12122122, 227 PM Weight (presentation theory)- Wikipedia ‘WIKIPEDIA Weight (representation theory) In the mathematical field of representation theory, a weight of an algebra A over a field F is an algebra homomorphism from A to F, or equivalently, a one-dimensional representation of A over F. It is the algebra analogue of a multiplicative character of a group. The importance of the concept, however, stems from its application to representations of Lie algebras and hence also to representations of algebraic and Lie groups. In this context, a weight of a representation is a generalization of the notion of an eigenvalue, and the corresponding eigenspace is called a weight space. Contents Motivation and general concept Weights in the representation theory of semisimple Lie algebras Weight of a representation Action of the root vectors Integral element Partial ordering on the space of weights Dominant weight Theorem of the highest weight Highest-weight module See also Notes References Motivation and general concept Given a set S of n x m matrices over the same field, each of which is diagonalizable, and any two of which commute, it is always possible to simultaneously diagonalize all of the elements of S,[2°te 1] Equivalently, for any set S of mutually commuting semisimple linear transformations of a finite- dimensional vector space V there exists a basis of V consisting of simultaneous eigenvectors of all elements of S. Each of these common eigenvectors v € V defines a linear functional on the subalgebra U of End(V) generated by the set of endomorphisms S; this functional is defined as the map which associates to each clement of U its eigenvalue on the eigenvector v. This map is also multiplicative, and sends the identity to 1; thus it is an algebra homomorphism from U to the base field. This "generalized eigenvalue” is a prototype for the notion of a weight. The notion is closely related to the idea of a multiplicative character in group theory, which is a homomorphism y from a group G to the multiplicative group of a field F. Thus x: G —> F* satisfies xe) = 1 (where e is the identity element of G) and x(gh) = x(9)x(h) for all g, hin G. Indeed, if G acts on a vector space V over F, each simultaneous eigenspace for every element of G, ines a multiplicative character on G: the eigenvalue on this common space of each element of the group. Ipsenwkipeda.orgtwkiWeigh_(representation_theorywelght_space 11812122122, 227 PM Weight (presentation theory)- Wikipedia The notion of multiplicative character can be extended to any algebra A over F, by replacing x: G — F* bya linear map x: A — F with: x(ab) = x(a)x(b) for all a, bin A. If an algebra A acts on a vector space V over F to any simultaneous eigenspace, this corresponds an algebra homomorphism from A to F assigning to each element of A its eigenvalue. If A is a Lie algebra (which is generally not an associative algebra), then instead of requiring multiplicativity of a character, one requires that it maps any Lie bracket to the corresponding commutator; but since F is commutative this simply means that this map must vanish on Lie brackets: x([a,b])=0. A weight on a Lie algebra g over a field F is a linear map h: g — F with A(x, y))=0 for all x, y in g. Any weight on a Lie algebra g vanishes on the derived algebra [g,g] and hence descends to a weight on the abelian Lie algebra g/[g.g]. Thus weights are primarily of interest for abelian Lie algebras, where they reduce to the simple notion of a generalized eigenvalue for space of commuting linear transformations If G is a Lie group or an algebraic group, then a multiplicative character 0: G — F* induces a weight y = d0: g — F on its Lie algebra by differentiation. (For Lie groups, this is differentiation at the identity clement of G, and the algebraic group case is an abstraction using the notion of a derivation.) Weights in the representation theory of semisimple Lie algebras Let g be a complex semisimple Lie algebra and § a Cartan subalgebra of g. In this section, we describe the concepts needed to formulate the "theorem of the highest weight” classifying the finite-dimensional representations of g. Notably, we will explain the notion of a "dominant integral element." The representations themselves are described in the article linked to above. Weight of a representation Let V be a representation of a Lie algebra g over C and let A be a linear functional on §. Then the weight space of V with weight Ais the subspace Va given by veV:VHEb, H-v=X(H)v}. A weight of the representation Vis a linear functional A such that the corresponding weight space is nonzero. Nonzero clements of the weight space are called weight vectors. That is to say, a weight vector is a simultaneous eigenvector for the action of the elements of h, with the corresponding eigenvalues given by A. Example of the weights of a If Vis the direct sum of its weight spaces representation ofthe Lie algebra sK(3,C) V= @ YU debt hitpsjlen wikipedia orgiwkiNWeight_(representation_theory¥iweight_space 26‘a2, 227 PM Weigh apres then it is called a weight module; this corresponds to there being a common eigenbasis (a basis of simultaneous eigenvectors) for all the represented elements of the algebra, ie., to there