Physics Class – XI

Laws of Motion
 Laws of Motion

Inertia : It is the inherent property of body by virtue of which a body can not change its state of rest or of
uniform motion on its own. Mass is the measure of inertia of a body. Greater the mass of a body, greater is its
inertia.
Force: A force is an effort in the form of push or pull that ;
(1) stops or tries to stop a moving body
(2) moves or tries to move a body at rest
(3) changes or tries to change the direction of motion
Newton's First Law of Motion (Law of Inertia) : It states that every body continues in its state of rest or of
uniform motion in a straight line unless it is compelled by some external force to change that state.
Examples of Law of Inertia
(1) When a train suddenly starts, the passengers standing in the compartment tend to fall backward. It is
because the lower part of the body of the passenger (in contact with the train), comes in motion but the
upper part tends to be at rest due to inertia. Consequently, the passengers tend to fall backward.
(2) When we beat a carpet with a stick, the carpet is suddenly set into motion but the dust particles tend to
remain at rest due to inertia. Therefore, dust particles get removed from the carpet.
(3) A ball thrown upward in a train moving with constant velocity returns to the thrower. It is because when
the ball is thrown, it posses the horizontal velocity (same as of the train), which remains the same
throughout the entire journey of the ball. Therefore, relative velocity between train and ball is zero
during the motion of the ball. As a result, the ball comes back to the hands of the thrower.
(4) An athlete runs some distance before executing a jump. It is because by running some distance, velocity
acquired due to inertia is added to the velocity of the athlete at the time of the jump. Consequently, the
athlete jumps through a longer distance,
Linear Momentum : It is the total motion possessed by body. Whenever we examine a moving object, we
must consider both its mass and velocity because the quantity of motion possessed by the body depends upon
these factors. The linear momentum of a body with mass ‘m’ travelling with velocity v is defined as the
product of the mass and velocity i.e.

Linear momentum, p =m v
Linear momentum is a vector quantity. The direction of momentum is same as the direction of velocity.
Newton's Second Law of Motion : It states that the rate of change of momentum of a body with time is
directly proportional to the net external force applied on it and the change takes place in the direction of
force.
dp dp
Force F or Fk
dt dt
where k is a constant of proportionality. By experiment, k = 1.
d p d ( m v)
i.e. F 
dt dt
In the majority of real situations, the mass of an object does not change.
dv dv
so Fm  ma Because  a (acceleration produced in the body.)
dt dt
Magnitude of force, F=ma
Unit of Force : SI unit of force is kg m/s2 called as Newton.
CGS unit of force is dyne and 1 Newton = 105 dynes
Other unit is Kgf (called kilogram force) 1 Kgf = 9.8 Newton
Impulse : Forces exerted for a short time interval are called impulsive forces and their total effect on body is
called Impulse. Impulse of the force is given by the product of force with time interval.
Impulse I  F  t
Impulse is a vector quantity with direction same as of force.

p
From Newton’s second law F or F  t   p
t
i.e change in momentum is the measure of Impulse.
t2

In case of time varying force 

Impulse I  Fdt
t1

Examples of Impulse
(1) While catching a ball, a cricket player moves his hand backward after making contact with the ball. This
extends the time of impact and thus reduces the force of impact.
(2) A person is better off falling on sand than a concrete floor. The sand allows for a longer time of impact
and, therefore, a lesser force of impact than a concrete floor.
(3) China-wares are wrapped in a paper before packing to avoid breakage. This increases the time of impact
between various articles during jerks, thereby decreasing the force of impact on the articles.
Newton's Third Law of Motion : To every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction; action and
reaction forces act on different bodies. This means that if an object A exerts a force F on object B, then object
B exerts a force – F on object A.
Examples of Newton's Third Law
(1) When a person walks on the ground, he/she exerts a force on the ground and in turn ground exerts an
equal force on the person. It is this force on the person which moves him/her forward.
(2) When a person throws a package out of the boat, the boat moves (at least a little) in the opposite
direction. The person exerts a force on the package; the package exerts an equal and opposite force back
on the person.
(3) The working of rockets is based on Newton's third law. The rocket exerts a strong force on the gases,
expelling them. The gases exert an equal and opposite force on the rocket and it is this force which
moves the rocket forward.
(4) Using Newton's third law, we can explain how a helicopter gets its lifting force. The whirling blades of
helicopter are so shaped that they exert a downward force on air. The air exerts an equal upward force on
the helicopter. This upward reaction force is called lift. When lift equals the weight of the helicopter, it
hovers in mid-air. When the lift is greater, the helicopter climbs upward.
Different forces used in Mechanics
(1) Weight : Weight of the body is gravitational force exerted by ground on the body. It is always equal to
‘mg’ and act vertically downward.
(2) Normal Reaction : It is a contact force between two surfaces. The normal reaction is always normal to
surface in contact.
(3) Tension in String : It is the force developed in taut string. Tension in string is same throughout the
string if string is massless. Direction of tension is inward the string (opposite to applied force).
Equilibrium : When the vector sum of all the forces acting on a body is zero, the body is said to be in linear
equilibrium. In the state of linear equilibrium, the body will have zero acceleration. This means that either the
body is at rest or it is moving with a constant velocity.
If the body is at rest, it is said to be in static equilibrium. If the body is in
motion with constant velocity, it is said to be in dynamic equilibrium.
Consider a body shown in fig. The body shall be in equilibrium if

