A PROJECT REPORT ON

THERMAL POWER PLANT

Submitted by
P SIVA SURYA
AMIE SECTION-B
MEMBER SHIP NO ST 616048-5
Under the esteemed guidance of
Mr. SATYA S PRASAD RAJU K. M.Tech.

M-152863-l(EL)

In partial Fulfillment for the requirement of passing Section B Examination of

AMIE
In
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

THE INSTITUTION OF ENGINEERS (INDIA)

AN ISO 9001:2008 CERTIFIED ORGANISATION
(ESATABLISHED 1920, INCORPORATED BY ROYAL CHARTER 1935)
8 GOKHALE ROAD, KOLKATA 700020
 The Institution of Engineers
(India) 8 Gokhale Road, Kolkata
700 020

Department of

ELECTRICAL ENEGINEERING

Certificate
This is to certify that the project titled "THERMAL POWER PLANT "being submitted by
MR PERISETTI SIVA SURYA, Member Ship No: ST 616048-5 in partial fulfillment of
the award degree of AMIE in Electrical Engineering. The bona fide work is carried out by
him under my guidance and supervision.

The results embodied in this project have not been submitted to any other University
or Institute for the award of any Degree

Project Guide Signature

Mr. Satya S Prasad Raju KM.Tech.

Membership No: M-152863-l(EL)
BHIMAVARAM, WEST GODAVARI-534207

Mobile: 9963875367.
 DECLARATION

I Mr. P. SIVA SURYA Member Ship No: ST 616048-5

Do here by declare that the project work, titled "THERMAL POWER PLANT" is an original
work and Prepared as per the guidelines of The Institution of Engineers (India). This project work
has not been submitted earlier to any other Institution/ University for the fulfillment of the
requirement of any course or study to the best of knowledge.

Project Guide Signature Student Signature

Mr. Satya S Prasad Raju K M.Tech Mr. P. SIVA SURYA

Membership No: M-152863-l(EL} Membership No: ST 616048-5

BHIMAVARAM, WEST GODAVARl-534207

Mobile:9963875367
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I take this opportunity to thank my guide Mr. Satya S Prasad Raju K (Membership No.: M-
152863-1 EL), for having given me the privilege of preparing the project report under his
esteemed guidance and valuable suggestions for carrying out this project work. He has
extended his constant help, encouragement and continuous cooperation throughout the
project work.

I take this opportunity to convey my sincere thanks to my parents, office colleagues,

friends and all the staff members of IE (India) who have directly and indirectly contributed
for the successful completion of my project.

P. SIVA SURYA
Member Ship No: ST 616048-5
ABSTRACT
 _SYNOPSIS APPROVAL

-+ Tittle of the Project

-+ Aim of the study
-+ Purpose of the study

-+ Methodology used for carrying out the study

-+ The expected contribution from the study
-+ List of activities to be carried

-+ Tools required
-+ Problems encounter in this project time

Prepared By
Approved By
Mr. Udaykiran
Mr. Satya S Prasad Raju K
ST 715691-5
M-152863-1 (EL)
Tittle of the Project:

COMPARATIVE PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF BOOST CONVERTER AND

LUO CONVERTER FOR SOLAR ELECTRIC VEHICLE CHARGING SYSTEM.

Aim of the study:

The main Objective of this Project is to gives the Performance results of Boost
converter and LUO converter in MATLAB Simulink.

Purpose of the study:

For saving the electricity, We used the Solar energy at home to charge the electric
vehicles with efficient converters to give the best desirable results.

Methodology used for carrying out the study:

The study of project started from the collecting and reading the research papers from the
Research gate, IEEE, YouTube videos for Simulations and online journals.

The expected contribution from the study:

To use the modified LUO converter instead of the basic buck, boost converters and also
utilize the solar energy which is came from PV array, in efficient manner is the main
contribution from the study.

List of activities to be carried:

1. Regular Interaction with Guide for project discussion.

2. Study of Research Papers.

3. Design calculations and simulations in Simulink.

4. Report preparation.

5. Daily review the Project report with guide and modifications.

Tools required: The main tool required for this project is MATLAB Simulink.

Problems encounter in this project time:

While simulating the Both Boost and LUO converter in Closed loop it takes lots

of time for tuning the PI controller.

 INDEX

CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO

CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Overview 3

1.2 Literature survey 4

1.3 Objectives of the project 6

1.4 Thesis Outline and structure 6

1.5 Conclusion 6

CHAPTER-2 ELECTRIC VEHICLE CHARGING SYSTEM

2.1 Introduction of electric vehicle and Solar PV array 7

2.2 Types of electric vehicles 8

2.3 Components of electric vehicle and charging system 11

2.4 Significance of battery in electric vehicle 12

2.5 Types of battery 13

2.5.1 Primary batteries 13

2.5.2 Secondary batteries 13

2.6 Different parameters of battery charging in electric vehicle 17

2.7 Use of converters in electric vehicle 20

2.8 Conclusion 20

CHAPTER-3 THE BOOST CONVERTER AND LUO CONVERTER 21

3.1 Introduction of DC-DC Converters 21

3.2 Types of DC-DC Converters 22

3.3 Applications of DC-DC Converters 24

3.4 Principle of Operation of Boost converter 24

3.5 Principle of Operation of LUO converter 28

3.6 Design of Boost Converter 30

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3.7 Design of LUO Converter 32

3.8 Design of Boost converter and LUO converters example 33

3.9 Conclusion 35

CHAPTER-4 CONTROL SYSTEM

4.1 Introduction 36

4.2 P, I and D controllers 38

4.3 PI Controller 41

4.4 PID controller tunning methods 42

4.5 Conclusion 44

CHAPTER-5 MATLAB SIMULATION

5.1 Introduction 45

5.2 Voltage gain comparison of LUO and Boost converter 46

5.3 MATLAB simulation of Boost converter in Open loop 47

5.4 MATLAB simulation of Boost Converter in Closed loop 50

5.5 MATLAB simulation of LUO Converter in Open loop 53

5.6 MATLAB simulation of LUO Converter in Closed loop 57

5.7 Conclusion 60

FINAL RESULT 61

CONCLUSION 61

FUTURE SCOPE 61

REFERENCES 62

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1.1 Overview: CHAPTER-I
INTRODUCTION

Due to the world's shortage of fossil fuels and the serious

environmental pollution from burning them, seeking alternative energy has become a
crucial topic of research. Transportation is one of the main consumers of energy and
contributors to air pollution and greenhouse gases. In order to reduce these problems
Innovators introduced the Electric vehicles in transportation. Electric Vehicles as a
replacement of traditional internal combustion engine vehicles, provide an
environmental-friendly solutions to modern cities. The invention of the first model
electric vehicle is attributed to various people. In 1828 Anyos Jedlik invented an
electric motor and using his motor, he created the small electric car. In between 1832
and 1839 Scottish inventor Robert Anderson also developed a crude electric carriage.
Later William Morrison from Des Moines creates the first successful electric vehicle
in the U.S. It sparks an interest in electric vehicles.

In 21st century electric vehicles have revealed great

interest from public the government and the academy. The electric vehicles sales are
increased from 19th to 21st century due to the increase of petroleum products cost. As of now
6.75 million electric vehicles were sold around the globe. In other way to reduce the
pollution and greenhouse effect world is moving to electric vehicles. The latest report by
Bloom berg New energy Finance shows that by 2040, 58% of electric vehicles are on the
road in future. Electric vehicles are plugged into a source of electric power to recharge,
here electric power source is the charging station. The electric vehicles charging stations
are increasing along with electric vehicles, which lead to the consumption of electricity.

So, we need to generate more power, but the most of this

power generated from non-renewable energy source like coal, gas, nuclear, oil etc.
Again, pollution and greenhouse gases are corning into picture. In order to reduce these
problems renewable sources are available in nature like solar, wind, hydro etc. One of

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huge amount of free energy is Solar energy. This solar energy is generating the
electricity by using solar photo voltaic arrays. But the energy generated by the solar PV

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 array is very low in order that we can use the Power converter to get required voltages.