being simultaneously diagonalizable matrices (see diagonalizable matrix). tation theory)- Wikipedia If G is group with Lie algebra g, every finite-dimensional representation of G induces a representation of g. A weight of the representation of G is then simply a weight of the associated representation of g. There is a subtle distinction between weights of group representations and Lie algebra representations, which is that there is a different notion of integrality condition in the two cases; see below. (The integrality condition is more restrictive in the group case, reflecting that not every representation of the Lie algebra comes from a representation of the group.) Action of the root vectors If Vis the adjoint representation of g, the nonzero weights of V are called roots, the weight spaces are called root spaces, and weight vectors are called root veetors. Explicitly, a linear functional a on h is called a root if a # 0 and there exists a nonzero X in g such that [H, X] = o(H)X for all H in h. The collection of roots forms a root system. From the perspective of representation theory, the significance of the roots and root vectors is the following elementary but important result: If V is a representation of g, v is a weight vector with weight 4 and X is a root vector with root @, then H-(X-0) = [AQ +a)(H)(X-») for all H in h. That is, X - v is either the zero vector or a weight vector with weight 4 + a. Thus, the action of X maps the weight space with weight \ into the weight space with weight \ + a. Integral element Let hj be the real subspace of §" generated by the roots of g. For computations, it is convenient to choose an inner product that is invariant under the Weyl group, that is, under reflections about the hyperplanes orthogonal to the roots. We may then use this inner product to identify 5 with a subspace ho of §. With this identification, the coroot associated to a root avis given as a (aa) Aigebrecaly integral elements (triangular latice), dominant integral elements (black dots), and fundamental weights for si(3,C) Ha =2 We now define two different notions of integrality for elements of ho. The motivation for these definitions is simple: The weights of finite-dimensional representations of g satisfy the first integrality condition, while if G is a group with Lie algebra g, the weights of finite-dimensional representations of G satisfy the second integrality condition. An element \ € hg is algebraically integral if hitpsjlen wikipedia orgiwkiWeight_(representation_theory¥iweight_space 3612122122, 227 PM tation theory)- Wikipedia (A, Ha) = for all roots «. The motivation for this condition is that the coroot H can be identified with the H element in a standard X,Y, H basis for an sl(2,C)-subalgebra of g." By elementary results for sl(2,C), the eigenvalues of Hq in any finite-dimensional representation must be an integer. We conclude that, as stated above, the weight of any finite-dimensional representation of g is algebraically integral.[2) The fundamental weights w1,...,Wn are defined by the property that they form a basis of imple roots. That is, the fundamental weights are dual to the set of coroots associated to the defined by the condition (wir 95) (aj, a5) bi where a4, ... Om are the simple roots. An element 2 is then algebraically integral if and only if it is an integral combination of the fundamental weights.!2! The set of all g-integral weights is a lattice in Np called the weight lattice for g, denoted by P(g). ‘The figure shows the example of the Lie algebra sI(3,C), whose root system is the Ag root system. ‘There are two simple roots, 71 and +2. The first fundamental weight, «1, should be orthogonal to ‘2 and should project orthogonally to half of 71, and similarly for w2. The weight lattice is then the triangular lattice. Suppose now that the Lie algebra g is the Lie algebra of a Lie group G. Then we say that A € Bp is analytically integral (G-integral) if for each t in h such that exp(t)=1¢G we have (A, 4) € 27iZ. The reason for making this definition is that if a representation of g arises from a representation of G, then the weights of the representation will be G-integral.'4] For G semisimple, the set of all G-integral weights is a sublattice P(G) c P(g). If G is simply connected, then P(G) = PC 4g). If G is not simply connected, then the lattice P(G) is smaller than P(g) and their quotient is isomorphic to the fundamental group of G.[5) Partial ordering on the space of weights We now introduce a partial ordering on the set of weights, which will be used to formulate the theorem of the highest weight describing the representations of g. Recall that R is the set of roots; we now fix a set R* of positive roots. Consider two elements ps and 2 of hg. We are mainly interested in the case where p and are integral, but this assumption is not necessary to the definition we are about to introduce. We then say that wis higher than A, which we write as 4 > A, if —2 is expressible as a linear ‘ive roots with non-negative real coefficients.