F1  F2  N  W  0
Using vector method for horizontal forces F1  F2  0 or F1 – F2 = 0

and for vertical forces NW0 or N–W=0

Equilibrium of Concurrent Forces : When a number of forces act at the same point, they are called
concurrent forces. A number of concurrent forces are said to be in equilibrium if their vector sum is zero.
A body may have linear motion as well as rotational motion under the action of forces acting on it. If the
vector sum of the forces is zero, the body will have no linear motion but it may have rotational motion.
However, if the vector sum of concurrent forces is zero, the body will have neither linear motion nor
rotational motion.
Lammi's Theorem : When three concurrent forces as shown in fig. are in
equilibrium, then according to Lami's theorem,
P Q R
 
sin  sin  sin 
Solving Problems in Mechanics
(a) Isolate the body whose motion is to be analysed. Show the various forces that act
on the body. Do not include forces that do not act directly on the body you have isolated. Such a
diagram is called a free-body diagram or force diagram. A diagram showing all the forces acting on a
given body (and only at that body) is called a free-body diagram.
(b) If necessary, resolve the forces in the free-body diagram into rectangular components along expected
direction of acceleration and normal to that.
(c) Write F = ma equations for the forces for all free body diagrams. Here F is the sum of all forces along
direction of acceleration. Take all force +ive in direction of acceleration and – ive opposite to
acceleration. Do not consider any force normal to acceleration.
(d) Solve the equations for the unknown.
Conservation of Momentum : In an isolated system (i.e. no external force acts on a system), the total
momentum of the system remains constant. For example, when two objects collide, their individual
momentum may change but the total momentum of the system will be constant. From Newton’s second law
dp
F
dt

If F  0 ; dp  0 or p = constant
Examples of Conservation of Momentum
(1) Recoil of a gun : When a gun is fired, the bullet moves with a large velocity and the gun moves with a
small velocity in a direction opposite to that of the bullet. The gun and the bullet constitute an isolated
system. Therefore, the momentum of the system should remain constant. Before firing both the gun and
bullet are at rest and, therefore, the total momentum is zero. Just after firing, the momentum of the system
(gun and bullet) should also be zero.
When the bullet is fired, the gun is always held close to the shoulder; otherwise the shoulder may get hurt due
to the recoil velocity of the gun. If the gun is held close to the shoulder, the total mass that recoils is equal to
the sum of the masses of the man and the gun. Consequently, the recoil velocity is very much decreased and
the man's shoulder will not get hurt.
(2) When a man jumps from a boat, the boat slightly moves away from the shore. Initially the total
momentum of the boat and the man is zero. To conserve momentum, the momentum of the boat should be
equal and opposite to that of the man. This is possible only if the boat moves in the opposite direction.
(3) Rocket Propulsion : The motion of a rocket is based on the principle of conservation of momentum. The
rocket and fuel form an isolated system. Therefore, the total momentum of the system remains constant.
Before the rocket is fired, the total momentum of the system is zero because the rocket is at rest. Therefore,
the total momentum of the rocket and exhaust gases should remain zero after firing of the rocket. When the
rocket is fired, fuel is burnt and very hot gases arc formed. As the hot gases gain momentum to the rear on
leaving the rocket, the rocket acquires equal momentum in the forward (.i.e., opposite) direction because
momentum is conserved.
Apparent Weight of a Man in Lift : Suppose the mass of the man is ‘m’. Actual weight ‘mg’ acts on the
man in the vertically downward direction. The man exerts a force vertically downward on the floor, which
we call weight W of the man. According to Newton's third law, the floor exerts an equal force ‘R’ on the man
in the upward direction. Therefore R = W. Note that only two forces are acting on the man (1) ‘mg’ acting
vertically downward and (2) ‘R’ acting vertically upward.
(1) When the lift is at rest or moving with uniform velocity [Fig (i)] : The acceleration is zero so that net
force on the man in lift is zero. i.e. R – mg = 0 or R=mg
But R = W, the weight of the man. W = m g (equal to actual weight)

