POINTERS TO REVIEW: DISS

GAVE THE BIRTH OF CIVILIZATION (CREATING CODE OF LAWS)

Social Science – attempt to explain and describe human behavior in a society.

Civilizations first appeared in Mesopotamia (what is now Iraq) and later in Egypt. Civilizations thrived in the Indus Valley by about 2500
Natural Science – are body of knowledge that tends to study the nature world.
B.C.E., in China by about 1500 B.C.E. and in Central America (what is now Mexico) by about 1200 B.C.E. Civilizations ultimately developed
Humanities – it investigates human contrast and tends to humanize human through arts, music literature. on every continent except Antarctica.

Geography – it also concentrates on how and where group of people live.
Economics – it concentrates on how a particular society utilize a limited resources.
History – it attempts to ascertain, recovered and explain facts past and present events.
Demography – it statistically study the human population.
IMPORTANCE OF ASTRONOMY – to seek s to explain everything we observe in the universe, from the comets and planets in our own
solar system to distant galaxies to echoes of the Big Bang. Astronomy has been used to measure time, mark the seasons, and navigate the
vast oceans. As one of the oldest sciences astronomy is part of every culture’s history and roots. It inspires us with beautiful images and
promises answers to the big questions. 
CONDUCIVE FOR AGRICULTURE DURING EARLY CIVILIZATION – The first agriculture was likely cultivation of wild species of plants and
basic herding of livestock.

FUNCTIONS OF ECONOMICS REASON OF THE DOWNFALL OF MESAPOTAMIA CIVILZATION

 Production Fossil coral records provide new evidence that frequent winter shamals, or dust storms, and a prolonged cold winter season contributed
to the collapse of the ancient Akkadian Empire in Mesopotamia.
 Distribution
 Consumption of goods and services PERSONALITIES DURING FRENCE REVOLUTION

 Analyze the choices that individuals 1. King Louis XVI - He was the last king of the French monarchy.
 Businesses
2. Marie-Antoinette - The last queen of France before the French Revolution.
 Government
 Nation make to allocate resources 3. Napoleon Bonaparte - a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led several
successful campaigns during the Revolutionary Wars. 
FUNCTIONS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
4. Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès - A liberal clergy and supporter of the Third Estate.
Political science is a classical discipline that deals with the study of political phenomena. It’s goal is to deepen human understanding of
the forms and nature of political action and to develop theoretical tools for interpreting politically meaningful phenomena. 5. Maximilien Robespierre - The leader of the radical Jacobins in the National Assembly.

AIMS OF ANTHROPOLOGY - to pursue a holistic understanding of what it means to be human by understanding the relationship between DEFINITION/IDEAS OF MARXISM - Inequality
human biology, language, and culture.
Marxism is an intellectual tradition that arose out of the writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels which posits a materialist model of
CONTRIBUTIONS OF ANCIENT CIVILIZATION change. Change within the society is seen as the result of contradictions that arose between the forces of production which refers to
technology and the relations of production or the social organization. The said contradictions emerged as a struggle between distinct
EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION – Hieroglyphics, Math, Society social classes.

CHINESE CIVILIZATION – Arts, Science, Architecture, Sino Centrism, Medicine Marx travelled through Europe during the mid and later half of the 19th century and he witnessed the unequal access to resources and
ownership of property and wealth. He explained how the working class called as Proletariat was being exploited by the ruling class known
GREEK CIVILIZATION – Arts, Philosophy, Theatre, Sciences, Democracy, Olympic Games as Bourgeoisie. These social classes emerged as a response to the developmental changes that are taking place in the society.

ROMAN CIVILIZATION – Architecture, Sculpture, Painting, Technology, Latin Proletariat – Working Class

Bourgeoisie – Middle Class

 According to Mead, “Gestures become significant symbols when they implicitly arouse in the individual making them the same responses
which the explicitly arouse, or are supposed to arouse, in other individuals”.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC ASPECT
HERMENEUTIC PHENOMENOLOGY
Slave Society - relationship between ownership and labor.
Hermeneutic phenomenology means working with part and whole in a cyclical, open and interrogative way to understand the person/
Primitive Communism – People lived in harmony and equality. people who produced the text, the person doing the hermeneutic phenomenological work, and ultimately, the phenomenon that is
brought to awareness and made manifest as a result of the work.
Capitalism – private actors own and control properties and motive to make a profit.
Understanding the use of Hermeneutic Phenomenology
STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM - is a framework for building a theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to
promote solidarity and stability. Both hermeneutic phenomenology and phenomenology share such concern with the life world or human experience as it is lived, it
emphasizes the intrusive facts of and minor aspects within experience that are often taken for granted in everyday lives, hoping to create
Manifest Function which refers to the recognized and intended consequences of any social pattern. meaning and obtain a sense of understanding, that understanding is basic form of lived experience and is not separate from the world, it
is the way we are.
Latent Function which is the unrecognized and unintended consequences of any social pattern.

MEAD’S “I AND ME” CONCEPT

Mead believed that this understanding lead to the development of the “I” and the “me” where the “me” is our social self and the “I” is our
response to the “me”. The ‘me” is how we believe the generalized other sees us. It is what we learn through interactions with others. The
“I” thinks about what those things mean.

WOMAN RIGHTS

Women's rights are the rights and entitlements claimed for women and girls worldwide. They formed the basis for the women's rights
movement in the 19th century and the feminist movements during the 20th and 21st centuries. In some countries, these rights are
institutionalized or supported by law, local custom, and behavior, whereas in others, they are ignored and suppressed. They differ from
broader notions of human rights through claims of an inherent historical and traditional bias against the exercise of rights by women and
girls, in favor of men and boys.
Issues commonly associated with notions of women's rights include the right to bodily integrity and autonomy, to be free from sexual
violence, to vote, to hold public office, to enter into legal contracts, to have equal rights in family law, to work, to fair wages or equal pay,
to have reproductive rights, to own property, and to education
PSYCHOANALYSIS THEORY
ID – Pleasure Principle, what drives our needs and desire.

EGO – Reality Principle, is the realistic part that mediates between the desires of the ID and the Super-ego.

SUPER-EGO – Aims for perfection, strives for morality and perfection.

GENDER IDEOLOGY

Both gender ideology and gender role ideology refer to attitudes regarding that appropriate roles, rights, responsibilities of women and
men in society. The concept can reflect these attitudes generally or in a specific domain, such as an economic, familial, legal, political, and
social domain.

HERBERT MEAD’S FIGURE OF COMMUNICATION (GESTURE)

 Ang heterogeneous na kalikasan ng wika ay tumutukoy sa pagkakaiba-iba ng wikang ginagamit ng mga pangkat ng tao dahil sa pagkakaiba
nila ng edad, kasarian, tirahan, gawain, at iba pang salik.