Fig: 1.1 Electric Vehicles Sales Graph

In this project we selected the solar based electric vehicle charging system by
using the Boost converter and LUO converter. The solar PV array generate the low
voltage from solar energy, this low voltage is given to the converter to get the higher
voltage in order to charge the electric vehicle batteries. Here we analyze the
performance of both Boost converter and LUO converter used in solar electric vehicle
charging station in terms of output voltage, output current, voltage stress on switches,
ripple voltage and current of capacitor and inductor. The performance of both converter
is compared in open loop and closed loop by using PI controller.
1.2 Literature Survey:
Thought of this research is taken from the
International Journal of Engineering and Advanced Technology (IJEAT). This Article is

submitted to IJEAT by R. Saradha Devi, P. Mrudhulaa, K. Priyadharshini, R. Seyezhai, Mrudula

st
vempati on O1 October 2018 (Article submission volume-8 Issue-1). This report mainly
describes the Photovoltaic energy generation by uing DC-DC converters like Boost converter,
LUO converter, LUO-buck converter. The solar photovoltaic cell generates a 0.6V. To get the
minimum required voltage we integrate the solar PV cells in series. Here article is giving the
Performance of three converters. But we selected the Boost converter and LUO converter for
electric vehicle charging from solar PV array. In article Author proposed to use the LUO-buck
converter over boost and LUO converter. But we proposed to use Boost converter and LUO
converter in solar electric vehicle charging station.

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 The comparative performance analysis of Boost
converter and LUO converter Article submitted by Baria Himmatbhi Balvantbhi,
Prof.Suryaparaksh Singh to (IJREST) International Journal of Advance Research in
engineering science & Technology (e-ISSN: 2393-9877, p-ISSN:2394-2444) on 2016.

This article proposes the advance of DC - DC converters by LUO converter and its
advantages over the conventional Boost converter based on high transfer voltage gain,
less ripple current, high quality of power and efficiency.

And another paper we referred is comparative analysis of

positive output super lift DC-DC LUO converter which was submitted by Richa Adlakha, Anita
Khosla, Dheeraj Joshi to Indonesian Journal of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
(ISSN: 2502-4752, DOI: 10.11591/ijeecs. v18.i2.pp707-716) on 2nd May 2020. This paper
describes the conventional converter is affected by parasitic elements and their voltage gain is
also limited to improve upon this, Super lift LUO converter were developed by LUO. In LUO
converters voltage lift technique increase the voltage in geometric progression. These super lift
converters are classified into positive output and negative output and their performance in
analyzed by using PI controller.

For Conceptual understanding we referred the below figures from above articles.

Fig: 1.2 Circuit Diagram of Conventional Boost Converter

Fig: 1.3 Circuit Diagram of Positive output super

lift LUO Converter

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1.3 Objectives of the project:

The aim for designing a controller for the LUO converter is to ensure the stability of system
and minimize the transients. The main objectives of the project are

• To design and implement the LUO converter and Boost converter.

• To control the both input and output current ripples in the converters.
• To design open loop control and closed loop control with PI controller for converters.
• Reducing the steady state error
• To prove the efficiency of the LUO converter is high and high voltage gain.

1.4 Thesis Outline and structure:

The organization of this thesis is arranged mainly in to five chapters:

Chapter 1: The first chapter gives the overview, literature survey, objectives of the project and
organization of the thesis.
Chapter 2: In this chapter we discuss about the electric vehicle charging system and
Introduction of solar PV array and types of electric vehicles available in market, types of
batteries used in electric vehicles. In addition, the general parameters of battery charging in
electric vehicles.
Chapter 3: The introduction of DC-DC converter and their applications. The design and
working operations of Boost converter and LUO converter are analyzed and assessed in
this chapter.
Chapter 4: This chapter gives the information about P, I and D controllers and types of PID
controllers and their tuning methods.
Chapter 5: The simulation analysis of both boost converter and LUO converter in open loop
and closed loop by using MATLAB Simulink.

1.5 Conclusions:
This Chapter gives the electric vehicle invention and past, present and future,
Introduction of Boost converter and LUO converter and IJEAT article, Literature Survey,
Objective and the thesis organization of the project.

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 CHAPTER-2
ELECTRIC VEHICLE CHARGING SYSTEM

2.1 Introduction of Electric vehicle and Solar PV array:

Electric vehicle:
An electric vehicle is one that operates on an electric motor, instead of an internal combustion
engine that generates power by burning a mix of fuel and gases. Therefore, such as vehicle is seen as
a possible replacement for current-generation automobile, in order to address the issue of rising
pollution, global warming, depleting natural resources, etc. Though the concept of electric vehicles
has been around for a long time, it has drawn a considerable amount of interest in the past decade
amid a rising carbon footprint and other environmental impacts of fuel-based vehicles. Electric
vehicles has their very low to zero carbon emissions, low noise, high efficiency, and flexibility in
grid operation and integration. Electric vehicle technologies as well as associated energy storage
systems and charging mechanisms gives the more advantages than fuel-based vehicles. An Electric
Car is an automobile by itself and consists of many components and a large cluster of wires
connecting them all. But there are few basic bare minimum materials for an Electric Car which is
shown in the block diagram below.

Fig: 2.1 Block Diagram of Electric Vehicle

Electric vehicles offer several advantages compared to gasoline or diesel vehicles:

1. Zero exhaust emissions-EVs do not produce any exhaust emissions during operation.

2. Reduced noise pollution-As EVs generate no propulsion noise, these vehicles are very quiet

at low speeds (usually below 30km/h).

3. Increased independence from fossil fuels-A variety of resources can produce electricity,

including renewable sources (solar, wind, geothermal heat, water).

4. Reduced greenhouse gases emissions-EVs can help mitigate the effects of climate change.
This potential is highest if the electricity comes from renewable sources.

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 Solar Photo voltaic array:
If photovoltaic solar panel are made up of individual photovoltaic cells connected together are
called the solar photovoltaic array. Also known simply as a solar array is a system made up of
group of solar panels connected together. A photovoltaic array is therefore multiple solar panels
electrically wired together to form a much larger PV installation called an array. In general, the
larger the total surface area of the array, the more solar electricity it will produce.

A complete photovoltaic system uses a photovoltaic array as the main source for the generation of
the electrical power supply. The amount of solar power produced by a single photovoltaic panel or
module is not enough for general use. In market most of the manufactures produce a standard
photovoltaic panel with an output voltage of 12V or 24V. By connecting many single PV panel in
series and parallel combinations to produce the desired power. Photovoltaic cells and panels
convert the solar energy into direct-current (DC) electricity. The connection of the solar panels in a
single photovoltaic array is same as that of the PV cells in a single panel see the below figure.

Fig: 2.2 Photovoltaic Arrays

2.2 Types of electric vehicles:

There are three main types of electric vehicles (EVs), classed by the degree that Electricity is
used as their energy source. (BEVs,) battery electric vehicles, (PHEVs) of plug-in hybrid
electric vehicles, and (HEVs), or hybrid electric vehicles. Only BEVs are capable of charging
on a level 3, DC fast charge.

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 Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV)

Fig: 2.3 Block Diagram of Battery Electric Vehicle

Battery electric vehicles, also called BEVs, and more frequently called EVs, are fully electric
vehicles with rechargeable batteries and no gasoline engine. Battery electric vehicles the electric
motor and all onboard electronics. BEVs do not emit any harmful emissions and hazards caused
by traditional gasoline-powered vehicles. BEVs are charged by electricity from an external
source. Electric Vehicle (EV) chargers are classified according to the speed with which they
recharge an EVs battery.

The classifications are Level 1, Level 2, and Level 3 or DC fast charging. Level 1 EV charging
uses a standard household (120v) outlet to plug into the electric vehicle and takes over 8 hours
to charge an EV for approximately 75-80 miles. Level one charging is typically done at home
or at your workplace. Level 1 chargers have the capability to charge most EVs on the market.

