Dependence of the intensity differences on the energy

X-rays
(e.g. 60 keV) (e.g. 150 keV)
Radiation Contrast, Noise and Imaging
Requirements
Lecture 02 intensity
intensity

1 2

Digital Radiology
Radiation Contrast,Level
Noise II Radiation Contrast, Noise
and Imaging Requirements and Imaging Requirements

Intensity Differences Radiation Contrast – intensity difference I

Essential conflict: I t = I P + IS
With increasing energy, the intensity difference of a structural
detail (e.g. due to a cavity) decreases in the X-ray image
independently from the chosen detector. C = ΔI = I P1 − I P2
Grey value contrast
This has to be taken into account in each particular inspection
task! I = I0 · e -μ·w
„More is better“ is the wrong approach to adjust the tube voltage For small w:
for the perceptibility of flaws!
ΔI ≈ IP · μ · Δw
3 4

Radiation Contrast, Noise Radiation Contrast, Noise

and Imaging Requirements and Imaging Requirements

Relative Radiation Contrast Cr Relative Specific Contrast Crs

Model for small flaws in material of constant thickness:

ΔI μ · Δw
Relative Contrast Cr = =
see ASTM E 1000 I t 1 + IS (μ - μ f ) I scatter
IP C rs = k=
1+ k I primary
(μ - μ f )  Δw
Cr =
I Crs - relative specific contrast µf – attenuation coefficient of flaw
1+ S k - scatter ratio µ - attenuation coefficient of
IP inspected material
µair – is about zero in NDT > 20 kV

5 6

Radiation Contrast, Noise Radiation Contrast, Noise

and Imaging Requirements and Imaging Requirements

1
 Classical specific contrast Two cases must be considered
Scatter Ratio k Intensity
I Penetrated object

 primer (w)
The proportion of the scatter radiation is defined by the (e.g. weld with crack)

scatter ratio k. Iprimary Crs =

1 + k ( w)
Pb cylinder IScatter
with

specimen I Scatter
k=
length

Revised specific contrast_2 I Primary

lead shielding
film
IScatter is ~ Iprimary
I
Intensity
I Step wedge

k= S Crs 2 =  primer ( w) −
1
IP  ln(1 + k ( w))
Iprimary
I Scatter DScatter
k= = w
I Prim ( DScatter + DPrim ) − DScatter IScatter
kFilm  0.1  w for contact film radiography
7 8
length for steel, X-ray and w < 60 mm (DGZfP)

Radiation Contrast, Noise Radiation Contrast, Noise

and Imaging Requirements and Imaging Requirements

Radiation Contrast
Influence of Image Noise on the Visibility of Details

The radiation contrast is determined by three factors:

• different attenuation coefficients

• flaw dimension parallel to the beam direction

Intensity

Contrast Intensity Contrast

Signal Signal
• scatter ratio (Base material) (Basematerial)

Notch visible! Length Notch not visible! Length

Contrast/Noise is high Contrast/Noise is low

Signal/Noise is high Signal/Noise is low
9 10

Radiation Contrast, Noise Radiation Contrast, Noise

and Imaging Requirements and Imaging Requirements

Noise Sources Noise in Dependence on Exposure Time

Typical noise sources in digital radiography:

1. EXPOSURE CONDITIONS: Photon noise, depending on exposure dose

(e.g. mAs or GBqmin). This is the main factor! SNR increases with higher
exposure dose.
2. Limitation for the maximum achievable SNR:
1. DETECTOR: Structural noise of DDAs and Imaging Plates also called
fixed pattern noise (due to variations in pixel to pixel response and
inhomogeneities in the phosphor layer).
2. OBJECT:
Normalized at constant contrast
1. Crystalline structure of material (e.g. nickel based steel, mottling)
2. Surface roughness of test object CNR and SNR increase with increasing exposure
11 time due to improved photon statistics 12

Radiation Contrast, Noise Radiation Contrast, Noise

and Imaging Requirements and Imaging Requirements

2
 Human Observer Model: Perception Threshold (PT)
Essential Parameters in Digital Radiography
What do you see? Detector = 50 µm pixel size

