Study Guide in HIST 1 First Sem AY 2022-2023

"Early Filipino Communities to 1500s"

Objectives:
1. To present various theories concerning the peopling of the Philippines
in early times;
2. To compare the historical and cultural implications of these theories;
3. To describe the early Philippine trade patterns and their significance
in the diffusion of cultures in the islands;
4. To discuss the significance and implications of the spread of Islam in
the Philippines; and
5. To describe Philippine cultures prior to the coming of the Spaniards.
I. Theories Concerning the Peopling of the Philippines
A. Mythological and Legendary
The early Spanish friar-chroniclers recorded the following fantastic
theories on the origin of Filipinos:
1. The ancestors of Filipinos sprang from the soil like wild plants.
2. The early Filipinos were created by the sun who was said to be
their father.
3. They were produced from certain base metals by the magic of
alchemists.
4. Another story of origin is about a god and goddess who were so
lonely they decided to bake people out of clay. The first and
second attempts were failures because they were not rightly
cooked. From those came the black race and the white race. The
third attempt was just perfect and out of the rightly baked clay
figures came the Filipinos.
5. In still another story, Lalake and Babae stepped out of a
bamboo nodule after a bird pecked on it. The two got married
and had many children. The children proved to be so lazy that
Lalake got angry and chased them with a stick. They fled to
escape the father's wrath. Some ran a short distance and
remained in the country, while others fled to far-away regions.
Those who stayed in the country became Filipinos.
B. Archeological and Scientific Theories
1. The "Land Bridge" Theory
a. It was theorized that during the Pleistocene or Ice Age, the
waters surrounding what is now the Philippines fell about
156 feet below the present level, exposing a vast area of land
connected to mainland Asia.
b. These land bridges were used by a group of people to reach
the Philippines.
c. This theory was disputed by Dr. Fritjof Voss, a German
scientist, who asserted that the Philippines was never part of
mainland Asia. According to Dr. Voss, the Philippines could
not have been connected by the land bridge since scientific
studies done in the 1960s on the thickness of the earth's

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crust showed that the 35-kilometer-thick crust underneath

China did not extend to the Philippines.
2. The Negritos as the aboriginal inhabitants of the Philippines
a. Negritos moved to the Philippines by means of land bridges,
25,000 to 30,000 years ago.
b. This theory was severely criticized by F. Landa Jocano, a
Filipino anthropologist, who believed that fossil evidences of
ancient men showed that they went not only to the
Philippines but also to New Guinea, Java, Borneo, and
Australia. Moreover, there was no way of telling whether or
not they were Negritos.
c. The Tabon Woman, the earliest fossil remains of a human
being in the Philippines, was discovered. It could not be
ascertained, however, if she was a Negrito.
3. The "Waves of Migration" Theory
a. Advanced by American anthropologist Henry Otley Beyer, the
theory states that the coming of people to the Philippines
occurred in waves of migrations.
b. Majority of Filipinos today are descendants of Malays who
came in the Archipelago in at least three waves from 200
BCE to about 1500 CE.
c. Aside from Negritos and Malays, Indonesian settlers in the
Philippines had also come in two waves about 3,500 to 5,000
years ago.
d. The "waves of migration" theory was questioned by Jocano
and other young anthropologists because the discovery of the
Tabon Woman in Palawan in 1962 showed conclusively that
man came to the Philippines as early as 21,000 or 22,000
years ago, whereas migration to the Malay Peninsula was
dated to be around 5,000 BCE only, or about 7,000 years
ago.
4. The theory that the present Filipinos are results of a long
process of evolution
a. This was theorized by Jocano.
b. The present Filipinos, Indonesians and Malays of Malaysia
are "end results" of both the long process of evolution and
later movements of people.
c. The differences among these people are due to differences in
their responses to their environment. The similarities found
among them are due to adjustment to the environment.
II. Early Trade Contacts
A. Inter-island and intra-island Trading
1. Early Filipinos traded among themselves. Those in coastal areas
bartered with one another and exchanged goods with people in
upland areas. Going inland was not difficult because rivers were
navigable.
2. Aside from intra-island economic activity, commercial
exchanges between and among islands in the Philippines also
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developed. This was facilitated by the maritime orientation of

