.
Usual
l
ymanual
,butcanbemechani
sed.

ModeofOper ati
on.
Anar ci smaintai
nedbetweent heendofatungst enel ectr
odeandt hewor k.The
elect
rodei snotconsumedandt hecur
rentiscont r
olledbyt hepowersour ce
setti
ng.Theoper atormustcont r
olt
hearclengthandal soaddf il
l
ermet alifneeded
toobt ainthecorr
ectweld;consequent
ly,ahighdegr eeofski l
lisneededf orthe
bestresul t
s.Thearcisunstabl
eatlowcur r
ents.Speci alprovi
sionismadef or
start
ing( hi
ghfrequencyorsurgeinj
ect
ion)andf orwel dingthinmaterial
s( pul
se
TIG).
Shiel
dinggas

Fi
l
lerr
od Tungst
enel
ect
rode

Ar
c Compl
etedwel
d

Wel
dpool

85
86
DCTI
G.
InDCwel dingt heel ectrodeusual lyhasnegat i
vepolarit
y,whi chreducest her iskof
overheat
ingwhi chmayot herwiseoccurwi t
hel ectr
odeposi ti
v e.Thei onisedgasor
plasmast ream canat tainat emper atureofsev eralt
housanddegr eescent igrade.
Consequent lywi thinthenor mal rangeofwel di
ngcur r
ents( 5–300A)r apidcool i
ng
canbeef fected.
TheTI Gtorchal lowst heel ectrodet oextendbey ondt heshieldinggasnozzl e.
Thear ci
si gnit
edt ohighf requency( HF)pul ses,orbyshor tci r
cuitingtheel ect r
ode
tothewor kpieceandwi thdrawingatapr esentlowcur rent.I
nDCwel di
ngt hear cis
intheform ofacone, thesizeofwhi chi sdeterminedbyt hecur r
ent ,t
heel ectrode
diameterandt hev ert
exangl e.D.C.E.N.isusedf orallmaterialsexceptal umi nium
andmagnesi um, usuall
yusi ngat hor i
atedorcommi tt
edt ungst enel ect
rode.

ACTI
G.
Wi t
hACt hepol arityosci ll
atesat50Hz.Thet echniqueisusedi nwel dingal umi nium
andmagnesi um al l
oy s, wer etheper i
odsofel ectr
odeposi ti
v eensur eef ficient
cathodiccl eaningoft het enaciousoxi def il
m ont hesur faceoft hemat erial.
Compar edwi thDCwel ding, t
hedi sadv ant agesoft het echni quel i
ei nt hel ow
penet r
ationcapaci t
yoft hear cand, ast hear cext i
nguishesateachcur rentr ev ersal
,
inthenecessi t
yf orahi ghopenci rcuitv ol
tage( t
ypicall
y100Vandabov e),or
continuousl yappl i
edHF, t
ost abi l
iset hear c.Lowpenet rationr esult sinpar ticular
from thebl untor‘ balled’ electrode, whi chi scausedbyt hehi ghdegr eeofel ect rode
heatingdur i
ngtheposi tivehalfcy cle.Wher edeeppenet rationisr equi red, useofDC
wi t
hhelium ast heshi el dinggas, whi chdoesnotsuf ferfrom t hesedi sadv ant ages
andi ssomewhatt oler antt osur f aceoxi de, maybeanal ternative.Useofhel i
um,
howev eri snotpar ticular lyattract i
v ebecauseofi tshighcostand, int heabsenceof
thecleani ngact i
onoft hear c,thewel dpool /parentmet al boundar iescanbe
somewhati ndi
st i
nct ,thusmaki ngi tdi ffi
cul ttomoni torandcont r
ol t
hebehav iourof
thewel dpool .ACusesazi rconi atedt ungst enf l
attipelectrode.St artscanbe
scratch,liftorhighf requency–HFbei ngt hebest .

Wel
dingVar i
ables.
Amper age controlsfusi
onandpenet r
ation.
Volt
age controlsarcl
engt h.
Travelspeed controlsdepthofpenetr
ation.
Gasf l
owr at
e protectsweldfrom atmosphere.
El
ectrodeextensi
onaffectspenetr
ation.

Wel
dingSet s.
Setsar emanuf acturedinar angeofsi zes,identif
iedbycur rent .Alsoimportanti
s
whet hert heout puti sDConl y,DC/ ACorAConl y
.ACi sneededf ormostwor kon
al
umi nium.
Electricalinputmaybesi nglephaseat240vor415v ,orthreephaseat415v .Onthe
normal DCorACout putan‘ HFuni t
’ superimposesahi ghv oltagehi ghfrequency
suppl ytocauseaspar kfrom el ectrodet opar entmet alwhent hewel derwantsto
startt hear c.Alternativ
ely,anel ectroniccont rolswitchesthecur rentonjustasthe
wel derlift
st heel ectrodeof fthewor k–‘ touchst art
’.Theout puthasadr ooping
char acteristi
c,sobyswi t
chingof ftheHFuni titcanbeusedf ormanual metalar
c.
Alternat i
vely,anadd- onHFuni tcanconv ertamanual metal arcsett oTIG.
Thewel derof tenusesaf ootswi tchwi redt othesett oswi tchonandof f,andto
86
 87
giveafinecont rolofcurr
ent.’
Slowst art
’ and‘curr
entdelay’contr
olsall
owcur rentto
ri
seandf allslowlyatthebeginningandendofawel d,forexampl eweldingrounda
pipe.Asforgasshi el
dedmet alarcsetsacy l
i
nderholderand/ orawatercoolingunit
forusewit hheav i
erguns,maybebui l
tin.
Accessoriesinclude:weldi
ngr etur
ncabl e,connectorst
oset ,clampsorcl i
ps,torch
andconnect inghoseassembl ytosuitcur r
ent(tor
chhasi tsownbui l
tinleadto
standupt ohi ghfrequencysupply),
gashose, gasregul
at or
,cyli
nderstand.

El
ect
rode.
Selectionofel ect rodecomposi ti
onandsi zei snotcompl et elyindependentand
mustbeconsi der edi nr elat i
ont otheoper at i
ngmodeandt hecur r entlev el.
Electrodesf orDCwel dingar epuret ungst enort ungstenwi th1or2%t hor i
a, the
thoriabeingaddedt oi mpr oveelect r
onemi ssionwhi chf acilitatesar cigni tion.I nAC
welding, wher et heel ect r
odemustoper at eatahi ghertemper ature, apur et ungst en
ortungst en-zi rconi ael ectrodei spr eferr
ed, ast her ateoft ungst enl ossi ssomewhat
l
esst hanwi tht horiatedel ectrodesandt hezi rconi aaidsr etent ionoft he‘ bal l
ed’ t
ip.
InDCwel dingasmal ldiamet er,finelypoi nted( approximat ely30 )elect rodemust
beusedt ost abi l
isel owcur r
entar csatl esst han20A.Ast hecur rentisi ncr eased, it
i
sequal l
yi mpor tantt oreadj usttheel ectrodedi amet erandv ertexangl e.Toof i
nean
electrodet ipcausesexcessi vebroadeni ngoft hepl asmast ream, duet ot hehi gh
currentdensi ty, whi chr esul t
si namar keddecr easei nthedept ht owi dthr atiooft he
weldpool .Mor eext remecur r
entlev elswi llresul tinexcessi velyhi gher osi onr ates
andev entuallyi nt hemel tingoft heel ectr odet ip.Recommendedel ectrode
diamet ersandv ertexangl esi nargonshi eldinggasf orthenor mal rangeofcur rent s
aregi venbel ow.

DCELECTRODENEGATI VE AC
Wel
ding El
ect
rode Vertexangle El
ect
rode
Cur
rent(
A) Di
ameter(
mm) (degrees) Di
ameter(
mm)

20 1.
0 30 1.
0–
1.
6

20t
o100 1.
6 30–60 1.
6–2.
4

100t
o200 2.
4 60–90 2.
4–4.
0

*200t
o300 3.
2 90–120 4.
0–4.
8

*300t
o400 3.
2 120 4.
8–
6.
4

*Usecurr
entsl
opei
ntomi
nimi
zet
her
mal
shock,
whi
chmaycausespl
i
tti
ngoft
he
el
ect
rode.

DCelect
rodethori
atedtungst
en.ACelect
rodezir
coni
atedt
ungstenwi
thbal
l
edt
ip,
el
ect
rodediameterdependsondegreeofbalanceonACwav ef
orm.

Shi
eldi
ngGas.
Theshi
eldi
nggascomposi
ti
oni
ssel
ect
edaccor
dingt
othemat
eri
albei
ngwel
ded,
87
88
andt
henor
mal
rangeofcommer
cial
l
yav
ail
abl
egasesi
sgi
venbel
ow.

Ar
gon Ar
gon Hel
i
um Hel
i
um
Ni
tr
ogen Ar
gon-
Metal +Hy
drogen -
Argon
Ni
tr
ogen

Mildst eel 
Car bonst eel  o
Lowal l
oyst eel  
Stainlessst eel   o o
Alumi nium   
Copper    o
o
Nickel all
oys o  o
Titanium and
Magnesi um  o

 mostcommonuse o al
soused

Themostcommonshi el
di nggasi sar gon.Ar goni scheaperandi onisesmor eeasi l
y
thanhel ium.Thi si susedf orwel di ngawi der angeofmat erialincludingmi ldsteel,
stainlessst eel andt her eact i
veal umi nium, ti
tanium andmagnesi um.
Ar gon- hydr ogenmi xt ures, typically2%and5%hy drogen, canbeusedf orwel ding
aust eni ti
cst ainlessst eelandsomeni ckel all
oy s.Theadv ant agesofaddi ng
hy drogenar et hattheshi eldinggasi ssl ightlyreduci ng,produci ngcleanerwel ds,
andt hear citselfismor econst ri
ct ed, thusenabl inghi gherspeedst obeachi eved
and/ orpr oduci ngani mpr ovedwel dbeadpenet rat i
onpr of i
le, i
.e.great erdept hto
wi dthr atio.Itshoul dbenot edt hatt headdi tionofahy drogenaddi ti
oni ntroduces
ther iskofhy drogencr acki ng( car bonandal l
oyst eels)andwel dmet al porosity
(ferri
ticst eels, alumi nium andcopper ),par ti
cular l
yi nmul t
ipasswel ds.
Hel i
um andhel ium- argonmi xtures( ty
pi cally75/ 25hel i
um/ argon)hav epar ti
cular
adv ant ageswi thregar dt ohi gherheati nput .Thegr eaterheati nputiscausedbyt he
higheri onisat i
onpot ent i
al ofhel ium, whi chi sappr oximat ely25eVcompar edwi th
16eVf orar gon.Hel ium gi vesf ast erwel dingspeedsanddeeperpenet rati
on( duet o
higherheati nput ).
Asni tr
ogeni sadi atomi cgas, onr e- associ ationatt hewor kpiecesur facei tis
capabl eoft r
ansf erringmor eener gyt hanmonat omi cargonorhel i
um.Hencei ts
addi ti
ont oar goncanbepar ti
cular lybenef i
cialwhenwel dingmat erialssuchas
copper ,whi chhav ehi ght her mal conduct i
vity.Theadv antagesofni trogenaddi tions
cannotbeexpl oit
edwhenwel dingf erriti
candst ainlessst eel sbecauseni trogen
pickupi nthewel dpool coul dcauseasi gnifi
cantr educt i
oni nt oughnessand
cor r
osi onr esi stance.

Theeffect
ivenessofagasshiel
di sdeterminedatleastinpar tbythegasdensity.
Asthedensityofheli
um isonetenththatofhelium,dif
fi
culti
escanbeexper i
enced
i
nprotecti
ngt heweldpool,
part
icularl
ywhenwel di
ngindraught ycondi
ti
onsorat
hi
ghcur r
ents,whichmayinduceturbulenceinthegasshieldingsy st
em.Effecti
ve
shi
eldi
ngcanbemai nt
ainedbyincreasingthegasf l
ow–t ypicallybyafact
orof

88
 89
two.Shiel
dingoftheweldpool
canalsobeimprovedbyuseofagasl ens,whichi
s
i
nsertedintothetor
chnozzl
etoensurel
aminarfl
ow.Adopti
onofthistechni
queis
str
onglyrecommendedwhenwel di
nginposit
ionsot
herthanthef
latandf or
weldi
ngcur vedsurf
aces.

TI
GWel
dDef
ect
sandCauses.

Porosi
ty.
Gasf l
owt ool owort oohigh.
Leaki nggasl i
nes.
Draught ycondi ti
ons.
Electrodest ickoutf r
om nozzl
etool
ong.
Cont ami nated/ dirt
ywel dpr
ep.
Cont ami nated/ dirt
ywi r
e.
Incorrectgasshi el
d.
Arcl engt ht ool ong.
LackofPenet rati
on
Cur r
entt ool ow.
Rootf acet ool arge.
Rootgapt oosmal l.
Mi smat chededges.
Poorwel dert echnique.
Fil
lerwi retool arge.
Arcl engt ht ool ong.
Tungst
enI ncl usions.
Poort echni que.
Incorrectshi eldinggas.

LackofFusi on.
Currentt oolow.
Poort echnique.
Surf
aceOxi dat i
on.
I
nsuf ficientgasshi eldwhilecool
ing.
I
nsuf ficientpur geonsi ngl
esidedroot
s.
Spatter
.
Arclengt htool ong.
Wrongshi el
dinggas.
CraterCracki ng.
Nosl opeoutoncur r
ent.
Poorwel dertechnique.
Othertypical TIGdef ectsinclude:
Under cut .
Burnt hrough.
Excesspenet rati
on.
Unequal l
eglengt hs.

89
90
Appl
i
cati
ons.
Aerospacemat er
ials.
Cri
ti
calrootrunsinpipes.
Generall
ightappl
icati
ons.
Mechanisedapplicati
ons.

Theadvant agesofTI
Garet
hatitgi
vest
hebestdegr
eeofcont
rolandgoodweldmet
al
composition.
Thedisadv ant
agesofTI
Gweldi
ngareit
ssl
owspeedandthati
tismoreexpensi
vet
han
otherweldingsyst
ems.

Theconv ent
ional machinef orMMAandTI Gistheconst antcurr
entdr ooping
charact
erist
ic.Thisreferstot hevolt
-ampout putcharacteri
sti
cs.Byusi ngdroopingan
alt
erati
oninar clengthgivesav er
ysmal lchangeincurrent,butwit
ht heflattypepower
sourceanat temptedal t
erationinarclength(vol
ts)willhaveli
ttl
eeffect.Hencear cl
engt
h
remainsconst antbutasi gnifi
cantchangei ncur
rentwillresul
t.

Fl
at

VOLTS
Dr
oopi
ng

AMPERES

METALI
NERTGASWELDI
NG

Wi t
ha' f
lat'volts/ampschar acteri
sti
canat temptedal ter
ationinarcl engt
h( vol
ts)willhave
l
it
t l
eef fect,hencear clengt h(volt
s)remainsconst antbutasi gnif
icantchangei ncurrent
willresult.Thisi soft
enr eferr
edt oast he'
self
-adjustingarc'.MetalInertGas( MIG)wel di
ng
i
sa' f
lat'arcpr ocess(const ant)volt
age.AlsoknownasMet alActi
veGas( MAG) ;CO2;
Met al-arcGasShi el
ded,fluxcor eandGMAW ( US).MI Gcanbeusedonal l
mat eri
als,i
nall
positions, withhighproduct ivi
tyandlowheati nput.Therei snoCO2MI Gweldingwi t
h
stainlessst eel.NormallyDCposi t
ivethoughsomef luxcoreusesDCnegat iv
e.

Ty
peofOper
ati
on.
Manual
,mechani
sed,
semi
-aut
omat
icandaut
omat
ed(
robot
ics)
.