Heterogeneous na katangian ng wika ay may dalawang uri o barayti: Ito ayang permanente at pansamantala.
POINTERS TO REVIEW: KOMPAN
Barayting Permanente
WIKA - Wika ang pinakamahalagang sangkap at ugnayan sa pakikipagkapwa-tao. Malaki ang tungkulin ng wika sa pakikipag-unawaan at
a. Dayalekto - Ito ang barayting batay sa pinanggalingang lugar, panahon, at katayuan sa buhay ng isang tao.
pakikisalamuha sa tao sa kaniyang tahanan, paaralan, pamayanan, at lipunan.

b. Idyolek -Ito ang barayting kaugnay ng personal na kakanyahan ng bawat indibiduwal na gumagamit ng wika.
DEPINISYON NG WIKA

Barayting Pansamantala
Ang wika ay isang sistema ng mga sagisag na binubuo ng mga tunog o kaya ay mga pasulat na letra na iniuugnay natin sa mga kahulugang
nais nating ipabatid sa ibang tao. Ang mga sumusunod ay ang mga taong kilala sa wika at komunikasyon at ang kanilang mga konsepto o
a. Register-Ito ang barayting bunga ng sitwasyon at disiplina o larangang pinaggagamitan ng wika.
pananaw ukol sa depinisyon ng wika.
b. Istilo-Ito ang barayting batay sa bilang at katangian ng kinakausap, at relasyon ng nagsasalita sa kinakausap
1. Gleason (1961) – ang wika ay masistemang balangkas ng sinasalitang tunog na pinili at isinaayos sa paraang arbitraryo upang magamit
sa pakikipagtalastasan ng mga taong nasa iisang kultura.
c. Midyum-Ito ang barayting batay sa pamamaraang gamit sa komunikasyon, maaaring pasalita o pasulat.

2. Finnocchiaro (1964) – ang wika ay isang sistemang arbitraryo ng simbolong pasalita na nagbibigay pahintulot sa mga taong may kultura
REHISTRO NG WIKA - Tinatawag na rehistro ang mga espesyalisadong termino gaya ng mga salitang tipiko o teknikal na nagtataglay ng
o ng mga taong natutunan ang ganoong kultura upang makipagtalastasan o di kaya’y makipag-ugnayan.
iba't ibang kahulugan sa iba't ibang larangan o disiplina.

3. Sturtevant (1968) – ang wika ay isang sistema ng mga simbolong arbitraryo ng mga tunog para sa komunikasyong pantao.
BARAYTI NG WIKA - Ang Filipino bilang isang buhay na wika ay nagtatataglay ng iba’t ibang barayti.

4. Hill (1976) – ang wika ay ang pangunahin at pinakaelaboreyt na anyo ng simbolikong pantao. Ang mga simbolong ito ay binubuo ng mga
MGA KONSEPTO SA BARAYTI NG WIKA
tunog na nalilikha ng aparato sa pagsasalita at isinasaayos sa mga klase at padron na lumilikha at simetrikal na estraktura.
1. Dayalek - Ito ang barayti ng wika na ginagamit ng partikular na pangkat ng mga tao mula sa isang partikular na lugar tulad ng lalawigan,
5. Brown (1980) – ang wika ay masasabing sistematiko. Set ng mga simbolikong arbitraryo, pasalita, nagaganap sa isang kultura, pantao,
rehiyon o bayan.
at natatamo ng lahat ng tao.
2. Idyolek- Ito ang sinasalita ng pangkat ng mga tao na mayroong pansariling paraan ng pagsasalita ang bawat isa.
6. Bouman (1990) – ang wika ay isang paraan ng komunikasyon sa pagitan ng mga tao sa isang tiyak na lugar, para sa isang partikular na
layunin na ginagamitan ng mga berbal at biswal na signal para makapagpahayag. 3. Sosyolek- Ito ang barayti ng wikang nakabatay sa katayuan o antas panlipunan o dimensyong sosyal ng mga taong gumagamit ng wika.

7. Webster (1990) – ang wika ay kalipunan ng mga salitang ginagamit at naiintindihan ng isang maituturing na komunidad. 4. Etnolek- Ang salitang ito ay nagmula sa etniko at dayalek na taglay nito ang mga salitang nagiging bahagi ng kanilang pagkakakilanlan ng
isang pangkat etniko.
Wikang pambansa - Ang wikang pambansa ay tumutukoy sa wika na ginagamit ng mga tao sa isang bansa.
5. Ekolek - ang tawag sa mga salitang ating binabanggit at ginagamit sa pakikipagtalastasan sa bahay.
Wikang Opisyal - wikang ginagamit sa gobyerno at mahahalagang gawain ng isang lugar.
UNANG WIKA - Ang unang wika ay ang wikang katutubo na kinagisnan at natamo mula sa pagkasilang hanggang sa oras na magamit at
Wikang Panturo - ay tumatalakay sa wika na ginagamit sa loob ng paaralan. Ang wikang ito ang ginagamit ng mga guro sa pagtuturo sa
maunawaan ng isang indibiduwal.
loob ng silid-aralan at ginagamit sa mga libro at iba pang materyales.
PANGALAWANG WIKA - Ito ay wikang natutunan sa paaralan o sa pakikipag-ugnayan sa ibang tao na may kakayahang gamitin ito.
Ang isang lingguwistikong komunidad ay tumutukoy sa wikang ginagamit sa loob ng komunidad, ito man ay sa mga sitwasyong pormal at
di-pormal. Ang wika na ito ay maaaring ginagamit sa loob ng bahay, sa palengke, sa kalsada at iba pa. Sa paglipas ng iba’t ibang salik lahi at sa pagsibol naman ng mga makabagong henerasyon, tayo ay nagkaroon ng maraming barayti at
baryasyon ng wikang Filipino. Linggwistikong komunidad ang tawag sa mga wikang ito. Ang lingguwistikong komunidad ay isang termino
HOMOGENOUS NA WIKA
sa sosyolingguwistiks na tumutukoy sa isang grupong ng mga taong gumagamit sa iisang uri ng barayti ng wika atnagkakaunawaan sa mga
ispesipiko o tukoy na patakaran o mga alituntunin sa paggamit ng wika.
Ang salitang homogenous ay nanggaling sa salitang Griyego na "homo" na ang ibig sabihin ay pareho at salitang "genos" na ang ibig
sabihin ay uri o yari. Ang homogenous na wika ay ang pagkakatulad ng mga salita.
Ang Cohesive Device o Kohesyong Gramatikal