Filipinos and ready availability of boats.
B. Relation with the Orang Dampuans, Banjarmasin, Siam and
Tonkin
1. The Orang Dampuans or "Men from Champa" were from
Southern Annam (ancient name of the state used to be found in
the mid portion of present-day Vietnam). They came to the
southern part of the Philippines between 900 and 1200 CE, and
established trading posts in Sulu, resulting in a flourishing
trade between that place and southern Annam.
2. The men of Banjar, on the other hand, were from Banjarmasin
in Borneo. Through a diplomatic coup, they succeeded in
putting Sulu under their influence. Under them, Sulu developed
into an emporium visited by trading ships from all over South
Asia and China.
3. Trade with Siam (Thailand) and Tonkin (northern Vietnam)
developed in the middle of the 14th century. Traders from these
places exchanged their porcelain products for Philippine native
wares.
C. Relations with the Indians and the Chinese
1. Trade relations with the Chinese started in the 10th century
(982 CE is the year given in the Sung annals) and reached its
zenith in the 14th and 15th centuries.
2. Trade relations of the Philippines with the Indians reached its
peak in the late 13th century. Dr. Juan Francisco however
asserted that trade with India may have happened indirectly,
through Indianized Southeast Asia.
3. The Chinese writer Chao Ju-Kua, some time between 1209 and
1214, described the Chinese trade with Ma-i (presumably
Mindoro) and praised the honesty of the Filipinos.
4. Early Chinese trading junks brought goods and immigrants to
the Philippines.
5. For a brief period under the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), China
exercised nominal suzerainty over the Philippines, and some
Filipinos paid tribute to China.
6. The last Filipino tribute embassy came to China in 1421 (1424)
according to the Ming-Shih or dynastic annals of the Ming.
D. Early Relations with Japan
1. Historical records show that Japanese pirates (wako), warriors
and farmer-settlers had come to Luzon before and immediately
after the Spanish colonization.
2. Japanese traders, especially those from Nagasaki, frequently
visited Philippine shores and bartered Japanese goods for
Filipino gold, pearls and native earthen jars.
3. Certain shipwrecked Japanese sailors and immigrants settled in
the Philippines and intermarried with Filipinos.

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4. According to Japanese records, the early Spaniards found

Japanese settlements in Manila, Agoo, La Union and Aparri,
Cagayan.
E. Early Relations with the Muslim World
1. In 1280, according to the tarsila (Muslim chronicles), the Arab
missionary Sheikh Karim-ul Makdum (Mudum) landed in Sulu
and there laid the foundation of Islam in the Philippines.
2. In 1390, Rajah Baguinda, prince of Menangkabaw, Sumatra, led
an army of Muslim invaders to sulu and overcame native
opposition with firearms.
3. Abu Bakr, Muslim leader from Palembang, Sumatra, reached
Sulu in 1450 and married the daughter of Rajah Baguinda.
After Baguinda's death, Abu Bakr founded the Sultanate of Jolo,
with himself as sultan.
4. The Muslim conquest of Maguindanao was attributed to Shariff
Kabungsuwan, Muslim leader of Johore, who landed in
Cotabato in 1475. he married a native princess and founded the
first Muslim sultanate of Maguindanao. Kabungsuwan as sultan
of Maguindanao had larger domain than the Sultanate of Sulu.
The sultanate of Maguindanao was also instrumental in the
Islamization of Mindanao.
III. Significance of the Introduction of Islam
A. Unification of Mindanao
1. The spread of Islam in the south led to the establishment of a
common religion. Viewed as a way of life, Islam promoted
commonality in cultural traits and practices among its
followers.
2. The introduction of Islam resulted in the founding of the
sultanate system of government which further facilitated the
unification of the people.
3. Islam promoted a common language - Arabic, the language of
the religion.
4. In the 16th century, it brought about close correspondence
between the royal houses of Sulu and Brunei.
B. The Spread of Islam to the Visayas and Luzon
1. The kingdom of Rajah Sulayman and Rajah Lakandula in Tondo
and Manila were claimed to be under the sway of Islam. The
influence of Islam was also seen in Mindoro and Batangas.
2. If not for the arrival of the Spaniards, Islam could have
established itself in the northern part of the Philippines.
C. The Successful Resistance of the Muslims to Spanish Colonialism
1. The Spaniards repeatedly tried to put Mindanao and Sulu under
their control, but they failed miserably because of the
widespread resistance of the Muslim Filipinos. They employed
Christianized native mercenaries, especially from the Visayas, in
their campaigns against the so-called "Moros," but this was not
effective. Spanish manpower was divided and seriously limited