(2) When the lift is moving upward with an acceleration ‘a’ [Fig (ii)] : The net force is acting in the upward
direction. Therefore, R – mg provides the upward acceleration to the man.
i.e. R – mg = ma or R = m (g + a)
But R = W, the weight of the man. W = m (g + a) [greater than actual weight]
(3) When the lift is moving downward with an acceleration a [Fig. (iii)] : The net force is acting downward.
Therefore, mg – R provides the downward acceleration to man.
i.e. mg – R = ma or R = m (g – a)
But R = W, the weight of the man. W = m (g – a) [less than actual weight]
Note : If the downward acceleration of lift becomes g (condition for free fall), the apparent weight of man
would become zero. W = m (g – a) = m (g – g) = 0
Frames of Reference : Our description of motion is always in terms of motion with respect to some
particular reference frame. For example, we usually describe the motion of objects with respect to the surface
of the earth. Therefore, our frame of reference is always earth's surface unless stated otherwise.
Inertial Frames of Reference: An inertial frame of reference is a reference frame in which the law of inertia
(Newton's first law) holds. In other words, in an inertial reference frame, an object at rest will remain at rest
if no net force acts on it.
In fact a non accelerated frame of reference (i.e at rest or moving with constant velocity) is called inertial
frame of reference. For many practical purposes, earth's surface is considered as an inertial frame of
reference, even though the earth is not truly an inertial reference frame due to its rotation.
Non – Inertial Frames of Reference : A frame of reference having accelerated motion is called non -
inertial frame of reference i.e., Newton's first law is not obeyed in such a reference frame. For example a
suitcase lying on the floor of a bus moves backward, when bus start moving although no force act on bus.
Friction
When a solid object moves over the surface of another solid object, its motion is always opposed by a
retarding force. This force is called friction. Thus friction is the force directed opposite to the direction of
relative motion or attempted motion. The frictional force is always parallel to the surfaces in contact.
Static Friction : It is friction acting on the body when body is at rest. Static friction is self adjustable and its
maximum value is called limiting friction i.e static friction can have any value between zero to limiting
friction, depending on the net force applied on body.
Sliding (or Kinetic) Friction : It is the friction acting on the body when body is sliding over a surface.
Between two given surface it is always constant and lesser than limiting friction.
Laws of Friction : Static friction as well as kinetic friction is a complicated phenomenon. Many aspects of
friction even today are not completely understood. However, experiments show that to a good
approximation, the force of friction obeys the following laws:
(a) The frictional force (static as well as kinetic) depends upon the nature of the two surfaces in contact
and their state of roughness.
(b) The frictional force (static as well as kinetic) always acts parallel to the surfaces in contact and its
direction is opposite to motion or attempted motion.
(c) The frictional force (static as well as kinetic) is independent of the area of contact of the two
surfaces.
(d) The magnitude of frictional force (kinetic and static) is directly proportional to the normal reaction
(R) between the two surfaces in contact.
(e) The kinetic friction is independent of the speed of one surface relative to the other surface.
Magnitude of Limiting Friction
Experiments show that the magnitude of limiting friction is directly
proportional to the normal reaction between the surfaces. Consider a
block of mass m lying on a horizontal surface as shown in Fig.
In the fig. ‘R’ is the normal reaction exerted by the surface on the
block. Clearly, R = m g. If FC is the limiting friction (i.e. maximum
static friction) exerted by the surface on the block, then,
FC  R or FC = sR
where s is a constant of proportionality and is called coefficient of static friction. Its value depends upon the
nature and condition of the surfaces in contact.
Magnitude of Kinetic Friction
Like static friction, the magnitude of kinetic friction is directly proportional to the normal reaction between
the surfaces.
If R is the normal reaction and Fk is the kinetic friction exerted by the surface on the block, then,
Fk  R or Fk = kR
where k is a constant of proportionality and is called coefficient of kinetic friction. Its value depends upon
the nature and condition of the surfaces in contact. To a good approximation, value of Fk (or k) is
independent of relative speed between the surfaces and their area of contact.
Self Adjusting Nature of Static Friction : Consider a block of mass ‘m’ placed on a horizontal surface as
shown in Fig, The block pushes down on the supporting surface with a force equal to the block's weight (= m
g). The supporting surface pushes back with an equal and opposite force R and so R = mg. R is called the
normal reaction. Let limiting friction (FC) between the surface and block is 6N and kinetic friction is 5N.
(a) When no horizontal force is applied to the block, the frictional force exerted by the surface on the block
is zero [Fig. (i)]. This is because the block is at rest and according to Newton's first law, the net force on
it must be zero.