HETEROGENOUS NA WIKA
Ang limang pangunahing cohesive device o kohesiyong gramatikal ay ang sumusnod: patungkol o reperensiya (reference), substitusyon,
ellipsis, pang-ugnay at leksikal. Subalit sa pagkakataong ito, ang tatalakayin lamang na kohesyong gramatikal ay patungkol o reperensiya
(reference), ellipsis at pang-ugnay.
Reperensiya
Ang cohesive device o kohesiyong gramatikal na reperensiya tumutukoy sa mga panandang salita na gumamit panghalip upang ng paulit-
ulit ang pangngalan. Ang paggamit ng panghalip ay tinatawag na pagpapatungkol.
Uri ng Kohesyong Gramatikal na Patungkol/Reperensiya:
● anaphora - Ang anapora ay tumutukoy sa mga panghalip na ginagamit sa hulihan bilang pananda sa pinalitang pangngalan sa unahan.
● katapora - Ang katapora ay tumutukoy sa mga panghalip na ginagamit sa unahan bilang pananda sa pinalitang pangngalan sa hulihan.
● Ellipsis - Ang ellipsis ang tumutukoy sa pagtitipid sa pagpapahayag. Ang mga salita ay karaniwang inaalis upang maiwasan ang pag uulit
sa isang pahayag.
● Pang-ugnay - Ang pang-ugnay na pangatnig ay ginagamit upang pag-ugnayin ang dalawang pangungusap.
GAMIT NG WIKA SA LIPUNAN
1. Interaksyonal - ang tungkulin ng wika na ginagamit ng tao sa pagtatatag at pagpapanatili ng relasyong sosyal sa kapwa tao.
2. InstrumentaL - ang tungkulin ng wika na ginagamit sa pagtugon sa mga pangangailangan, pakikipag-usap o pag-uutos.
3. Regulatori - ang tungkulin ng wikang ginagamit sa pagkontrol o paggabay sa kilos o asal ng ibang tao.
4. Personal - ang tungkulin ng wikang ginagamit sa pagpapahayag ng sariling damdamin o opinyon.
5. Imahinatibo - ang tungkulin ng wikang ginagamit sa pagpapahayag ng imahinasyon sa malikhaing paraan.
6. Heuristik - ang tungkulin ng wikang ginagamit sa paghahanap o paghihingi ng impormasyon.
7. Representatibo - ang tungkulin ng wikang ginagamit sa pag-uulat ng mga pangyayari at pagpapaliwanag ng pagkakaugnay-ugnay ng
mga bagay, pagpapahayag ng hinuha o pahiwatig sa simbolismo ng isang bagay o paligid.
PANAHON NG ESPANYOL
-Miguel Lopez De Legaspi - Siya ang kauna-unahang Espanyol na gobernador-heneral sa Pilipinas.
- Upang mas maging epektibo ang pagpapalaganap ng Kristiyanismo, ang mga misyonerong Espanyol ay nag-aral ng wikang katutubo
upang madaling matutunan ang wika ng isang rehiyon kaysa sa ituro sa lahat ang wikang Espanyol.
- Wikang umiiral ay Katutubo at Espanyol
PANAHON NG AMERIKANO
-Nang sakupin ng Amerikano ang Pilipinas, sa simula ay dalawa ang wikang ginagamit ng mga bagong mananakop sa mga kautusan at
proklamasyong Ingles at Espanyol. Sa kalaunan napalitan ng Ingles ang Espanyol bilang wikang opisyal.
- Noong Marso 24, 1934, pinagtibay ni Franklin Roosevelt ang Batas Tydings McDuffie na nagtatadhanang pagkalooban ng kalayaan ang
Pilipinas matapos ang 10 taong pag-aaral ng Pamahalaang Komonwelt.
PANAHON NG KOMONWELT
-Sa panahon ding ito nabuo ang Surian ng Wikang Pambansa (SWP) sa pamamagitan ng Batas Komonwelt Blg. 184. At bilang tugon,
humirang si Pang. Quezon ng mga kagawad na bubuo sa SWP. Batay sa isinagawang pag-aaral inirekomenda ng lupon ng SWP na ibatay sa
Tagalog ang wikang pambansa at inaprubahan ito.
PANAHON NG HAPON
-Nabuo ang isang grupong tinatawag na “purista” Sila ang nagnanais na gawing Tagalog na mismo ang maging wikang pambansa at hindi
na batayan lamang.
PANAHON NG 1987 HANGGANG SA KASALUKUYAN
-Sa panahong ito, pinagtibay ang bagong Konstitusyon ng Pilipinas. Mula sa dating katawagang Pilipino ay naging Filipino ang Wikang
Pambansa.
Ilang Batas, Kautusan, Proklamasyong Pinairal sa Pagpapaunlad ng Wikang
Pambansa: Tagalog/Pilipino/ Filipino
● Kautusang Tagapagpaganap Blg. 134 (1937)- ipinahayag na ang Tagalog ang siyang maging batayan ng wikang pambansa sa Pilipinas
● Kautusang Tagapagpaganap Blg. 263 (Abril 1, 1940)- isinaad ang pagpapalimbag ng “A Tagalog-English Vocabulary” at “Ang Balarila ng
Wikang Pambansa”. Inihayag din ang pagtuturo ng wikang pambansa (Tagalog) sa mga paaralang pampubliko at pribado simula Hunyo 19,
1940.
● Batas ng Komonwelt Blg. 570- Ipinahayag na isa sa wikang opisyal ang wikang pambansa (Tagalog) simula Hulyo 4, 1946.
● Proklamasyon Blg. 12- Ipinalabas noong Marso 26, 1954 ni Pangulong. Ramon Magsaysay ang pagkakaroon ng pagdiriwang ng Linggo ng
Wika mula Marso 29- Abril 4 (kapanganakan ni Franciso Balagtas.)
● Proklamasyon Blg. 186 (1955)- Inilahad ang paglilipat ng pagdiriwang ng Linggo ng Wika sa Agosto 13-19 (kapanganakan ni Manuel L.
Quezon).
● Kautusang Pangkagawaran Blg.7- Ipinalabas noong Agosto 13, 1959 ng noo`y Kalihim ng Kagawaran ng Edukasyon na si Jose E. Romero
na nag- atas na tawagin ang wikang pambansa na Pilipino.
● Kautusang Tagapagpaganap Blg. 60 (1960) – nilagdaan ng Pangulong Diosdado Macapagal na nag-uutos na awitin ang Pambansang
Awit sa titik nitong Pilipino.
● Kautusang Pangkagawaran Blg. 24 (1962) – Nilagdaan ni Kalihim Alejandro Roces at nag-utos na simulan sa taong-aralan 1963-1964 ang
mga sertipiko at diploma ng magtatapos ay ipalimbag sa Wikang Pilipino.
● Kautusang Tagapagpaganap Blg. 96 (1967) – nilagdaan ng Pangulong Marcos at nagtadhana na ang lahat ng edipisyo, gusali at
tanggapan ng pamahalaan ay pangalanan sa Pilipino.
● Kautusang Tagapagpaganap Blg. 187 (1969) – nilagdaan ng Pangulong Marcos at nag-utos sa lahat ng kagawaran, kawanihan at Damdamin – Naipapahayag ng isang magaling na may-akda ang kanyang damdamin nang may kaangkupan at kawastuhan sa paraang may
tanggapan at iba pang sangay ng pamahalaan na gamitin ang Wikang Filipino hangga’t maaari sa Linggo ng Wikang Pambansa at kalawakan at kaganapan.
pagkaraan man nito sa lahat ng opisyal na komunikasyon at transaksyon.

● Kautusang Pangkagawaran Blg. 25 (1974) – Nilagdaan ni Kalihim Juan Manuel na itinagubilin sa mga guro ang mga bagong tuntunin sa
Ortograpiyang Pilipino ang pagpapairal ng Edukasyong Bilinggwal sa mga paaralan simula sa taong panuruan 1974-9175.

● Kautusang Pangkagawaran Blg. 203 (1978) – Paggamit ng katagang Filipino sa pagtukoy sa wikang pambansa ng Pilipinas. Nilagdaan ni
Kalihim Lourdes Quisumbing ng Kagawaran ng Edukasyon, Kultura at Isports.