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by resistance and disturbances in other parts of the

archipelago.
2. Alliances were formed among different Muslim groups to fight
against the Spaniards.
3. Enmity and animosity further developed between Muslims and
Christian Filipinos who helped the Spaniards.
D. The Present Secessionist Movement in Mindanao and Sulu, and
the Protracted Conflict between the Philippine Government and
the Moro rebels can be understood as partly an offshoot of earlier
conflicts between Christians and Muslims.
IV. Early Philippine Culture
A. Clothing
1. The male attire consisted of the upper and lower pieces.
a. The upper part was a collarless, short-sleeved jacket, the
color of which indicated the rank of the wearer. For instance,
the datu wore a red jacket.
b. The lower part, called bahag, consisted of a strip of colored
cloth wrapped about the waist and between the legs to cover
the private parts.
c. The male had a headgear consisting of a piece of cloth, called
putong, which was wrapped around the head.
2. The female dress also consisted of two parts.
a. The upper part called baro or camisa, was a jacket with
sleeves, while the lower part, called saya by the Tagalogs and
patadyong by the Visayans, was a loose skirt.
b. A piece of red or white cloth, called tapis, was usually
wrapped around the waist.
B. Ornaments
1. Both men and women had a weakness for personal adornment.
2. They wore jewels of gold, carnelian, pearl, beads, as well as
colored glass.
3. Their ornaments consisted of armlets, pendants, bracelets, gold
rings, earrings and even leg lets.
4. Since gold was a common commodity, both men and women
inserted gold fillings on their teeth as ornament.
5. Like other people of the Pacific, the early Filipinos, both males
and females, were fond of tattooing their bodies in various
designs.
a. For men, tattoos were signs of valor and manly attributes.
For women, tattoos enhanced beauty.
b. According to old Spanish chronicles, the ancient Visayans
were the most tattooed inhabitants of the Philippines. For
this reason, they were called pintados (painted people), and
the Visayas, the Islas de Pintados (islands of painted people).
C. Houses
1. There is no basic difference between the present bahay kubo
and the early one.

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2. The early house, just like the present pawid and kugon house,
was made of wood, bamboo, nipa palm or cogon grass.
3. The houses were generally elevated from the ground with the
lower portion used as storage for farm or fishing implements
and enclosure for pigs, chickens, and ducks.
4. Some Filipinos built their houses on tree-tops for better
protection against the enemy. These were the Ilongots and
Kalingas of Northern Luzon and the Bagobos and Mandayas of
Mindanao.
5. The Badjaos or Sama D'laut of Sulu, on the other hand, made
their houses on boats for they were sea-roving people whose life
depended upon marine resources.
6. The general settlement pattern in the lowlands was linear in
character. Houses lined up along the riverbanks. Upland, the
dwellings were scattered and quite distant from each other,
except for two or three houses clustered together. Even if
houses were distant from each other, the requirement was for
shouts to be heard between two houses to insure security
among neighbors.
D. Social Classes
1. According to William Henry Scott (1994), the four types of social
organizations in the islands prior to the coming of the Spaniards
and the Spanish contact were:
a. Classless societies (Aeta/Agta/Ita, Hanunuo Mangyan,
Ilongot, Tiruray, Sulod, Batak)
b. Warrior societies (Manobo of Agusan and Cotabato,
Mandaya, Bagobo, Kalinga, etc.)
c. Petty plutocracies (Ifugao, Bontok, Kankana-ey, Ibaloy)
d. Principalities (Sulu and flood plains of Pulangi River,
Cotabato)
2. The rest of Philippine society was divided into three classes: the
maguinoo/maharlika/datu (nobles); the timaua/timawa
(freemen); and the alipin (dependents). Stratification of these
social classes was not absolute, for there existed no caste
system. A noble could fall to the level of a dependent, while a
slave could rise to freedom. In other words, there was a high
level of social mobility in early Philippine society.
3. The maguinoo/maharlika/datu, consisting of chiefs and their
families, enjoyed great political and social rights in the
barangays. In the Tagalog region, they usually carried the title
of gat or lakan.
4. Next to the nobles were the freemen, called timawa.
5. Occupying the lowest stratum were dependents called alipin by
the Tagalogs, olipon by the Bisayans, and adipen by the
Ilocanos.
6. Among the early Tagalogs, two kinds of dependents existed.
a. The aliping namamahay, who were essentially servants
rather than slaves because they had their own property,
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lived in their houses, could marry without their master's