(b) If we apply a small horizontal force of 1 N, the block does not move [Fig. (ii)]. Clearly, according to
Newton's second law, there must be another force that is equal and opposite to the applied force so that
the net force is zero and the block remains at rest. This force is the frictional force fs, exerted on the
block by the surface, This frictional force is called static friction because the block remains at rest or
static even though we have applied force.
(c) In Fig, (iii), we have increased the horizontal applied force to 3N and still the block is at rest. It means
that the static friction is now increased to 3N (i.e. fs = 3N). As we gradually increase the applied force, a
point is eventually reached [Fig. (iv)] at which the block is about to slide. In other words, there is a
certain maximum value that static friction can have. It is called limiting friction (F C). In our example. FC
= 6 N. The maximum force of static friction which comes into play before a body just starts to slide is
called limiting friction.
(d) As soon as sliding begins, it is found that frictional force decreases. This new frictional force is called
sliding or kinetic friction. It is denoted by Fk. Therefore, the sliding or kinetic friction is always less than
the limiting friction. Thus in our example, Fk = 5N and FC = 6N.
The block begins to slide when applied force equals or exceeds FC (limiting friction). We see that both
limiting friction and kinetic friction are important. The limiting friction must be overcome to start the object
moving and then a smaller frictional force Fk opposes the motion. Note that once the limiting friction is
overcome, the subsequent motion is determined by the applied (F) force and the force of kinetic friction (F k).
Once the body begins sliding, if applied force F = Fk, the body moves with a constant. If F > Fk, then body
moves with an acceleration according to Newton's second law of motion.
Cause of Friction : The physical cause of friction is the irregularity of the
contacting surfaces. When two surfaces are put together, the area of contact
is very much less than the area of surfaces as shown in Fig. The pressures at
the contact points are very high and the molecules are pushed into such close
proximity that the attractive forces between them weld the surfaces together
at contact points. In other words, the contact points become "cold-welded"
together. These tiny welds have to be broken before one surface can move
over the other. Therefore, no matter in which direction the motion occurs, there is a force which opposes it.
This explains why force of friction always acts in a direction opposite to motion.
Angle of Friction : The angle which the resultant of the limiting friction
and the normal reaction makes with the normal reaction is called the
angle of friction. In the fig. angle  is the angle of friction.
FC
From fig. tan  
R
but FC = R
i.e. tan   
Angle of Repose : It is the angle given to rough incline at which a body placed on it is about to slide. The
angle of friction and angle of repose are equal to each other.
Dynamics of Circular Motion
Centripetal Force : It is a necessary force required for motion of body along circular path.
This force provides necessary centripetal acceleration to move a body on circular path. Its
direction is along centripetal acceleration i.e. always towards the centre of the circle.
Magnitude of the centripetal force is F = mass x centripetal acceleration
mv 2
or F
r
Since v = r ω, we also have F = mrω2
Bending of Cyclist : In order to take a safe turn a cyclist bend little from its vertical
position as shown in fig. Suppose the rider leans through an angle θ from the vertical
then the component of reaction ‘R’
R cos  balances weight of cyclist while
R sin  provides necessary centripetal force for turning.
i.e R sin   mv2/r ………..(1)
and R cos  = mg ………..(2)
Dividing eq (1) by eq. (2)
v2
tan   or v  rg tan 
rg
i.e maximum speed with which a cyclist can take turn at angle ‘’ is given by
v  rg tan 
Turning of vehicle on level curved road : During turning of vehicle on level curved road,
the friction between road and tyres provide necessary centripetal force as shown in fig.
From fig . friction force f = f1 + f2 =  (R1 + R2)
since (R1 + R2) = R so f = R = mg
2
Now f  mv /r or mg  mv2/r
or v  rg
i.e maximum speed with which a vehicle can take turn on a level road is given by
v  rg
Banking of roads and railway tracks at the turns: Friction between tyres of vehicle and road changes with
weather (during rain friction decreases). That is why the friction is not a reliable source for required
centripetal force on turns. In order to provide a reliable source for centripetal force the roads and railway
tracks are banked.
On a banked road outer side of curved road is made little elevated such that road is slightly
inclined with horizontal as shown in fig. By doing so, the car, or the train leans inward
while taking turn and the necessary centripetal force is provided. This force is produced by
the normal reaction of the earth, or the rail.
As shown in fig. when the car leans, the total normal reaction R of the road exerted on the
wheels makes angle θ with the vertical.
The vertical component R cos θ balances the weight mg of the car,
while the horizontal component R sin θ provides the necessary centripetal force.
i.e R sin   mv2/r ………..(1)
and R cos  = mg ………..(2)
Dividing eq (1) by eq. (2)
v2
tan   or v  rg tan 
rg