Level 2 charging requires a specialized station which provides power at 240v. Level 2
chargers are typically found at workplaces and public charging stations and will take about 4
hours to charge a battery to 75-80 miles of range.

Level 3 charging, DC fast charging, or simply fast charging is currently the fastest charging
solution in the EV market. DC fast chargers are found at dedicated EV charging stations and
charge a battery up to 90 miles range in approximately 30 minutes.

Examples of Battery electric vehicles: MG ZS, TATA Nexon, TATA Tigor, Mahindra E20
plus, Hyundai Kona, Mahindra Verito etc.

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62
 Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEV)

Fig: 2.4 Block Diagram of Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle

Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles have both engine and a motor. You can choose among the
fuels, conventional fuel (such as petrol) or alternative fuel (such as bio-diesel). It can also be
powered by a rechargeable battery pack. The battery can be charged externally. PHEVs start-up
in all-electric mode and make use of electricity until their battery pack is depleted. Once the
battery gets drained, the engine takes over, and the vehicle operates as a conventional, non-plug
in hybrid.

PHEVs can be charged by plugging into an outside electric power source, engine, or regenerative
braking. When brakes are applied, the electric motor acts as a generator, using the energy to charge
the battery. The engine's power is supplemented by the electric motor; as a result, smaller engines
can be used, increasing the car's fuel efficiency without compromising performance.

Examples of Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles: Porsche Cayenne S E-Hybrid, BMW 330e,
Porsche Panamera SE-hybrid, Chevy Volt, Chrysler Pacifica, Ford C-Max Energi, Mercedes C350e,
Mercedes S550e, Mercedes GLE550e, Mini Cooper SE Countryman, Ford Fusion Energi, Audi A3
E-Tron, BMW i8, BMW X5 xdrive40e, Fiat 500e, Hyundai Sonata, Kia Optima, Volvo XC90 TS.

Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV)

Fig: 2.4 Block Diagram of Hybrid Electric Vehicle

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HEVs are also known as series hybrid or parallel hybrid. HEVs have both engine and electric
motor. The engine gets energy from fuel, and the motor gets electricity from batteries. The
transmission is rotated simultaneously by both engine and electric motor. This then drives the
wheels. The fuel tank supplies energy to the engine like a regular car. The batteries run on an
electric motor. Both the engine and electric motor can tum the transmission at the same time.

Examples of hybrid electric vehicles: Engine, Electric motor, Battery pack with controller &
inverter, Fuel tank, Control module.

Fuel cell Electric Vehicles (FCEV)

Fig: 2.5 Block Diagram of Fuel cell Electric Vehicle

FCEVs are also known as Zero-Emission Vehicles. They employ 'fuel cell technology' to
generate the electricity required to run the vehicle. The chemical energy of the fuel is
converted directly into electric energy. The FCEV generates the electricity required to run this
vehicle on the vehicle itself.

Examples of fuel cell electric vehicles: Toyota Mirai, Riversimple Rasa, Hyundai Tucson
FCEV, Honda Clarity Fuel Cell, Hyundai Nexo.

2.3 Components of electric vehicle and charging system:

Electric vehicle are based on propulsion systems, no internal combustion engine is used. It is based
on the electric power. So the main components of electric vehicle are motor, traction battery pack,
DC-DC converter, thermal system, transmission, charge port, controller and finally charging
system, it was located outside of the electric vehicle.

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 Fig: 2.6 Overview of Electric vehicle charging system

Fig: 2.7 Overview of Solar charging system

2.4 Significance of battery in electric vehicle:

A battery is chemical device that store electrical energy in the form of chemicals and by
means of electrochemical reaction, it converts the stored chemical energy into direct current
Electric energy. The electrochemical reaction in a battery involves transfer of electrons from
one material to another (called electrodes) through an electric current.

An electric-vehicle battery (EVB) (also known as a traction battery) is a battery used to power the
electric motors of a battery electric vehicle (BEV) or hybrid electric vehicle (HEV). These batteries
are usually rechargeable (Secondary) batteries and are typically lithium -ion batteries. These
batteries are specifically designed for a high ampere -hour (or kilowatt-hour) capacity.

Electric-vehicle batteries differ from starting, lighting, and ignition (SLI) batteries as they are
designed to give power over sustained periods of time and are deep-cycle batteries. Batteries for
electric vehicles are characterized by their relatively high power-to-weight ratio, specific energy
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and energy density; smaller, lighter batteries are desirable because they reduce the weight of
the vehicle and therefore improve its performance. Compared to liquid fuels, most current
battery technologies have much lower specific energy, and this often impacts the maximum all-
electric range of the vehicles. The most common battery type in modem electric vehicles are
lithium-ion and lithium polymer, because of their high energy density compared to their
weight. Other types of rechargeable batteries used in electric vehicles include lead-acid
("flooded", deep cycle, and valve regulated lead acid), nickel-cadmium, nickel-metal hydride,
and, less commonly, zinc-air, and sodium nickel chloride ("zebra") batteries. The amount of
electricity (i.e. electric charge) stored in batteries is measured in ampere hours or in coulombs,
with the total energy often measured in kilowatt-hours.
2.5 Types of Batteries:

Basically, all the electrochemical cells and batteries are classified into two types:

• Primary (non-rechargeable)
• Secondary (rechargeable)

2.5.1 Primary batteries:

A primary battery is one of the simple and convenient sources of power for several portable
electronic and electrical devices like lights, cameras, watches, toys, radios etc. As they Cannot
be recharged electrically, they are of "use it and when discharged, discard it" type. Usually,
primary batteries are inexpensive, light weight, small and very convenient to use with
relatively no or less maintenance. Majority of the primary batteries that are used in domestic
applications are single cell type and usually come in cylindrical configuration (although, it is
very easy to produce them in different shapes and sizes).

Fig: 2.8 Non-rechargeable Batteries

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2.5.2 Secondary batteries:
A secondary battery is also called as Rechargeable Battery as they can be electrically recharged after
discharge. The chemical status of the electrochemical cells can be "recharged" to their original
status by passing a current through the cells in the opposite direction of their discharge. The
secondary batteries are essentially used as energy storage devices where they are electrically
connected to a main energy source and also charged by it and also supplying energy when
required. Examples of such applications are Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV), Uninterrupted
Power Supplies (UPS), etc.
The types of Secondary batteries used in electric vehicles are given below:
• Lead - Acid Batteries
• Nickel - Cadmium Batteries
• Nickel - Metal Hydride Batteries
• Lithium - Ion Batteries
Let us now see about these battery types individually.
Lead - Acid Batteries:

Fig: 2.9 Lead Acid Battery internal view

The lead-acid batteries are by far the most popular and most used rechargeable batteries. They
have been a successful product for more than a century. Lead-acid batteries are available in
several different configurations like small sealed cells with capacity of 1 Ah to large cells with
capacity of 12,000 Ah. The wide range of applications of lead-acid batteries are a result of its
wide voltage ranges, different shapes and sizes, low cost and relatively easy maintenance. When
compared to other secondary battery technologies, lead-acid batteries are the least expensive
option for any application and provide very good performance.

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Electrical efficiency oflead-acid batteries is between 75 to 80%. This efficiency value them
suitable for energy storage (Uninterrupted Power Supplies - UPS) and electric vehicles.

Nickel - Cadmium Batteries:

The Nickel - Cadmium Batteries or simply Ni-Cd Batteries are one of the oldest battery

Types available today along with the lead-acid batteries. They have a very long life and are

very reliable and sturdy.

Fig: 2.10 Nickel cadmium Battery internal view

As mentioned earlier, the Ni-Cd batteries use Nickel Oxyhydroxide (NiOOH)

as cathode and Cadmium metal (Cd) as anode. Typical consumer grade batteries come with an

on line voltage of 1.2V. In industrial applications, Ni-Cd are just second to lead-acid batteries

due to their low temperature performances, flat discharge voltage, long life, low maintenance

and excellent reliability. Unfortunately, there is one major characteristic of Ni-Cd batteries

called the "memory effect", which is their only disadvantage. When Ni-Cd cells are discharged

partially and then recharged, they lose their capacity progressively i.e., cycle-by-cycle.

