Civil engineering 1

Civil engineering
Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the
design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built
environment, including works like roads, bridges, canals, dams, and buildings.[1]
Civil engineering is the oldest engineering discipline after military engineering,
and it was defined to distinguish non-military engineering from military
engineering. It is traditionally broken into several sub-disciplines including
environmental engineering, geotechnical engineering, geophysics, geodesy,
control engineering, structural engineering, transportation engineering, earth
science, atmospheric sciences, forensic engineering, municipal or urban
engineering, water resources engineering, materials engineering, offshore
engineering, quantity surveying, coastal engineering, surveying, and construction
engineering. Civil engineering takes place on all levels: in the public sector from
municipal through to national governments, and in the private sector from
Design of complex structures like the
individual homeowners through to international companies.
International Space Station
necessitates an in-depth
understanding of structural analysis

History of the civil engineering profession

Engineering has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human existence.
The earliest practice of civil engineering may have commenced between 4000
and 2000 BC in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia (Ancient Iraq) when humans
started to abandon a nomadic existence, creating a need for the construction of
shelter. During this time, transportation became increasingly important leading to
the development of the wheel and sailing.

Until modern times there was no clear distinction between civil engineering and
architecture, and the term engineer and architect were mainly geographical
variations referring to the same person, often used interchangeably.[2] The
construction of Pyramids in Egypt (circa 2700–2500 BC) might be considered
the first instances of large structure constructions. Other ancient historic civil Leonhard Euler developed the theory
engineering constructions include the Qanat water management system (the of buckling of columns
oldest older than 3000 years and longer than 71 km,[3]) the Parthenon by Iktinos
in Ancient Greece (447–438 BC), the Appian Way by Roman engineers (c. 312 BC), the Great Wall of China by
General Meng T'ien under orders from Ch'in Emperor Shih Huang Ti (c. 220 BC) and the stupas constructed in
ancient Sri Lanka like the Jetavanaramaya and the extensive irrigation works in Anuradhapura. The Romans
developed civil structures throughout their empire, including especially aqueducts, insulae, harbors, bridges, dams
and roads.

In the 18th century, the term civil engineering was coined to incorporate all things civilian as opposed to military
engineering. The first self-proclaimed civil engineer was John Smeaton who constructed the Eddystone Lighthouse.
In 1771 Smeaton and some of his colleagues formed the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers, a group of leaders
of the profession who met informally over dinner. Though there was evidence of some technical meetings, it was
little more than a social society.
Civil engineering 2

In 1818 the Institution of Civil Engineers was founded in London, and in 1820 the eminent engineer Thomas Telford
became its first president. The institution received a Royal Charter in 1828, formally recognising civil engineering as
a profession. Its charter defined civil engineering as:
the art of directing the great sources of power in nature for the use and convenience of man, as the
means of production and of traffic in states, both for external and internal trade, as applied in the
construction of roads, bridges, aqueducts, canals, river navigation and docks for internal intercourse and
exchange, and in the construction of ports, harbours, moles, breakwaters and lighthouses, and in the art
of navigation by artificial power for the purposes of commerce, and in the construction and application
of machinery, and in the drainage of cities and towns.
The first private college to teach Civil Engineering in the United States was Norwich University founded in 1819 by
Captain Alden Partridge.[4] The first degree in Civil Engineering in the United States was awarded by Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute in 1835.[5] The first such degree to be awarded to a woman was granted by Cornell University
to Nora Stanton Blatch in 1905.

History of civil engineering

Civil engineering is the application of physical and scientific
principles for solving the problems of society, and its history is
intricately linked to advances in understanding of physics and
mathematics throughout history. Because civil engineering is a
wide ranging profession, including several separate specialized
sub-disciplines, its history is linked to knowledge of structures,
materials science, geography, geology, soils, hydrology,
environment, mechanics and other fields.

Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design

and construction was carried out by artisans, such as stonemasons The Archimedes screw was operated by hand and
could raise water efficiently.
and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Knowledge
was retained in guilds and seldom supplanted by advances.
Structures, roads and infrastructure that existed were repetitive,
and increases in scale were incremental.

One of the earliest examples of a scientific approach to physical

and mathematical problems applicable to civil engineering is the
work of Archimedes in the 3rd century BC, including Archimedes
Principle, which underpins our understanding of buoyancy, and
practical solutions such as Archimedes' screw. Brahmagupta, an
Indian mathematician, used arithmetic in the 7th century AD,
based on Hindu-Arabic numerals, for excavation (volume)
Pont du Gard, France, a Roman aqueduct built
computations.[6] circa 19 BC.