i.e maximum speed with which a vehicle can take turn at a banked road is given by v  rg tan 
The flying aeroplane leans to one side while taking a turn in the horizontal plane. In this situation the
vertical component of the force acting on the wings of the aeroplane balances its weight and the horizontal
component provides the necessary centripetal force.
Motion in a Vertical Circle : Let a body is being rotated in a vertical circle of radius
r. When the body is at a position P as shown in fig, then it is acted upon by two forces
: (i) the weight mg of the body and (ii) the tension T in the string.
Their resultant provides the required centripetal force to the body. Thus, if v is the
velocity of the body at the point P, then
mv 2
T  mg cos  
r
 mv 2
1. Tension in string: At any position  as shown in fig. T   mg cos  , which will be maximum at
r
lowest point (A) and minimum at highest point (B).
mv 2
T  mg cos 
r
Let velocity of body at lowest point (A) is vL and at highest point (B) is vH.
Since for position A  = 0
mv 2L
So tension in string at lowest point TL   mg
r

similarly for position B  = 180

mv 2H
so tension in string at highest point TH   mg
r
2. Velocity of Object:
(a) Due to change in heights during motion, there is a conversion of potential energy into kinetic energy
and vice-versa. As a result of this, the velocity of the object at the lowest point A and highest point
B will be different. According to conservation of energy:
1 1
mv 2L  mv 2H  mg(2r ) and v 2L  v 2H  2g(2r )
2 2
(b) The condition for the object to complete the circular path in the vertical plane is that the tension in
the string at the highest point should be greater than or at the most zero, i.e.,
Mv 2B
TB  0 or  Mg or v B  gr
r
i.e. to complete the circle the minimum velocity at highest point should be  gr

(c) Since v 2L  v 2H  2g(2r ) so minimum velocity at lowest point should be  5gr

From above it is clear that
If v L  5gr , the object will complete the circle.

If 2gr  v L  5gr , the object will fall down anywhere between B and C.

If 2gr  v L , the object will oscillate in lower half portion of circle.

Centrifugal Force : (A Pseudo Force) There are certain situations in which we feel that a body is acted
upon by a force, but actually there is no force on the body. Such an apparent force is called a 'pseudo force'.
Consider a body of mass ‘m’ is tied to the nail by a string on a smooth circular table which is rotating with a
uniform angular velocity around. Suppose the length of string is r and the linear velocity of the table at the
body is v.
A man standing on earth and looking at the rotating table will see the body rotating around the nail and find
on it a centripetal force mv2/r. This force is provided by the tension in the string and is real force acting on
the body.

To another man, however, who is standing on the table, the body appears at rest because its position is not
changing with respect to the man (Fig.). Thus, from the point of view of this man, there should be no force
acting on the body. But actually the body is acted upon by an inward force mv2/r. Hence according to the
man standing on the moving table, a force of magnitude mv 2/r is also acting outward so that the net force on
the body is zero. This apparent outward force is called 'centrifugal force'.