The Traditional Uses and the Current Cultivation of Gesho (Rhamnus Prinoides) in

Ethiopia.
Gesho (Rhamnus Prinoides): Traditional Uses and Current Cultivation in Ethiopia.
1. Introduction
Rhamnus prinoides, also known as buckthorn, dogwood, shiny leaf, and locally as 'Gesho'
(Amharic, Tigrigna, and Afan Oromo)( Jansen, 1981; Nigussie et al., 2021), is an angiosperm
dioecious plant (Negash, 2021), belonging to the Rhamnaceae family and genus Rhamnus, which
includes 55 genera and 150 species (Brizicky, 1964; Orwa et al., 2009; Negash, 2021; Nigussie
et al., 2021). It is polyploidy plant species with chromosome number 2n=34 (Brizicky, 1964). It's
a dense evergreen shrub that can reach a height of 9 meters (Amabye, 2015). Its glossy foliage
and brightly colored fruits make it a popular ornamental plant for small gardens (Abegaz &
Kebede, 1995; Maru, 2021; Negash, 2021; Nigussie et al., 2021; Fern, 2022).

Rhamnus genus and species can be found in tropical, subtropical, and temperate climates, where
natural woods have been destroyed and secondary bush lands or derived grasslands have grown
(Orwa et al., 2009; Negash, 2021, Fern, 2022). The only two Rhamnus species that originate in
Ethiopia are Rhamnus prinoides and Rhamnus staddo; the former is widespread in many parts of
eastern and central Africa (Jansen 1981) and commonly in East Asia, North and South America,
and various parts of subtropical Africa (Nigussie et al., 2021). It can be found in Ethiopia's
humid and rainy areas mainly at altitudes of 1400-3200 m.a.s.l. and with an annual rainfall of
750-2,000 mm along the borders of every green forest (Abegaz & Kebede, 1995; Bekele &
Tengnäs, 2007; Nagari & Abebaw, 2013; Takele et al., 2018; Negash, 2021).

Rhamnus prinoides is one of Ethiopia's most popular stimulants and beverages (local drink Tela,
Areke, and Tej) crop, ranking third behind chat (Catha edulis), coffee (Coffea arabica), and tea
(Camellia chinensis) (IBC, 2009). It is widely produced in various regions of the country,
primarily grown as garden crops, although in certain areas there may be field production (Engels
et al., 1991; Negash, 2021; Fern, 2022). The major production of Rhamnus prinoides in the
country is gained from the provinces of Oromia, SNNPR, Amhara, Sidama, Gambella, Tigray,
Dredawa, and Harari (CSA, 2020). According to the CSA (2020/21), the total land covered by
this crop is estimated at 33,369.96 ha with an annual total yield of 0.05 million tons.
The two species Rhamnus prinoides and Rhamnus staddo in Ethiopia show both significant
economic potential. These are used by local people for a variety of uses, including as a source of
revenue for women and subsistence farmers. The stems and branches are used as ornaments,
shades, fencing, a hedge or windbreaker, and firewood (Orwa et al., 2009; Takele et al., 2018;
Chen et al., 2020; Negash, 2021); the leaves are used as potential dye yielding plants (Kechi et
al., 2013; Fern, 2022), leaf powders are a food source, in human nutrition or development of
balanced diets for animal nutrition (Amabye, 2015). Its litter is beneficial to soil fertility and
water conservation (Gebremeskel et.al, 2018). Its leaves and stems are used for the preparation
of local drinks (Tella, Areke, and Tej) (IBC, 2009).

It can also be used to treat a variety of diseases and ailments such as brucellosis, rheumatism,
pneumonia (Santi et al., 2019), stomach pain, back pain, joint sprains, chest pain, gonorrhea,
malnutrition, fever, cold, diarrhea, and malaria(Muregi et al., 2007), the root and leaf decoction
can be taken orally or blended with milk as a blood purifier and gargle (Prozesky et al., 2001;
Kiringe, 2006; Gebre & Chandravanshi, 2012; Nagari & Abebaw, 2013; Enyew et al., 2014;
Fern, 2022).

leaves are collected three times a year and are thus used as a market commodity crop (Afewerk
and Bhagwan, 2012). It can be marketed in the local market and exported goods in various
forms: Gesho Enchant, Gesho leaf, and Gesho powder forms. Meanwhile 2017, Ethiopia
shipped an average of 371,091kg of Rhamnus to America, Europe, Asia, and Africa, earning
8,250,427 Birr in revenue (Bezabeh, 2017). It is one of Ethiopia's most underestimated medicinal
and ornamental plant species, despite its enormous social and economic benefits in many rural
and urban regions (Bezabeh, 2017). Due to these and other reasons, it is mandatory, to boost its
production and productivity as well as to further utilization of its medicinal uses. Therefore in
this paper the author is aimed to highlight the available information for the reads and scholars
who interested in this valuable crop.