● Saligang-Batas ng 1987, Artikulo XIV, Seksyon 6- Itinalaga na Filipino ang wikang pambansa ng Pilipinas. “Ang wikang pambansa ng
Pilipinas ay Filipino. Samantalang nililinang ito ay dapat na payabungin at pagyamanin pa salig sa umiiral na wika sa Pilipinas at iba pang
mga wika.

● Kautusang Pangkagawaran Blg. 52 (1987)- Panuntunan ng implementasyon ng patakaran sa Edukasyong Bilinggwal 1987.

● Proklamasyon Blg. 1041 (1997) – Nilagdaan at ipinalabas ni Pangulong Fidel V. Ramos na nagtakda na ang buwan ng Agosto, ang Buwan
ng Wikang Pambansa.

TAGALOG – ang pangunahing wika ng republika ng pilipinas na sinasalita.

FILIPINO – ang ating pambansang wika.

PILIPINO – ang tawag sa mga mamamayan nakatira sa pilipinas.

BAHAGI NG SANAYSAY

Simula - Karaniwang naglalagay ng pang-akit, atensyon ang nagsusulat ng sanaysay. Dapat makuha ng akda ang atensyon at damdamin ng
mambabasa at sa bahaging ito makakapag-isip ang mambabasa kung magpapatuloy pa sa pagpabasa.

Katawan o Gitna - Dito naman nakalagay ang malaking bahagi ng nilalaman ng sanaysay. Nakasaad din ang mga mahahalagang
impormasyon o ideya ng may akda tungkol sa paksa.

Wakas – Ito ang pansarang bahagi ng sanaysay. Dito maaaring magsulat ng konklusyon, buod ng sanaysay o mensaheng habilin ng
manunulat sa mambabasa. Maaari ring maglagay ng pahayag na hahamon sa pag-iisip ng babasa ng akda.

ELEMENTO NG SANAYSAY

Tema/Paksa – Sa bahaging ito ipinapahayag ng may-akda ang layunin ng kanyang pagsulat ng sanaysay.

Anyo at Istruktura- Ito ay isang mahalagang sangkap sapagkat nakakaapekto ito sa pagkaunawa ng mambabasa, ang maayos na
pagkakasunod-sunod ng ideya o pangyayari ay makakatulong sa mambabasa sa pag-unawa sa sanaysay.

Wika at Istilo- Elemento ng sanaysay na higit na nagpapayaman sa kaisipan ng mga mambabasa kung kaya’t higit na mas mabuting
gumamit ng simple, natural at matapat na mga pahayag.

Kaisipan – Mga ideyang nagpapalinaw sa tema. Nailalarawan ang buhay sa isang makatotohanang salaysay. May masining na paglalahad
na ginagamitan ng sariling himig ng may-akda.
 9. Strength – The capacity to sustain the application of force without yielding or breaking; the ability of the muscles to exert efforts
against resistance.

Physical Activity and Exercise

POINTERS TO REVIEW: HOPE 1 1. Occupational – These are the activities you do at your workplace (i.e. lifting computers and books, going your friend’s desk, or
preparing lunch at the pantry).
Health Related Fitness - This is primarily associated with disease prevention and functional health.
2. Domestic – These are the activities you do at home (i.e. washing clothes and dishes, gardening, carpentry, baking, or cleaning the
Health Related Fitness Components house).

1. Body Composition – The combination of all the tissues that make up the body such as bones, muscles, organs and body fat. 3. Transportation – These are the activities that involve travelling (i.e. riding a jeepney, tricycle, motorcycle, or bikes).

2. Cardiovascular Endurance – The ability of the heart, lungs, blood vessels, and blood to work efficiently and to supply the body with
oxygen.
3. Flexibility – The ability to use joints fully through a wide range of motion.
4. Muscular Endurance – The ability to use muscles for a long period of time without tiring.
4. Leisure Time – These are the activities you do during recreational activities (i.e. playing, swimming, hiking, or craft making).
Aerobic, Muscle-strengthening, and Bone-strengthening Activity
Aerobic Aerobic activities, also called endurance activities, are physical activities in which people move their large muscles in a rhythmic
manner for a sustained period.

5. Muscular Strength – The ability of the muscles to lift a heavy weight or exert a lot of force one time.
Skills Related Fitness Components
1. Agility – The ability to change body positions quickly and keep the body under control when moving.
Muscle-Strengthening Activity, this kind of activity, which includes resistance training and lifting weights, causes the body’s muscles to
work or hold against an applied force or weight.
Bone-Strengthening Activity, this kind of activity, sometimes called weight-bearing or weight-loading activity, produces a force on the
bones that promotes bone growth and strength.

2. Balance – The ability to keep the body in a steady position while standing and moving. Barriers to Physical Activities

3. Coordination – The ability of the body parts to work together when performing an activity. 1. Lack of time

4. Power – The ability to combine strength with speed while moving. 2. Social Support

5. Reaction Time – The ability to move quickly once a signal to start moving is received. 6. Speed – The ability to move all or a part of the 3. Lack of Energy
body quickly.
4. Lack of Motivation
Specific Components of Physical Fitness
5. Fear of Injury
1. Agility –The ability of the individual to change direction or position in space with quickness and lightness of movement while
maintaining dynamic balance. 6. Lack of Skill

2. Balance – The ability to control organic equipment neuro-muscularly; a state of equilibrium. 7. High Costs and Lack of Facilities

3. Coordination - The ability to integrate the body parts to produce smooth motion. 8. Weather Conditions

4. Endurance – The ability to sustain long continued contractions where a number of muscle groups are used; the capacity to bear or last Eating Habits
long in a certain task without undue fatigue.
The term eating habits (or food habits) refers to why and how people eat, which foods they eat, and with whom they eat, as well as the
5. Flexibility – The quality of plasticity, which gives the ability to do a wide range of movement. ways people obtain, store, use, and discard food.

6. Organic Vigor – It refers to the soundness of the heart and lungs which contributes to the ability to resist disease. Influences on Food Choices - There are many factors that determine what foods a person eats.

7. Power – The ability of the muscles to release maximum force in the shortest period of time. Cultural Influences - A cultural group provides guidelines regarding acceptable foods, food combinations, eating patterns, and eating
behaviors.
8. Speed – The ability to make successive movements of the same kind in the shortest period of time.
 Active Static: This form of stretching is used in yoga and martial arts.

Social Influences - Members of a social group depend on each other, share a common culture, and influence each other's behaviors and Passive Static: During this type of stretching, you hold the limb to perform the stretch without any assistance such as a bar or bands.
values.
Dynamic Stretching is stretching with movement.
Religious Influences - Religious proscriptions range from a few to many, from relaxed to highly restrictive. This will affect a follower's food
choices and behaviors. F.I.T.T. Principle

Economic Influences - Money, values, and consumer skills affect what a person buys. Frequency = How often you exercise

Environmental Influences - The influence of the environment on food habits derives from a composite of ecological and social factors. Intensity = How hard you exercise

Political Influences - Political factors also influence food availability and trends. Time = How long you exercise

 REFLECT on all of your specific eating habits, both bad and good, and your common triggers for unhealthy eating. Type = What kind of exercise

 REPLACE your unhealthy eating habits with healthier ones. The F.I.T.T. Principle is one of the foundations of exercise, a set of guidelines that help you set up a workout routine for maximum benefit.