consent, and could not be sold.
b. The aliping sagigilid, the real dependents who owned no
property, lived in their master's house, could not marry
without their master's consent, and could be sold
anytime.
7. Among the early Visayans, the dependents were of three kinds:
a. the tumataban who worked in the master's house when
summoned to do so;
b. the tumarampuk who worked one day for his/her master;
and
c. the ayuey who worked three days for his/her master.
8. A dependent could emancipate himself/herself and become free
through purchase, marriage, and voluntary action of the master
to liberate his/her dependent.
E. Women's Position in Early Society
1. Women occupied a high position in early Philippine society.
2. Early laws and customs recognized them as the equal of men.
a. They could own and inherit property.
b. They could engage in trade and industry.
c. They could inherit the chieftaincy and rule barangays if
they were daughters of datus with no sons.
d. The prestigious position of the babaylan was often
occupied by women. There is a preponderance of
priestesses based on the existence of local terms in
various parts of the country.
e. They can demand that their husbands use penis pins or
penis rings.
3. The mother in the family enjoyed the exclusive privilege of
naming the children.
4. As a sign of deep respect, the men, when accompanying women,
walked behind them.
F. Personal Habits
1. Early Filipinos were clean and neat in their personal habits.
a. They bathed regularly for cleanliness and pleasure. This will
explain why early settlements were situated along the
riverbanks.
b. They took good care of their hair by washing it carefully with
water and gogo and anointing it with perfumed oils.
c. Upon waking in the morning, the Filipinos rinsed their
mouths and cleaned their teeth. They used the fibrous husk
of the betel nut as toothbrush, and salt and water as
toothpaste.
2. The early Filipinos were also clean in their homes.
a. They swept their houses on regular basis with brooms made
of midribs of the coconut leaves.

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b. They kept a vessel full of water with a coconut scooper at the

door of every house so that everybody can wash
himself/herself before entering the house.
G. Marriage Customs
1. Generally, a man belonging to one class married a woman of the
same class. Nevertheless, this custom was not rigid, and it was
possible for a noble to marry a dependent and a dependent to
marry outside of his/her class.
2. Except for Muslims, the early Filipinos generally practiced
monogamy. In certain cases, however, men were allowed to have
as many wives as they could support, but the first wife was
always considered the legitimate spouse.
3. Only the children of the wife were regarded legitimate and legal
heirs, whereas the children of other women were not considered
as such and therefore, were barred from inheriting any
property.
4. Marriage was usually arranged by parents even during the
young age of the boy and the girl.
5. There were two prerequisites to marriage: first, the lover's
servitude to the girl's family, and second, the dowry, which was
a sum of money, gold, property, or anything of value given by
the man to a girl's parents.
6. Divorce was resorted to in case of marital troubles. The grounds
for divorce were:
a. adultery on the part of the wife,
b. desertion on the part of the husband,
c. loss of affection,
d. cruelty,
e. insanity,
f. childlessness, and
g. lack of sexual satisfaction.
Any couple who divorced each other could remarry if they so
decided.
7. If the married couple belonged to different classes, say a
freeman and a dependent, their children were equally divided
among the parents in so far as social status was concerned.
Thus, if the father was a freeman, the eldest, the third, the fifth,
the seventh and so on, whether male or female, belonged to the
father. The second, fourth, sixth, eighth and so on belonged to
the mother.
H. Government
1. The government of the pre-Spanish Filipino was generally
patriarchal in form. There were two models here, namely:
a. the barangay which was a socio-quasi
political/administrative unit, and the
b. sultanate which was more elaborate with a central
authority.

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2. The unit of administration was the barangay which was a