ModeofOperati
on.
Anar cismai ntai
nedbetweent heendofthebarewireelectrodeandt heworkpiece.
Thewi r
ei sfedataconst antspeed,sel
ectedtogi
vether equiredcur
rent,andthe
arcl
engt hiscont r
oll
edbyt hepowersource.Theoperat
ori snottherefor
e
concernedwi thcontrol
li
ngt hear
clengthandcanconcent r
at eondepositi
ngthe
weldmet alinthecorrectmanner.Hencethename' semi-automatic'
formanual
operati
on, i
nwhi chwire,
gasandpowerar ef edt
oahandhel dgunv i
aaf lexi
ble
90
 91
conduit.
Thepr ocesscanbeoper atedathi ghcurrents(250-500A)whenmet altr
ansferi
s
i
nt heform ofa'spr
ay',
but ,exceptforaluminium, thistechniqueisconfi
nedto
weldinginthefl
atandhor izontalposi
ti
ons.Forv er ti
cal andov er
headwelding
speciall
owcur r
enttechniquesmustbeused, i.
e.'
di p'transferorpul
sedarc.Thearc
andwel dpoolareshiel
dedbyast r
eam ofgas.Theel ectrodecanbesoli
dorf l
ux
cored.
(I
nmechani sedMI Gandsubmer gedar cwel di
ngt hepr ocessmayal sobeoper at
ed
usi
ngconst antcurr
entordr oopingarcchar acter
istics).

Coppercontactt
ube
(connectedt
othepower Gunnozzl
e
supplyuni
t)

Gasshi
eld
El
ect
rodewi
re

Wel
dpool
Ar
c Compl
etedwel
d

MI
G/MAGPr ocessChar acter i
stics.
Theheatsour ceusedt omel tt hepar entmet alisobt ainedf r
om anel ectri
car ct hat
i
sf or medbet weent heendofaconsumabl eel ectr
odewi reandt hewor kpi ece.The
arcmel t
st heendoft heel ectrodewi r
e, whi chi stransf erredt ot hemol tenwel d
pool .Theel ect r
odewi r
ei sfedf rom aspool thatisat tachedt ot hewi redr i
v i
ng
sy stem andpassest hroughasetofr olls,whi charedr i
v enbyav ar i
ablespeed
elect ricmot or .Byv ary i
ngt hespeedoft hemot or,thel ev eloft hewel di
ngcur rent
canbeadj ust ed-hi ghwi ref eedspeedgi veshi ghwel dingcur rent .Al t
eringt he
vol tagecanal sov aryt hear clengt h-highv oltagesgi v elongerar cl engthsandv ice
ver sa.
Inor dert opr ev enttheai rreact ingchemi cal l
ywi tht hemol t
enmet al,ashi eldi
nggas
ofei therCO2orar gon/ CO2mi xtur eispassedov erthewel dzonef rom anoz zl
e
attachedt ot hewel dinggunort orch.Thi spr ot ectsthemol tendr opl etspassi ng
acr osst hear candt hemol t
enwel dpool.
Elect rical powerf ort hepr ocessi sadi rectcur rentthati sobt ainedf r
om a
transf ormer -rectif
ier.Thewel dinggunort or chi sconnect edt ot heposi tiv
epol eof
thepowersuppl yuni tandel ectricalcont actt ot hewi rei sobt ai nedascl oset ot he
arcaspossi blebymeansofacoppercont actt iport ube.
Themet al attheendoft heel ect rodeismel tedandt ransf erredt ot hemol tenwel d
pool .Thet womai nty pesoft ransf erare:
Sprayorgl obul artransf er .
Shor t
-circuiti
ngordi ptransf er.

91
92
SprayTr ansfer/GlobularTr ansfer.
Thist ypeofmet al t
ransfergener all
yoccur sathi ghcur rentandhi ghar cvoltage
ranges,
e.g.,250-600Ampsat28-40v olts.Ast hecur rentisi ncreasedt her ateatwhi ch
thedr opletsaret r
ansf err
edacrosst hear cincr easesandt heybecomesmal lerin
volume.Thedr opl etscanbeseeni nahi gh-speedci nef il
m butcannotbeseenwi t
h
thenakedey e.Itappear sasi fther eisaspr ayofmet al.
Thet ypeofshi eldinggasgr eat
lyaf fectsthecur rentrateatwhi cht hespr aytransf er
occur s.TheuseofCO2asashi eldinggasr equi resamuchgr eat
ercur rentdensi t
y
thanar gont opr oducet hesamedr opletrat
e.
Wi t
ht heuseofhi ghcur rentsgivingst rongmagnet i
cf i
eldsv erydir
ect i
onal arcsar e
produced.I nargonshi el
dinggasest heact i
onoft hesef orcesont hedr opletsiswel l
balancedandt ransf erfr
om wi r
et owor kissmoot hwi t
hl it
tleornospat ter.
Howev er,wit
haCO2shi eldthef orcest endtobeoutofbal ancegi vingrisetoan
arcingcondi ti
ont hatislesssmoot handspat t erlevelsar eheav i
er.Met altransf er
undert hesecondi ti
onsisnor mal l
ycal ledglobul arorf reef l
ight.
Thewel dingcondi ti
onst hatgiv
espr ayorgl obul artransf erar enormal l
yassoci ated
wi t
hhi ghdeposi ti
onr atesonmedi um andt hicksect ionsgi vi
nghighpr oductivity.It
hasahi gherheati nputandcanonl ybeusedi nt hef latandHVposi ti
onsex cept
whenwel dingal umi ni
um wheni tcanbeusedi nal lposi ti
ons.

Shor
tCircuiti
ngAr c/ Di pTr ansf er.
Whenusi ngl owerar cv oltagesandcur rent s,gener allyint he16-26v oltand60-
180amper er anges, met al transfert akespl acedur i
ngshor tcircuitsbet weent he
electrodeandt hewel dpool ,givingal owerheati nput .Thesef oll
owaconsi stent
sequenceofal ter nat ear cingandshor tci r
cui ti
ngcausi ngt heendoft heel ectrode
wiret odi pi nt ot hewel d.Ast hewi ret ouchest hewel dpool t
her eisar iseofcur r
ent,
ther esistanceoft hewi recausesheat ingandt heendoft heelect rodemel ts.The
wirenecksduet oamagnet icpinchef fectandt hemol tenmet al fl
owsi ntot hepool .
Dur i
ngt hisshor tci rcuitper iodt hecur rentdel iveredbyt hepowersour ceismuch
highert handur ingar cing-t ypically1000-1500amps.Thi screat eshi ghforcest hat
hav eanexpl osi v eef f
ectont hewel dpool andspat terisconsi der able.Tor educe
thiseff ectani nduct ancei sconnect edi nser i
eswi t
ht hepowersuppl yandt hear cto
reducet her at eofr i
seofcur rentdur ingt heshor tcir cuitper i
od.
Theshor tcircui ti scl ear edmor esl owl yandgent l
y ,andt hespat terisreducedt oan
accept abl el ev el.Ideal lyt hedr opletsar et ransf erredi nanal mosti r
regulardip/ar c
cyclet akingpl aceabout50-200t imesasecond.Tool ittl
einduct ancegi vesr i
set o
unstabl ear ci ngcondi t
ions, excessi vespat terandl ackoff usiondef ects.
Thedi pt ransf ermodei susedf ort hewel dingoft hinsheetandmedi um plate, and
foral lthicknesseswhenwel dingint hev erticalorov erheadposi tions.(Witht hicker
platet her ecanbel ackoff usionpr oblems. )

Ti
me

shor
tci
rcui
tcy
cle ar
cingcy
cle

cur
rent

92
 93
v
olt
age

ar
c shor
t necki
ng hi
gh
curr
ent st
anding ar
c
di
minishi
ng cir
cui
ting ar
cre-
igni
ti
on
curr
entarc di
minishi
ng

Theshor
tci
rcui
tcy
cle.

Mi
xedArcTransfer
.
Thisisaglobulartr
ansf
erusingmedi
um volt
sandmedium amper
es.I
tisgener
all
y
unusablehavinganunstablear
candhighspatt
erl
evel
s.Usei
smainl
ywithfl
ux
coredwiresinfil
l
ingpasses.

Pul
sedArcTransfer.
Thi
sisasy nergi
ct r
ansf
erof50-250ki loher
tzt
hatcombinesshortci
rcui
tand
spr
aytransfer
s.Ituseshighandlowv ol
tagesandamperages,andcanbeusedin
al
lweldi
ngposi t
ionsonplatethi
cknessesgreat
ert
han6mi ll
imetr
es.

Weldi
ngVar i
abl esAndPar ameters.
1. El ectrodeextension-af fectstheamper age.St i
ckoutl engt
hshouldbe10-15
mm.
2. I nduct ance-' smoot hes'thear ccharacteristi
c.Al socall
edthechoke.Setlow
gi
v es excess
penetrat i
onandhi gh,nopenet rat
ion.
3. Wi refeedspeed-amper age.Controlsfusi onandpenet r
ati
on.
4. Tr av elspeed-contr ol
sdept hofpenet ration.
5. Gasf l
owr at
e-pr otectswel dfrom atmospher e.
6. Vol t
age-setont hewel dingmachi neandcont r
olsthear cl
ength.
7. Ti ltangle-backorf or
ehandshoul dbenotgr eat erthan15from t
he
per
pendicul
ar.
Thewel dingposit
ionandt ypeofwel dar efurthervariablestobeconsidered.
Weldi
ngSets.

wi
ref
eeduni
t gassuppl
y

wel
dinggun wi
rer
eel
93
94

powersuppl
y

ear
th

Setsar emanuf acturedi nar angeofsi zes, i

dentif
iedbycur rent,simi l
artomet alarc
weldi ng.Cur r
entsbel ow200Acanonl ygi vediptransferoperation, suit
abl efor
weldi ngst eel only.
Largerset smayhav et hewi rereel andmot orasasepar ateunit,soi tcanbepl aced
neart hej ob.Cont rolsont hesetadj ustout putvolt
ageandmayal l
owachoi ceof
i
nduct ance.Thewi r
espeedcont r
ol will
beont hewi r
ef eeduni t
.
Electricalinputi sfrom si nglephase240Vmai nsforsmal l
sets,ort hreephase415
Vf ormedi um si zeandupwar ds.Out putisalway sDCwi thaflatout put
char acteristicforsemi aut omaticanddr oopingoutputf ormechani sed.
Setswhi chsuppl ycur rentinpul ses( at40-200persecond)gi v
ei mpr ovedr esults
onsomej obs.Becauset he'pulse-MI G'increasesthenumberofcont rol
s, an
el
ect ronic' synergic'cont rolsystem v ari
esal ltheparamet ersinst ept osimpl i
fy
adjust ment s.
Setsof t
enhav eabui l
t-inholderf oragascy l
inder.
Asetwi l
lusual lybesuppl iedwithasui tableweldinggun.Heav ydut ygunsmaybe
wat ercool edandt hesetmayhav eawat ertankandcool i
ngradi atorbuiltin.
Whenwel di ngalumi nium t hewi reissof tandt endstoki nkwhenpushedt hrougha
hose.Aguncar r
yingasmal lr
eel ofwi re-'reel-
on-gun'
, obviat
est his.

MI
GWel
dingGun.

gasnozzl
e(oper
atorr
emov
abl
e)

wi
re

cont
actt
ip(
oper
atorr
emov
abl
e) gaspassages

i
nsul
ati
ngbossl
ocat
ingnozzl
e,et
c.

swanneck

94
 95

t
ri
ggerswi
tch

handl
e

hose:onepieceorsepar
atei
nner
sinl
oosesl
eev
e
-weldingcabl
e
-wireconduit
-gashose
-tr
iggerswit
chconnecti
on

Accessori
es.
Weldingcabl es.
Connect orstoset. Simil
artomanual met alar
c-onesetusual
l
yincl
uded.
Cl
ampsorcl i
ps.
Gunandconnect inghoseassemblytosuitcurrent,
usual
lysuppl
i
edwithset
.
Gasregul atorsandhose,connect
ionstosuit.
Vaporiserforcarbondioxi
degasoni ndustr
ialsets.
Cyl
inderst and.

Spar
es.
Thefollowingpar tscomei ntocontactwitht
hewire-sparesareneededt
oreplace
wornpar ts,orifwiresizeortypeischanged.
I
nletandout l
etguides.
Dri
ver oll
s. Ondr i
veassembly.
Contacttipingun-needsf air
lyfr
equentrepl
acement.
Gasshi el
dingnozzl eforgun-v ar
ioussizest
osuitdif
fer
entjobs.
Wirecondui tli
ner-springsteelcoil(
li
kecurt
ainwir
e)forsteelel
ect
rodewi
re,or
pl
astictubef oraluminium.

Ty
pical
Def
ect
sandCauses.

Lackoff usion.
Excessivepenet r
ati
on.
Sil
i
caincl usions( withsteelonly).
Soli
dif
ication( centrel
ine)cracking.
a. Spr ayt r
ansfercurrenttoohigh.
b. Deepnar r
owpr ep.
Porosi
ty.
a. Gasf l
owt oohighort ool
ow.
b. Bl ockednozzl e.
c. Leaki nggasl i
ne.
d. Dr aught yconditi
ons.
e. Nozzl et oworkdi stancetoolong.
95
96
f. Painted,primed, wetoroi
lyworksur
face.
g. Damporr ust ywire.
Lackofpenet
rati
on.
a. Cur renttool ow.
b. Pr ept onar r
ow.
c. Rootf acetoot hick.
d. Rootgapt oosmal l
.
e. Wor ntipcausi ngirr
egul
arar
cing.
f. Ir
regularwi r
ef eed.
g. Poort echnique.
h. Mi smat chedj oint.

Undercut.
a. Speedt oohigh.
b. Cur r
enttoohigh.
c. I rr
egularsurf
ace.
d. Wr ongtorchangle.
Spat
ter.
a. I nadequatechoke.
b. Vol tagetoolow.
c. Rust yorpr i
medpl at
e.
Crat
ercracking.
a. Poorf i
nishi
ngtechnique.

Appl
i
cations.
Struct
uralsteel
.
Aluminium sect
ions.
Stainl
esssteelandnickelal
l
oys.
Someof f
shoreappli
cati
ons(fl
uxcor
eonl
y).

SUBMERGEDARCWELDI
NG

Afl
atarcpr
ocess-(
const
ant
)vol
tage.I
tisusedi
nbeam,
boom,
tract
orandmul
ti
-head
t
yperi
gs.

Ty
peofOper
ati
on.
Mechani
sed,
aut
omat
icorsemi
-aut
omat
ic.

ModeofOper ation.
Anar ci smaint ai
nedbet weent heendofabar ewi r
eel ectr
odeandt hewor k.Ast he
electrodei smel t
ed, itisfedintothearcbyasetofr ol l
s,dri
venbyagov erned
mot or.Wi refeedspeedi sautomatical
lycontrol
l
edt oequal therat
eatwhi cht he
electrodei smel t
ed, thusar clengthisconstant(similartoMI G/MAG-const ant
voltage).Thear coper atesunderal ayerofgranularflux,hencesubmer gedar c.
Someoft hefluxmel tstoprov i
deapr otect
iveblanketov ertheweldpool .The
remai nderoft hefluxi sunaf f
ectedandcanber ecov eredandr e-
used,pr ovideditis
dryandnotcont ami nated.
Asemi -automat i
cv ersionisav ail
ableinwhichtheoper at
orhascont r
ol ofawel di
ng
96
 97
gunt
hatcar
ri
esasmal
lquant
it
yoff
luxi
nahopper
.