 REINFORCE your new, healthier eating habits. Sports Injuries

Aerobic Exercise  Sprain is a tear of ligament fibers, muscles or tendons supporting a joint. This can occur when a joint is extended beyond its normal
range of movement.
Aerobic Exercise is any physical activity that makes you sweat, causes you to breathe harder, and gets your heart beating faster compared
to when you are at rest.  Contusion or bruise is bleeding into the soft tissue.

Apical site – is taken at the apex of the heart and can sometimes be felt very clearly by placing the heel of the hand over the left side of  Concussion is caused by a direct blow to the head.
the chest.
 Dislocation occurs when the ball of a joint is forced out of its socket (i.e. arm forced out of the shoulder joint).
Carotid pulse site – is taken from the carotid artery just beside the larynx using light pressure from the tips of the pointer and middle
fingers.  Fracture is a break, crack, or shattering of a bone.

Radial pulse site – is taken from the radial artery at the wrist, in line with the thumb, using tips of the pointer and middle fingers.  Strains are injuries that involve the stretching, partial tearing, or complete tearing of a tendon.

Temporal pulse site – can be obtained from the left or right temple with light pressure from the tips of the pointer and middle fingers. RICE method

Aerobic fitness is the ability of the body’s cardiovascular system to supply energy during continuous physical activities such as biking and Rest: Immobilization prevents further injury and gives the body time to recover.
running.
Ice: Cold reduces pain by numbing the affected area.
Muscular strength is the ability of the muscles to exert a force during an activity such as lifting weights.
Compression: Pressure keeps swelling under control.
Bone strengthening exercise, or any weight-bearing activity that produces a force on the bone, is also important to overall health for
children and adults. Elevation: Keeping the injured body part above the heart reduces swelling and the associated pain and discomfort.

Muscular endurance, on the other hand, is how many times you can lift a certain amount of weight.  Dehydration- Dehydration happens when the fluid in your body is used or lost more than the fluid you drink or intake.

Resistance Training. Strength exercises, such as weight lifting, push-ups, and crunches, work your muscles by using resistance (like a  Overexertion- This refers to the pressure one puts in himself or herself, too much pressure that leads to a simple discomfort that might
dumbbell or your own body weight.) extend to a more serious injury.

Circuit training. It is when you alternate between several exercises (usually five to 10) that target different muscle groups.  Hypothermia- It usually happens when the body easily loses temperature.

Flexibility exercises stretch your muscles and may improve your range of motion at your joints.  Hyperthermia-the opposite of hypothermia. It happens when the body temperature rises up significantly beyond the normal
temperature which is 37 degrees Celsius.
Static stretching is most often recommended for general fitness.
 7. INTERPRET AND REPORT: What are the implications of the results?

According to Resnik, 2007, ethical norms are significant in conducting research studies as explained in the following:

First, ethics promotes the pursuit of knowledge, truth, and credibility. It also fosters values that are essential to collaborative work.

Second, ethical norms help individuals to be accountable in every act that the researcher/s undertake.
POINTERS TO REVIEW: PRACTICAL RESEARCH
Third, ensure that researchers are held accountable to the public.
What is RESEARCH?
Lastly, an ethical norm in research also needs public awareness.
Research is an organized investigation and study of materials and sources to create facts and reach new inferences. Research has come up
with developing appropriate solutions to improve the individual’s quality of life.

Research can be categorized into two:

Basic Research

This is the type of research that is a purely direct application but increasing the nature of understanding about the problem. It develops
the scientific theories to be more understandable to the readers.

Applied Research

It is a type of research that needs an answer to a specific question. It provides solutions and validation in order to apply to the real setting.

CHARACTERISTICS, PROCESSES, AND ETHICS IN RESEARCH

1. EMPIRICAL - is based on observations and experiments of theories.

KINDS OF RESEARCH:
2. SYSTEMATIC - follows orderly and sequential procedures, based on valid procedures and principles.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH - is a positivist scientific method which refers to a general set of orderly discipline procedures to acquire
3. CONTROLLED - In research, all variables, except those that are tested/ experimented on, are kept constant. information (Beck, 2004). Mostly, it is concerned with numbers and measurement.

4. EMPLOYS HYPOTHESIS - refers to a search for facts, answers to questions and solutions to problems.
5. ANALYTICAL - shows analytical procedures in gathering the data, whether historical, descriptive, and or case study.
6. OBJECTIVE - it is unbiased and logical. All findings are logically based on real-life situations.
7. ORIGINAL WORK - it requires its own examination and produces the data needed to complete the study.
Research Processes:
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH - is defined as the “naturalistic method of research which deals with the concern of human difficulty by
discovering it straightly.” (Beck, 2004) It is concerned with the experiences, understanding and words of the individual.
Kinds of Qualitative Research
Phenomenology
It is the study of how people give meaning to their experiences, like the death of loved ones, care for the people, and friendliness of the
people.

1. DEFINE RESEARCH PROBLEM: What is the problem? Ethnography

2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE: What evidence is already presented? It is understanding of how a particular cultural group goes about their daily lives which includes their organizational set-up, internal
operations, and lifestyle.
3. FORMULATING HYPOTHESIS: How are we going to find/look for the answer to questions being studied?
Grounded theory
4. RESEARCH DESIGN: Where will the study be shown and with what population?
This occurs when a researcher discovers a new theory based on the data collected. It is a research methodology for discovering theory in a
5. COLLECTING DATA: Are we ready to gather the data? Where do we find the data? substantive area.

6. ANALYZING DATA: How do the data answer the research queries? Case study
This study involves an investigation of a person, group, organization, or situation for a long period of time to explain why such things occur 3. It is sometimes hard to prove.
to the subject under study. Some examples of this type of study are the fields of social care, nursing, psychology, rehabilitation centers,
education, etc. 4. The researcher's presence during data gathering, which is often unavoidable in qualitative research, can affect the subjects' attitudes
towards the process.
Content and Discourse Analysis
5. Issues of anonymity and confidentiality can bring/result in problems when presenting findings. 6. Findings can be more difficult and take
This method requires the examination or analysis of the substance or content of the communication that takes place through letters, time to visualize.
books, journals, photos, video recordings, short message services, online messages, emails, audio-visual materials, etc.
Importance of Qualitative Research across Different Fields
Historical Analysis
Qualitative Research in Education
This is the study of primary documents to explain the connection of past events to the present time. An example of this is explaining the
happenings during the Marcos regime. Qualitative research is important as it navigates towards the improvement of performance in education.

Characteristics and Uses of Qualitative Research Qualitative Research in Technical Communication

∙ Qualitative research takes place in a natural setting like home, school, institution, or community. Researchers gain actual experiences of Qualitative research can also be used in studying the effective use of technology in the workplace to ensure a smooth flow of
the research participants. communication.