settlement consisting of 30 to 100 families.
3. The early barangays were independent from each other. Each
was ruled by a datu or raha (rajah) who obtained his position
by:
a. inheritance, being the son of the datu,
b. wisdom,
c. physical prowess and courage, and
d. wealth.
4. The datu had wide powers, for he exercised all the functions of
government, but he was not an absolute leader nor a ruler. He
was assisted by elders who advised him on important matters.
5. Inter-baranganic relations consisted of agreements for
commerce and friendship or alliance. Agreements were
necessary because wars between barangays existed. The cause
of conflicts between barangays, according to Loarca were:
a. when one goes to another village and there, he is put to
death without a cause
b. when their wives are stolen from them, and
c. when they go in friendly manner to any village and there,
under the guise of friendship, are wronged or maltreated.
I. Laws
1. Laws were either customary and non-written or committed to
memory. These laws were customs and traditions handed down
orally from generation to generation.
2. Among the subjects covered in early Filipino laws were family
relations, property rights, inheritance, contracts, partnerships,
loans, usury, crimes and their punishment, adoption and
divorce.
3. Those considered as major crimes were rape, incest, murder,
witchcraft, insult, trespassing, sacrilegious acts, and larceny. A
person guilty of any of these crimes was punishable by death or
by a heavy fine.
4. Minor crimes, on the other hand, consisted of such
misdemeanors as adultery, cheating, petty theft, perjury,
disturbance of peace at night by singing, and destroying
properties which belonged to one's neighbors. These
misdemeanors were punished by exposure to ants, by a small
fine, by flogging, by cutting the fingers of one hand, or by
swimming for several hours.
J. Judicial Process
1. All trials in pre-Spanish Philippines were held in public.
2. The litigant-plaintiff and defendant pleaded their own case and
had to present their own witnesses.
3. Before testifying, the witness took an oath to tell the truth.
4. The barangay court decided the case in favor of the litigant who
had presented more proofs than the other.

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5. Disputes between datus, or between residents of different

barangays, were sometimes settled by arbitration, with some
datus or elders from other barangays serving as arbiters or
mediators.
6. Whenever a case cannot be readily decided upon by the
barangay court, a trial by ordeal was restored to. This was
especially true in criminal cases. It was believed that the gods
protected the innocent and punished the guilty. Thus, an
accused person who was innocent was believed to succeed in
the ordeals because the gods made it so.
7. In Muslim communities, civil and criminal cases were decided
upon by the local Islamic court. Feuds and disputes however
involved protracted bloody confrontations between families and
clans.
8. According to Loarca, three ordeals were utilized by the court to
find out the guilty person, namely:
a. the river ordeal where suspected persons were made to
plunge into the river with their spears and he who rose to
the surface first was adjudged guilty;
b. the boiling water ordeal where all suspected persons were
ordered to pick a stone placed in a pot of boiling water,
and he whose arm or hand was burned the most was
believed to be guilty; and
c. the candle ordeal where each of suspected persons was
given a lighted candle of the same size, and he whose
candlelight died out first was considered guilty.
K. Religious Beliefs and Practices
1. Pre-Spanish Filipinos, except for Muslims, were animistic.
2. They worshipped a supreme god, called Bathala, Panginoon,
Maykapal by the Tagalogs.
3. The supreme god stood at the head of the pantheon of
numerous minor gods and goddesses.
4. The early Filipinos believed in spirits called anitos or diwatas
who were either good or bad.
5. The religious leaders were called babaylan, baylana, or
katalonan. In Muslim areas, they were called imam or pandita.
They served as herbalists, historians, fortune tellers and
advisers of the datus.
6. Early Filipinos were worshippers of nature and of ancestors. It
is here that the concept of mariit comes into play. Certain
places, landmarks and trees must be respected or have become
restricted because there are inhabited by spirits.
7. Ancient Filipinos believed in an afterlife and subscribed to the
idea of heaven and hell. The Visayans of Panay, for example,
believed that souls travel in a river, thus they used coffins
shaped like boats.
8. Disease or illness was attributed to the environmental spirits
and the soul-spirits of dead relatives.
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L. Divination and Magic Charms