Powersour
ce

Wi
respool

Tr
aver
se

Fl
ux

Wor
k

Pr
ocessAndEqui pmentFundament als.
Theprinciplesoft hesubmer gedar cpr ocessar eshownschemat i
cal l
ybel ow.A
powersour ceP, i
sconnect edacr osst hecont actnozzl eont hewel dingheadand
theworkpi ece.Thepowersour cecanbeat ransf ormerforACwel ding, orar ecti
fi
er
(ormotorgener ator)forDCwel ding.Thef il
lermat eri
alsareanuncoat ed
conti
nuousel ectr
odeandagr anularwel dingf luxf eddownt ot hej ointbywayofa
hosefrom t hef l
uxhopper .Topr ev entt heel ect r
odeov er
heatingathi ghcur rentsthe
weldi
ngcur r entistransfer
redatapoi ntv erycl oset otheelectricar c.Thear cis
burni
ngi nacav i
tyfill
edwithgas( CO2, CO, etc.)andmet alfumes.I nf ront,
thecav it
y
i
swal l
edi nbyunf usedpar entmat erial, andbehi ndt hear cbysol idifyingwel dmet al.
Thecov eri
ngov erthecav i
tyconsi stsofmol tensl ag.Thedi agram bel owal so
showst hesol idi
fiedwel dandt het hincov eringofsol idslag,whi chhast obe
97
98
det
achedaf
tert
hecompl
eti
onofeachr
un.

+v
e Cont
inuousel
ect
rode

Sl
ag Fl
uxf
eed

Mol
tensl
ag

Gr
anul
arf
lux

Sol
i
dif
iedwel
d Wel
dpool Ar
ccav
ity

Sincet hear ci scompl etel

ysubmer gedbyt hefluxther eisnoi rritati
ngar cr adi
at i
on
thati schar acteri
sticoftheopenar cprocess-wel dingscr eensar etherefor e
unnecessar y.
Thewel dingf luxisnev ercompl etelyconsumedsot hesur plusquant i
tyleftcanbe
collect ed,ei t
herbyhandoraut omat i
call
y,andreturnedt ot hef luxhoppert obeused
agai n.
Althoughsemi -aut
omat i
csubmer gedar cweldingequi pmentexi stsandi s
conv enientf orcertainappl i
cati
ons, mostsubmer gedar cwel dingusesf ull
y
mechani sedwel di
ngequi pment .Oneoft hemai nv i
rtuesoft hesubmer gedar c
processi st heeasewi thwhi chi tcanbei ncorporatedi ntofullymechani sedwel di
ng
syst emst ogi vehighdeposi t
ionr atesandconsi stentwel dqual i
ty.Wel dmet al
recov eryappr oaches100%si ncel ossesthroughspat t
erareext remel ysmal l
.Heat
l
ossesf rom t hearcar ealsoqui tel owduet othei nsulati
ngef f
ectoft hef luxbed
andt heref oret hethermal eff
iciencyoft heprocesscanbeashi ghas60%,
compar edwi t
habout25%f orMMAwel di
ng.
Fluxconsumpt i
onisappr oximat elyequal t
othewi r
econsumpt ion, t
heact ual rati
o-
wei ghtofwi r
econsumed: weightoff l
uxconsumed-bei ngdependentont heflux
typeandt hewel di
ngpar amet ersused.
98
 99
Weldingpar ametersaremaintai
nedatthei
rsetv al
uesbyt hearccontroluni
t.Afeed
backsy stem isusual
lyusedtomaintainastablearclengthsothatachangei narc
l
ength( correspondi
ngt oachangeinarcvol
tage)wi l
lproduceanincreaseor
decreasei nthewirefeedspeedunti
ltheori
ginalar
cl engthi
sregained.

Joi
ntPrepar ation.
Jointpr epar ationdependsonpl atethickness, t
ypeofj ointe. g.ci rcumf erentialor
l
ongi t
udi nalandt osomeex t
entont hest andardstowhi cht hest r
ucturei sbei ng
made.
Plat esofupt o14mm t hickcanbebut twel dedwithoutpr epar ati
onwi t
hagapnot
exceedi ng1mm or10%oft hepl atet hi
ckness, whicheveri st hegr eat
er.Thi cker
platesneedpr eparati
oni ffullpenetrationist obeobt ai
ned.Var iablefitupcannot
bet olerat ed.
Awel derusi ngst i
ckel ect r
odescanadj usthistechniquet ocopewi thv aryingjoint
gapsandr ootf acesorv aryingdi mensi ons.Notsoanaut omat i
cwel dinghead.I f
condi ti
onsar esetupf orar ootgapof0. 5mm andt hisincr easest o2or3mm,
bur nthroughwi l
loccurunl essanef fi
cientbackingst ri
pi sused.I nsuch
circumst ancesahandwel dedr ootr unusi ngMI GorMMAi sadv isable.Al lplate
edgesmustbecompl etelycl eanandf reef r
om rust,oil
,mi l
lscale, pai
nt, etc.If
i
mpur it
iesar epr esentandar emel tedi nt
ot heweld, porosi tyandcr ackingcaneasi l
y
occur .
Timespenti nmi nimisingsuchdef ect sbycar eful
jointpr epar ationandt hor ough
i
nspect ionpr iortowel di ngi stimewel lspentsincecut ti
ngoutwel ddef ect sand
rewel dingi sexpensi veandt imeconsumi ng.

Wel
dingpr ocedure.
Ingener alt
hemor eseverethelowt emper aturenot chtoughnessrequirement s,
the
l
owert hemaxi mum wel di
ngcur r
entthatcanbeused.Thi sistomi nimiseheati nput
andmeanst hatamul t
ipasstechniquemayber equi r
ed.Whenwel dingst ainl
ess
steelstheheati nputshouldbekeptl owbecausei thaspoorthermal conduct ivi
ty
andahi ghcoef fici
entofexpansioncompar edwi thmi ldst
eel.Theset woef f
ects
l
eadt oov erheatingandexcessivedist or
tioniflargediameterwiresandhi gh
currentsareused.Mul ti-
runweldsusi ngsmal ldiamet erwir
esaret herefore
recommendedf orstai
nlesssteel
sandhi ghnickel all
oyssuchasI nconel.

Wel
dingPar amet ers.
Selecti
onoft hecor rectwel dingconditionsf orthepl atethicknessandjoi
nt
preparati
ont obewel dedi sveryi mportantifsatisfactoryjointsfr
eefrom def
ects
suchascr acki ng,por osityandunder cutar et obeobt ai
ned.Thepr ocessvari
ables,
whichhav et obeconsi dered,are:
a. El ectrodepol ar it
y.
b. Wel dingcur rent .
c. El ectrodedi amet er.
d. Ar cv oltage.
e. Wel dingspeed.
f. Electrodeext ensi on.
g. El ectrodeangl e.
h. Fl uxdept h.
Thesear et hev ari
abl est hatdeterminebeadsi ze,beadshape, depthofpenetr
ation
andinsomeci rcumst ancesmet al
lur
gicaleffectssuchasi nci
denceofcracki
ng,
99
100
por
osi
tyandwel
dmet
alcomposi
ti
on.

a. Electrodepol ari
ty.
Thedeepestpenet rationisobt ainedwi thDCr eversepol ari
t y(DCel ectrodeposi t
ive,
DCEP)
whi chalsogi vest hebestsur faceappear ance, beadshapeandr esi stancet o
por
osi
ty.
Directcur rentst r
ai ghtpol ar i
ty( DCel ect rodenegat ive,DCEN)gi v esf asterbur noff
(about35%)andshal l
owerpenet r
at i
onsi ncet hemaxi mum heati sdev elopedatt he
tipoft heel ectrodei nsteadofatt hesur faceoft hepl ate.Fort hisr easonDC
electrodenegat ivepol arit
yi sof tenusedwhenwel dingst eelsofl imi tedwel dabil
i
ty
andwhensur facing/ claddingsi nce, inbot hcases, penet rationint ot hepar ent
mat erialmustbekeptasl owaspossi ble.Thef lux/wi r
econsumpt ionratioisless
wi t
hel ectrodenegat ivepol arit
yt hanwi thel ectr
odeposi ti
vepol ar i
ty ,sothatalloyi
ng
from thef l
uxi sreduced.
Wi t
hDCpol aritythemaxi mum cur rentusedi s1000amper esduet oarcbl ow
problems.I nchangi ngf rom posi tivetonegat ivepolar i
tysomei ncr easei nar c
voltagemaybenecessar ytoobt ainacompar ablebeadshape.
Alternatingcur rentgi vesar esultabouthal fwaybet weenDCel ectr odeposi ti
veand
DCel ect rodenegat iv eandusual lygivesaf latt
er,widerbead.I tcanbeusedon
mul ti
headsy stemsandi spar t
icul arl
yusef ul whenar cblowi sapr obl em.I tisoft
en
usedi nt andem ar csy stemswher eaDCposi tiveelectrodei susedast heleading
electrodeandanACel ectrodeast hetrail.

b. Weldingcur rent.
Increasingthewi r
efeedspeedi ncreasesthewel dingcur r
entsot hatthedeposit
ion
rateincreasesast heweldingcur rentincr
eases.Thewi refeedspeedi sthemost
infl
uentialcont r
oloffusi
onandpenet rati
on.Thecur rentdensit
ycont r
olsthedept h
ofpenet rati
on-t hehigherthecur rentdensitythegr eaterthepenetrat
ion.Fora
givenflux,arcst abil
i
tywillbelostbel owami nimum t hresholdcur r
entdensit
yso
thatifthecur rentforagivenel ectrodediameterist oolowar cstabil
it
yislostanda
rugged, ir
regularbeadisobt ained.Toohi ghacur rentdensi t
yalsoleadsto
instabi
litybecauset heelectrodeov er
heatsandunder cutt
ingmayal sooccur.

c. Elect
rodeDi amet er.
Forgivencur rent,changi
ngtheelect
rodediameterwi
ll
changethecur
rentdensi
ty.
Thereforeal argerdiameterel
ectr
odewill
reducepenetr
ati
onandtheli
keli
hoodof
burnthrough, butatthesamet i
mearcstri
kingismoredif
fi
cul
tandarcstabil
i
tyi
s
reduced.

d. Arcvoltage.
Arcvoltageaf f
ectsdil
uti
onrat herthanpenet
rati
on.Beadonpl at
eweldsandsquare
edgedcl osedbuttweldshav eincreasedwidthanddilut
ionasthearcvol
tage
i
ncreases, butdepthofpenetrationremainsthesame.Ifthejoi
ntpr
eparati
onis
open,forexampl einabuttjointwithasmal l
angled'V'prepar
ati
on,
incr
easingthe
arcvol
tagecandecr easethepenet rat
ion.

27V 34V 45V

100
 101

Ef
fectofar
cvol
tageonbeadshape.

Thear cv olt
agecont rol
sthear clength,fl
uxconsumpt i
onandwel dmet al
proper t
ies.I
ncreasingthear cvoltageincreasesthearclengthsot hattheweldbead
widthi sincr
eased,r ei
nfor
cementi sdecreased,fl
uxconsumpt ionisincreasedand
thepr obabil
it
yofar cblowi salsoi ncr
eased.Whenal loyi
ngfluxesareusedar c
l
engt h,andhencear cvolt
age, i
sv eryimportantsinceathigharcvoltagesmor efl
ux
i
smel tedsot hatmor eall
oyingelement sent ert
hewel dmetal.Thusar cvolt
agecan
affectwel dmet al
composi tion.

e. Wel dingspeed.
Wel dingspeedort ravelspeedcont r
olsdepthofpenet r
ati
on.Beadsizei
sinversel
y
propor ti
onaltotrav
el speed.Fasterspeedsreducepenet r
ati
onandbeadwi dth,
i
ncr easet he
l
ikelihoodofpor osi
tyand, ift
akent otheextreme,produceundercut
ti
ngand
i
r r
egul arbeads.Athighwel di
ngspeedst hearcvol
tageshouldbekeptfai
rl
ylow
other wisearcblowi sli
kelytooccur.
Ifthewel dingspeedi stooslowbur nthroughcanoccur .Acombinati
onofhigharc
voltageandsl owwel dingspeedcanpr oduceamushr oom shapedweldbeadwi th
solidifi
cati
oncracksatt hebeadsi des.
Cr
acks

f
. Electr odeext ension.
Alsoknownasel ectrodest ickoutandal tersthet i
pt owor kdistance.El
ectrode
extensi ongov ernst heamountofr esistanceheat i
ngwhi choccursintheelectrode.
Iftheext ensioni sshor ttheheat ingef f
ectissmal landpenet rat
ionisdeep.
Increasi ngt heext ensioni ncreasest het emper atureoft heelect
rode,which
decr easest hepenet r
ation,butdeposi tionratesar ei ncr
eased.Increasedext ension
i
st her efor euseful i
ncl addingandsur faceappl i
cations,butstepshav etobet aken
togui det heelectrode, otherwisei twander s.
Fornor mal weldingt heelect r
odeext ensi onshoul dbe25-30mm f ormildsteel and
l
ess, about20-25mm, forst ai
nlessst eel.Thi
si sbecauset heelectri
calsensiti
vity
ofst ainlesswi rei sappr eciablygreatert hanthatofmi ldsteelwire.

101
102
g. El
ectrodeangle.
Sincetheanglebetweentheelectr
odeandt heplatedeterminest hepointof
appli
cationanddir
ecti
onoft hearcfor
ceithasapr ofoundef fectonboth
penetrati
onandundercut.Thefi
rstfi
gureshowst heeffectonhor izont
al/verti
cal
fi
ll
etwel dsandthesecondfigur
ecompar estheeffectobtainedwi thaverticalar
c
withthoseobtai
nedwi t
hleadingandtrai
li
ngarcs.Theef fectonunder cutt
ingcanbe
parti
cularl
ymarked.

40 30

Equal
legl
engt
h. Deepestpenet
rat
ion.

Ef
fectofel
ect
rodeangl
eonHVf
il
letwel
ds.

Tr
ail
i
ng Ver
ti
cal Leadi
ng

Penet
rat
ion: Deep Moder
ate Shal
l
ow

Rei
nfor
cement
: Max
imum Moder
ate Mi
nimum

Tendencyto
undercut
: Sev
ere Moderat
e Mini
mum
Eff
ectofel
ect
rodeangl
eonbut
twel
ds.
102
 103
h. Fluxdepth.
Thedept hofthef l
ux,orfl
uxburden,isof tenignoredandt hepowderheapedar ound
thewireuntilt
hear ciscompletel
ycov ered.Ifopt i
mum r esult
sar etobeobt ained
thefl
uxdept hshoul dbejustsuff
ici
enttocov erthearc,althought hepointwher e
theelectr
odeent ersthefl
uxbedl i
ghtreflectedf r
om thear cshoul dbejustv i
sible.
Tooshal l
owaf luxbedgiv esfl
ash-t
hroughandcancausepor osi
tybecauseof
i
nadequat emetallurgi
calprot
ecti
onoft hemol tenmet al
.Toodeepaf l
uxbedgi ves
apoorbeadappear anceandcanl eadt ospill
ageonci rcumf erentialwelds.Ondeep
preparati
onsinthickplat
ei ti
sparti
cularl
yi mpor t
anttoav oidexcessi v
ef l
uxdept h
otherwisethewel dbeadshapeandsl agr emov alcanbeunsat i
sfactor
y.

Fl
uxes.
Fluxesar egr adedbybasi cit
yi ndexandi nt wot ypes-aggl omer atedandfused.
Particlesizeisimpor tantwithl ar
gercurrentsr equir
ingf i
nerf l
uxes.
Fusedf l
uxesar edar kbrownorbl ackincolourwi thagl asslikesur f
aceandflakeyin
shape.Theygi veagoodsur f
acepr ofil
eandr easonabl epr operti
es.Fusedfluxesare
gener alpurposef luxesthatrequirenopr eheat i
ng.
Agglomer at
edf luxesar eli
ghtincol ourandr oughlyspher icalinshape.Theygiv e
thebestmechani calproperti
esandl owhy drogenpot entialpossiblerequi
ri
ngt he
fl
uxt obepr eheated( baked).Agglomer atedfluxesabsor bmoi sturesoattheendof
wor ktheymustber emov edanddr ied.