The civil engineer

Education and licensure

Civil engineers typically possess an academic degree with a major in civil engineering. The length of study for such
a degree is usually three to five years and the completed degree is usually designated as a Bachelor of Engineering,
though some universities designate the degree as a Bachelor of Science. The degree generally includes units covering
Civil engineering 3

physics, mathematics, project management, design and specific topics in civil engineering. Initially such topics cover
most, if not all, of the sub-disciplines of civil engineering. Students then choose to specialize in one or more
sub-disciplines towards the end of the degree.[7] While an Undergraduate (BEng/BSc) Degree will normally provide
successful students with industry accredited qualification, some universities offer postgraduate engineering awards
(MEng/MSc) which allow students to further specialize in their particular area of interest within engineering.
In most countries, a Bachelor's degree in engineering represents the first step towards professional certification and
the degree program itself is certified by a professional body. After completing a certified degree program the
engineer must satisfy a range of requirements (including work experience and exam requirements) before being
certified. Once certified, the engineer is designated the title of Professional Engineer (in the United States, Canada
and South Africa), Chartered Engineer (in most Commonwealth countries), Chartered Professional Engineer (in
Australia and New Zealand), or European Engineer (in much of the European Union). There are international
engineering agreements between relevant professional bodies which are designed to allow engineers to practice
across international borders.
The advantages of certification vary depending upon location. For example, in the United States and Canada "only a
licensed professional engineer may prepare, sign and seal, and submit engineering plans and drawings to a public
authority for approval, or seal engineering work for public and private clients.". This requirement is enforced by state
and provincial legislation such as Quebec's Engineers Act. In other countries such as the UK no such legislation
exists. In Australia, state licensing of engineers is limited to the state of Queensland. Practically all certifying bodies
maintain a code of ethics that they expect all members to abide by or risk expulsion. In this way, these organizations
play an important role in maintaining ethical standards for the profession. Even in jurisdictions where certification
has little or no legal bearing on work, engineers are subject to contract law. In cases where an engineer's work fails
he or she may be subject to the tort of negligence and, in extreme cases, criminal charges. An engineer's work must
also comply with numerous other rules and regulations such as building codes and legislation pertaining to
environmental law.

Sub-disciplines
In general, civil engineering is concerned with the overall interface of
human created fixed projects with the greater world. General civil
engineers work closely with surveyors and specialized civil engineers
to fit and serve fixed projects within their given site, community and
terrain by designing grading, drainage, pavement, water supply, sewer
service, electric and communications supply, and land divisions.
General engineers spend much of their time visiting project sites,
developing community consensus, and preparing construction plans.
General civil engineering is also referred to as site engineering, a The Falkirk Wheel in Scotland.
branch of civil engineering that primarily focuses on converting a tract
of land from one usage to another. Civil engineers typically apply the principles of geotechnical engineering,
structural engineering, environmental engineering, transportation engineering and construction engineering to
residential, commercial, industrial and public works projects of all sizes and levels of construction.
Civil engineering 4

Materials science and engineering

One of the major aspects of Civil engineering is materials science. Material engineering deals with ceramics such as
concrete, mix asphalt concrete, strong metals such as aluminum and steel, and polymers such as
polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) and carbon fibers.
Materials engineering also consists of protection and prevention like
paints and finishes. Alloying is another aspect of materials engineering,
combining two types of metals to produce a stronger metal. It
incorporates elements of applied physics and chemistry. With
significant media attention focused on nanoscience and
nanotechnology in recent years, materials science has been propelled to
the forefront at many universities. It is also an important part of
Construction in progress in Sète, France
forensic engineering and failure analysis. Materials science also deals
with fundamental properties and characteristics of materials.

Coastal engineering
Coastal engineering is concerned with managing coastal areas. In some jurisdictions the terms sea defense and
coastal protection are used to mean, respectively, defense against flooding and erosion. The term coastal defense is
the more traditional term, but coastal management has become more popular as the field has expanded to include
techniques that allow erosion to claim land.

Construction engineering
Construction engineering involves planning and execution of the designs from transportation, site development,
hydraulic, environmental, structural and geotechnical engineers. As construction firms tend to have higher business
risk than other types of civil engineering firms, many construction engineers tend to take on a role that is more
business-like in nature: drafting and reviewing contracts, evaluating logistical operations, and closely monitoring
prices of necessary supplies.