"Conditioning" is the process where the lost capacity of the batteries can be restored. In this

process, the cells are completely discharged to zero volts and then fully recharged.

Nickel - Metal Hydride Batteries:

These are relatively new type of batteries are an extended version of Nickel - Hydrogen

Electrode Batteries, which were exclusively used in aerospace applications (satellites). The

positive electrode is the Nickel Oxyhydroxide (NiOOH) while the negative electrode of the

cell is a metal alloy, where hydrogen is stored reversibly.

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 Fig: 2.11 Nickel Metal Hybrid battery

During charge, the metal alloy absorbs the hydrogen to form metal hydride and while

discharge, the metal hydride loses hydrogen. One main advantage of Nickel-metal hydride

batteries over Ni-Cd batteries its higher specific energy and energy density. Sealed Nickel

metal hydride batteries are available commercially as small cylindrical cells and are used in

portable electronics.

Lithium - Ion Batteries:

Fig: 2.12 Lithium Ion Battery

The emergence of lithium-ion batteries in the last couple of decades has been quite

phenomenal. More than 50% of the consumer market has adopted the use of lithium-ion

batteries. Particularly, laptops, mobile phones, cameras, etc. are the largest applications of

lithium-ion batteries. Lithium-ion batteries have significantly high energy density, high specific

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 energy and longer cycle life. Other main advantages oflithium-ion batteries are slow self

discharge rate and wide range of operating temperatures.

2.6 Different parameters of battery in electric vehicle charging system:

In electric vehicle charging we need to consider the battery basic parameters to know the

battery condition and their characteristic.

• Cells, modules, packs: Hybrid and electric vehicles have a high voltage battery pack that

consists of individual modules and cells organized in series and parallel. A cell is the

smallest, packaged form a battery can take and is generally on the order of one to six volts.

A module consists of several cells generally connected in either series or parallel. A battery

pack is then assembled by connecting modules together, again either in series or parallel.

• C- and E- rates: In describing batteries, discharge current is often expressed as a C-

rate in order to normalize against battery capacity, which is often very different

between batteries. A C-rate is a measure of the rate at which a battery is discharged relative

to its maximum capacity. A 1C rate means that the discharge current will discharge the entire

battery in 1 hour. For a battery with a capacity of 100 Amp-hrs, this equates to a discharge

current of 100 Amps. A SC rate for this battery would be 500 Amps, and a C/2 rate would be 50

Amps. Similarly, an E-rate describes the discharge power. A IE rate is the discharge

power to discharge the entire battery in 1 hour.

• State of charge (SOC)(%): An expression of the present battery capacity as a percentage

of maximum capacity. SOC is generally calculated using current integration to determine the

change in battery capacity over time.

•Depth of Discharge charge (DOD)(%): The percentage of battery capacity that has been

discharged expressed as a percentage of maximum capacity. A discharge to at least 80 %

DOD is referred to as a deep discharge.

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• Terminal Voltage (V): The voltage between the battery terminals with load applied.

Terminal voltage varies with SOC and discharge/charge current.

• Open Circuit Voltage (V): The voltage between the battery terminals with no load applied.

The open-circuit voltage depends on the battery state of charge, increasing with state of charge.

• Internal Resistance: - The resistance within the battery, generally different for charging and

discharging, also dependent on the battery state of charge. As internal resistance increases,

the battery efficiency decreases, and thermal stability is reduced as more of the charging

energy is converted into heat. Battery Technical Specifications This section explains the

specifications you may see on battery technical specification sheets used to describe battery

cells, modules, and packs.

• Nominal Voltage (V): The reported or reference voltage of the battery, also

sometimes thought of as the "normal" voltage of the battery.

• Cut-off Voltage (V) : The minimum allowable voltage. It is this voltage that

generally defines the "empty" state of the battery.

• Capacity or Nominal capacity (Ah for a specific C-rate): The coulometric capacity, the

total Amp-hours available when the battery is discharged at a certain discharge current

(specified as a C-rate) from 100 percent state-of-charge to the cut-off voltage. Capacity is

calculated by multiplying the discharge current (in Amps) by the discharge time (in hours)

and decreases with increasing C-rate.

• Energy or Nominal Energy (Wh (for a specific C-rate)) : The "energy capacity" of the

battery, the total Watt-hours available when the battery is discharged at a certain discharge

current (specified as a C-rate) from 100 percent state-of-charge to the cut-off voltage. Energy

is calculated by multiplying the discharge power (in Watts) by the discharge time (in hours).

Like capacity, energy decreases with increasing C-rate.

• Cycle Life (number for a specific DOD): The number of discharge-charge cycles

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the battery can experience before it fails to meet specific performance criteria. Cycle life

is estimated for specific charge and discharge conditions. The actual operating life of the

battery is affected by the rate and depth of cycles and by other conditions such as temperature

and humidity. The higher the DOD, the lower the cycle life.

• Specific Energy (Wh/kg) : The nominal battery energy per unit mass, sometimes

referred to as the gravimetric energy density. Specific energy is a characteristic of the

battery chemistry and packaging. Along with the energy consumption of the vehicle, it

determines the battery weight required to achieve a given electric range.

• Specific Power (W/kg) : The maximum available power per unit mass. Specific power is

a characteristic of the battery chemistry and packaging. It determines the battery weight

required to achieve a given performance target.

• Energy Density (Wh/L) : The nominal battery energy per unit volume, sometimes

referred to as the volumetric energy density. Specific energy is a characteristic of the

battery chemistry and packaging. Along with the energy consumption of the vehicle, it

determines

the battery size required to achieve a given electric range.

• Power Density (W/L) : The maximum available power per unit volume. Specific power

is a characteristic of the battery chemistry and packaging. It determines the battery size

required to achieve a given performance target.

• Maximum Continuous Discharge Current : The maximum current at which the battery

can be discharged continuously. This limit is usually defined by the battery manufacturer in

order to prevent excessive discharge rates that would damage the battery or reduce its

capacity. Along with the maximum continuous power of the motor, this defines the top

sustainable speed and acceleration of the vehicle.

• Maximum 30-sec Discharge Pulse Current : The maximum current at which the

battery can be discharged for pulses of up to 30 seconds. This limit is usually defined by

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the battery manufacturer in order to prevent excessive discharge rates that would damage

the battery or

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 reduce its capacity. Along with the peak power of the electric motor, this defines the

acceleration performance (0-60 mph time) of the vehicle.

• Charge Voltage : The voltage that the battery is charged to when charged to full capacity.

Charging schemes generally consist of a constant current charging until the battery voltage

reaching the charge voltage, then constant voltage charging, allowing the charge current to

taper until it is very small.

• Float Voltage : The voltage at which the battery is maintained after being charge to

100 percent SOC to maintain that capacity by compensating for self-discharge of the

battery.

• Charge Current: The ideal current at which the battery is initially charged (to roughly 70

percent SOC) under constant charging scheme before transitioning into constant voltage

charging.

• (Maximum) Internal Resistance : The resistance within the battery, generally different for

charging and discharging.

2.7 Use of Converters in electric vehicle:

DC-DC converters are used based on different typologies. We might be talking

about a step-up converter, which turns a low voltage input to high- voltage output, and Step -

down converter, which does the opposite.

In electric vehicle which use a DC motor, running the motor can

use up to three times the voltage provided by the battery. With the help of the right converter,

we can bridge this gap without having to possibility to a larger, prohibitively heavy battery.

2.8 Conclusion:

This chapter gives the information about the solar electric vehicles charging systems and

components used, types of batterers used in electric vehicles. In addition, Charging

parameters are also discussed.