(6 ‘This means, roughly, that ive roots. We equivalently say that ) is "lower" than ji, combination of pi “higher” means in the directions of the pos which we write as A < ps. This is only a partial ordering; it can easily happen that is neither higher nor lower than ). Dominant weight hitpsjlen wikipedia orgiwkiWeight_(representation_theory¥iweight_space 46210212, 227 PM Weight ropes ‘An integral element is dominant if (A,7) >0 for each positive root y. Equivalently, A is dominant if it is a non- negative integer combination of the fundamental weights. In the Az case, the dominant integral elements live in a 60-degree ° sector. The notion of being dominant is not the same as being higher than zero. Note the grey area in the picture on the right . is a 120-degree sector, strictly containing the 60-degree sector SC * corresponding to the dominant integral elements. tation theory)- Wikipedia ‘The set of all A (not necessarily integral) such that (A, 7) > 0 is known as the fundamental Weyl chamber associated to the NN given set of positive roots. a Theorem of the highest weight the positive roots are a, xg, and alled a highest —_&%: the shaded region is the set of A weight of a representation V of g i points higher than A weight if every other weight of Vis lower than A. The theory classifying the finite-dimensional irreducible representations of g is by means of a "theorem of the highest weight." The theorem says that!7] (1) every irreducible (finite-dimensional) representation has a highest weight, (2) the highest weight is always a dominant, algebraically integral element, (3) two irreducible representations with the same highest weight are isomorphic, and (4) every dominant, algebraically integral element is the highest weight of an irreducible representation. The last point is the most difficult one; the representations may be constructed using Verma modules. Highest-weight module A representation (not necessarily finite dimensional) V of g is called highest-weight module if itis generated by a weight vector v € V that is annihilated by the action of all px |. Every irreducible g-module with a highest weight is necessarily a highest-weight module, but in the infinite-dimensional case, a highest weight module need not be irreducible. For each A € §*— not necessarily dominant or integral—there exists a unique (up to isomorphism) simple highest- weight g-module with highest weight 4, which is denoted LQ), but this module is infinite dimensional unless A is dominant integral. It can be shown that each highest weight module with highest weight A is a quotient of the Verma module M(). This is just a restatement of universality property in the definition of a Verma module. Every finite-dimensional highest weight module is irreducible.[81 See also = Classifying finite-dimensional representations of Lie algebras = Representation theory of a connected compact Lie group = Highest-weight category hitpsjlen wikipedia orgiwkiNWeight_(representation_theory¥iweight_space 5612122122, 227 PM ‘Weight (representation theory) - Wikipedia = Root system Notes 1. In fact, given a set of commuting matrices over an algebraically closed field, they are simultaneously triangularizable, without needing to assume that they are diagonalizable. References - Hall 2015 Theorem 7.19 and Eq. (7.9) . Hall 2015 Proposition 9.2 . Hall 2015 Proposition 8.36 . Hall 2015 Proposition 12.5 Hall 2015 Corollary 13.8 and Corollary 13.20 Hall 2015 Definition 8.39 Hall 2015 Theorems 9.4 and 9.5 . This follows from (the proof of) Proposition 6.13 in Hall 2015 together with the general result on complete reducibility of finite-dimensional representations of semisimple Lie algebras PNOAROENS = Fulton, William; Harris, Joe (1991). Representation theory. A first course. Graduate Texts in Mathematics, Readings in Mathematics. Vol. 129. New York: Springer-Verlag. doi:10,1007/978-1-4612-0979-9 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4612-0979-9). ISBN 978-0- 387-97495-8. MR 1153249 (https://mathscinet.ams. org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=1153249). OCLC 246650103 (https://www.worldcat.org/ocle/246650103).. = Goodman, Roe; Wallach, Nolan R. (1998), Representations and Invariants of the Classical Groups, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-66348-9. = Hall, Brian C. (2015), Lie Groups, Lie Algebras, and Representations: An Elementary Introduction, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, vol. 222 (2nd ed.), Springer, ISBN 978- 3319134666 = Humphreys, James E, (1972a), Introduction to Lie Algebras and Representation Theory (http si/farchive.org/details/introductiontoli00jame), Birkhauser, ISBN 978-0-387-90053-7. = Humphreys, James E. (1972b), Linear Algebraic Groups, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, vol. 21, Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-0-387-90108-4, MR 0396773 (https://mat hscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=0396773) = Knapp, Anthony W. (2002), Lie Groups Beyond an Introduction (2nd ed..), Birkhauser, ISBN 978-0-8176-4259-4 Retrieved from “https:/en wikipedia org/wiindex phpttle=Weight_(representation_theory)&oldid=1117039431" This page was last edited on 19 October 2022, at 16:29 (UTC). ‘Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAllke License 3.0; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. hitpssfen.wikipedia.orgiwikifWeight_(representation_theoryHiweight_space