}
Compensation

{
Material, Exposure time Noise = 1000
keV, Gamma source Signal = 30000
Tube current, Activity is possible 0.5T 1T 2T 4T 8T ➢ Large area flaws are better
Scatter protection Detector efficiency CNR = 2.5 visible than small ones at
Screens and filters Source-to-Detector Distance
same Contrast-to-Noise
Alateral

CNRN eff  SNRITotal

SNR - Signal to noise ratio Ratio
µeff – specific contrast, CNR = 1.25
= effective attenuation coefficient ➢ Each row has indications
w SRb SRb – effective pixel size in the image, with same CNR = Cdepth/
basic spatial resolution of CNR = 0.625
Visibility of small flaws image ➢ Each column has holes
2T = 0.5 mm / 0.02” with same diameter

{
Flat bottom holes of different depth and diameter
Depends on Hardware: effective pixel size SRb image = 50 µm Calculated CNRmin = 1
Specific normalized Magnification
contrast-to-noise ratio Focal spot size, source size Alateral  Cdepth PT - human perception threshold
PTconst = Alateral – area of just visible indication

SRb  
Cdepth – mean contrast of just visible indication
The normalized SNRN is considered as the equivalent value to the selection of a film  - noise of image (N)
system and a required minimum opt. density. 13 14
SRb – basic spatial resolution (effective pixel size)
Rose approach, 1946
Radiation Contrast, Noise Radiation Contrast, Noise
and Imaging Requirements and Imaging Requirements

Qualification of Imaging Plate Systems by the Visibility of Example: EPS test with HD CR scanner at
EPS= equivalent penetrameter sensitivity (see ASTM E 746, E 747, E 1025)

IQIs and/or EPS calculation from µeff, SNR and SRb 20 µm pixel size
EPS – Procedure is proposed for CR qualification
in the new ASTM E 2033 draft and the Draft on “Practice for the Use of …
Computed Radiology for Aerospace Casting Inspections” (USA: MAI – group)
- The EPS (equivalent penetrameter sensitivity) measurement is based on E 746
CNR  0.8
- A smooth ¾ inch (19 mm) steel plate with a set of plate holes is radiographed at 200
kV in ≥ 1 m distance Do you see the holes?
- Other IQIs are on the plate
to increase the information
on image response.

− The exposure is performed

with different mAs settings
− Two graphs are generated,
see next page 1 mm steel step for
− Verification of equation: measurement of µeff
¾” (19 mm) steel plate, 200 kV
PT ' SRbimage E 746
EPS(%) =
ttestplate µeff  SNR PT depends slightly on operator and viewing conditions
15 16
µeff for 200 kV and 19 mm Fe is about 0,05 mm-1

Radiation Contrast, Noise Radiation Contrast, Noise

and Imaging Requirements and Imaging Requirements

Visibility of EPS holes (E 746) Formula for Conversion of SNRN Measurements to EPS
Values and Working Range for CR (ASTM Draft E 2033)
▪ PT’
the is aboutthe
IP, whereby 2▪100 forshall
PV=0 visibility of the 2atT unexposed
be measured hole of IQIs corr. to ASTM E 1025
areas.
Do you see the holes? ▪ EPS by ASTM E 746 with 200 kV, t = 19 mm Fe plate and µeff = 0.05 mm-1
EPS vs.SNR method with 3/4" Fe
4
High resolution imaging plate (blue)
PT ' SRbimage
EPS =
3,5

3
Standard imaging plate (white) ttestplate µeff  SNR
2,5
EPS (%) = PT/sqrt(SNR)

2
SNR measured with IP I and Scanner II
1/
PT SNR
EPSmax
max = 1.4
1,5 SNR measured with IP II and Scanner I

1
( 1EPS
/ SNR )== 15%
15%
0,5 PVmin = 5000 Plateau area defines the
CNR  0.8 0
working range
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000
17 18
Pixel value

Radiation Contrast, Noise Figure A.1.2.1

Radiation Contrast, Noise
and Imaging Requirements 17 and Imaging Requirements

3
 Concept of Normalized SNR Quality of X-ray Images
Statistic data of digitized Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) in a region of interest (ROI)
film image in a ROI
- Is calculated by “mean value of gray values” / “standard
deviation of gray values” penetrable wall contrast intensity SNR
thickness CNR
- Is normalized to the scanning aperture value of a
standardized microphotometer for film classification
X-ray tube voltage / energy:
corresponding to ISO 11699-1, EN 584-1, ASTM E 1815
increasing larger lower higher SNR
- This permits the comparison of sharp film higher
radiography with unsharp digital detectors
decreasing smaller higher lower SNR
SNRN – normalized SNR lower
SNRN  SNR  88,6 µm / SRb
X-ray tube current:
SRb – basic spatial resolution
increasing larger equal higher higher
SRb = uT / 2 decresing smaller equal lower lower
uT = total unsharpness 19 20