St
ri
pcl
adding.
Alt
houghmostappl icat i
onsoft hesubmer gedar cprocessmakeuseofsi ngleor
multiwiresy stemsusi ngr oundwi res,electrodesi ntheform ofast r
ipar eof t
en
usedf orcladdi ngpur poses.St ri
psar eusual l
y0.5mm t hick,thecommonestst r
ip
widthbei ng60mm, butwi derstri
pse. g.100mm canbeusedwi thoutanyl ossof
quali
ty.Thebi gadv ant ageofst r
ipcl addingi sthatpenet r
ationi slow, particul
arly
withDCel ectrodenegat iv
epol ari
ty,anddeposi ti
onr ateisrelativel
yhi gh.Moder n
fl
uxesdesi gnedf orstripcl addi
nghav egr eatercur r
enttoler
ancet hanear l
iertypes
anduseofcur rentsupt o1200amper eswi t
haust enit
icstainlessst eelst r
ipsgi v
es
depositionr at
esofupt o22mg/ hrwi thDCel ectr
odeposi tiv
epol arit
y.Inconel can
al
sobedeposi tedand, prov i
dedthef l
uxi slowsi l
icatypeandt heI nconel stri
pused
contains2-3%Nb, goodqual it
ycr ackf reedeposi tscanbeobt ained.Monel ,
al
umi nium, br
onze, nickel and13%Crst ripshav ealsobeensuccessf ullyusedas
str
ipcladdi ngel ect
rodes.Goodel ectricalcontactbet weent hest ri
pandf eednozzl e
i
sessent i
al.

Ty
picalDefect
sAndCauses.
Lackofpenet rati
on.
a. El ectrodet oolar
gef orwel
dprep.
b. Cur r
entt oolow.
c. Rootf acet oolarge.
d. Rootgapt oosmal l
.
e. Mi smat ch.
f. Wrongpol ari
ty.
g. St i
ckoutl engthtoolong.
h. I nsuffici
entcleaningofsecondsi
dei
ndoubl
esi
dedpr
eps.
Porosit
y.
a. Di r
tinwel dprep.
103
104
b. Di rt/
rustonel ect r
ode.
c. Damporcont ami natedf lux.
d. I ncorrectcur rentt y
pef orflux.
e. I nsuffi
cientf l
uxcov ering.
f. Mat eri
al defect s.(l
ami nat i
ons,incl
usi
ons,hi
ghsulphur
)
Centr
eli
necr acking.
a. Cur r
entt oohi gh.
b. Wel dprept oonar row.
c. Mat eri
al withhi ghsul phurorphosphor uscontent
.
Sl
aginclusions.
a. I nadequat eint erruncl eani ng.
b. Poorj ointconf igurati
on.
c. Poorposi t
ioningofwel dr uns.
d. Vol taget ool ow.
Spatt
er.
a. Cur r
entt oohi gh.
b. I ncorrectcur rentt y
pef orflux.
Alsol
ackoff usion, under cut,excessi vepenet
rat
ionandweldprof
il
edef
ect
s.

Appl
i
cations.
Shipbuilding.
Heav yfabricati
on.
Circumferent i
alwel
ds(e.g.rot
atedvessel
s).
Longitudinalseams( e.
g.forpi
peli
nes).
Claddingappl i
cati
ons.

AUTOMATI
CMETALARC

Af
usi
onwel
dingpr
ocessal
soknownasFusar
cwel
ding.

Fi
xedr
oll Pr
essur
erol
l

CO2 ent
ry Connect
ort
opowersuppl
y

Coppercont
actj
aws
104
 105

El
ect
rode
Gas

Aut
omat
icmet
alar
cheadwi
thCO2shi
eld.

Ty
peofOper
ati
on.
Mechani
sedoraut
omat
ic.

ModeofOperati
on.
Anarci smaint
ainedbetweenafluxedelect
rodeandthework.Thearcl
engt
his
contr
olledbyavariabl
espeedmot orandfeedrol
lsyst
em.Thear cmayhavean
addi
tionalCO2gasshield.Theweldispr
otectedandcont
rol
l
edbyt hefl
uxcoat
ing
asinMMA.

Oper
ati
ngParamet ers.
Curr
entrange: 200-1000Amps.
Deposi
ti
onr ate: 1-15kg/ hr
.
Rangeofthickness: 6mm andupwar ds.
Typesofjoi
nt: buttandfil
l
et.
Weldi
ngposi t
ions: buttj
oint
s-flat
,fi
l
letwel
ds-f
latandHV.
Accessandpor tabi
l
ity
: good.

Equi
pment.
Weldi
nghead.
Contr
olpanel.
El
ectr
odefeedunit.-Mayhaveadditi
onalCO2f orshiel
ding.
Powersource.-Tr
ansfor
mer ,
recti
fi
erorgenerator.(
AC/ DCupt
o1000amps.
)
Workmov i
ngequipment.(And/orheadmov i
ngequi pment .
)

Consumables.
Wirewound, f
luxcoat
edelectr
ode2.
75-7.5mm onwir
ediamet
er.Suppl
iedi
ncoil
s
of13.5-22.5kginweight.Theel
ect
rodecomposi
ti
oncanbesel
ectedtosui
tthe
par
entmet al
.CO2gasi nsomecases.

Cor
ewi
re 1stwi
respi
ral 2ndwi
respi
ral
Fluxcov
eri
ng

Const
ruct
ionofel
ect
rodef
oraut
omat
icmet
alar
cwel
ding.

Mat
eri
als.
Onlycar
bon,
lowal
l
oyhi
ght
ensi
l
eandst
ainl
essst
eel
s.
105
106

Ty
pical
appl
icat
ions.
Medi
um scalefabr
icat
ion.Pi
pewor
k.Shi
pbui
l
ding.Chemi
cal
plant
.

Overal
ladv
ant
ages.
Gooddeposi
ti
onr
ate.Goodqual
i
tywel
dmet
al.Tol
erantt
opoorf
itupandopenai
r
work.

Ov
eral
ll
imi
tat
ions.
Openarc.El
ect
rodeneedscar
eful
handl
i
ng.Li
mit
edpenet
rat
ion.

Saf
ety
.
I
ntensear
c.Copi
ousf
umes.

ELECTRONBEAM WELDI
NG

Af
usi
onwel
dingpr
ocess.

El
ect
rongun Hi
ghvoltage
supply

El
ect
ronbeam

Wor
k

Wor
ktr
aver
segear
.

Vacuum pump

106
 107
Ty
peofOper
ati
on.
Aut
omaticormechani
sed.

ModeofOper ation.
Thewor kpi eceisheat
edbyt hebombardmentofabeam ofelect
ronsproducedby
anel ectrongun.
Fil
lermat eri
almaybeaddedi fnecessar
y.
Thought hewor kisnormall
ycarri
edoutwi t
hinav
acuum chamber,el
ect
ronguns
arecur rentlyunderdevel
opmentwhi chal
lowabeam tot
ravelashortdi
stance
thr
oughai r
.

Oper
ati
ngPar ameters.
Curr
entrange: 10-500mA.
Volt
agerange: 10-150kV.
Rangeofthickness: 0.
2mm -100mm.
Typeofjoi
nt: mostlybutt
.
Weldingposit
ion: l
imit
edbyequi pment
.
Access: good-butworknormall
ymustbel
i
ftedi
ntoandoutofa
fi
xedchamber.
Por
tabi
l
ity
: poor.

Equi
pment.
Highvoltagepowersuppl
y.
El
ectrongun.
Vacuum chamber.
Vacuum pump.
Traversi
ngunit-f
orworkorel
ect
rongun.

Consumables.
Fi
ll
erwiremaybeaddedi
fnecessar
y.

Mat
eri
als.
Anymet
alcompat
ibl
ewi
thav
acuum whenmol
ten.

Cr
osssect
ionoft
ypi
calel
ect
ronbeam wel
d.

Ov
eral
ladvant
ages.
Excell
entpenet
rat
ion.
107
108
Lowdistor
ti
on.
Nowel dmetal
contaminat
ion.
Highweldi
ngspeeds.
Abil
it
ytoweldmanynor mall
ynonwel
dabl
emat
eri
als.

Ov
eral
lLi
mitat
ions.
Highequipmentcost.
Vacuum necessary
.
Extr
emeaccur acyneededi
nwor
kpr
epar
ati
on.

Ty
picalApplicati
ons.
Gearcl usters/
shaftjoints.
Turbineblader ootjoints.
Ful
lymachi nedcomponent s-l
owdi
stor
ti
on.
Dif
ficulttowel dmat eri
als.

Saf
ety
.
X-
radiati
onemit
ted.(Nor
mall
yabsorbedbychamberwal
l
s.)
Hi
ghv olt
age.
Operator
scanbet r
appedinl
argechambers.

ELECTRO-
SLAGWELDI
NG

Afusi
onweldingpr
ocesswi
tht
wosy
stems-el
ect
ro-
slagandconsumabl
ewi
re
gui
de/nozzl
e.

Par
entmet
al Fi
l
ler
wi
re

Consumabl
egui
de

Fi
l
lerwi
re

Copperr
etai
ningshoe

El
ect
ro-
slag. Consumabl
egui
de.

Ty
peofOper
ati
on.
Mechani
sed.
108
 109

ModeofOper ation.
Wel di
ngi scar ri
edoutv ert
ically
.Thepl atest obewel dedar esetupwi tha25-
50mm gap
(dependi ngont hickness)bet weent heiredges( unpr epared)andt heel ectrodeis
int r
oducedi ntot hegappoi ntingv erti
cal l
ydown.Anar cisst ruckandgr anularfl
ux
addedwhi chi
smel t
edbyt hear c.Themol t
enf l
uxext inguishest hear candt heheat
requi redf orwel dingist henpr oducedbyt hepassageofcur rentthr ought he
el ectr
icallyresistiveflux.Wat ercool edcopper' shoes' areclampedagai nstt hepl
ate
sur faces, coveringt hegaponeachsi de, tor etainthemol tenf l
uxandal sot hewel d
pool f
or medbyt hemel tingoft heel ectrodeandpar entpl ate.
Inel ectro-slagwel di
ngt heel ectrodef eeduni tismov edupt hejointast hegapi s
pr ogressi vel
yfilledwi thmol tenwel dmet al,andt her et ai
ningshoesar eal somov ed
upatt hesamespeed.
Theel ectrodei nconsumabl egui dewel dingi sfedt hr oughal ongt ubewhi chi s
posi ti
onedi nthej ointgap.Aswel dingpr ogr essest heel ectrodewi reandt heguide
ar emel tedi nt
ot hewel dpool .Thesy stem i smechani cal
lymor esimplesi nceno
v erti
cal upmov ementoft hewi ref eeduni tisr equired.

Oper
ati
ngpar ameters.
Curr
entrange: 450-1500Aperwi r
eACorDC.
Weldi
ngspeed: 0.3-3m perhour.
Rangeoft hi
ckness: 20mm upwar ds.
Weldi
ngposi t
ion: vert
ical
.
Typesofjoint
: but
tandT-joi
nts.
Access: poor.
Port
abili
ty: fai
r.

Equi
pment.
Powersour ce.
Wir
ef eeduni t
.
Ver
ticalt
rav er
se(
forel
ectr
o-sl
agonl
y).
Watercooledcoppershoes.

Consumables.
Elect
rodewi resaresimi l
artothoseusedforsubmer gedar cwelding,
andsupplied
onstandar dspoolswei ghing25-75kg.Consumabl eguidesmaybei ntheform of
tubesorspeci all
ymadehol l
owsectionsaccordi
ngt otheparti
cularappl
icat
ion.The
composi ti
onofbot hwiresandgui desmustbechosent osuittheparentmateri
al
andwi threferencetorequiredweldmet al
propert
ies.Fluxesarespecial
ly
formulatedandr esembl esubmergedarcwel di
ngfluxes.

Mat
eri
als.
St eel
s.

Ty
picalAppli
cati
ons.
Thickpressurevessel
s.
Thickcivi
lengineer
ingfabr
icat
ion.
Shipbui
ldi
ng.

109
110
Ov
eral
lAdvant
ages.
Fastcomplet
ionofj
oint
sint
hickpl
ate.

Ov
eral
lLi
mit
ati
ons.
Onlyf
orvert
ical
ornearver
ti
calj
oint
s.
Weldshavepoorimpactpr
oper
ti
esunlessheatt
reat
ed.

Saf
ety
.
Mol
tenmet
alspi
l
lagemustbeconsi
der
ed.

MULTI
CHOI
CEPAPERONE

1. When‘hydr
ogencontrol
’i
sspeci
fi
edf
oramanual
met
alar
cwel
dingpr
ojectt
he
el
ect
rodewoul dnor
mall
ybe:
a. Cel l
ulose
b. I r
onoxi de
c. Aci d
d. Basi c

2. Youwoul
dcertai
nlyr
ecogni
seahy
drogencont
rol
l
edf
luxcov
eredel
ect
rodef
rom i
ts:
a. Col our
b. Lengt h
c. Tr adename
d. BS639/ AWScodel et
ter

3. Whenmanualmet alar cweldi

ngisbeingcarr
iedoutonanopenconst
ruct
ionsi
te,
whi
chgr
oupofwel dersar emostli
kelytor
equir
econti
nuousmonit
ori
ng?
a. Concr et
eshut teri
ngweldi
ngt eams
b. Pipewel dingt eams
c. Platewel ders
d. Plantmai ntenancewel ders

4. Younot
icemanual
met
alar
cel
ect
rodes,
str
ippedoff
lux,
arebei
ngusedasf
il
ler
110
 111
wi
ref
orTIGwel ding.Youwouldobj
ectbecause:
a. I ti
stooexpensi ve
b. Thewi rewoul dbetoothi
ck
c. Themet al composit
ionmaybewrong
d. Thewi rei stooshort

5. Whenopensi t
ewor king,seri
ousporosi
tyi
nmet
alar
cwel
dsi
sbr
oughtt
oyour
at
tent
ion.Whatwoul dy ouinvest
igat
e?
a. El ect
rodety
pe
b. Powerpl anttype
c. El ect
rodestorage
d. Dayt emperatur e

6. Thest
eel compositi
oninast r
uctur
alcont
racti
schangedf
rom 0.
15%carbon0.6%
manganese,to0.2%carbon1. 2%manganese.Thi
smighti
nfl
uencet
heincidenceof
:
a. Por osit
y
b. Cr acki
ngi ntheweldarea
c. Under cutforfi
ll
etwelds
d. Lackoff usi
ondefect
s

7. Oneoft
hefoll
owi ngal l
oysisnon-magnet
ic-whi
ch?
a. 4. 0%chromi um mol ybdenum
b. 12. 0%chr omi um
c. Aust eni
ticst ainl
esssteel
d. 9. 0%nickel steel

8. WhenTI
Gweldi
ngaust enit
icstai
nlessst
eel
pipe,
argongasbacki
ngi
scal
l
edf
or.
Thi
sist
o:
a. Pr ev
entoxi
dation
b. Pr ev
entunderbeadcr acki
ng
c. Pr ev
entporosi
ty
d. Cont r
olt
hepenet rat
ionbeadshape

9. Pre-
heat
ingacarbonst eelmanual
met
alar
cwel
dingi
scar
ri
edoutt
omi
nimi
set
he
ri
skof:
a. Scat ter
edporosity
b. Wor m hol
eporosity
c. Par entmetalcracki
ng
d. Lackofpenet rati
on

10. InUKpracti
ce,BS499specifi
est
hatt
hedr
awi
ngdi
mensi
onquot
edf
oraf
il
letwel
d
i
sthe:
a. Legl ength
b. Thr oatthi
ckness
c. Wel dwidth
d. Act ualt
hroatthi
ckness