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 CHAPTER-3
THE BOOST CONVERTER AND LUO CONVERTER

3.1 Introduction of DC-DC converters:

The DC-DC conversion technique was

introduced in the year 1920s. During that period simplest DC-DC converters was developed for

low voltage applications like potential meter, rheostat etc. Later they intend to develop the DC

DC converter with high efficiency as well as conversion of one voltage level to another voltage

level. Before the second world war basic types of DC-DC converters was fed for industrial

applications. After the world war the communication systems was enhanced to the maximum the

technology needs the low voltage de power supply for the communication applications. The

research was started for the growth of DC-DC converter and it leads to invent the chopper

circuits. Then step by step DC-DC converters were developed based on different applications.

Recent years the DC-DC converters inhabit all the field of power electronics and industrial

applications. Each year a DC-DC converter topology was developed. In the year of 2001 the

DC-DC converters have been classified into six generations, which was reported by Fang Lin

Luo. In all DC-DC converters output voltage and power transfer efficiency are limited by

parasitic elements although in theory the traditional converters can produce high voltage and

high efficiency.

A DC-DC converter is a power electronic circuit or

electro-mechanical device that converts a source of direct current (DC) from one voltage level

to another(DC-DC converters are also called as chopper). It is a type of electronic power

converter. Power levels ranges from very low to very high. The conversion methods of DC-DC

converters are electronic, linear, switched mode, magnetics, capacitive. The circuit in this

project classified as Switched mode DC-DC converters. Again the DC-DC converters are

classified based on isolation for classification details you can seen the next section. In this

chapter we discuss about the Boost converter and LUO converter.

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 3.2 Types of DC-DC converters:

The Switch mode DC-DC converters can be investigated in

two classes based on the demand for isolation. If electrical (galvanic) isolation is required due

to the safety reasons, a transformer is utilized in the DC-DC converter. The most popular DC-

DC converter topolgies belonging to both non-isolated and isolated converter classes are listed

in below Figure. Topologically, the step-down and step-up converters are the basic topolgies

and the rest can be derived from these two converters.

Fig: 3.1 Flow Chart of Types of Popular DC-DC Converters

The converters we use in the project comes under non-Isolated category. In Non-Isolated

available converters are Boost, Buck, Buck-Boost, Cuk converters and recent years our

researchers add LUO converter. Let us see the basic typologies of the non-Isolated

converters.

Boost converter: The boost converter is also called as step-up chopper. It gives the output
voltage greater than the input voltage. For Simple conventional boost converter please see

the below image.

Fig:3.2 General Configuration Boost Converter

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Buck converter: The buck converter is also called as step-down chopper. It gives the

output voltage less than the input voltage. For Simple conventional buck converter please
see the below image.

Fig: 3.3 General Configuration Buck Converter

Buck-Boost converter: The buck-boost converter gives the output voltage magnitude that

is either greater than or less than the input voltage magnitude. A typical buck-boost
converter is shown below.

Fig: 3.4 General Configuration Buck-Boost Converter

Cuk converter: A Cuk converter is a type of DC-DC converter. Its function is same as

buck-boost converter but it has advantage of low output ripples in current and
voltages.

Fig:3.5 General Configuration Cuk Converter

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In above converters the amount of power flow between input and output can be controlled

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by adjusting the duty cycle(ratio of ON/OFF time of switch). About LUO converter we
see in next section.

3.3 Applications of DC-DC converters:

• They are used as DC voltage regulators in Laptop chargers, computers, SMPS circuits,
LED Displays, Solar, wind turbines.

• DC-DC Converters are used in regenerative braking of de motors to return back into the
supply.

• DC-DC converters are used in electronic portable devices like mobile phones, to maintain
the voltage at a fixed value from the battery.

• These are also used in trolley cars, Marine hoists, Forklifts etc.

In this project we are using the LUO converter and Boost converter in solar electric charging
station. The applications of both converters are give below.

Applications of Boost converter:

1. Automotive applications.

2.Power amplifier applications.

3.Battery power system.

4.Communication applications.

Applications of LUO converter:

1. Power generation from Solar PV arrays.

2. Industrial applications.

3. Pumping system.

4. variable voltage drives.

3.4 Principle of operation of Boost converter:

The key principle that drives the boost converter is the

tendency of an inductor to resist changes in current. When being charged it acts as a load
and absorbs energy (somewhat like a resistor); when being discharged it acts as an energy
source (somewhat like a battery). The voltage it produces during the discharge phase is

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related to the rate of change of current, and not to the original charging voltage, thus
allowing different input and output voltages.

Fig: 3.6 Boost converter operation modes

The two configurations of a boost converter, depending on the state of the switch S

The basic principle of a Boost converter consists of 2 distinct states. In the On-state, the
switch S is closed, resulting in an increase in the inductor current; in the Off-state, the
switch is open and the only path offered to inductor current is through the flyback diode D,
the capacitor C and the load R. These results in transferring the energy accumulated during
the On-state into the capacitor. The input current is the same as the inductor current. So it
is not discontinuous as in the buck circuit and the requirements on the input filter are
relaxed compared to a buck converter.

Continuous mode:

Fig:3.7 Wave forms of current and voltage in a boost converter in continuous

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When a boost converter operates in continuous mode, the current through the inductor (I

L ) never falls to zero. Above fig shows the typical wave forms of currents and voltages in

a converter operating in this mode. The output voltage can be calculated as follows, in the

case of an ideal converter (i.e. using components with an ideal behavior) operating in

steady conditions. During the On-state, the switch S is closed, which makes the input

voltage (V i ) appear across the inductor, which causes a change in current (I L ) flowing

through the inductor during a time period (t) by the formula.

At the end of the On-state, the increase of I L is therefore:

D is the duty cycle. It represents the fraction of the commutation period T during which the

switch is On. Therefore, D ranges between O (S is never on) and 1 (S is always on). During

the Off-state, the switch S is open, so the inductor current flows through the load. If we

consider zero voltage drop in the diode, and a capacitor large enough for its voltage to

remain constant, the evolution of I L is:

Therefore, the variation of I L during the Off-period is:

As we consider that the converter operates in steady-state conditions, the amount of energy

stored in each of its components has to be the same at the beginning and at the end of a

commutation cycle. In particular, the energy stored in the inductor is given by:

So, the inductor current has to be the same at the start and end of the commutation cycle.

This means the overall change in the current (the sum of the changes) is zero:

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Substituting and by their expression's yields:

This can be written as:

Discontinuous mode:

Fig: 3.8 Wave forms of current and voltage in a boost converter in discontinuous

In some cases, the amount of energy required by the load is small enough to be transferred

in a time smaller than the whole commutation period. In this case, the current through the
inductor falls to zero during part of the period. The only difference in the principle
described above is that the inductor is completely discharged at the end of the commutation
cycle. Although slight, the difference has a strong effect on the output voltage equation. It
can be calculated as follows:

As the inductor current at the beginning of the cycle is zero, its maximum value

During the off-period, I L falls to zero 8

Using the two previous equations, 8 is

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3.5 Principle of operation of LUO converter:

The LUO converters are derived from the elementary circuit,

they are self-lift, re-lift, multiple lift and Super lift. In this project we are using super lift

LUO converter with positive output (1.e Positive output super lift LUO converter). The

positive output elementary super lift Luo converter is shown in below. It includes de supply

voltage Vin, capacitor Cl and C2, inductor Ll, power switch (n-channel mosfet or IGBT) S,

freewheeling diodes D1, D2 and load resistance R.

Fig:3.9 Positive Output Super Lift LUO Converter

The principle of the sliding mode controller is to make the capacitor voltages VCl and VC2

follows as faithfully as possible capacitor voltage references. It is assumed that all the

components are ideal and also the positive output elementary super lift Luo converter operates as

in a continuous conduction mode. The below figures show the modes of operation of the positive

output super lift Luo converter.

WHEN SWITCH ON WHEN SWITCH OFF

Fig:3.10 Positive Output Super Lift LUO Converter operation

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SWITCH ON (MODE 1):

When the switch turned ON, the diode D1 begins conduction

within no time and the capacitor Cl start charging and achieves a stable voltage level
equal to the source voltage Vs. The inductor current depends on the input voltage. The
capacitor C2 provides energy to the load R.