2. Description and Distribution of Rhamnus prinoides

The genus name Rhamnus derives from an ancient Greek word rhamnose for blackthorn,
meaning a clump of twigs, and the specific epithet prinoides means it resembles an evergreen
oak (Jansen, 1981; Negash, 2021; Nigussie et al., 2021). The genus Rhamnus includes 59 genera
and about 150 species of shrubs and small trees found in both temperate and tropical countries
(Gebru, 2010; Nigussie et al., 2021). The Rhamnus prinoides has another alternative n Rhamnus
pauciflorus Hoch ex Rich or Rhamnus celifollius (Cufodontis, 1965, Gebru, 2010; Nigussie et
al., 2021). Brizicky, (1964) reported that Rhamnus prinoides consists polyploidy chromosomes
that is 2n=34. However, within Rhamnus, haplotype counts have been shown to range from 10 to
13 (2n=20, 22, 24, 26). Locally this plant is known as Gesho in Amharic, Afan Oromo, and
Tigrigna (Nigussie et al., 2021).

Morphologically, Rhamnus prinoides can be described as a shrub, sometimes inclined to climb,

or as a small, dense, vigorous, bushy evergreen tree (Amabye, 2015). When in cultivation,
Rhamnus prinoides is usually reduced to the status of a shrub since the plant’s stems and
branches are regularly harvested for use in the fermentation of various traditional beverages (tej
or tella in Ethiopia). However, if it is allowed to grow, it can develop to a small slender tree or
climber that can attain a height of six to eight meters (Figure 1A) (Negash, 2021). It is usually
spineless, without buttresses; twigs hairy when young, glabrous when mature; Bark gray to
brown, smooth, with conspicuous lenticels, turning dark brown with age (Orwa et al., 2009).
Stems up to 5 cm in diameter, strongly branched from the base, glabrous, green-brown to grey
red with light brown lenticels; leaves alternate, pinnately veined; flowers are small, yellow-green
with 5 sepals, solitary or 2-10 in a cluster on thin stalks, and bisexual, functionally male or
female flowers are also likely (Jansen, 1981). Fruit, roundish, three-part berries on a two
centimeter long, drooping stalk, approximately eight mille meter, glossy red turning purplish
black, three seeds inside (Tesema et al., 1993).
 B: Propagation
A: Morphology

Figure 1: Morphology and propagation method of Rhamnus prinoides (source: nectar source.co.za)

The family is widespread worldwide, mainly in the tropical, subtropical, and temperate regions.
Rhamnus prinoides have a wide distribution in Africa and it is believed to have originated from
Ethiopia (Harlan, 1969). However, some literature argues that it is exotic to Ethiopia and Kenya.
It is distributed from Ethiopia to South Africa in the east and to Nigeria and Angola in the west
(Jansen, 1981). The plant is commonly distributed in African countries such as Kenya, Ethiopia,
Eretria, Tanzania, Uganda, Angola, Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Cameron,
Democratic Republic of Congo, and South Africa (Orwa et al., 2009; Nigussie et al., 2021).

3. Ecological requirements of Rhamnus prinoides

Rhamnus prinoides grow both as a cultivated plant and as a natural component of the mountain
and riverine forests, mostly on edges or in clearings, in all parts of the country (1000-3200 m)
(Tesema et al., 1993; Bekele-Tesemma & Tengns, 2007). The Rhamnus prinoides plant thrives
in environments with a mean annual temperature between 14 and 22 °C, while it may endure
temperatures as high as 32 °C. It is typically found in regions with a distinct dry season and likes
a mean annual rainfall in the range of 600-800mm while tolerating 500-1,200mm. In low rainfall
areas, it usually grows slowly, but in more humid areas, it can grow up to a meter every year
(Takele et al., 2018). While Rhamnus prinoides may grow in most types of soil, it does best in
moist, humus-rich soils and also the species prefers well-drained fertile soils and is resistant to
frost, but can also grow in vertisols provided that these are well-prepared and are not
waterlogged (Negash, 2021.
Rhamnus staddo A. Rich is another Rhamnus species found in Ethiopia. It is used similarly to
Rhamnus prinoides, but less commonly and only for Tej (Tesema et al., 1993). It differs from
Rhamnus prinoides in having much smaller leaves (up to 4.5 x 2 cm) and four golden flowers
(Jansen, 1981). It is found in rocky and valley-rich areas of semi-humid and humid lowland and
mid-highland forests in Eritrea, Congo, Rwanda, and Somalia, Ethiopia (Tigray, Gonder, Shewa,
Arsi, Kefa, Garno Gofa, Sidamo, Bale, and Harerge regions). It is a wild plant (between 1000
and 3000 m) (Jansen, 1981; Bekele-Tesemma & Tengns, 2007).