111
112
11. Foropensitemanual metalweldingt
hefoll
owi
ngequi
pmenti
sav
ail
abl
e.Whi
ch
wouldyouchoosef orsafesiteworki
ng?
a. Si ngleoperatort
ransformer
b. Mul tioperatortr
ansformers
c. AC/ DCcomposi tepowerunit
d. Di eselenginedri
venmot orgener
ator

12. Ifsubmergedarcwel dingisusedt

omakebut
twel
ds,
whi
chwoul
dyoubemost
cri
tical
of?
a. Ther ootgaptol er
ance
b. Theangl eofpr eparat
ion
c. Ther ootfacewi dth
d. Thegascutf i
nish

13. Dur
ingCO2wel
ding,t
hear clengt
hismostl
i
kel
ytobeaf
fect
edby
:
a. Thewi r
edi ameter
b. Thecur r
entreturnconnect
ions
c. Thegasf lowrate
d. Thet or
cht oworkangle

14. Pr
eheat
ingforarcweldi
ngappli
esto:
a. Assembl yweldi
ngonly
b. Assembl yandtackweldi
ng
c. Joi nt
sover25mm thickonl
y
d. Cr uci
for
m weldsonl
y

15. Whichoneoft hef ol

lowingstat
ement siscorr
ect?
a. Pr eheatingincreaseshardness
b. Pr eheatingincreasescooling
c. Pr eheatingincreasesdil
ut i
on
d. Pr eheatingincreasesshrinkagest r
ess
16. Youseeawel derusi nganoxy -
acet y
lenef l
amewithal
ongf
eat
her
edi
nnercone.
Whatwouldbet heeffectofthi
soncar bonsteel
?
a. Thewel dwoul dbehar dandbr i
ttl
e
b. Thewel dcoul dbet oosoft
c. Ther ewi llbenoef f
ectont hewel d
d. Thewel dwi ll
hav eundercut

17. Awel
derqual
i
ficati
ontesti
st overi
fy:
a. Theskillofthewelder
b. Thequal i
tyofthemat eri
als
c. Thenon- destr
ucti
vetestprocedur
es
d. Themanuf act
uri
ngmet hods

18. Afabr
icati
ngpr ocedurecal
l
sforf
il
letwel
dst
obe'
bl
endedi
n'bygr
indi
ng.Thi
s
i
nfl
uences:
a. HAZ.cr acking
b. Fat i
guel ife
c. Resi dual str
ess
d. Yi el
dstr ength
112
 113

19. Bendtestspeci
menshavebeentakenfrom a25mm t
hickcar
bonst
eel
but
twel
d.
Whichwouldshowlackofi
nter
-r
unf usi
on?
a. Si debend
b. Rootbend
c. Facebend
d. Gui dedbend

20. Lamel
lartearinghasoccurredinast
eelf
abr
icat
ion.BEFOREweldi
ngcoul
dithav
e
beenf
oundby :
a. X- rayexami nat
ion
b. Dy epenet rant
c. Ul t
r asoni
cexami nat
ion
d. I twoul dnothavebeenfoundbyanyi
nspecti
onmet hod

21. Youar
etoov erseet
hear cweldi
ngofsomemachinef
it
ti
ngsandf
indt
hatt
heyar
e
cadmi
um plated.Wouldyou:
a. Per mi titt
oproceed
b. Per mi titt
oproceedwithfumeext
ract
ion
c. St opt heoperati
onatonce
d. Adv iset heweldert
odrinkmil
kandproceed

22. Oneofthereasonsforexcl
udi
nghy
drogenf
rom t
hewel
dmet
ali
stopr
eventt
he
wel
dfrom:
a. Cr acki
ng
b. Cool i
ngslowly
c. Cool i
ngquickl
y
d. Expandi ng

23. Whenamet alregai

nsitsor
igi
nal
shapewhenast
ressact
inguponi
tisr
emov
ed,
the
metal
issai
dt ohav e:
a. Duct il
it
y
b. Pl asti
cit
y
c. Mal l
eabili
ty
d. El asti
cit
y

24. Proofst
ressi susedwhennon-
fer
rousmet
alsar
eunder
goi
ngt
ensi
l
etest
sto
deter
minet heequival
ent:
a. Tenaci t
y
b. El astici
ty
c. Yi eldstrength
d. Tensi l
estrength

25. Tot
estacomponentf
orv
ibr
ati
onal
loadi
ng,
asui
tabl
emechani
cal
testwoul
dbe:
a. I mpact
b. Tensile
c. Compr essi
ve
d. Fatigue

26. Themai
nreasonf
orpr
e-heat
ingmedi
um andhi
ghcar
bonst
eel
sbef
orecut
ti
ngby
113
114
oxy
-fuelgast echniqueisto:
a. I mpr ovethequal i
tyofthecut
b. I ncreaset hecutti
ngspeed
c. Ref inet hegr ai
nstruct
ure
d. Pr ev enthardeningandcracki
ng

27. Onepur
poseofamicroscopicexaminat
ionofawel
dist
oest
abl
i
sht
he:
a. St rengt
hoft
hewel d
b. Numberofal l
oyingelements
c. Gr ainsi
ze
d. Numberofr unsused

28. Thepredominantstruct
ureofanhyper
-eut
ect
oidst
eel
thathasbeenquenchedat
abov
ei t
suppercrit
icalpoi
ntwil
lbe:
a. Aust eni
te
b. Mar tensi
te
c. Tr oosti
te
d. Sor bi
te

29. Whenwel
dmet alref i
nementtakespl
acei
namul
ti
-r
undeposi
t,i
tisknownbyt
he
ter
m:
a. Wel dannealing
b. Wel drefi
ning
c. Wel dnormal ising
d. Wel drecry
st all
isati
on

30. Oneadv
antageofmetalgasar cshiel
dedwel di
ngis:
a. Canbeusedi ndraughtylocati
onswithoutprotecti
on
b. Pr oducesadepositlowinhy drogencontent
c. Anywel di
ngposit
ioncanbewel dedwithspraytransf
er
d. Fi nespatt
eratnozzl
erest r
ict
inggasflow

MULTI
CHOI
CEPAPERTWO

1. BS499communicatesbyt
heuseofsymbol
sthet
ypeofj
ointpr
eparat
iont
obe
used.Which
ofthefol
l
owingsymbolsi
ndi
cat
esthedept
hofwel
dpenet
rati
onrequi
redont
he
j
oint?

a.

b. 10

c. 10

d.
114
 115
10

2. Whichofthef
oll
owi
ngsymbol
swoul
dindi
cat
ethatawel
dhast
obef
ini
shedont
he
'
other
'si
deofthewel
d?

a.

b.

c.

d.

3. Theuseoffl
uxwi t
hgasshieldedmetalarcweldi
ngallows:
a. Sheetmet altobewelded
b. Ast abl
earcwhenusi nghighcurr
entdensi
t i
es
c. Al uminium tobewel
ded
d. Lessdi lut
ionofthewel dbytheparentmetal

4. InMMAwel dingwhatpar
ameteri
susedf
orcont
rol
ofpenet
rat
ioni
ntot
hebase
mater
ial
?
a. Vol t
age
b. Wel dingspeed
c. I r
onpowder si
nthecoat
ing
d. Cur r
ent

5. Int
hewel
dingofabut
tjoi
ntf
rom onesi
de,
thepr
ofi
l
eoft
her
ootbeadi
scont
rol
l
ed
by:
a. Rootf ace
b. Bev elangl
e
c. Rootgap
d. Al l
oftheabove

6. Whatt
ypeofpowerchar acter
ist
ici
srequi
redf
ormanual
wel
ding?
a. Const antvolt
age
b. Fl atchar
acteri
sti
c
c. Dr oopingcharact
eristi
c
d. DCgener at
or

7. Whi
chofthef
oll
owi
ngt
est
swoul
dindi
cat
ethet
oughnessofwel
dmet
al/
par
ent
met
al-HAZ?
a. Macr o
115
116
b. Nickbreak
c. Hardness
d. Charpyveenot
ch

8. Degr
easi
ngcomponent si
sessent
ial
forqual
i
tywel
dingbutsomeagent
smay
:
a. Causecor rosi
onpr
obl
ems
b. Gi veoffphosgenegas
c. Leav er
esidues
d. Al ltheabov e

9. Whichofthefol
lowi
ngel
ement
shast
hegr
eat
eref
fectont
hehar
denabi
l
ityofa
st
eelpl
ate?
a. Mol ybdenum
b. Chr omium
c. Ti tanium
d. Car bon

10. InMAG/ CO2wel dingwhichparametergiv

esthegreat
estcont
rol
ofwel
d
appear
ancedur ingdiptr
ansferorshort
-ci
rcui
ti
ngweldi
ng?
a. Wi r
estick-outl
ength
b. Amper age
c. Wi r
efeedspeed
d. I nduct
ance

11. InMMAwel di
ng,thesl
agspr
oducedcanbevari
edtosui
tthewel
dingposi
ti
on.
Whicht
ypeofslagwouldberequi
redf
orwel
dingint
heHVpositi
on?
a. Fl ui
d
b. Vi scous
c. Semi fl
uid
d. Noneoft heabove

12. Theweldmetaldeposi
tofMMAel ect
rodesachi
evesi
tsmechani
cal
str
engt
h
thr
ough:
a. Thecor ewire
b. Thef l
uxcoating
c. I r
onpowderswiththef
luxcoat
ing
d. Noneoft heabov e

13. Whatconsti
tuenti
sneededint
hecoati
ngofanel
ect
rodet
opr
eventt
hef
ormat
ion
ofpor
osit
yinthewel di
ngofar
immingsteel
?
a. I ronpowder s
b. Cal cium fl
uoride
c. Si li
con
d. Cal cium carbonate

14. Weldsmadewi t
hhi ghheati
nput
sshowar
educt
ioni
nwhi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ng
pr
opert
ies?
a. Duct i
li
ty
b. Toughness
c. Fat i
guestrength
116
 117
d. Mechani
cal
str
engt
h

15. Int
heweldi
ngofausteniti
cpipeworktheborei
susual
l
ypur
gedwi
thar
gont
o:
a. Pr eventfor
mat i
onofpor osi
tyinthewel
d
b. Pr eventburn-
throughintherootrun
c. Pr eventoxi
dationoftherootbead
d. El i
minatetheformationofhydrogen

16. InX-
rayworkt hequal i
tyoft
her
adi
ogr
aphi
cimagei
sassessedbyt
he:
a. Densi t
yoft hefil
m
b. I QIi
ndicator
c. KVAav ailable
d. St and-
of fdistance

17. Ast
eel
descr
ibedasQTwi l
lhavei
mprov
edtensi
l
epr
oper
ti
esbecausei
thas:
a. Hadcont rolofchemical
composi
ti
on
b. Beenheat -t
reat
ed
c. Beenqual i
tytest
ed
d. Beenv acuum melted

18. Whichoneoft hefoll

owingtypesofst
eelwoul
dgi
veri
setot
hef
ormat
ionof
por
osit
ywhenaut ogenousl
yweldedwithanar
cpr
ocess?
a. Ful l
ykill
edsteel
b. Semi kil
ledsteel
c. Ri mmi ngsteel
d. Fi negr ainedsteel

19. Insubmergedarcwel dingtheuseofexcessi

vel
yhi
ghv
olt
agewoul
dresul
tin:
a. I nsuf
fici
entf l
uxmel ti
ng
b. Excessi vefluxmel t
ing
c. Sl agremov aldif
ficult
ies
d. Spat ter

20. Cell
ulosi
celect
rodesar eoft
enusedwhenweldingt
her
ootpassofpi
pesi
nthef
iel
d
because:
a. Hy dr
ogencont roli
sneeded
b. Ther eareironpowder si
ntheelect
rode
c. Hi gherarcvoltagecanbeobtai
ned
d. Shor terarclengthcanbeobtai
ned

21. Int
hewel dingofausteni
ti
cstainlessst eels,theel
ect
rodeandpl
atemater
ial
canbe
pur
chasedwi thlowcarboncont ents.Ther easonf
orthi
sistopr
event
:
a. Cr ackingintheheataf
f ectedzone
b. Thef ormati
onofchromi um car bides
c. Cr ackingintheweldmet al
d. Di stort
ion
117
118

22. Submer
gedarcfl
uxescanbesuppli
edi
ntwof
orms.Thesear
e:
a. Si nt
eredandagit
ated
b. Agi t
atedandfused
c. Si nt
eredandagglomerat
ed
d. Fusedandaggl omerated

23. Inasteelt
hathasimprovedcreeppr
opert
iesatel
evat
edt
emper
atur
es,
whi
chone
ofthefol
l
owingelementshelpsint
hisi
mpr ov
ement?
a. Tungst en
b. Manganese
c. Mol ybdenum
d. Car bon

24. Wel
dingasteelpl
atewithaCEof0. 45wouldrequi
repr
eheat
ingt
o:
a. Pr eventtheformati
onofsulphides
b. Pr eventhardeni
ngintheHAZ
c. Pr eventtheformati
onofcarbides
d. Toi mpr ovemechanicalpr
opertiesi
ntheweld

25. Whi
chofthefoll
owingprocessesusest
he'
key
hol
i
ng'
syst
em off
usi
on?
a. Fr i
cti
onwel di
ng
b. Di f
fusionbonding
c. Electronbeam welding
d. Aut ogenousTIGwel di
ng

26. Inf
ri
cti
onwel dingthemet
alatt
hei
nter
facei
sint
he:
a. Li quidst ate
b. Sol i
dst ate
c. Pl ast
icst at
e
d. El asticst at
e

27. Weldi
ngprocedur esmayr equir
eweldst
obedeposi
tedatacont
rol
l
edr
ateofheat
i
nput.Hi
ghheati nput swould:
a. Hav epoorpr ofi
le
b. Hav elargergr ainsi
ze
c. Hav ehighhar dnessi
ntheHAZ
d. Hav elowel ongati
onproper
ti
es

28. Inat
ensi
letestabrit
tl
emat eri
alwouldbei
ndi
cat
edi
fthef
ract
uresur
face:
a. Showsar eductioninsize
b. I sfl
atandf eat
ureless
c. Br eaksinthepar entmater
ial
d. Br eaksat45t otheload

29. Whatdestruct
ivet
estwouldber
equi
redt
oascer
tai
nthel
i
kel
i
hoodofcr
acki
ngi
nthe
heataf
fectedzoneofaweld?
a. Ni ckbreak
b. Si debendtest
c. Char pyimpacttest
118
 119
d. Macr
otest

30. Insubmer
gedar
cweldingexcessiv
earcvol
tagemaycause:
a. Excessivepenetr
ati
on
b. Changei nweldmet alcomposi
ti
on
c. Nar rowweldwidth
d. Excessivebeadprofil
e

MULTI
CHOI
CEPAPERTHREE

1. TheBr
it
ishcodeforvi
suali
nspect
ionr
equi
rement
sis:
a. BS4872
b. BS499
c. BS4870
d. Noneoft heabove

2. Acodeofpracti
ceforvi
sualinspect
ionshoul
dincl
udet
hef
oll
owi
ng:
a. Bef ore,duri
ngandafterweldingact
ivi
ti
es
b. Bef oreweldingact
ivi
ti
esonl y
c. Af terweldi
ngactiv
iti
esonly
d. Noneoft heabove

3. Incompl
eter
ootpenet
rati
oninabut
tjoi
ntcoul
dbecausedby
:
a. Excessi v
erootfacewidt
h
b. Excessi v
erootgapsize
c. Lowcur r
entset
ting
d. Bot hAandC