SWITCH OFF (MODE 2):

When the switch turned OFF, the diode D2 begins conduction and
the energy to the capacitor C2 and the load resistance R is supplied by the decreasing the value
of inductor current. At the end of two operations the inductor current decreases with the
voltage

During the switch off period

Therefore, the ripple of the inductor current

From the above we get:

The voltage transfer gain

Here k is the duty cycle ratio

T is the total time period

is the peak - peak inductor ripple value of inductor current

And the ripple voltage of the output is:

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 Fig: 3.11 Output Voltages of POSL LUO Converter

3.6 Design of Boost converter:

The following parameters are needed to design the boost converter:

1. Input voltage range: Vin - min and Vin - max

2. Nominal output voltage: Vout

3. Maximum output current: lout

4. Switching frequency of the circuit.

Duty cycle ratio Consideration:

The first step to calculate the duty cycle of the switch, for the minimum input

voltage.

Vin - min - minimum input voltage

Vout - output voltage

- efficiency (here we assume 100%)

D - Duty cycle

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Inductor selection:

The next step to calculate the inductor value. In practical cases inductor ripple current is
taken between 10% to 30% based on application.

or

From the above formula we get L value by taking ripple percentage 10%.

Fs - Switching frequency

VsNin - Input voltage

Capacitor selection:

The last step is to find the output capacitor value. To get the Capacitor value we use

the below formula. In practical cases the desired output voltage ripple percentage

taken is 2%-5%.

Diode Selection:

In boost converters we use Schottky to reduce the losses and current rating needed is equal
to the maximum output current.

Diode voltage = 100V

Diode current = 10A

Switch selection:

Voltage rating: I00V

Current rating: I0A

Temperature: 110 degrees

Use gate drive resistance tum on and tum off as per device datasheet. If protections are
required use the gate drive circuit of Texas IC (UCC21750DW).

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3.7 Design of LUO converter:

The following parameters are needed to design the LUO converter:

1. Input voltage- Vin

2. Nominal Output voltage - Vout

3.Switching frequency -Fs

4. Ripple current of Inductor

5. Output current - lout

Design equations:

Duty cycle ratio Consideration:

The output voltage as a function of the input voltage is given by:

By using the above formula we calculate the Duty value Converter.

Where V in is the input voltage, is the output voltage and D is the duty cycle.

Capacitor selection:

The capacitances Cl and C2 are given by the same formula:

Inductor selection:

Where f s is the switching frequency and R is the Resistance. The inductance L

is given by:

Where I is the ripple current through the inductor, which is given by :

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3.8 Design of Boost converter and LUO converter Example:

Boost Converter (Example):

PARAMETERS VALUES
Input Voltage - Vin 30V
Output Voltage - Vout 72V
Switching Frequency - Fs 50,000 Hz
Output Current - lout 7.5A
Resistance -Rout 10 'Q
Inductor ripple current % 10%
Output voltage ripple % 2%

Table: 3.1 Boost converter specifications

Duty cycle ratio of converter is:

D = 1-(30/72) = 0.58334

Inductor Value is:

I= 0.1*7.2 = 0.72A

In Industrial applications generally we estimate the inductor ripple current from 20% to
40%. Here we taken 10%.

L = ((30)*(72-30))/((0.72*50000*72))

L = 486.11 uH

Capacitor Value is :

= 0.02*72 = 1.44V
Generally we assume the output voltage ripple percentage from 1% to 5%. Here we have
taken 2%.

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 C = ((7.2*0.5833))/((50000*1.44))

C = 58.33 uF

LUO Converter (Example):

PARAMETERS VALUES
Input Voltage - Vin 30V
Output Voltage - Vout 72V
Switching Frequency - Fs 50,000 Hz
Output Current - lout 7.5A
Resistance -Rout 10 'Q
Inductor ripple current% 2%
Output voltage ripple % 2%

Table: 3.1 LUO converter specifications

From the above formula Duty cycle ratio of converter is :

D = (Vout-2Vin)/(Vout-Vin)

D = (72-2*30)/(72-30)

D = 0.28

The capacitances C1 and C2 are given by the same formula:

C = 25*((1-0.28)/(10*50000))

C = 36 uF

Inductor Value is:

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Where I is the ripple current through the inductor, which is given by :

I = 0.02*7.2 (Take ripple percentage 2%)

I = 0.144

L = ((72-2*30*(1-0.28)))/((50000*0.144))

L= 400uH

By using above calculated values we simulate the models of boost and Luo converter in

MATLAB Simulink.

3.9 Conclusion:

In this chapter we learned the DC-DC converters applications, Types and their basic

working typologies. The design of LUO and Boost Converters are also explained with their

design Equations and with examples.

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 CHAPTER-4
CONTROL SYSTEM

4.1 Introduction:
A control system is defined as a system of devices that manages, commands,

directs, or regulates the behavior of other devices or systems to achieve a desired result. A

control system achieves this through control loops, which are a process designed to maintain

a process variable at a desired set point. The main feature of a control system is that there

should be a clear mathematical relationship between the input and output of the system.

When the relation between input and output of the system can be represented by a linear

proportionality, the system is called a linear control system. Again when the relationship

between input and output cannot be represented by single linear proportionality, rather the

input and output are related by some non-linear relation, the system is referred to as a non-

linear control system.

Control systems is classified as :

a. Continuous time and discrete-time control systems.

b. Single Input Single Output and Multiple Input Multiple Output control systems.

c. Open loop and closed loop control systems.

Here we discuss about the Open loop and closed loop control systems. In this type control

systems can be classified as open loop and closed loop systems based on the feedback path.

Open loop control system: In open loop control systems, output is not fed-back to the input.

So, the control action is independent of the desired output.

The following figure shows the block diagram of the open loop control system.

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Fig: 4.1 Open loop control system

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 Here, an input is applied to a controller and it produces an actuating signal

or controlling signal. This signal is given as an input to a Here, an input is applied to a

controller and it produces an actuating signal or controlling signal. This signal is given as an

input to a plant or process which is to be controlled. So, the plant produces an output, which is

controlled. The traffic lights control system which plant or process which is to be controlled.

So, the plant produces an output, which is controlled. The traffic lights control system which

we discussed earlier is an example of an open loop control system. we discussed earlier is an

example of an open loop control system.

Closed loop control system: In closed loop control systems, output is fed back to the input.

So, the control action is dependent on the desired output. ,

The following figure shows the block diagram of negative feedback closed loop control system.

Fig: 4.2 Closed loop control system

The error detector produces an error signal, which is the difference between the input and the

feedback signal. This feedback signal is obtained from the block (feedback elements) by

considering the output of the overall system as an input to this block. Instead of the direct input,

the error signal is applied as an input to a controller.

So, the controller produces an actuating signal which controls the plant. In this combination,

the output of the control system is adjusted automatically till we get the desired response.

Hence, the closed loop control systems are also called the automatic control systems. Traffic

lights control system having sensor at the input is an example of a closed loop control system.

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4.2 P, I and D controller:

What is a Controller?

A controller is a mechanism that seeks to minimize the difference between

the actual value of a system (i.e., the process variable) and the desired value of the system

(i.e., the set point). Controllers are a fundamental part of control engineering and used in all

complex control systems. Before we introduce you to various controllers in detail, it is very

essential to know the uses of controllers in the theory of control systems. The important uses of

the controllers include:

1. Controllers improve the steady-state accuracy by decreasing the steady state error.

2. As the steady-state accuracy improves, the stability also improves.

3. Controllers also help in reducing the unwanted offsets produced by the system.

4. Controllers can control the maximum overshoot of the system.

5. Controllers can help in reducing the noise signals produced by the system.

6. Controllers can help to speed up the slow response of an over damped system.

The various types of controllers are used to improve the performance of control systems. In this

section, we will discuss the basic controllers such as the proportional, the derivative and the

integral controllers.

Proportional Controller: The proportional controller produces an output, which is

proportional to error signal. The block diagram of the unity negative feedback closed loop

control system along with the proportional controller is shown in the following figure. T he

proportional controller is used to change the transient response as per the requirement.