Rhamnus prinoides is a domesticated and cultivated species and is usually planted around
homesteads and backyards or in cultivated fields, in pure stands or intercropped with other
annual/perennial cash or food crops (Negash, 2021). The major production of Rhamnus
prinoides in Ethiopia is gained from the provinces of Oromia, SNNPR, Sidama, Tigray, Amhara,
Benishangul-Gumuz, Dredawa, Harari, and Gambella and the total land covered this crop is
estimated to be at 33,369.96 ha with an annual total yield of 0.05 million tons(CSA, 2020) (Table
1).
Table 1: Area, Production, and Yield of Rhamnus prinoides in Ethiopia
Regions Zone /weredas Number of Holders Area in Hectares Production in Quintals Yield (Qt/Hac)
Oromia West Welega 370,174.00 111,155.20 778,531.17 7.00
East Welega 101,114.00 12,898.95 86,430.54 6.70
Ilu Ababora 213,767.00 91,885.24 613,635.41 6.68
Jimma 618,530.00 128,225.43 996,955.34 7.78
West Harerge 106,462.00 11,715.02 74,620.15 6.37
East Harerge 179,694.00 6,732.35 32,919.29 4.89
Bale 50,757.00 26,417.60 127,874.43 4.84
South-West Shewa 87,932.00 610.97 3,396.95 5.56
Guji 138,427.00 33,710.62 231,443.94 6.87
West Guji 347,308.00 72,580.34 458,249.12 6.31
Kelem Wellega 239,116.00 45,641.77 293,891.73 6.44
Buno Bedele 113,071.00 29,186.05 177,769.90 6.09
SNNPR Guraghe 178,364.00 3,567.38 19,922.16 5.58
Hadiya 215,997.00 8,607.60 48,787.17 5.67
Kembata - Tembaro 177,118.00 4,208.69 19,860.85 4.72
Gedio 459,571.00 33,840.79 202,648.57 5.99
Wolayita 577,745.00 11,794.40 56,709.55 4.81
South Omo 98,473.00 6,000.97 28,959.83 4.83
Shaka 56,477.00 21,047.25 186,419.03 8.86
Keffa 361,684.00 32,071.51 216,811.87 6.76
Gamo Gofa 261,070.00 6,790.45 40,668.78 5.99
Yem Special Woreda 20,068.00 210.35 1,267.60 6.03
Dawro 131,545.00 3,127.79 20,030.53 6.40
Basketo Special 21,177.00 616.98 3,652.34 5.92
Woreda
Konta Special Woreda 38,514.00 1,333.07 9,190.90 6.89
Siltie 112,068.00 776.15 4,664.51 6.01
Halaba Zone 41,508.00 420.11 2,453.70 5.84
Segen People’s Zone 70,853.00 2,364.67 13,574.59 5.74
 Table 2: Area, Production, and Yield of Rhamnus prinoides in Ethiopia (continued)
Sidama 1,422,399.00 75,000.21 405,982.15 5.41
Tigray North -Western Tigray 33,558 636.67 29,923.12 47
Central Tigray 27,745 341.89 15,332.81 44.85
Eastern Tigray 42,832 240.37 9,773.74 40.66
Southern Tigray 16,484 252.77 10,160.52 40.20
Western Tigray 29,401 216.64 10,434.35 48.16
South-East Tigray 14,966 169.80 7,769.66 45.76
Amhara South wollo 73,220.00 663.47 3,052.03 4.60
North shewa 49,358.00 337.47 1,147.42 3.40
Oromo Nationality 19,338.00 320.25 1,420.24 4.43
Zone
Awi 67,491.00 903.08 2,889.66 3.20
B/Gumuz Asosa 5,555.00 33.04 148.69 4.50
Mao Komo 4,634.00 561.52 3,329.94 5.93
Dredawa 6,021.00 181.33 299.20 1.65
Harari 5,063.00 68.79 297.88 4.33
Gambella Mejenger 17,114.00 12,717.25