Earthquake engineering
Earthquake engineering covers ability of various structures to
withstand hazardous earthquake exposures at the sites of their
particular location.
Earthquake engineering is a sub discipline of the broader category of
Structural engineering. The main objectives of earthquake engineering
are:[9]
• Understand interaction of structures with the shaky ground.
• Foresee the consequences of possible earthquakes.
• Design, construct and maintain structures to perform at earthquake
exposure up to the expectations and in compliance with building
codes.
Snapshot from shake-table video [8] of testing
base-isolated (right) and regular (left) building
model

Environmental engineering
Civil engineering 5

Environmental engineering deals with the treatment of chemical, biological, and/or thermal waste, the purification of
water and air, and the remediation of contaminated sites, due to prior waste disposal or accidental contamination.
Among the topics covered by environmental engineering are pollutant transport, water purification, waste water
treatment, air pollution, solid waste treatment and hazardous waste management. Environmental engineers can be
involved with pollution reduction, green engineering, and industrial ecology. Environmental engineering also deals
with the gathering of information on the environmental consequences of proposed actions and the assessment of
effects of proposed actions for the purpose of assisting society and policy makers in the decision making process.
Environmental engineering is the contemporary term for sanitary engineering, though sanitary engineering
traditionally had not included much of the hazardous waste management and environmental remediation work
covered by the term environmental engineering. Some other terms in use are public health engineering and
environmental health engineering.

Geotechnical engineering
Geotechnical engineering is an area of civil engineering concerned with the rock and soil that support civil
engineering systems. Knowledge from the fields of geology, material science and testing, mechanics, and hydraulics
are applied by geotechnical engineers to safely and economically design foundations, retaining walls, and similar
structures. Environmental concerns in relation to groundwater and waste disposal have spawned a new area of study
called geoenvironmental engineering where biology and chemistry are important.[10][11]
Some of the unique difficulties of geotechnical engineering are the result of the variability and properties of soil.
Boundary conditions are often well defined in other branches of civil engineering, but with soil, clearly defining
these conditions can be impossible. The material properties and behavior of soil are also difficult to predict due to
the variability of soil and limited investigation. This contrasts with the relatively well defined material properties of
steel and concrete used in other areas of civil engineering. Soil mechanics, which describes the behavior of soil, is
also complicated because soils exhibit nonlinear (stress-dependent) strength, stiffness, and dilatancy (volume change
associated with application of shear stress).

Water resources engineering

Water resources engineering is concerned with the collection and
management of water (as a natural resource). As a discipline it
therefore combines hydrology, environmental science, meteorology,
geology, conservation, and resource management. This area of civil
engineering relates to the prediction and management of both the
quality and the quantity of water in both underground (aquifers) and
above ground (lakes, rivers, and streams) resources. Water resource
engineers analyze and model very small to very large areas of the earth
to predict the amount and content of water as it flows into, through, or
Hoover dam
out of a facility. Although the actual design of the facility may be left
to other engineers.

Hydraulic engineering is concerned with the flow and conveyance of fluids, principally water. This area of civil
engineering is intimately related to the design of pipelines, water supply network, drainage facilities (including
bridges, dams, channels, culverts, levees, storm sewers), and canals. Hydraulic engineers design these facilities using
the concepts of fluid pressure, fluid statics, fluid dynamics, and hydraulics, among others.
Civil engineering 6

Structural engineering
Structural engineering is concerned with the structural design and structural analysis of buildings, bridges, towers,
flyovers (overpasses), tunnels, off shore structures like oil and gas fields in the sea, aerostructure and other
structures. This involves identifying the loads which act upon a structure and the forces and stresses which arise
within that structure due to those loads, and then designing the structure to successfully support and resist those
loads. The loads can be self weight of the structures, other dead load, live loads, moving (wheel) load, wind load,
earthquake load, load from temperature change etc. The structural engineer must design structures to be safe for their
users and to successfully fulfill the function they are designed for (to be serviceable). Due to the nature of some
loading conditions, sub-disciplines within structural engineering have emerged, including wind engineering and
earthquake engineering.[12]
Design considerations will include strength, stiffness, and stability of the structure when subjected to loads which
may be static, such as furniture or self-weight, or dynamic, such as wind, seismic, crowd or vehicle loads, or
transitory, such as temporary construction loads or impact. Other considerations include cost, constructability, safety,
aesthetics and sustainability.