∙ It focuses on participants’ perceptions and experiences (Franenkel and Wallen, 1988 in Creswell, 2013) Qualitative Research in Psychology

∙ Researchers are sensitive to participants’ needs and participants are actively engaged in the process. According to Braun and Clarke (2013), the qualitative research paradigm in psychology has been emerging since the second half of the
nineteenth century.
∙ Data are collected through observation, interviews, documents, e-mails, blogs, videos, etc.
Qualitative Research in Advertising
∙ It may result in changes in research questions after new discoveries occur.
Morrison et al. say that great advertising comes along from an understanding of consumer’s wants and needs.
∙ It develops from a specific to a general understanding of concepts.
Qualitative Research in Social Work
∙ It is a process of describing a situation, analyzing data for themes or categories, and making interpretations or drawing conclusions.
Conducting research under social work means studying people’s experiences especially what they found traumatic and painful.
∙ It may be subjected to the researcher’s personal interpretation.
Qualitative Research in Marketing
∙ The researchers, as a primary instrument in data collection, view social phenomena and situations holistically.
Historically, qualitative research in marketing is influenced by social research and has embedded projective devices within the approach of
Strengths of Qualitative Research in-depth interview.

1. Issues can be analyzed through detailed and deep examination. Qualitative Research in International Business

2. Interviews are not being delimited to specific questions and can be guided/redirected by the researcher along the process. In this manner, business establishments can collect reliable information and come to a decision of improving their ways and processes.

3. The research framework and direction can be easily revised as new information emerges. Design of Qualitative Research

4. The obtained data from human experience is powerful and sometimes more interesting than quantitative data. Qualitative research is an emergent design which means that it emerges as you make ongoing decisions about what you have learned.

5. Data usually are collected from a few cases or individuals so findings cannot be generalized to a larger population. Findings can however As a design, qualitative research requires researcher’s decision-making like how to gather data, from where and whom to collect, when
be transferable to another setting. to gather, and for how long is the process will be.

Weaknesses of Qualitative Research To have a holistic picture of qualitative research project, you have to remember that in deciding on a topic, you have to consider the kind
and the field it belongs, as well as its relevance to your daily life.
1. Research quality is heavily dependent on the researcher’s skills and may be influenced by the researcher's outlooks.
Guidelines in Choosing a Topic
2. The volume of data makes analysis and interpretation time-consuming.
1. Interest in the subject matter
2. Availability of information

3. Timeliness and relevance of the topic

4. Limitations on the subject

5. Personal resources

Topics to be Avoided

1. Controversial topics Avoid highly opinionated topics.

2. Highly technical subjects

3. Hard-to-investigate subjects

4. Too broad subjects

5. Too narrow subject

6. Vague subjects

Sources of Research Topics

1. Mass media communication-television, newspaper, ads, radio, films, etc.

2. Books, internet, journals, government publications

3. Professional periodicals- specialized periodicals in different fields

4. General periodicals- Reader’s Digest, Time Magazine, Women’s Magazine, etc.

5. Previous readings

6. Work experience
POINTERS TO REVIEW: ITWRBS
UNDERSTANDING BELIEFS AND WORLDVIEWS
Every individual sees and interprets the world quite differently from one another. This overall perspective is also termed worldview which
is a collection of beliefs about life and the universe being held by the people.
Theism, often used as a synonym to monotheism, is defined as “a belief in the existence of one god viewed as the creative source of
human race and the world who transcends yet is immanent in the world.
Religion may be defined as “an organized system of beliefs, ceremonies, and rules used to worship a god or a group of gods”. The Latin
word religion refers to “something done with overanxious or scrupulous attention to detail”. This term may have probably been derived
from the Latin word religare which means “to tie together, to bind fast”.
Spirituality comes in with the term spiritual being defined as “relating or affecting the human spirit or soul as opposed to material or
physical things”. One author points out the it is quite common for people to say that they are “spiritual not religious”. Spirituality is
derived from the Latin words spiritus, its verb root is spirare which means “to breathe literally”.
THEORIES ON THE ORIGIN OF RELIGION
Animistic Theories - Edward Burnett Taylor(1832-1917 )English anthropologist
Robert Henry Codrington (1830-1922) Anglican priest and anthropologist
Nature Worship Theory
Theory of Original Monotheism - Wilhelm Schmidt (1868-1954) Austrian anthropologist and ethnologist
Magic Theory - James George Frazer (1854-1941), Scottish social anthropologist
Wish Fulfilment Theory - Ludwig Andreas von Feuerbach (1804-1872), German philosopher and anthropologist
Karl Heinrich Marx (1818-1883), German philosopher and sociologist
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), Austrian neurologist and founder father of psychoanalysis
THE PATRIARCH ABRAHAM
Abraham, a patriarch and prophet, was crucial to the the founding of the three monotheistic religions, specifically Judaism, Abrahamic
faiths are the collective name for Christianity, Islam, and related organized religions. Through his progeny Isaac and Jacob, the Jewish
people view Abraham as the ancestor of the Israelites. Ishmael, according to Muslims, is regarded as the ancestor of the Arab people. As
described in the Bible, Abraham is regarded by Christians as their "father in faith" and the progenitor of Jesus Christ. The Hebrews of
antiquity referred to their God as Elohim, Adonai, or Yahweh. While Muslims refer to their God as Allah, modern Judaism utilizes the
terms "Lord" and "God." Prophets and apostles also play important roles in various religions. There are 48 prophets and 7 prophetesses in
Judaism. In Christianity, the 12 apostles were the primary disciples of Jesus Christ, some of whom wrote parts of the New Testament. For
the Muslims, they believe that Muhammad is the final prophet or the “Seal of the Prophets.”
THE INDIAN MOSAIC
Religion is an essential part of the Indian tradition. Four great religions originated in India – Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism –
and a myriad of minor cults and local sects. Hinduism perfectly reflects Indian heterogeneity with its eclectic, diversified, and assorted
ways of religious expressions that are quite confusing to outsiders. It has no specific founder, no one sacred book, and with innumerable
gods and goddesses that any Hindu can venerate. As such, Hinduism can be considered as a ‘museum of religions’ (Israel and Grewal
1989). Through Siddharta Gautama, Buddhism was established. Through his meditations, he was able to identify ways on how to avoid
human suffering.
THE WAY OF THE DAO
Chinese culture is among the oldest in the world, having existed for nearly the year 4,000. The Chinese have already advanced civilization
even in ancient times. aimed to create and achieve good governance (Perry 1988). China accepted the ethics and ideals of Kung Fu-Tzu
(Confucius) when the country established meritocracy as the foundation for public servants. The greatest philosopher and teacher in
China, Confucius, was alive at the same time as Siddhartha Gautama in India (Perry 1988). The birth and personal history of Laozi (Lao-
tzu), who is thought to have penned the Dao De Jing (also known as the Tao Te Ching or The Book of the Way and its Power) about the
sixth century B.C.E., remain a mystery. On the other hand, Shintoism is a loosely organized local belief of Japan, somewhat an ardent
religious form of Japanese patriotism (Hopfe 1893). Its mythology highlights the superiority of Japan over other lands. Shrines celebrate
great heroes and important events in Japan’s history. The term ‘Shinto’ was coined around the sixteenth century C.E. to distinguish native
belief. The term actually originated from the Chinese words shen and tao roughly translated as the ‘way of the gods’.
The Western Frontier
The topography of West Asia is characterized by vast areas of mountainous terrains. Mountains play significant roles in many religious
beliefs as these landforms provide ideal settings where gods live or where gods and mortals meet.
The Indian Subcontinent NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF RELIGION