(Source from CSA: 2020/21)

4. Importance of Rhamnus prinoides
4.1. Ethno-pharmacological importance
Rhamnus prinoides have traditionally been used to treat various diseases. For example, the
leaves are used to treat stomach complications, joint pains, fever, diarrhea, colds, malaria,
weakness, sprains, gonorrhea, colic, rheumatism, and ringworm infections (Berhanu and
Teshome, 1995; Hailemichael Alemu et al., 2007; Singh and Sharma, 2020). The fruits are used
to treat ringworm (Abegaz et al., 1999). In Ethiopia, Rhamnus prinoidesares used as a purgative,
laxative, diuretic (to draw water from the body), and for the prevention of syphilis, dandruff, and
to stimulate the flow of bile. In children, it is used to treat painful symptoms associated with
tonsillitis or pain after tonsillectomy (Birhanu, 2013; Girmay et al., 2021). The decorticated root
is used in a decoction by the Zulu and Sotho people of South Africa to treat pneumonia and
purify the blood, respectively (Jansen, 1981). While in Lesotho tradition, its twigs are used to
ward off lightning spells and other evil spirits (Moteetee, 2017). The leaf and root bark extract of
Rhamnus prinoides have also been used in Kenya to treat malaria alone or in combination with
chloroquine. Extracts from leaves and root bark are used for the treatment of malaria in Kenya
for in vivo malarial activity in mice against chloroquine-resistant (Muregi et al., 2007).

Similar to Rhamnus prinoides, there are other Rhamnus species that have promising
ethnopharmacological activities. Various parts of Rhamnus alaternus (a root, bark, berries, and
leaves) serve as extraction sources for the phytochemicals. For instance, Rhamnus alaternus
contains many phytochemical compounds (flavonoids, tannins, and anthocyanins) and shows
several effects such as antioxidant, antihyperlipidemic, anti-genotoxic, anti-mutagenic,
antimicrobial, and anti-proliferative potentials (Nekkaa et al., 2021). Rhamnus staddo root, bark,
and fruit hot decoction are used against malarial parasites (Muithui, 2021). Similar to this, the
Native American Costanoan tribe uses a decoction of Rhamnus californica leaves to cure poison
oak dermatitis; the Kawaiisu tribe uses crushed leaves and berries to treat infected sores, burns,
and wounds; and the Mendocino and Yokia tribes use a decoction of bark to treat grippe
(Carranza et al., 2015). The bark of Rhamnus catharticus and Rhamnus orbiculatus has also been
reported to show antimicrobial and antioxidant activities (Locatelli et al. 2011).
4.2. In traditional and modern beverage industrial importance
In the brewing industry, it might be used as a commercial hop enhancer because of its total resin,
soft resin, hard resin and essential oil is comparable with that of the commercial verities of hops
(Abegaz et al., 1999; Berhanu, 2014; Nigussie et al., 2021). In addition to this, the geshoidin,
chrysophanol, emodin, muszin, and ramnocitrin are all extracted from this plant, and the fruits
are where anthracene derivatives are found in Rhamnus prinoides. It is also a source of
fermentative microorganisms and plays a significant role during fermentation in regulating the
microbial dynamic (Fentie et al., 2020).

In East Africa, Rhamnus prinoides have been used for centuries to add bitterness to traditional
brews. The bitterness of local alcoholic beverages is caused by the major chemical (-sorigenin-8-
O--D-glucoside) geshoidin, found in plentiful amounts in the stem and leaves of Rhamnus
prinoides (Abegaz et al., 1999; Nindi et al., 1999; Fentie et al., 2020). In Ethiopia, the leaves and
stems are utilized to give locally produced beverages like Tella (which resembles commercial
beer) and Tej their distinctive bitter flavor (Abegaz et al., 1999; Fentie et al., 2020).

Another industrial application of Rhamnus is its potential service in the paint industry. All types
of Rhamnus contain a mixture of compounds (mainly rhamnetin, quercetin and rhamnazine)
which make up a range of high-quality dyes. The yield of the dye varies for Rhamnus species,
e.g., Rhamnus alternus contains an assortment of hydroxyl anthraquinone glycosides up to
20% by dry weight and the leaves of Rhamnus prinoides contain a yield of 24.8% of raw dye
(Kechi, 2013). The color and intensity depend on which part of the plant is used as a dye (the
leaves, fruits, or bark). The coloring extracts obtained from bark, leaves, and fruits are suitable
for dyeing cotton, silk, wool, leather, paper, and wood (Fern, 2022).