Fig: 4.3 Proportional Controller

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Apply Laplace transform on both the sides -

Therefore, the transfer function of the proportional controller is Kp.

Were,

U(s) is the Laplace transform of the actuating signal u(t),

E(s) is the Laplace transform of the error signal e(t),

Kp is the proportionality constant.

Derivative Controller: The derivative controller produces an output, which is derivative of

the error signal.

Apply Laplace transform on both sides.

Therefore, the transfer function of the derivative controller is

Where, is the derivative constant.

The block diagram of the unity negative feedback closed loop control system along with the

derivative controller is shown in following figure.

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62
 Fig: 4.4 Derivative Controller

The derivative controller is used to make the unstable control system into a stable one.

Integral Controller: The Integral controller produce an output, which is integral of the error
signal.

Apply Laplace transform on both the sides-

Therefore, the transfer function of the integral controller is

Where, is the integral constant.

The block diagram of the unity negative feedback closed loop control system along with the

integral controller is shown in the following figure. The integral controller is used to decrease

the steady state error.

Fig: 4.5 Integral Controller

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4.3 PI controller:

How a PID controller work?

A PID controller uses the control algorithm as three modes, i.e., proportional + integration
+ derivative. The proportional term applies appropriate proportional changes for error
(which is the difference between the set point and process variable) to the control output. In
fact, many control applications work quite well with only proportional control. The integral
term examines the process variable over time and offset of set point and then corrects the
output if necessary. Derivative control monitors the rate of change of process variable and
accordingly changes the output when there are unusual changes. Each parameter of three
control functions is adjusted by user to get the desired performance from the process. Let us
see the individual responses of PID controllers.

We use the combination of these controller to control our system in a

efficient way to get the better results. There are three main types of combinations PI , PD and
PID controller. In this project we are using the PI controller to control our system, Let us have
brief discussion below about PI controller.

Fig: 4.6 Proportional Integral Controller

The PI controller thus adds a pole at the origin (an integrator) and a finite
zero to the feedback loop. The presence of the integrator in the loop forces the error to a
constant input to go to zero in steady-state; hence PI controller is commonly used in
designing servomechanisms. The controller zero is normally placed close to the origin in
the complex s-plane. The presence of a pole-zero pair adds a closed-loop system pole with
a large time constant. The zero location can be adjusted so that the contribution of the slow

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mode to the

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overall system response stays small.

The proportional integral controller produces an output, which is the combination of the
outputs of proportional and integral controller.

Apply Laplace transform on both side-

Therefore, the transfer function of proportional integral controller is

The proportional integral controller is used to decrease the steady state error without affecting
the stability of the control system.

4.4 PID controller Tuning methods:

The determination of corresponding PID parameter values for getting the

optimum performance from the process is called tuning. This is obviously a crucial part in
case of all closed loop control systems. There are number of tuning methods have been
introduced to obtain fast and acceptable performance. The steps involved in these methods
include experimental determination of the dynamic characteristics of the control loop and
estimating the controller tuning parameters that produce a desired performance for the
dynamic characteristics determined. Some of these PID tuning methods are given below.
Trial and Error Method

This is the simple method of tuning a PID controller. Once we get the clear
understanding of PID parameters, the trial and error method become relatively easy. Set
integral and derivative terms to zero first and then increase the proportional gain until the
output of the control loop oscillates at a constant rate. This increase of proportional gain
should be in such that response of the system becomes faster provided it should not make

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system
unstable. Once the P-response is fast enough, set the integral term, so that the oscillations

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will be gradually reduced. Change this I-value until the steady state error is reduced, but it

may increase overshoot. Once P and I parameters have been set to a desired values with

minimal steady state error, increase the derivative gain until the system reacts quickly to its

set point. Increasing derivative term decreases the overshoot of the controller response.

Ziegler-Nichols Method

It is another popular method for tuning PID controllers. Ziegler and Nichols presented
two classical methods for determining values of proportional gain, integral time and

derivative time based on transient response characteristics of a given plant or system.

First Method

Obtain a unit step response of the plant experimentally and it may look's' shaped curve as

shown in figure below. This method applies, if obtained response exhibits-shaped curve

for unit step input otherwise it cannot be applied. This curve can also be obtained by

dynamic simulation of the plant.

Fig:4.7 Ziegler-Nichols first method

Obtain two constants, delay time L and time constant T by drawing a tangent line at the

inflection point of the s-shaped curve. Set the parameters of Kp, Ti, and Td values :from the

table given below for three types of controllers.

Second Method

It is very similar to the trial and error method where integral and derivative terms are

set to the zero, i.e., making Ti infinity and Td zero. Increase the proportional gain such that the

output exhibits sustained oscillations. If the system does not produce sustained oscillations then

this method cannot be applied. The gain at which sustained oscillations produced is called as

critical gain.
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 Fig: 4.8 Sustained oscillations

Once the sustain oscillations are produced, set the values of Ti and Td as per the given

table for P, PI and PID controllers based on critical gain and critical period.

Table:4.1 Ziegler and Nichols method values

4.5 Conclusion:

This chapter explains about the control system and controllers used in control

system and their tuning methods which are useful in the application of converters.

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 CHAPTER-5
MATLAB SIMULATIONS

5.1 Introduction:
SIMULINK is a simulation and model-based design

environment for dynamic and embedded systems, integrated with MATLAB. SIMULINK, also

developed by Math works, is a data flow graphical programming language tool for modeling,

simulating and analyzing multi-domain dynamic systems. It is basically a graphical block

diagramming tool with customization set of block libraries. It allows you to incorporate

MATLAB algorithms into models as well as export the simulation results into MATLAB for

further analysis.

Simulink supports:

I.System- level

design 2.Simulation

3. Automatic code generation

4. Testing and verification of embedded systems.

The design parameters consider for the simulation of both LUO and Boost converter is:

Boost Converter: LUO Converter:

PARAMETER VALUE PARAMETER VALUE

Input voltage 30V Input voltage 30V
Output voltage 72V Output voltage 72V
Switching frequency 50kHZ Switching frequency 50kHZ
Inductor value 486uH Inductor value 400uH
Capacitor 58.33 uF Capacitor 36uF
Load resistance 10 Load resistance 10
Inductor current ripple % 10% Inductor current ripple % 2%
Capacitor current ripple% 2% Capacitor current ripple% 2%

Table: 5.1 Boost and LUO Converter Parameters

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5.2 Voltage gain comparison of LUO and Boost converters:

Fig:5.1 CIRCUIT SIMULATION OF BOOST CONVERTER

Table:5.2 Boost converter output values

Duty ratio (D) Output voltage (Vo) Voltage gain (Vo/Vi)

0.2 37.5 1.25
0.3 42.8 1.42
0.4 50 1.66
0.6 75 2.5
0.8 150 5
0.9 300 10

Fig: 5.2 CIRCUIT SIMULATION OF LUO CONVERTER

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Table: 5.3 LUO converter output values

Duty ratio (D) Output voltage (Vo) Voltage gain (Vo/Vi)

0.2 67.5 2.25
0.3 72.85 2.42
0.4 80 2.66
0.6 105 3.5
0.8 180 6
0.9 330 11
Table: 5.4 Comparison of gains

Duty ratio (D) Voltage gain

Boost converter LUO converter
0.2 1.25 2.25
0.3 1.42 2.42
0.4 1.66 2.66
0.6 2.5 3.5
0.8 5 6
0.9 10 11
5.3 MATLAB Simulation of Boost converter in open loop:
Circuit simulation and graphical results of Boost converter.
Table:5.5 Design Parameters
PARAMETER VALUE
Input voltage 30V
Output voltage 72V
Switching frequency 50kHZ
Inductor value 486uH
Capacitor 58.33 uF
Load resistance 10

Circuit simulation:

Fig: 5.3 CIRCUIT SIMULATION OF OPEN LOOP BOOST CONVERTER

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Input (Vin):

Fig:5.4 Input Voltage waveform of Boost converter

Inductor current (Iin):

Fig:5.5 Input current waveform of Boost converter

Pulse (PWM):

Fig:5.6 Pulse waveform of open loop Boost converter

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Output Voltage (Vo):

Fig:5.7 Output voltage waveform of open loop boost converter

Output current (lout):

Fig: 5.8 Output current waveform of boost converter

Voltage across C:

Fig:5.9 Voltage across the capacitor waveform of boost converter

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Here we simulated the boost converter in open loop the above waveforms show the input
voltage, Inductor current, Output voltage, Output current, Gate signal, and Voltage across the
filter capacitor. We observed that the output voltage ripple is 1.6V and output ripple current is
0.7A with duty ratio of0.5833 as per design calculation.