More than 4000 years ago, a civilization emerged along the Indus River that developed a unique and exceptional culture long before the 1. Religion Affirms Social Hierarchy
dawn of the Christian era.
2. Religion Causes Discrimination
The Eastern End
3. Religion Triggers Conflicts and Fights
Chinese culture practically influenced all other countries at its outskirts, including Japan and Korea. The location of China proper in the
valleys of two great bodies of water, the Huang He and Yangtze, is quite favorable because of the support these streams provide to the 4. Religion As An Economic Tool for Exploiting the Masses
Chinese people that made historic China the center of culture. Three of great religions emerged in China namely: Confucianism, Daoism,
and Shintoism. 5. Religion Impedes Scientific Success and Development

The Cultural Milieu 6. Religion Obstructs the Use of Reason

World religions can be regarded along the lines of their exclusivity or non-exclusivity. Exclusive religions are oftentimes monotheistic with HISTORICAL EVENTS CAUSED BY RELIGION
Judaism, Christianity, and Islam as examples.
1. SELF-IMMOLATION OF A BUDDHIST MONK IN VIETNAM - Self-immolation, or the killing of oneself as a form of sacrifice,
On Monotheism and Universality
originally referred to as the act of setting oneself on fire.
Monotheism or the belief in one God is an ancient idea that predated the establishment of Abrahamic religions. It characterizes the
traditions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, and elements of the belief are discernible in numerous other religions. Judaism and Islam 2. WIDOW BURNING AMONG THE HINDUS IN INDIA - Sati, or the practice of self-immolation of a widow on her husband’s
affirm the presence of one god, while Christianity acknowledges one God in three persons: the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. The
funeral pyre, is said to have originated 700 years ago in India.
principles of the Muslim faith are reflected in the “Five Pillars of Islam”.

3. THE INQUISITION - Inquisition refers to the Roman Catholic Church groups charged with subduing heresy from around 1184, which
On the Concept of Dharma
includes the Episcopal Inquisition (11841230s) and the Papal Inquisition (1230s).
Dharmic religions are the religions that originated in the Indian subcontinent: namely Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism. Dharmic
4. THE GODHRA TRAIN INCIDENT IN 2002 - In February 2002, a train was set on fire in which 59 people, including 25 women and 15
religions do not compel their adherents to profess their devotion to be a believer or a practitioner.
children, were killed.
On Nature and Ancestors
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF JUDAISM
Chinese religions give emphasis to moral order, people’s significant roles to play in the society, and gives emphasis on family relations
The oldest monotheistic religion is Judaism, which dates back to 1500 BCE. The origins of Jewish tradition can be found in the patriarch
which is being practiced in Confucianism as well as having harmonious relationship between humankind and nature in which Daoism
Abraham and his offspring Isaac and Jacob. Judaism is thought to have been established together with the Mt. Sinai covenant between
teaches. On the other hand, Shintoism is closely linked to nature and natural forces.
God and the Israelites. The first five books of the Hebrew Bible, or Pentateuch, describe the beginning of Judaism and the history of the
POSITIVE EFFECTS OF RELIGION Jewish people. Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob are the three patriarchs, or founding members, of Judaism as a religion and society.

1. Promotes Social Harmony The First Five Book of the Old Testament also known as the Pentateuch

2. Provides Moral Values According to tradition, Abraham’s original name was “Abram” who was born in the city of Ur of the Chaldeas around 1800 B.C.E. While
Abram and his wife Sarai were initially childless, Abram bore a son to Sarai’s Egyptian handmaid Hagar. He was named Ishmael who is
3. Religion Provides Social Change considered as the ancestor of the Arabs. However, Ishmael was not the heir to God’s promise. God changed Sarai’s name to “Sarah,”
meaning “princess” or “noblewoman.” Later in life, the old Abram and Sarah had a son named Isaac, the heir to God’s covenant and the
4. Religion Reduces Fear of the Unknown ancestor of the Jewish people. Abram’s name was changed to “Abraham” or the “the father of many nations.