Surveying
Surveying is the process by which a surveyor measures certain dimensions that generally occur on the surface of the
Earth. Surveying equipment, such as levels and theodolites, are used for accurate measurement of angular deviation,
horizontal, vertical and slope distances. With computerisation, electronic distance measurement (EDM), total
stations, GPS surveying and laser scanning have supplemented (and to a large extent supplanted) the traditional
optical instruments. This information is crucial to convert the data into a graphical representation of the Earth's
surface, in the form of a map. This information is then used by civil engineers, contractors and even realtors to
design from, build on, and trade, respectively. Elements of a building or structure must be correctly sized and
positioned in relation to each other and to site boundaries and adjacent structures. Although surveying is a distinct
profession with separate qualifications and licensing arrangements, civil engineers are trained in the basics of
surveying and mapping, as well as geographic information systems. Surveyors may also lay out the routes of
railways, tramway tracks, highways, roads, pipelines and streets as well as position other infrastructures, such as
harbors, before construction.
Land surveying
In the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom and most Commonwealth countries land surveying is considered
to be a distinct profession. Land surveyors are not considered to be engineers, and have their own professional
associations and licencing requirements. The services of a licenced land surveyor are generally required for boundary
surveys (to establish the boundaries of a parcel using its legal description) and subdivision plans (a plot or map based
on a survey of a parcel of land, with boundary lines drawn inside the larger parcel to indicate the creation of new
boundary lines and roads), both of which are generally referred to as cadastral surveying.
Construction surveying
Construction surveying is generally performed by specialised technicians. Unlike land surveyors, the resulting plan
does not have legal status. Construction surveyors perform the following tasks:
• Survey existing conditions of the future work site, including topography, existing buildings and infrastructure,
and even including underground infrastructure whenever possible;
• Construction surveying (otherwise "lay-out" or "setting-out"): to stake out reference points and markers that will
guide the construction of new structures such as roads or buildings for subsequent construction;
• Verify the location of structures during construction;
• As-Built surveying: a survey conducted at the end of the construction project to verify that the work authorized
was completed to the specifications set on plans.
Civil engineering 7

Transportation engineering
Transportation engineering is concerned with moving people and goods efficiently, safely, and in a manner
conducive to a vibrant community. This involves specifying, designing, constructing, and maintaining transportation
infrastructure which includes streets, canals, highways, rail systems, airports, ports, and mass transit. It includes
areas such as transportation design, transportation planning, traffic engineering, some aspects of urban engineering,
queueing theory, pavement engineering, Intelligent Transportation System (ITS), and infrastructure management.

Municipal or urban engineering

Municipal engineering is concerned with municipal infrastructure. This involves specifying, designing, constructing,
and maintaining streets, sidewalks, water supply networks, sewers, street lighting, municipal solid waste
management and disposal, storage depots for various bulk materials used for maintenance and public works (salt,
sand, etc.), public parks and bicycle paths. In the case of underground utility networks, it may also include the civil
portion (conduits and access chambers) of the local distribution networks of electrical and telecommunications
services. It can also include the optimizing of waste collection and bus service networks. Some of these disciplines
overlap with other civil engineering specialties, however municipal engineering focuses on the coordination of these
infrastructure networks and services, as they are often built simultaneously, and managed by the same municipal
authority.

Forensic engineering
Forensic engineering is the investigation of materials, products,
structures or components that fail or do not operate or function as
intended, causing personal injury or damage to property. The
consequences of failure are dealt with by the law of product
liability. The field also deals with retracing processes and
procedures leading to accidents in operation of vehicles or
machinery. The subject is applied most commonly in civil law
cases, although it may be of use in criminal law cases. Generally
the purpose of a Forensic engineering investigation is to locate
Failed fuel pipe at right from a road traffic accident
cause or causes of failure with a view to improve performance or
life of a component, or to assist a court in determining the facts of
an accident. It can also involve investigation of intellectual property claims, especially patents.