4.3. Agroforestry importance

Agroforestry significantly improves the sequestration and storage of carbon in agricultural fields,
which helps to combat climate change. Agroforestry techniques based on Rhamnus prinoides
increase soil carbon stores and biomass. Compared to open farms, farms using Rhamnus
prinoides agroforestry have a higher amount of carbon stock (Gebremeskel et al., 2021). The
dense-shading Rhamnus prinoides tree responds well to trimming and can be fashioned into a
dense shrub (Mukaro, 2020). It serves as a windbreak, a living fence, and a hedge, and grows
well on the banks of streams. It also serves as an erosion control measure (Orwa et al., 2009;
Nigussie et al., 2021). Gardening and landscaping take on a distinctive personality thanks to their
evergreen foliage (negash, 2021). Bees and other insects are attracted to the garden by the
blooms' abundance of nectar (Mukaro, 2020). Additionally, the above and below-ground litter
falls and ecophysiological characteristics of Rhamnus prinoides may have an impact on the
status of soil nutrients on farmland when it is inter-cropped with other crops (Gebremeskel et al.,
2018; Negash, 2021). Although it may grow in a variety of soil types, this tree does best in
humus-rich soils (Mukaro, 2020). Similarly, to Rhamnus prinoides, other Rhamnus species
(Rhamnus icilifolia and Rhamnus crocea) play a great role in erosion control and land
rehabilitation (Montalvo et al., 2020).

4.4. Commercial values

Rhamnus prinoides production is identified to be one of the commercially important plant
species for subsistence farmers in Ethiopia. Its producers supply their products to retailers,
exporters, and locally to Tella and Tej brewers. Due to the increasing demand for the crop, the
price of Rhamnus prinoides is getting higher and higher for Tella and Tej brewers, on whom
their livelihood is based (Nagari & Abebaw, 2013; Teklay et al., 2018). Today, different parts of
Rhamnus prinoides plants can be sold in the local market or in the global market, such as
leaves and stems, in the form of Gesho Enchet and Gesho leaf. Rhamnus prinoides has been
exported from Ethiopia in small amounts to a number of countries around the world, including
Asia (China, Israel, Hong Kong, United Arab Emirates), Europe (Sweden, Albania, Greece,
Germany, Italy, United Kingdom, Netherlands, Australia, Switzerland, and Norway), Africa
(Burundi, South Africa, Sudan, and Djibouti), and the Americas (the United States and Canada),
generating 8,250,427 Birr revenue (Bezabeh, 2017).

5. Conventional propagation methods for Rhamnus prinoides

Rhamnus prinoides grows in the wild in Ethiopia, but the shrub is often cultivated as the demand
is greater than the wild vegetation can produce. It can be portaged by layering and seeding
(Figure 1B). When propagating by seed, the seeds are collected and sun dried. They are sown on
a well-prepared seed bed. Seedlings reside for one season and then are transplanted to well-
prepared holes at the beginning of the rainy season, usually 0.5–1 m apart (Jansen, 1981). When
layering, the lower branch close to the ground is bent down and covered with moist soil. After
some days, roots develop from the branch, which can be cut and grown independently. Without
irrigation, one harvest of leafy branches per year is usually possible. If the crop is irrigated, two
harvests per year are possible (one before and one after the rainy season). Depending upon the
initial size of seedlings, level of soil fertility, growth conditions and management intensity,
usable leaves, branches or stems can be harvested within 6-9 months (Negash, 2021). During the
early growth stages, weeding is very important. Inter-rows should be free of weeds, and ring-
type earthing up is prepared to hold water during the dry period. Irrigation is very critical,
especially during the dry period, as it helps plants survive water stress. Common insect pests and
diseases in Ethiopia have not been identified and characterized yet (Takele et al., 2018).

Rhamnus' breeding strategy is unknown, and nothing is known about its reproductive biology.
The flowers of the majority of Rhamnus species are unisexual. While monoecious individuals are
uncommon, certain species are dioecious, while others are monoecious or have a combination of
monoecious and dioecious plants. The ratio of male to female plants in the dioecious Rhamnus
legionensis was found to be equal, but male plants produced more than twice as many blooms.
According to Montalvo et al. (2020), the tiny flowers of Rhamnus crocea and Rhamnus ilicifolia
are also unisexual. However, certain plants may have both male and female flowers or female
and bisexual flow. Wiesenborn (2022) reported that dioecious Rhmnus ilicifolia appears to be
pollinated by a diversity of flies and bees that are generally not specific to the plant's flowers.