4. Incompleter
ootfusionwoul
dcertai
nlybecausedby
:
a. Li nearmisali
gnment
b. I ncorr
ecttil
tangle
c. Di f
fer
ingrootfacewi
dths
d. Al l
oftheabov e

5. Whenv i
sual
lyi
nspect
ingacompl
etedsi
ngl
eveebut
twel
dcap,
youwoul
dcer
tai
nly
assess:
a. Caphei ght
b. Toebl end
c. Wel dwidth
d. Al lt
heabove

119
120
6. Younot
iceav er
y'v
eed'ri
ppleshape.Thi
sismostl
i
kel
ycausedby
:
a. Poorconsumabl echoice
b. Wel di
ngpositi
on
c. Excessi vetr
avelspeed
d. Al ltheabove

7. Toebl
endingisi
mportantasi
tmayaf
fect
:
a. Cor r
osion
b. Fat igueli
fe
c. Ov erl
aptypedefect
s
d. Al ltheabove

8. Sl
agi
ncl
usionswoul doccurwith:
a. Manual met al
arc
b. Met alinertgas
c. Submer gedarcwelding
d. Bot hAandC

9. Under
cuti
spr
inci
pall
ycausedby
:
a. Excessiveamps
b. Excessivevol
ts
c. Excessivetr
avelspeed
d. Al lt
heabove

10. Under
cuti
snor mall
yassessedby
:
a. I tsdepth
b. I tslengt
h
c. I t'
sblending
d. Al ltheabove

11. Awel
dingprocedureisusef
ulto:
a. Gi veinfor
mat i
ontothewelder
b. Gi veinfor
mat i
ontotheinspect
or
c. Gi veconfidencetoaproduct
d. Al lt
heabov e

12. Anessenti
al v
ariablemay :
a. Changet hepr opert
iesofaweld
b. I nfluencet hev i
sualaccept
abi
l
ity
c. Requi rere-approvalofaweldprocedur
e
d. Al l
t heabov e

13. Amagnif
yingglassmaybeuseddur
ingv
isual
inspect
ion,
butBS5289st
atest
hat
i
tsmagni
ficat
ionshoul
dbe:
a. Upt o5
b. 2t o2. 5
c. 5t o10
120
 121
d. Noneoft
heabov
e

14. Whenv
isual
lyi
nspect i
ngaf i
ll
etweldi
twoul
dnor
mal
l
ybesi
zedby
:
a. Thel eglengths
b. Theact ualthroatt
hickness
c. Thedesi gnthroatthi
ckness
d. Bot hAandC

15. Apl
anardefectis:
a. I ncompletefusi
ondefect
s
b. Sl aginclusi
on
c. I ncompletepenetr
ati
on
d. Bot hAandC

16. Penet
ranti
nspectionandmagnet icpart
icl
einspect
ionar
emai
nlyused:
a. Toai dvisualinspect
ion
b. Becauset heappl i
cat
ionsay sso
c. Toconf i
r mv i
sualuncert
ainti
es
d. Al lt
heabov e

17. Def
ect
soutsi
detheli
mitsspecifi
edinastandar
dshoul
dal
way
sbe:
a. Repai r
ed
b. Repor t
edto'aseniorperson'
c. Assessedalongwi thotherdef
ect
s
d. Al l
theabove

18. MIGweldingtendst obesuscept

ibl
etol
ackoff
usi
onpr
obl
ems.Thi
sisbecauseof
:
a. Poormai ntenanceofequi
pment
b. I ncor r
ectsetti
ngs
c. Poori nter-
runcleani
ng
d. Al l
t heabov e

19. MMAel
ect
rodescanbegr oupedintot
hreemai
nty
pes.Thesear
e:
a. Basi
c, cellul
osicandr ut
il
e
b. Neutral,cell
ulosi
candr uti
le
c. Basi
c, cellul
osicandneut r
al
d. Noneoft heabov e

20. Themaincauseofporosi
tyi
nwel
dedj
oint
sis:
a. Pooraccess
b. Lossofgasshi eld
c. ' Dir
ty'
materi
als
d. Al ltheabove

21. Cr
acksi
nweldsmaybeduet o:
a. Sol i
dif
icati
onpr obl
ems
b. Hy drogenpr oblems
c. Excessi vestresses
d. Al lt
heabov e

121
122
22. Aweav
etechniquemaygi v
eriset
o:
a. Bet t
erprofi
les
b. I mprov
edt oeblendi
ng
c. I mprov
edr i
ppleshape
d. Al l
theabov e

23. Wit
href
erencetoar ootpenet
rat
ionbeady
ouwoul
dcer
tai
nlyassess:
a. Rootf usi
onandpenet r
ati
on
b. Rootconcav i
ty
c. Bur nthrough
d. Al ltheabove

24. Inafat
iguef
ailuretheappear
anceoft
hef
ract
uresur
facei
schar
act
eri
sti
c.I
twoul
d
be:
a. Roughandt orn
b. ' Chevron'-
li
ke
c. Smoot h
d. Noneoft heabove

25. St
rayar
cingmayber egardedasaser i
ousdef
ectbecause:
a. I tmayr educethethi
cknessdimensi
onofacomponent
b. I tmaycausel oquati
oncracks
c. I tmaycausehar dzones
d. Al ltheabove

26. Over
lapi
nweldscouldbeinfl
uencedby
:
a. Poorwel di
ngtechni
que
b. Wel di
ngprocess
c. Wel di
ngposit
ion
d. Al ltheabove

27. Fl
amecutpr eparat
ionsmay ,
dur
ingwel
ding,
incr
easet
hel
i
kel
i
hoodof
:
a. Cr acking
b. Mi sali
gnmentpr obl
ems
c. I nclusions
d. Al l t
heabov e

28. Macr
oscopi
cexami nati
onrequir
esanyspeci
ment
obei
nspect
ed:
a. Once, afteretchi
ng
b. Twi ce,beforeandafteret
chi
ng
c. Usi ngami croscope
d. Noneoft heabov e

29. Whi
choft
hefoll
owingmaybecl assedasamor
eser
iousdef
ect
:
a. Slagincl
usions
b. Fusiondefects(i
nter-
run)
c. Fusiondefects(surf
ace)
d. Porosit
y

122
 123
30. Acodeofpr
acti
ceis:
a. Ast andar
df orworkmanshi
ponly
b. Asetofr ulesformanufact
uri
ngaspeci
fi
cpr
oduct
c. Lev el
sofacceptabil
i
tyofaweldment
d. Noneoft heabov e

MULTI
CHOI
CEPAPERFOUR

1. Mov
ementofthearcinMMAwel
dingbymagnet
icf
orcesi
scal
l
ed:
a. Arcdev i
ati
on
b. Arcmi sal
ignment
c. Arcblow
d. Arceye

2. Amet
all
urgi
cal probl
em mostassociat
edwit
hsubmer
gedar
cwel
dingi
s:
a. Hy drogencr ackingi
ntheHAZ
b. Solidif
icati
oncr acki
ngint
heweldmetal
c. Hy drogencr ackingi
ntheweldmetal
d. Lamel larteari
ngi nt
heweldmetal

3. Oxypr
essur
eandnozzlesizeinfl
amecut t
ingwouldi
nfl
uence:
a. Thet emperat
urerequir
edforcutini
tiat
ion
b. Theabi l
i
tytocutstainl
esssteel
s
c. Thedept hofthecutobtai
nable
d. Noneoft heabove

4. Themai
nusageofar ccutti
ng/gougingprocessesis:
a. Thecut t
ingofsinglebevelpreparati
ons
b. Ther emov alofdeposit
edwel ds
c. Thecut t
ingofsingleUt ypepreparat
ions
d. Thecut t
ing/gougingofnon-ferr
ousmat eri
alsonl
y

5. Whi
chofthef ol
lowingprocessesj
oinsmet
alspl
ast
ical
l
y?
a. Fr i
ctionwelding
b. Resi stancewelding
c. Pl asmawel ding
d. Al ltheabov e

6. Whi
chel
ect
rodecl
assi
fi
cat
ionwoul
dber
elev
antt
oAWSA5.
1-81?
a. E6013
b. E5133
123
124
c. E7018-G
d. Fl
eet
weld5

7. Whi
choft
hefoll
owi
ngcoat
ingsi
sassoci
atedwi
thst
ovewel
ding?
a. Rutil
e
b. Cell
ulosic
c. Basic
d. Oxidisi
ng

8. Acommongasmi xtur
eusedinMIGwel
dingni
ckel
all
oys,
tocombi
negoodl
evel
sof
penet
rat
ionwit
hgoodarcst
abil
i
tywoul
dbe:
a. 100%CO2
b. 100%ar gon
c. 80%ar gonand20%CO2
d. 98%ar gonand2%oxygen

9. Whi
cht
ypeofSAW fl
uxi
smor eresi
stanttomoist
ureabsor
pti
on?
a. Fused
b. Agglomerat
ed
c. Basic
d. Allt
heabovehavethesameresistance

10. Thef
lamet
emper
atur
eofoxy
/acet
ylenemi
xtur
egasi
sgi
venas:
a. 3200C
b. 2300C
c. 5000C
d. Noneoftheabove

11. Alar
gegrai
nst r
uctur
einsteelsi
ssaidtopr
oduce:
a. Lowduct il
ityv
alues
b. Lowf ract
uretoughnessvalues
c. Hi ghfractureval
uevalues
d. Hi ghtensilestr
engt
h

12. Thel
i
kel
i
hoodofbr i
tt
lefractur
einsteelswill
incr
easewit
h:
a. Al argegr ainformation
b. Ar eductionofi n-servi
cetemper at
uretosubzer
otemper
atur
es
c. Fer r
iti
crat herthanaustenit
icsteel
s
d. Alltheabov e

13. Repai
rwel
dingisoft
enmor edif
ficul
tthanpr oducti
onweldi
ngduet
o:
a. Themat eri
albeingingrai
nedwi thi
n-servicecont
aminant
s
b. Rest r
ictedaccesswi t
hintherepairarea
c. Thepossi blepositi
onoft heweldr epair
d. Al lt
heabov e

124
 125
14. Hydr
ogencrackinginthewel
dmet al
isl
i
kel
ywhenwel
ding:
a. Car bonmanganesest eels
b. St ai
nlessst eel
s
c. Mi croalloyedsteel
s(HSLA)
d. Lowcar bonst eel
s

15. EN288st
andardwoul drefertowhichoft
hef
oll
owi
ng:
a. Wel derappr ovaltesti
ng
b. Wel di
ngequi pment
c. Wel di
ngpr ocedur eappr ov
al
d. Consumabl esf orwelding

16. Porosi
tyi
scausedby :
a. Ent r
appedsl aginthesoli
difyi
ngweld
b. Ent r
appedgasi nthesol
idif
yingweld
c. Ent r
appedmet all
i
cincl
usionsinthesoli
dif
yingwel
d
d. Noneoft heabov e
17. Inabendtestthefaceoft hespecimenisintensi
onandther
ooti
sincompr
essi
on.
Whattypeoftestisbeingcarri
edout ?
a. Ar ootbendt est
b. Asi debendt est
c. Af acebendt est
d. Noneoft heabov e

18. Ul
tr
asoni
ct esti
ngismor eadvant
ageousi
ndet
ect
ingwhi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngwel
d
i
mperf
ections,overotherNDTmethods?
a. Lackofsi dewall f
usi
on
b. Sur faceundercut
c. I ncompl et
elyfil
ledgr
oove
d. Ov erlap

19. Temper i
ngisoftencar
ri
edoutt
oregai
ntoughnessaf
terwhi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ng
processes?
a. Anneal i
ng
b. Nor mali
sing
c. Har deni
ng
d. St r
essreli
evi
ng

20. Thepresenceofi ronsul phideinthewel

dmetal
ismostl
i
kel
ytopr
oducewhi
chof
thef
oll
owi nguponcont ractionofthewel
d?
a. Sol idif
icat
ioncr acking
b. Hy drogencr acking
c. I ntergr
anularcor rosion
d. St resscorrosioncr acking

21. Aust
enit
icstai
nlesssteelel
ectr
odesaregeneral
lysmall
eri
nlengt
hthanmi
l
dst
eel
el
ect
rodesbecause:
a. Hi ghamper ageisused
b. Shel fl
if
ewi l
lbedecreased
c. Thei rel
ectri
calconduct
ivi
tyi
slessthanthatofst
eel
125
126
d. Theyar
emor
eexpensi
ve

22. Thev
olt
agenecessarytomaint
ainanar
cdur
ingmet
alar
cwel
dingi
ster
med:
a. Mai nssupplyvolt
age
b. Ar ccur
rent
c. Ar cvol
tage
d. Openci rcui
tvolt
age

23. WhenMMAwel dingl

owcar
bonst
eel
whi
chel
ect
rodewi
l
lgi
vet
hegr
eat
est
deposi
ti
onrate?
a. Hy drogencont
rol
l
ed
b. Cel l
ulosi
c
c. Rut i
le
d. I r
onpowder

24. Inher
entr
ectifi
cati
onoft heelect
ri
cal
out
puti
spr
oducedi
nthear
cwhenTI
G
weldi
ngusing:
a. ACwi thasuppr essor
b. ACwi thoutasuppr essor
c. DCwi threversepolari
ty
d. DCwi thstrai
ghtpol ar
it
y

25. Gammaray
sandX- raysarepartofaf
ami
l
yofwav
escal
l
ed:
a. Acousticwav es
b. Lightwav es
c. Electr
omagnet i
cwav es
d. Transversewav es

26. Ameasur
eoft heaccur
acyofar
adi
ogr
aphasanNDTt
ool
isgi
venbyi
ts:
a. I nt
ensi
ty
b. Densi t
y
c. Sensitiv
ity
d. Exposur e

27. Asur
facebreaki
ngcr ackwil
lbedetecteddur
ingamagnet
icpar
ti
clei
nspect
ioni
fit
i
s:
a. Atr ightanglestotheli
nesofflux
b. Par all
eltothelinesoffl
ux
c. At25t otheli
nesoff l
ux
d. Al lt
heabov e

28. Theadv
antageoful
trasonicnon- dest
ruct
ivet
est
ingf
ort
heexami
nat
ionof
wel
dmentsis:
a. I tcanbeusedt olocateflaws
b. I tcanbeusedt osizeflaws
c. I thasahighsensiti
vit
yt oplanarfl
aws
126
 127
d. Al
ltheabov
e

29. Undernor
malcontr
actcondi
ti
onsweldprocedureappr
oval
testsforpipewor
kar
e:
a. Mandat or
y
b. Dependantonsi teandweathercondi
ti
ons
c. Dependantupont hecontr
actor'
sconfi
denceinhi
sprocedures
d. Onl yrequi
redwhenMMAwel di
ngisused

30. Hydr
ogencontroll
edel
ectr
odeswer edevel
opedpr
inci
pal
l
yfor
:
a. Thepr eventi
onofporosity
b. Thepr ev
ent i
onofcracking
c. Theenhancementofar cvolt
age
d. Thei reaseofarcstarti
ng

MULTI
CHOI
CEPAPERFI
VE

1. Gener
all
ythemostsui t
ablemet
hodofdet
ect
ingl
ackofsi
dewal
lfusi
onwoul
dbe:
a. Ul trasonics.
b. MPI .
c. Radi ography.
d. Penet rantinspect
ion.

2. Hotshor
tnessisat erm usedtoi
ndi
cat
e:
a. Lamel lartearing.
b. Sol idif
icati
oncr acking.
c. Hy drogencr acking.
d. Noneoft heabov e.

3. Cobal
tasanisotopewouldgener
all
ybeusedon:
a. Thi nmat eri
al.
b. Teej oi
nts.
c. Pl atethi
cknessesgreat
ert
han25mm.
d. Al lt
heabov e.