1. Early Filipinos were fond of interpreting signs in nature as good
or bad omens depending upon circumstances. Among these are
sounds of insects and animals, flight of birds, and barking of
dogs.
2. They believed in black magic and sorcerers who could victimize
people.
3. They believed in aswang and manoghiwit (sorcerers) and many
more who could destroy or harm them.
4. They also believed in the efficacy of anting-anting or agimat
(talismans or amulets) as well as lumay or gayuma (potion).
M. Economic Activities
1. Agriculture, then as now, was the main source of livelihood.
There were two types of cultivation: kaingin or slash-and-burn
and wet rice farming, making use of water and irrigation.
2. Irrigation ditches were used.
3. A system of public and private landholdings was observed. The
less arable lands were considered public property and could
therefore, be tilled freely by anybody. The cultivated productive
lands, on the other hand, were considered the private property.
4. Because of the abundance of coconut and nipa palms,
precolonial Filipinos fermented the sap of these palms into tuba
for drinking and for making vinegar.
5. Aside from agriculture and fishing, early Filipinos had other
industries like poultry, stock-raising, lumbering and
ship-building, pottery making and weaving.
6. Small-scale mining was practiced even before the coming of
Spaniards.
7. Because currency was not in use then, the early Filipinos used
the barter system in business transactions.
N. Languages
1. More than a hundred languages exist in the Philippines. Some
of these (Tagalog, Ilokano, Pangasinan, Kapampangan,
Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Waray and Maguindanao) are considered
major languages.
2. The early Filipinos had a syllabary, the baybayin, which was
made of seventeen symbols, three vowels and fourteen
consonants.
3. They wrote on bark of trees, leaves and bamboo nodes using
knives, daggers, pointed sticks or iron as pens. They utilized
colored sap of trees and fruits as ink.
O. Literature
1. The early Filipinos had oral and written literature. Oral
literature is still extant among the Hanunuo and Tagbanua of
Mindoro, and the Palawan of Palawan.
2. The literature consisted of proverbs, sayings, riddles, epics,
myths and legends.
P. Music and Dance
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1. Ages before the advent of Spanish colonizers, the Filipinos

already had their own musical instruments, songs, and dances.
2. The most popular musical instrument was the kudyapi which
resembles a guitar.
3. Other native musical instruments were the harp of the Bontok
and the Negritos, the nose flute of people in the Cordillera, their
bronze gongs, the sharkskin drum of the Tagbanua of Palawan,
the Visayan bamboo drum, Muslim bronze gongs and
xylophone, the shell trumpet and bamboo flute of the Visayans
and many others.
4. The musical lore of early Filipinos was quite extensive. It
included love songs, religious songs, rice-planting songs,
harvesting songs, rowing songs, battle-songs, vending songs,
and others.
5. Early Filipinos also had colorful folk dances for every occasion.
Most ancient folk dances were performed with participants
singing at the same time.
Q. Arts
1. Native artistry is found in beads, amulets, bracelets, earrings,
and other body ornaments made of gold, green jade, red
carnelian, and other attractive stones.
2. Early Filipinos dyed and ornamented their clothes with designs
of picturesque colors.
3. Painting was evident in the early Filipino tattoo art where the
artists painted in both male and female bodies gorgeous designs
representing the sun, the stars, the flowers and plants, the
crocodiles, the birds, and various geometrical figures.
4. In early times, Filipino sculptures also carved statues of anitos
in wood, gold, ivory, stone, and crocodile's teeth. They also
made fanciful carvings on the handle of bolos, knives, daggers,
and on shields and boats.
5. The Muslims, particularly the Maranaos of Lanao, had excellent
woven products and creative ornamental and decorative brass
arts.
6. Muslim art dealt generally with metal. Ifugao art, on the other,
was focused on wood-carving.
References:
Constantino, Renato. The Philippines: A Past Revisited. Quezon City: RP Tala
Publishing, 1975.
Funtecha, Henry F. and Melanie J. Padilla. A Study Guide in Philippine
History for Teachers & Students. Iloilo City: Mindset Publishing, inc.,
2000.
Gowing, Peter G. Mosque and Moro. Manila: Philippine Federation of
Christian Churches, 1964, pp. 16-19.

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Gutierrez, Lucio P. "Cotton Cultivation in Pre-Hispanic and Hispanic Times"

in The Journal of History, volume 30-31, nos. 1 & 2 (January-
December, 1985/1986), pp.8-16.
Hutterer, Karl. "Pre-Historic Trade and the Evolution of Philippine Society: A
Reconstruction" in idem. Economic Exchange and Social Interaction
in Southeast Asia. Michigan: Ann Arbor, 1977.
Jocano, F. Landa. The Philippines at the Spanish Contact. Manila: MCS
Enterprises, Inc., 1975, pp.1-43.
Sarangani, Datumanong. "Islamic Penetration" in Nagasura T. Madale, The
Muslim Filipinos. Quezon City: Phoenix Press, 1981.
Scott, William Henry. Barangay: Sixteenth-Century Philippine Culture and
Society. Manila: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1994.
____________. "Filipino Class Structure in the 16th Century" in idem. Cracks
in the Parchment Curtain. Quezon City: New Day Publishers, 1982, pp.
96-126.

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