The output power = Vout * lout

= 72.6*7.27
= 527.8 W
Here we only calculated the only output power, to find the efficiency of the system we
need to calculate the switching losses (device losses). The losses are variable based on
the device properties and cooling of the systems (forced air cool, natural cooling, liquid
cooling). Now we can start the closed loop simulation of Boost converter.

5.4 MATLAB Simulation of Boost converter in Closed loop:

Circuit simulation and graphical results of Boost converter.

Circuit simulation:

Fig:5.10 CIRCUIT SIMULATION OF CLOSED LOOP BOOST CONVERTER

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Input Voltage (Vin):

Fig:5.11 Input voltage waveform of Boost converter

Inductor current (Iin):

Fig:5.12 Inductor current waveform of Boost converter

Pulse:

Fig:5.13 Pulse waveform of closed loop Boost converter

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Output voltage (Vo):

Fig:5.14 Output voltage waveform of Boost converter

Output current (lo):

Fig: 5.15 Output current waveform of Boost converter

Voltage across capacitor:

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Fig:5.16 Output voltage waveform of boost converter

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The results obtained in closed loop are mostly similar to the open loop results,
these parameters are based on the PI controller tunning. We used the trial-and
error method to tune the PI controller but it takes a lot of time to get the desires
results.

5.5 MATLAB Simulation of LUO converter in open loop:

Circuit simulation and graphical results of LUO converter.

Table:5.6 Design Parameters

PARAMETER VALUE
Input voltage 30V
Output voltage 72V
Switching frequency 50kHZ
Inductor value L 400uH
Capacitor C1, C2 36uF
Load resistance 10

Circuit simulation:

Fig: 5.17 CIRCUIT SIMULATION OF OPEN LOOP LUO CONVERTER

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Input Voltage (Vin):

Fig:5.18 Input voltage waveform of LUO converter

Inductor current (lin):

Fig:5.19 Inductor current waveform of LUO converter

Pulse:

Fig:5.20 Pulse waveform of open loop LUO converter

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Output Voltage (Vout):

Fig:5.21 Output voltage waveform of LUO converter

Output current (lout):

Fig:5.22 Output current waveform of LUO converter

Voltage across Cl:

Fig:5.23 Voltage across the capacitor Cl waveform of LUO converter

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Voltage across C2:

Fig:5.24 Voltage across the capacitor C2 waveform of LUO converter

Here we simulated the LUO converter in open loop the above waveforms show the input
voltage, Inductor current, Output voltage, Output current, Gate signal, and Voltage across the
filter capacitors. We observed that the output voltage ripple is 1.4V and output ripple current
is 0.14A with duty ratio of0.2857 as per design calculation.

The output power = Vout * lout

= 72.85*7.27
= 529.61 W
Here we only calculated the only output power, to find the efficiency of the system we
need to calculate the switching losses (device losses). The losses are variable based on
the device properties and cooling of the systems (forced air cool, natural cooling, liquid
cooling). Now we can start the closed loop simulation of LUO converter.

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5.6 MATLAB Simulation of LUO converter in Closed loop:
Circuit simulation and graphical results of LUO converter.

Circuit simulation:

Fig:5.25 CIRCUIT SIMULATION OF CLOSED LOOP LUO CONVERTER

Input voltage (Vin):

Fig:5.26 Input voltage waveform of LUO converter

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Inductor current (lin):

Fig:5.27 Inductor current waveform of LUO converter

Pulse:

Fig:5.28 Pulse waveform of closed loop LUO converter

Output voltage (Vo):

Fig:5.29 Output voltage waveform of LUO converter

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Output current (Io):

Fig:5.30 Output current waveform of LUO converter

Voltage across C1:

Fig:5.31 Voltage across the capacitor Cl waveform of LUO converter

Voltage across C2:

Fig:5.32 Voltage across the capacitor C2 waveform of LUO converter

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The results obtained in closed loop are mostly similar to the open loop results,
these parameters are based on the PI controller tunning. We used the trial-
and error method to tune the PI controller but it takes a lot of time to get the
desires results.

5.7 Conclusion:

In this chapter we simulated the Boost converter and LUO converter in open loop
and closed loop. The input currents, voltages, and output currents, voltages are also
observed in both cases.

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 FINAL RESULT:

This project finally produced the below results:

1. The design and principle of operation of Modified LUO converter means positive
output super lift LUO converter and Boost converter.

2. Overview of the comparative performance of the both Boost converter and

LUO converter.

3. In addition, the Solar based electric vehicle charging system, Electric vehicles, Types
of batteries is also studied.

4. The MATLAB simulation of open loop and closed loop Boost converter, LUO
converter is presented.

CONCLUSION:

A very large number of converters have been proposed in market, which however can be
seen to be minor variations of a group of DC-DC converters. In this project we have taken the
boost converter and LUO converter and executed the simulation of both converters in
SIMULINK in open and closed loops by deriving their design parameters. Here we taken the
LUO converter, the output voltage ripple and output current ripple are very less as we
observed in simulation results, it offers less output voltage ripple and output current ripple,
which is desirable for our solar electric vehicles charging system at home.

FUTURE SCOPE:

The future potential of electric vehicle is enormous. The obvious starting point for these
vehicles is the charging station. A home built electric vehicle will reduce the carbon footprint
of the family and it will also lower the electricity bill. This report gives the efficient conversion
of solar energy to charge the electric vehicles by using the DC-DC converters. Electric vehicles
are becoming immensely popular and coming years we expect nearly any one who owns a solar
energy will install a solar charging station at its home. Solar charging stations for home and
commercial use will play a major role in powering electric vehicles with renewable energy. In
that process of development we suggested the Modified LUO converters in solar charging
stations to get better efficiency.
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REFERENCES:

1. B.M. Hansaneen, Adel.A. Elbaset Mohammed, Design and

Simulation of DC-DC Boost Converter, IEEE Transaction, 2008.
2. Luo, F.L; Ye, H., Ultra-lift Luo-converter, Electric Power
Applications, IEE Proceedings, vol.152, no.1, p.27-32, 7 Jan. 2005.
3. S. Nimimol, Dr. V. Gopalakrishnan and Immanuel John Samuel,
Comparative analysis of SEPIC and Luo converter with MPPT
algorithms, Journal of Information, knowledge, and research in
electrical engineering, Vol. 03, no. 02, 2013.
4. Soedibyo, Mochamad Ashari and Budi Amri, the comparative study
of Buck-Boost, Cuk, Sepic and Zeta Converters for maximum power
point tracking photovoltaic using P&O method, 2nd International
Conference on Information Technology, Computer, and Electrical
Engineering (ICITACEE), 2015.
5. Y.He and Luo, "Analysis of Luo converters with voltage-lift circuit",
IEE Proceedings - Electric Power Applications, Volume: 152, Issue:
5 , Sept. 2005.
6. Fang Lin Luo and Hong Ye" Advance DC/DC Converters". CRC
Press, London, U.K. pp.38-41.
7. N. Pandiarajan, Ranganath Muthu, Mathematical modeling of a
photovoltaic module with Simulink, 2011 1st International
Conference on Electrical Energy Systems, Newport Beach, CA, USA,
2011.
8. http://https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1187329
9. http://https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7582916

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