4. Inwel
dingprocedureter
ms,achangeinessenti
alvari
abl
emeans:
a. Re- qual
if
icati
onofthewel
dprocedure.
b. Possi bl
echangesintheweld'
smi cr
ostr
uctur
e.
c. Possi bl
echangesinthemechanicalpr
operti
es.
d. Al lt
heabov e.

5. Wel
dsy
mbolsplacedonadot tedl
i
nei
naccor
dancewi
thI
SOr
equi
rement
smeans:
a. Weldon'arrow'si
de.
b. Weldon'other'si
de.
c. Weldonsi t
e.
d. Full
penetrati
onrequi
red.

6. Awel
dinginspector
'smai
nattri
but
esi
ncl
ude:
a. Knowl edgeandexper
ience.
b. Li t
eracy.
127
128
c. Honest
yandint
egr
it
y.
d. Al
ltheabov
e.

7. Techni
cal
ly ,
acodeofpr act
icei
s:
a. Ast andar
d.
b. A' setofrules'
forthemanufact
ureofaproduct
.
c. Rel atedtowelderandweldprocedur
eapproval
.
d. Al ltheabove.

8. Thecorr
ectt ermf or'
caphei
ght
'i
s:
a. Rei nforcement.
b. Cappr ofil
eheight.
c. Excesswel dmetal
.
d. Al ltheabov e.
9. Atensi
l
et estwi l
lassess:
a. I mpactv alues.
b. St r
ess.
c. St r
ai n.
d. Bot hbandc.

10. Thei
mpor
tantpoi
ntofhi ghtemperaturest
eel
sist
hat
:
a. Theycanwi thstandcreepfai
lure.
b. Theymaysuf f
erre-heatcr
ackingprobl
ems.
c. Theymaysuf f
erlossoftoughness.
d. Alltheabove.

11. Anaust
eni
ti
cst ai
nlessst
eelmaysuf
fer
:
a. Wel ddecay .
b. Sensi t
isati
on.
c. Sol i
dif
icati
oncracki
ng.
d. Al lt
heabov e.

12. Car
bonequival
entvaluesareusefult
odet
ermi
ne:
a. Wel dabil
ityaspects.
b. Cr acksensiti
vit
yaspects.
c. Ty picalmechanicalproper
ti
es.
d. Al lt
heabov e.

13. Abasi
cel
ect
rodewouldnormall
y:
a. Hav esuperi
ormechani
calpropert
ies.
b. Requirebaki
ngbeforeuse.
c. Notbeusedonl owcarbonst eel
s.
d. Bothaandb.

14. Whenr
eferr
ingt
oTIGwel di
ng,
theshi
eldi
nggascoul
dbe:
a. Ar gonandhydrogen.
b. Ar gonandheli
um.
c. Ar gonandnit
rogen.
d. Al lt
heabove.

128
 129
15. Whenr
eferr
ingt
oMIGwelding,t
heshi
eldi
nggaswoul
dbe:
a. Ar gon.
b. Ar gon+1%oxygen.
c. Ar gon+20%carbondioxi
de.
d. Noneoft heabove.

16. Submer
gedarcuti
l
ises:
a. Deeppenet r
ationcharact
eri
sti
c.
b. Hi ghdeposi
ti
onr at
esonDC+.
c. Fl at(
PA)weldingonly
.
d. Noneoft heabov e.

17. Ul
tr
asoni
cswoul
dbepr efer
redov err
adi
ogr
aphyduet
o:
a. Abi l
it
ytofi
ndmostdef ects.
b. Lowerskillr
equir
ement .
c. Abi l
it
ytodetectl
aminati
ons.
d. Bot haandc.

18. Themostseri
ousdefectt
ypesar
e:
a. Pl anar.
b. Cr acks.
c. Lackoff usi
on.
d. Al ltheabove.

19. MMAwel
dingoflowalloysteelsi
smor eli
kel
ytobeper
for
medwi
th:
a. Ruti
leelectr
odes.
b. Cell
ulosi
celectr
odes.
c. Ir
onpowderel ectr
odes.
d. Basichydrogencontr
olledelect
rodes.

20. Whichofthef
oll
owi ngdef ectsi
smor
ecommont
owel
dsdeposi
tedbyCO2wel
ding
thanwel
dsdepositedbyMMA?
a. Sl agincl
usions.
b. Excesspenet rat
ion.
c. Lackofsi dewal lfusion.
d. Tungst eninclusions.

21. Whi
chdef
ectwouldy ouexpectt
ogeti
nTI
Gwel
dsi
nnon-
deoxi
disedst
eel
?
a. Undercut.
b. Porosit
y.
c. Tungsteninclusi
ons.
d. Linearmisal
ignment.

22. Whi
choft
hefol
lowingcanari
sef
rom copperi
ncl
usi
onsi
naf
err
it
icst
eel
wel
d?
a. Weldmet alcracks.
b. HAZcracks.
c. Lamell
artearing.
d. Porosi
ty.

129
130
23. Whi
choft
hefollowingisl
ikel
ytogivethehi
ghesti
mpactst
rengt
hinf
err
it
icwel
d
met
al?
a. Cell
ulosicelectr
odes.
b. Submer gedar cwit
hacidflux.
c. SpraytransferCO2welding.
d. Basiccoat edMMAel ectr
odes.

24. Yoususpectt hatf err

it
icsteelpl
atescontai
ncracksinthepr
epar
ededges.What
NDTmet hodwoul dyouuset ocheckthis?
a. Radi ogr aphy .
b. Magnet i
cpar ti
cleinspect
ion.
c. Penet rantinspecti
on.
d. Ul t
rasoni cf l
awdet ecti
on.
25. Whichofthef ollowingdef ect
swouldy ounotexpecttofi
ndbyvi
sual
inspect
ionof
wel
ds?
a. Li nearsl aginclusi
ons.
b. Under cut .
c. Ov erlap.
d. Li nearmi sali
gnment .

26. St
ressr
eli
evingisnothel pf
uli
nwhi choft hefol
l
owingcases?
a. I mprov ingresi
stancetostresscorrosi
oncracking.
b. I mprov ingdimensionalst
abili
tyaft
ermachining.
c. Lower ingthepeakr esi
dualstress.
d. Sof teningthesteel.

27. Whati
sthemaximum hardnessusual
lyr
ecommendedf
ort
heheat
-af
fect
edzoneof
amedi
um st
rengthf
err
iti
csteelweld?
a. 100DPHv .
b. 350DPHv .
c. 500DPHv .
d. 750DPHv .

28. Whateff
ectdoesmi dthicknesslaminati
onsinst
eel
plat
enor
mal
l
yhav
ewhent
hey
ar
elocat
edwi t
hinawel dheataf f
ect
edzone?
a. Causel amel l
artearing.
b. Fuset ogethertof orm abond.
c. Af f
ectthewel dmet alcomposit
ion.
d. Causei nternalt
ear i
ngonami croscal
e.

29. Theper
manentbacki
ngmat
eri
alf
orMMAwel
dingofl
owcar
bonst
eel
shoul
dbe
madefr
om:
a. Copper .
b. Lowcar bonsteel
.
c. QTst eel
.
d. Castiron.

30. Theov
eral
llengthofapipel
inecanbeaf
fect
edby
:
a. Tr ansverseshri
nkage.
b. Longi tudi
nalshri
nkage.
130
 131
c. Angul
arshri
nkage.
d. Ci
rcumfer
enti
alshr
inkage.

MULTI
CHOI
CEPAPERSI
X

1. Thewel
ddimensionusedtoindi
cat
ethemi
nimum st
rengt
hofaf
il
letwel
dis:
a. Legl ength.
b. Thr oatthi
ckness.
c. Wi dthofbead.
d. Lengt hofweldelement.

2. Anel
ect
roslagwel drequi
reswhatheatt
reat
mentt
oimpr
ovet
hegr
ainst
ruct
ure?
a. Anneal ing.
b. St ressreli
eving.
c. Nor mali
sing.
d. Quenchandt empering.

3. Themostcommont ypeoff
ail
ureassoci
atedwi
thshar
pfi
l
let
s,not
chesand
under
cuti
s:
a. Cr ystal
l
isat
ion.
b. Fat igue.
c. Cor rosi
on.
d. Br i
ttl
efract
ure.

4. Wel
ddecayinstainl
essst eelscanbeav oi
dedby:
a. St ressrel
i
ev i
ng.
b. Sl owcoolingafterwelding.
c. Addi ti
onofmor emanganeset othesteel
.
d. Addi ti
onoft i
tanium tothesteel
.

5. Aneut
ect
oidmixtur
einst eel
is:
a. Ami xt
ureofferri
teandaustenit
e.
b. Ami xt
urecompr i
singasubstit
uti
nal
sol
i
dsol
uti
on.
c. Cal l
edpearli
te.
d. Cal l
edledeburi
te.

6. Lowal
l
oyst eelshavingahighcarbonequi
val
entbef
orewel
dingwi
l
lrequi
re:
a. Ar eductionincarboncontent
.
b. Hi ghpr e-heattemperat
ures.
131
132
c. Lowpre-
heattemper
atur
es.
d. Nopre-
heati
ng.

7. Theel
ect
rodesforweldinglowalloysteel
sshouldbe:
a. Usedwi thalowcur r
entvalue.
b. Onesi zel ar
gerthanforgeneralpurposeelect
rodes.
c. Usedf orweldi
ngintheflatpositi
ononly.
d. Heat edinadr yi
ngov enbeforeuse.

8. Thepurposeofpr e-heat ingl owall

oysteelpipesbefor
eel
ect
ri
car
cwel
dingi
sto:
a. Ref inegr ai
nst ructur e.
b. Rel i
ev einternal str ess.
c. Ret ardr apidcool i
ng.
d. Regul ateexcessi veexpansion.
9. Welderqualifi
cati
ont estsar edesi
gnedt o:
a. Testt hecor rect nessoft heweldingprocedure.
b. Testt hewel der '
sski l
l.
c. Pr ov ethewel dabi l
ityoftheparentmat er
ial
.
d. Al lt
heabov e.

10. Inposi
ti
onal MMAwel dingonpipework, welder
sarehavi
ngdif
fi
cul
tyi
nobtai
ning
goodcappingprofi
l
eswhenwel di
ngint heov er
headposi
ti
on.Woul
dyou:
a. Adv isethem t
oi ncr
easethecurrent.
b. Adv isethem t
oi ncr
easethevoltage.
c. Askf oranewwel dingt
eam.
d. Suggestt heuseofasmal l
erdi
amet erel
ectr
ode.

11. Youhaveamacr osecti

onofa'
T'but
tjoi
ntt
hatshowsastep-
li
kedef
ectl
yi
ng
out
sidet
hevi
sibleHAZ.Whatwouldthi
sdef
ectpossi
blysi
gni
fy?
a. HAZcr acking.
b. Toecr acking.
c. Lami nati
on.
d. Lamel l
art eari
ng.

12. Whichelectrodedeposi
tswel
dmet
alwi
tht
hegr
eat
estduct
il
it
yandr
esi
stancet
o
cr
acking?
a. Rut ile.
b. Cel lulosi
c.
c. Basi c.
d. Oxi dising.

13. Whi
choneoft hefoll
owingisnothelpfulinmi ni
misi
ngangulardi
stor
ti
ondur
ing
wel
ding?
a. Useofdoubl e'V'
weldpr epusingbal ancedweldi
ngtechni
que.
b. Pr e-
settingofworkpiece.
c. Appl y
ingpostwel dheatsoak.
d. Changi ngf r
om asingle'
V'prepf orthickmater
ial
.

14. Ar
gonpur
gingontherootsi
deisnecessar
yint
heTI
Gwel
dingofst
ainl
essst
eel
to:
a. Obt ai
nful
lpenetr
ati
on.
132
 133
b. Obtainf
ullfusion.
c. Avoidporosityint
heroot
.
d. Obtainasatisfact
orywel
dsur
facef
ini
sh.

15. Whi
choft
hefol
lowingcanari
sef
rom copperi
ncl
usi
onsi
nami
l
dst
eel
wel
d?
a. Weldmet alcracks.
b. HAZcracks.
c. Lackoffusion.
d. Porosi
ty.

16. St
ressr
eli
efi
snothel pfuli
nwhi choft hefol
lowi ngcases?
a. I nimprovi
ngr esi
stancet ost resscorrosion.
b. I nimprovi
ngdi mensional st
abili
tyaft
ermachi ning.
c. I nloweri
ngthepeakr esidual st r
esses.
d. I nsoft
eningthemet al .
17. St
rayar
cstri
kesareundesi rablesi ncet hey:
a. Leav eapoorsur facef inish.
b. Causewel dmet alcracki ng.
c. Reducecor r
osionresi stance.
d. Causel ocalhardeningandcr ackingint heparentmater
ial
.

18. Col
dcr
ackingi smostli
kelytooccuri
nawel dmentif
:
a. Ther ateofcooli
ngistoofast.
b. Ther ateofcooli
ngistooslow.
c. Itlacksduct i
l
ityathight
emper at
ures.
d. Impur i
ti
esarepresentatit
sgrainboundar
ies.

19. Chromi
um, whenaddedt
ost
eel
asanal
l
oyi
ngel
ement
,hast
heef
fectofmaki
ngt
he
al
loymore:
a. Duct il
e.
b. Pl ast i
c.
c. Har denable.
d. Mal leabl
e.

20. Whendeposi t
ingweldmetal
,fusi
onwil
ltakeplaceatt
hesidesoft
hej
ointr
esul
ti
ng
i
nanadmi xturebetweenwel
dmet al
andpar entmetal
.Thi
sall
oyi
ngef
fecti
sknown
as:
a. Di ffusion.
b. Absor ption.
c. Di luti
on.
d. Mi gr ati
on.

21. Per
cent
ageelongati
onofamet
alunder
goi
ngat
ensi
l
etesti
sameasur
eof
:
a. El asti
cit
y.
b. Pl asti
cit
y.
c. Duct il
it
y.
d. Mal l
eabil
it
y.

22. Whenal
ongi
tudinal
loadi
sputonal
apj
oint
,thest
resssetupi
snor
mal
l
y:
a. Shearstress.
133
134
b. Tensi
lest
ress.
c. Compressi
vestress.
d. Resi
dualst
ress.

23. Whenamet al i
ssubj ect
edtoafluct
uati
ngload,
acondi
tionofcy
cli
cst
ressi
ngcan
besetup,whichev entual
lycanr
esulti
nstr
uctur
albr
eakdownknownas:
a. Tensi l
efai l
ur e.
b. Fat i
guef ail
ur e.
c. Yi el
dfail
ur e.
d. Shearf ailure.

24. Whathappenst othemechani calproper

ti
esofst
eel
ift
hecar
boncont
enti
s
i
ncr
easedto0. 5%?
a. Themat eri
albecomessof ter.
b. Mal l
eabili
tyisincreased.
c. Thet ensil
est r
engt hisi
ncreased.
d. Duct i
li
tyisincreased.

25. Col
umnargrowthtakespl
acewhenamet
ali
s:
a. Col d.
b. Losi ngheat.
c. Bei ngheated.
d. Bei ngrol
led.

26. Ifalowcar
bonsteelpipehast ocar
ryal i
qui
d,car
emustbetakenwhenmaki
ngt
he
buttwel
dstoensurepenetrat
ionisnotexcessi
vebecausei
t:
a. Reducest hefl
owr ateoftheli
quid.
b. Mayi ncr
easet herat
eofcor r
osion.
c. Cancont aminatetheli
quid.
d. Maycauseexcessi vepipewear .

27. Whenasteelsuff
ershotshor
tness,
iti
smost
lyduet
othepr
esenceof
:
a. Sul phur.
b. Phosphor ous.
c. Si l
i
con.
d. Manganese.

28. Whenasteel i
sheatedt
oabov
eit
suppercr
it
ical
temper
atur
e,t
hest
ruct
ure
pr
oducedis:
a. Mar tensi
te.
b. Aust eni
te.
c. Pear l
it
e.
d. Sor bite.