Control engineering
Control engineering or control systems engineering is the branch of
Civil Engineering discipline that applies control theory to design
systems with desired behaviors. The practice uses sensors to measure
the output performance of the device being controlled (often a vehicle)
and those measurements can be used to give feedback to the input
actuators that can make corrections toward desired performance. When
a device is designed to perform without the need of human inputs for
correction it is called automatic control (such as cruise control for
regulating a car's speed). Multi-disciplinary in nature, control systems
engineering activities focus on implementation of control systems
Control systems play a critical role in space flight
mainly derived by mathematical modeling of systems of a diverse
range.
Civil engineering 8

References
[1] The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. (http:/ / dictionary. reference.
com/ browse/ civil engineering) (accessed: 2007-08-08).
[2] The Architecture of the Italian Renaissance (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=VQYeHMGp2gwC& q=The+ Architecture+ of+ the+
Italian+ Renaissance& dq=The+ Architecture+ of+ the+ Italian+ Renaissance& pgis=1) Jacob Burckhardt ISBN 0-8052-1082-2
[3] p. 4 of
[4] "Norwich University Legacy Website" (http:/ / www. norwich. edu/ about/ legacy. html)
[5] Griggs, Francis E Jr. "Amos Eaton was Right!". Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering Education and Practice, Vol. 123, No. 1,
January 1997, pp. 30–34. See also RPI Timeline (http:/ / www. lib. rpi. edu/ Archives/ timeline/ all_time/ index. html)
[6] Henry Thomas Colebrook, Algebra: with Arithmetic and mensuration (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=A3cAAAAAMAAJ&
printsec=frontcover& dq=brahmagupta) (London 1817)
[7] Various undergraduate degree requirements at MIT (http:/ / cee. mit. edu/ index. pl?id=10951& isa=Category& op=show), Cal Poly (http:/ /
ceenve. calpoly. edu/ media/ files/ cecurriculum0709. pdf), Queen's (http:/ / www. civil. queensu. ca/ undergraduate/ documents/
newcivlengprogrm2007-08. doc) and Portsmouth (http:/ / www. port. ac. uk/ courses/ coursetypes/ undergraduate/
BEngHonsCivilEngineering/ whatwillistudy/ )
[8] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=kzVvd4Dk6sw& locale=en_US& persist_locale=1
[9] Chen W-F, Scawthorn C. Earthquake Engineering Handbook, CRC Press, 2003, ISBN 0-8493-0068-1, Chapter 2
[10] Mitchell, James Kenneth (1993), Fundamentals of Soil Behavior (2nd ed.), John Wiley and Sons, pp 1–2
[11] Shroff, Arvind V.; Shah, Dhananjay L. (2003), Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Taylor & Francis, 2003, pp 1–2
[12] Narayanan, R, A Beeby. Introduction to Design for Civil Engineers. London: Spon, 2003.

External links

Library resources
About Civil engineering

• Resources in your library (http://tools.wmflabs.org/ftl/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Civil+engineering)

• Resources in other libraries (http://tools.wmflabs.org/ftl/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Civil+engineering&library=0CHOOSE0)

• Planete TP – The World of Public Works (http://www.planete-tp.com/en/)

• The Institution of Civil Engineering Surveyors (http://www.ices.org.uk)
Article Sources and Contributors 9

Article Sources and Contributors

Civil engineering  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=581960999  Contributors: 13ronis13, 192.11.222.xxx, 200.68.172.xxx, 5ptcalvinist, AMstir, Aamrun, Abhijitveer, Abmac,
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:ISS and Endeavour seen from the Soyuz TMA-20 spacecraft 27.jpg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ISS_and_Endeavour_seen_from_the_Soyuz_TMA-20_spacecraft_27.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASA/Paolo Nespoli
File:Leonhard Euler 2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Leonhard_Euler_2.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Funck77, Haham hanuka, Herbythyme,
Plindenbaum, Rd232, Serge Lachinov, Shakko, Soerfm, 7 anonymous edits
File:Archimedes-screw one-screw-threads with-ball 3D-view animated small.gif  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Archimedes-screw_one-screw-threads_with-ball_3D-view_animated_small.gif  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5
 Contributors: Silberwolf (size changed by: Jahobr)
File:Pont du gard.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pont_du_gard.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Bernard bill5, ClemRutter, Cyr,
Hazhk, 2 anonymous edits
File:FalkirkWheelSide 2004 SeanMcClean.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FalkirkWheelSide_2004_SeanMcClean.jpg  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: Sean Mack
File:Construction in Sète, Hérault 01.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Construction_in_Sète,_Hérault_01.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: User:Christian Ferrer
File:Snapshot of base isolation effect.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Snapshot_of_base_isolation_effect.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: Original uploader was Shustov at en.wikipedia
File:Hoover dam from air.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hoover_dam_from_air.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: snakefisch, editor
File:Plate7new.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Plate7new.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Peterlewis
File:Space Shuttle Columbia launching.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Space_Shuttle_Columbia_launching.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASA

License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0
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