5. Religion Gives Positive Goals in Life The baby Moses was found by the pharaoh’s daughter Bithia at the Nile river

6. Religion Gives People a Sense of Belonging Moses fled to Sinai upon killing an Egyptian. On Mount Horeb, Abraham’s God revealed himself to Moses as he spoke through a burning
bush that was not consumed. Revealing God’s name as “Yahweh,” he commanded Moses to return to Egypt and demand the release of
Israelites from slavery. While the firstborn sons of every Egyptian household would die, sons of Israelites would be saved if they marked
their door posts with the blood of lamb killed in sacrifice. In that fated night, the lamb must be cooked and eaten with bitter herbs and
unleavened bread. This is known as the Passover, an important Jewish festival.
The Israelites were banished from Egypt with Moses leading them across the Red Sea (Yam Suph or “Sea of Reeds” in some accounts). This
event called Exodus became part of Jewish history that manifested Yahweh’s intervention to deliver his chosen people (Hopfe 1983).
BELIEFS AND DOCTRINES IN JUDAISM
SACRED SCRIPTURES
The sacred text of the Hebrews is called the Tanakh (Written Torah), a collection of 24 books which is divided into 3 parts: The Torah
(Teaching) which contains the early history of Judaism and is composed of the first five books called the Pentateuch (Genesis, Exodus,
Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy). Nev’im (Prophets) wherein prophets served as spokespersons who criticize the hypocritical
practices of Jewish rituals. And the last one, Ketuvim (writings) that contains works on poetry, temple ritual, private prayer, and
philosophical explorations.
BELIEFS AND DOCTRINES
Jews believe that there is only one god who created everything and that God can communicate to the human beings through revelation
while as for the humans, they can communicate to Him through prayers and meditation. Jews also have their creeds as well as set of rules
to follow. God appeared to Moses in Mt. Sinai, introduced Himself as Yahweh and gave the commandments to Moses. These are set of
absolute law which shall govern every Israelite.
WORSHIP AND OBSERVANCES
The Jewish people consider Sabbath as their most important day. They end their Sabbath through a ceremony called Havdalah which
means “separation”. The Jewish community observed to commemorate important Jewish events and other special days. These include
Yom Kippur (Day Of Atonement) which is considered as the most sacred and solemn day in the Jewish calendar that brings the period of
repentance to its conclusion.
SUBDIVISIONS AND RELATED ISSUES IN JUDAISM
1. Orthodox Judaism
2. Reform Judaism, also known as Liberal or Progressive Judaism
3. Conservative Judaism
RELATED ISSUES
Women in Judaism - Women in Judaism were given privileges but are the same time they experience discrimination.
Jewish Diaspora and Zionist Movement - Zionism is a movement of the Jewish people that espouses the re-establishment of and support
for a Jewish state in the territory defined as the historic Land of Israel.
Holocaust - A lot of Jews were killed and was considered as one of the major events of World War II during the reign of Adolf Hitler.
Anti-Semitism - It is one of the causes that lead to the event of holocaust. Anti- Semitism pertains to the discrimination of the Jewish
people.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF CHRISTIANITY
Christianity developed in Judea, the mountainous southern part of Palestine around 100 C.E. During that time, Judaism was the dominant
religion in Palestine and it was considered by the Jews as land promised to them by God. However, historical development in the region
showed successive powers that dominated Mesopotamia and the nearby territories, including Palestine which was considered to have a
desirable location. When Jesus was born in Bethlehem in one of the places in Palestine, Rome ruled over Palestine in 63 BC. The Messiah
as the liberator from the evil hands of Rome and the beginning of the new religion simply proved to be the fulfillment of what the people
expected. The death of Christ on the cross believed to be the fulfillment of the prophecy as the savior of humanity from the bondage of
sins and the cross became the symbol of Christianity.
SYMBOLS
The most common symbols associated with Christianity are the cross and the fish symbol. The cross symbolizes how Jesus suffered on the
mount of Calvary for the sake of humanity. It showed Jesus Christs’ victory over sins and reminds us God’s eternal love for us. On the
other hand, the fish symbol was used by the Christians in meeting other Christians. It also has the secret meaning ichtys: Iseous Christos
Theou Yios Soter, meaning Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior.
BELIEFS AND DOCTRINES OF CHRISTIANITY
Christianity’s central and major beliefs and doctrines are professed in the Apostles’ Creed and the Nicene Creed. These creeds are
declarations of faith outlined in several statements or confessions of faith rooted in the teachings of the Scriptures.
The Seven Sacraments and the Eight Beatitudes
For the Catholic church, they have seven sacred in which they consider as signs of inner kindness of God to the humanity. Every Catholics
observed these sacraments as part of their lives. These includes Baptism, Confirmation, Holy Communion, Confession, Matrimony, Holy
Orders, and the Anointing of the Sick. On the other hand, the eights beatitudes as mentioned in the book of Matthew 5-7, these sayings
guide the morality and the way of life of every individual. Jesus teaches the people in way that they can easily understand as these are
called the “Sermon on the Mount”.
Worship and Observances
Christians also celebrate religious observances to commemorate the important events all throughout the history of Christianity. These
includes the three most important events that every Christian observes namely: A) Lent, which refers to the season observed by Christians
in preparation for Easter, a celebration of the resurrection of Christ. This provides opportunity for each Christian to commemorate the
sufferings of Christ for the sake of humanity and how He rose from the dead to give hope for everyone, B) Advent,which refers to the
season of waiting for the birth of the Messiah, hence its celebration lasts for four weeks, beginning four Sundays before Christmas and
ending on Christmas eve, and C) Pentecost, which is celebrated as a holiday to commemorate the coming of the Holy Spirit to the early
Christians.
The Three Major Branches of Christianity
1. Roman Catholicism - Major Doctrines and Beliefs of Roman Catholicism
2. Eastern Orthodox – The word orthodox comes from two Greek words: orthe, which means correct or right, and doxa, which mean
opinion.
3. PROTESTANTISM – emerged in the reformation Period in the 16th century, it was begun by the theologian and Catholic priest Martin
Luther.
MAJOR ISSUES IN CHRISTIANITY - Shahada – declaration of faith (“there is no God but Allah; Muhammad is the messenger of Allah”)

1. Ecumenism and Interreligious Dialogue – it is a practice of promoting better understanding, and cooperation among different Christian
denominations to achieve oneness and harmonious relationships.
2. The sacredness of life, contraception – The belief in the sanctity of life is a major doctrine that defines the stand of Christianity
regarding contraception.
3. Homosexuality, Same sex Marriage – Due to belief that sex is a procreative union between man and wife, homosexuality is considered
a violation of natural and moral laws.
- Salah –(pray) Muslims must offer a prayer five times a day. (dawn, midday, late afternoon, sunset, and nightfall.)
- Zakat –(charity) an annual wealth tax that serves as just and lawful claim of the poor against the affluent ones. The word zakat
means “purification” and “growth.
- Sawm (fasting). This practice involve fasting and self-control during the holy month of Ramadan.
- Hajj – (pilgrimage). It is a pilgrimage Mecca which must be performed by Muslims at least once in their lifetime.

4. The role of Women in the Church - The issue of ordaining women continues to be a topic of discussion and debate within the Catholic
and Orthodox Churches.
5. Capital punishment or death penalty – an act wherein a person is punished by death for his or her capital crime goes against the
Christian belief that life is given by God and should not be taken away by any person.
Historical Background of Islam
Islam began with the Arabian desert people around early seventh century C.E. These people had developed their own set of beliefs prior
to the establishment of Islam and had been influences by other religions for a long period of time, including Byzantine Christianity,
Judaism, and Zoroastrianism. The symbols which represent the Islamic religion are the star and the crescent.
4. Islamic Ethics - it is centered on following the commandments of the Quran and observing Sharia law.
Subdivisions and Related Issues on Islam
1. SUNNI MUSLIMS (The Sunnis) - They believe that any Muslim can be a ruler and he does not need to prove his lineage to Muhammad
as long as he gets the approval and confidence of the “ummah” or community.
2. SHI’A ( The Shi’ites) - The Shi’ite Muslim are the largest faction within the Islam religion that separated from the rest of the community.
3. SUFI - Muslims whose concern mainly dwell for a mystical union with God are collectively called Sufis. They insist that it is possible to
have union with God through mystical experience.

The Spread of Islam MAJOR ISSUES CONFRONTING ISLAM

After Muhammad death, the leadership of the Islamic community was passed on the rightly guided caliphs, who were the first four 1. Gender Equality
successors of the prophet. Their rule was considered a period of growth, expansion, and prosperity for Islam.
2. The Holy War (Jihad)-
*Abu Bakr – He was the first caliph. During his time, the Quran were put into writing. (before, Quran was passed on by word of mouth.)
3. Militancy and Terrorism
*Umar – second caliph – He expand Islam outside of the Arabian peninsula, and controlled territories in the Levant and West Asia.
4. Migration
*Uthman – third caliph. He expanded Islam influence into Libya, Armenia, Cyprus, and Afghanistan.

There have been struggle for leadership between two prominent Islamic leaders:

-Ali ibn Abi Talib – Muhammad’s cousin, first male converted to Islam who became the leader of Shia Islam.

-Muawiyyah – Uthman’s cousin, member of influencial Umayyad family, the leader of Sunni Islam.

Beliefs and Doctrines of Islam

1. Belief in One God – Allah - Islam is a monotheistic religion. Muslims believe that Allah is the one supreme God and has no partners or
equals.

2.Sacred texts: The Holy Quran and hadith - Muslims recognize the Quran which literally means “recitation or reading” as the word of
God revealed to the Prophet Muhammad.

3.The Five Pillars of Islam - These refers to the five duties that every Muslim must perform which is also known as arkan al-din.