29. Thetypeofcryst
alnor
mal
l
yfoundi
nasi
ngl
erunar
cwel
dint
heaswel
ded
condi
tioni
s:
a. Equi -
axed.
134
 135
b. Pol
ycr
ystal
li
ne.
c. Dendr
it
ic.
d. Col
umnar.

30. Thefir
stsub-zoneintheheataf fect
edzoneoft
hepar
entmet
alnear
estt
hewel
d
deposi
twillconsi
stof:
a. Lar gecrystalgrai
ns.
b. Smal lcr
ystalgrai
ns.
c. El ongatedcrystalgrains.
d. Di stort
edcrystalgrains.

MULTI
CHOI
CEPAPERSEVEN

1. Pi
peweldi
ngcodesar esetupby :
a. Wel dingoperators.
b. St ategovernment s.
c. Associ ati
ons,societi
es,
insur
ancecompani
es,
manuf
act
urer
sandt
he
mil
i
tar
y.
d. Const ruct
ionunions.

2. Thedi
ff
erentgrai
nst r
uctur
ebet
weent
hewel
ddeposi
tandt
hebasemet
alcanbe
det
ermi
nedby :
a. Af acebendt est.
b. Ar ootbendtest.
c. Ahar dnesstest.
d. Anet chi
ngtest .

3. Arootbendtestisusedt
otestt
heamountofwel
d:
a. Duct il
it
y.
b. El ongati
on.
c. Har dness.
d. Penet rati
on.

4. Whatwoul
dbeobser v
edifaf il
l
etweldwer esect i
onedandmacr o-
etched?
a. Thegr ai
noft heotherbeadsiscoar serthanthef i
nalbead.
b. Thepenet r
ationandf usi
onintother ootisverydeep.
c. Eachbeadappear st obedisti
nctlyseparatedfrom theadjoi
ningbeads.
d. Thegr ai
nstructur
er emainsthesamei nallpasses.

5. Whati
sthemostcommoncauseoff ai
l
ureinrootbendtest
s?
a. Toohi ghacurrentsett
ing.
b. Tool ongapausei nthedowncy cleoft
heweav e.
c. Lackoff usi
onandpenet rat
ion.
d. Toohi ghatrav
el speed.

6. Thepur
poseofani
ckbr
eakspeci
meni
stopr
ovi
deat
estf
or:
135
136
a. Tensi
lestrengthandf r
act
ureappear ance.
b. Ducti
l
ityandf r
actureappearance.
c. El
ongationandf r
actureappearance.
d. Soundnessandf ractur
eappear ance.

7. Whichorgani
sati
onpubl i
shest hemostcommonl yusedcodef
orboi
l
erand
pr
essurevesselwel
ding?
a. Amer i
canWeldingSoci ety.
b. Amer i
canSoci
et yofMechani calEngi
neer
s.
c. Amer i
canPetr
oleum Inst i
tute.
d. Amer i
canNati
onal Standar dsInsti
tut
e.

8. Alowhydr
ogenelect
rode,
accordingt
oBS639, woul
dcontai
n:
a. Nohy dr
ogen.
b. Lesst han15ml ofhydr
ogenper100gr amsofdeposi
tedwel
dmetal
.
c. Bet ween15ml and25ml ofhy
drogenper100gr
amsofdeposit
edweld
metal
.
d. Lesst han25ml ofhydr
ogenper100gr amsofdeposi
tedwel
dmetal
.

9. Thesecondruninathreer
unbut
twel
dusi
ngt
hest
ovepi
pet
echni
quei
sknownas
the:
a. Fi l
l
ingrun.
b. Hotpass.
c. I nt
ermediat
erun.
d. Seal i
ngrun.

10. Youcoul
ddeter
minet
hatanel
ect
rodei
scel
l
ulosi
cbyi
ts:
a. BS639codi ng.
b. Col our
.
c. Tr adename.
d. BS499codi ng.

11. Whi
cht
ypeofel ect
rodecoat
inggi
vest
hemostv
olumi
nousgasshi
eld?
a. Rutil
e.
b. Basic.
c. Oxidisi
ng.
d. Cell
ulosic.

12. Whi
choft
hefol
l
owingsteel
sisli
kelyt
obemoresuscept
ibl
etohy
drogencr
acki
ng?
a. Carbonequi
val
entoflessthan0.
25%.
b. Carbonequi
val
entof0.35%.
c. Carbonequi
val
entof0.38%.
d. Carbonequi
val
entof0.43%.

13. Pr
eheat
ingandinterpassheati
ngareusedpr
imar
il
yfor
:
a. Ai dingfusi
on.
b. Reduci nghy drogencont
entofweldpr
epar
ati
onpri
ort
owel
ding.
136
 137
c. Ensur
eaf
inegr
ainsize.
d. Sl
owdownthecool
ingrateaf
terwel
ding.

14. Submer
gedarcwel dsmadewithr
e-cy
cledf
luxar
eli
abl
eto:
a. Por osi
ty.
b. Cour segrainsize.
c. Under cut.
d. I ncomplet
epenet r
ati
on.

15. Incompl
etepenetr
ationinasingl
e'V'
but
tjoi
ntcoul
dbecausedby
:
a. Tool argearootgap.
b. Toosmal l
ar ootgap.
c. Toohi ghaheati nput.
d. Toosmal l
ar ootface.

16. Insubmergedarcwelding,
whichoft
hefol
l
owi
ngwi
dtht
odept
hrat
ioswoul
dbe
l
ikel
ytoresul
tinsol
i
di f
icat
ioncr
acki
ng?
a. 1: 3.
b. 3: 1.
c. 2: 1.
d. 1: 1.

17. Youar
eresponsi
bleforcontr
oll
i
ngweldi
ngonsit
e.Al
argei
nci
denceofpor
osi
tyhas
beenr
eport
edinrecentweldi
ng.Woul
dyouinv
esti
gat
e?
a. Theel ectr
odet ype.
b. Powersour ce.
c. El ect
rodestorage.
d. Dayt emper at
ure.

18. Themai nreasonwhyalladheri

ngscaleshouldber emov
edwhent
hepi
peend
prepar
ati
oni smadebyoxy -
gascutti
ngis?
a. Oxi disati
onoftheweldmetal i
smi ni
mi sed.
b. Thespeedofwel dingisi
ncreased.
c. Pi pebor eal
i
gnmenti smadeeasi er.
d. Reduct i
onofthewelddepositisprevented.

19. Whenmanual metalar

cweldingl
owcar
bonst
eel
,whi
chel
ect
rodecov
eri
ngwi
l
lgi
ve
thegr
eatestdegreeofpenetr
ati
on?
a. I r
onpowder .
b. Rut i
le.
c. Cel l
ulosic.
d. Lowhy drogen.

20. Whentungstenarcgasshieldedweldi
ngst
ainl
essst
eel
,whi
choneoft
hef
oll
owi
ng
shoul
dbeused?
a. Al ternator.
b. A.C.t ransfor
mer.
c. D.C.gener ator.
d. Const antpotenti
alr
ectif
ier
.
137
138

21. Whichgasshroudshoul dbeusedwhent

ungst
enar
cgasshi
eldedwel
ding
al
umini
um all
oy s?
a. Ni tr
ogen.
b. Car bondi oxi
de.
c. Ar gon/carbondioxi
demixtur
e.
d. Ar gon.

22. Themostcommont ypeofdef

ectf
oundi
nast
ruct
urewheni
tisunder
goi
ngser
vice
i
s:
a. Fat iguecracki
ng.
b. Cr ystal
li
sati
on.
c. Wel ddecay.
d. St ressfr
acture.

23. Int
heexami nat
ionofawel dedal
umini
um j
oint
,macr
oet
chi
ngmayr
eveal
:
a. Lackofi nter-
runpenetr
ati
on.
b. Car bonpick-up.
c. Wel ddecay .
d. Mi crocracks.

24. MMAwel
dsmadewi thdamagedel
ect
rodecoat
ingsar
esubj
ectt
o:
a. Porosi
ty.
b. Undercut
.
c. Excessi
vepenetr
ati
on.
d. Excessi
vebeadheight
.

25. Whi
chphysical
t esti
smor el
i
kel
ytor
eveal
HAZembr
it
tl
ement
?
a. Tr ansversetensi
le.
b. Al lweldtensil
e.
c. Rootbend.
d. Char pyimpact .

26. Whichofthefoll
owingdestr
uct
ivet
est
sisnotnor
mal
l
yrequi
redf
orwel
der
approv
al?
a. Bendt ests.
b. Macr oexami nati
on.
c. I mpacttests.
d. Fr act
uretests.

27. Toolargeadiameteroffi
l
lerrodshouldnotbeusedt omakeawel
dedj
oint
because:
a. Excessr einf
orcementprofil
ewil
lbedif
fi
culttoobt
ain.
b. Thei ncludedbevelangl
ewi l
lhavetobereduced.
c. Rootf usionmaybedi ff
icul
ttoobtai
n.
d. Thegapset ti
ngwil
l havetobechanged.

28. I
fpi
pebor
esar
enotmat
chedcor
rect
lyi
tcanr
esul
tin:
138
 139
a. Lackofrootpenetrat
ion.
b. Incorr
ectgapsetti
ng.
c. Excessiv
er ootf
aces.
d. Ov er
heati
ngduringweldi
ng.

29. Acor
rect
lymadet ackwel dshoul dslopef r
om t
hemiddl
etot
heendsi
nor
dert
o:
a. Ai dbetterpenetr ati
onatt hejoin-up.
b. Pr eventporosityatt hejoin-up.
c. Reducet heelectr odesizerequired.
d. Reducet heov erallconsumabl econsumpt i
on.

30. Twol owcar bonsteelpipes,150mm diameterand6mm wallthickness,ar

etobe
buttweldedusi ngtheTIGpr ocess.Toensur
eaf ul
lst
rengt
hjoint,whichofthe
fol
l
owi ngprepsi smostsui t
able?
a. Opensi ngl
ebev el.
b. Opensi ngl
eVee.
c. Opensquar epreparation.
d. Cl osedsquar epreparati
on.
PROPERTI
ESOFMATERI
ALS

1. Theabil
i
tyofamat
eri
alt
owi
thst
andal
oadpul
l
ingi
tapar
tiscal
l
edi
ts_
___
___
___
___
_.

2. Theabi
l
ityofamat
eri
alt
obest
ret
chedoutwi
thoutbr
eaki
ngi
scal
l
ed_
___
___
.

3. AnI
zodi
mpactmachi
nei
susedt
ogi
vei
ndi
cat
ionoft
he_
___
___ofamat
eri
al.

4. Theabi
l
ityt
owi
thst
andi
ndent
ati
oni
scal
l
ed_
___
___
.

5. Lackofduct
il
it
yiscal
l
ed_
___
___
.

6. Thepr
oper
tyofamet
alt
oret
urnt
oit
sor
igi
nal
shapei
scal
l
ed_
___
___
.

7. I
ncr
easei
ncar
boncont
entcausesan_
___
___i
nst
rengt
handhar
dness.

8. Whencar
bonper
cent
agei
ncr
eases,
ther
eisadecr
easei
n__
___
__.

9. Lowcar
bonst
eel
cont
ainsl
esst
han_
___
___car
bon.

10. Lowduct
il
it
yinawel
dmet
alcoul
dresul
tin_
___
___
.

11. Al
l
oyi
ngi
susedt
o__
___
__mechani
cal
andphy
sical
proper
ti
esofast
eel
.

12. Sul
phurandphosphor
usar
enotal
l
oyi
ngel
ement
s;t
heyar
e__
___
__.

13. Al
l
oyi
ngal
l
owsdesi
gner
stouse_
___
___sect
ionsandst
il
lhav
ethesamest
rengt
h.

14. Analloythatcont
ainsahi
ghper
cent
ageofchr
omi
um andni
ckel
woul
dhav
e
resi
stance
to_______
.
139
140

15. Quenchi
ngacar
bonorl
owal
l
oyst
eel
wil
lresul
tinan_
___
___i
nhar
dnessanda
__
_____
i
nductil
it
y.

16. Thehar
dconst
it
uentt
hatr
esul
tswhenst
eel
isquenchedi
scal
l
ed_
___
___
.

17. Thetoughlaminat
edstr
uct
uret
hati
sfor
medonsl
owcool
i
ngoff
err
it
eandi
ron
carbi
de
(cementi
te)i
scall
ed__
____
_.

18. Theamountofmar
tensi
tef
ormeddependsont
hespeedof_
___
___andt
he
per
cent
age
of__
___
__.

19. Aft
erquenchi
ng,
thest
ruct
uremaybei
mpr
ovedbyr
eheat
ingt
o200-
300
C.Thi
sis
cal
led
___
_____
.

20. Small
percent
agesofchromi
um wi
lli
ncreaset
hest
rengt
hand_
___
___
,whi
l
easmal
l
per
centageofni
ckel
will
incr
ease_
_____
_ .

ANSWERS

PAPERONE
1. d 2. d 3. b 4. c 5. c
6. b 7. c
8. a 9. c 10. a 11. d 12. a
13. b 14. b
15. c 16. a 17. a 18. b 19. a
20. d 21. c
22. a 23. d 24. c 25. d 26. d
27. c 28. b
29. b 30. b

PAPERTWO
1. b 2. a 3. b 4. d 5. c
6. c 7. d
8. d 9. d 10. d 11. b 12. b
13. c 14. b
15. c 16. b 17. b 18. c 19. b
20. c 21. b
22. d 23. c 24. b 25. c 26. c
27. b 28. b
29. d 30. b

PAPERTHREE
1. d 2. a 3. d 4. d 5. d
140
 141
6. c 7. b
8. d 9. d 10. d 11. d 12. d
13. b 14. d
15. d 16. d 17. b 18. d 19. a
20. d 21. d
22. d 23. d 24. c 25. d 26. d
27. d 28. b
29. c 30. b

PAPERFOUR
1. c 2. b 3. c 4. b 5. a
6. a 7. b
8. b 9. a 10. a 11. b 12. d
13. d 14. c
15. c 16. b 17. c 18. a 19. c
20. a 21. c
22. c 23. d 24. b 25. c 26. c
27. a 28. d
29. a 30. b

PAPERFI
VE
1. a 2. b 3. c 4. d 5. b
6. d 7. b
8. c 9. d 10. d 11. d 12. d
13. d 14. d
15. a 16. a 17. d 18. d 19. d
20. c 21. b
22. a 23. b 24. b 25. a 26. b
27. b
28. a 29. b 30. b

PAPERSI
X
1. b 2. c 3. b 4. d 5. c
6. b 7. d
8. c 9. b 10. d 11. d 12. c
13. c 14. c
15. a 16. b 17. d 18. a 19. c
20. c 21. c
22. a 23. b 24. c 25. b 26. a
27. a 28. b
29. d 30. a
PAPERSEVEN
1. c 2. d 3. a 4. c 5. c
6. d 7. b
8. b 9. b 10. a 11. d 12. d
13. b 14. a
15. b 16. a 17. c 18. a 19. c
141
142
20. c 21. d
22. a 23. a 24. a 25. d 26. c
27. c 28. a
29. a 30. b

PROPERTI
ESOFMATERI
ALS

1.TensileStrength. 2.Duct
il
it
y. 3.Toughness. 4.
Hardness.
5.Bri
tt
leness. 6.El
ast
ici
ty. 7.Increase. 8.Ducti
l
ity
.
9.0.
2% 10.Cr
acking. 11.Increase. 12.Impuri
ti
es.
13.Smal l
er/Thinner
. 14.Corrosi
on. 15.I
ncrease..
..
Decrease
16.Martensi
te. 17.Pear
lit
e. 18.Cooling.
..
.Carbon.
19.Temper i
ng. 20.Hardness.
..
.Toughness.

142