Radiation Contrast, Noise Radiation Contrast, Noise

and Imaging Requirements and Imaging Requirements

Quality of X-ray Images

Image Quality Parameters
Conclusion:
Radiographic Image Quality is the basis for all comparisons
A good visibility of IQIs and flaws is achieved, if the three Digital Detector:
essential parameters of digital radiography are as follows:
Subject Contrast Detector Contrast Noise Detector Unsharpness Projected Unsharpness

- high basic spatial resolution (SRbimage), which means Detector Contrast : Signal
SRbimage should have a small value, SNR for linear detectors
CNR
- high signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), SRbdetector – Basic Spatial Resolution
→ effective Pixel size
- high relative specific contrast (µeff ), which is the effective CNR - Contrast/Noise Ratio Detectors can be qualified
attenuation coefficient (includes scatter effects). SNR - Signal/Noise Ratio
and classified by its SNR
21 and SRbdetector 22

Radiation Contrast, Noise Radiation Contrast, Noise

and Imaging Requirements and Imaging Requirements

Magnification and Unsharpness Magnification Factor M

SDD
SDD Location
M=
SOD
SOD ODD

Collimator

The magnification factor increases with decreasing distances

Ideal point between object and X-ray source!
focal spot
(focus)
Object
The magnification factor is equal to “2” if the object is located
centrally between the focus and the detector!
Intensity

The magnification factor M approaches the value “1” if the

object is placed directly in front of the detector.
23 24

Radiation Contrast, Noise Radiation Contrast, Noise

and Imaging Requirements and Imaging Requirements

4
 Thermal and Optical Focal Spot Real Imaging

SDD Location
SOD
thermal focal spot
(also actual focal spot)
Collimator

Real
focal spot
Object

effective
focal spot Intensity
Detector

25 26

Radiation Contrast, Noise Radiation Contrast, Noise

and Imaging Requirements and Imaging Requirements

Geometric Unsharpness ug Experimental Setup

ug
=
(SDD − SOD ) d – focal spot size
M – magnification
d SOD
SDD – source detector distance
SOD – source object distance, also f
ODD – object detector distance, also b
 SDD 
ug = d   − 1
 SOD 

u g = d  (M − 1) Radiation Test object Detector

27
source 28

Radiation Contrast, Noise Radiation Contrast, Noise

and Imaging Requirements and Imaging Requirements

Parameter: parameters:
large focal spot low unsharpness increasing unsharpness
large focal spot enlarged silhouette
short ODD low magnification
SOD = ODD
large SOD
29 30

Radiation Contrast, Noise Radiation Contrast, Noise

and Imaging Requirements and Imaging Requirements

5
 parameters: parameters:
large focal spot high unsharpness low unsharpness
small focal spot
large ODD large magnification large magnification
large ODD
small SOD poor resolution of details small SOD low intensity
31 32

Radiation Contrast, Noise Radiation Contrast, Noise

and Imaging Requirements and Imaging Requirements

Smallest Perceptible Flaw Size Emin in Relation to the Detector

Sharp image with low ug if: Unsharpness ui as a Function of the Magnification M.

ISO Formula
geometric unsharpness ug d  ODD d/ui = 8 d/ui = 2

ug =
SOD
focal spot d or, since ui will be called also udetector
fls

ODD = SDD − SOD fls – minimum discernable flaw size ui

d/ui = 1
detector – object distance
ODD* ASTM E 1000-17:
 SDD 
d/ui = 0,7

ug = d   − 1 d/ui = 0,5
focus – object distance
 SOD 
Mopt-line

SOD*
M 33
Magnification v
34
*If detector unsharpness < focal spot size

Radiation Contrast, Noise Radiation Contrast, Noise

and Imaging Requirements and Imaging Requirements

Total Unsharpness / Projection Unsharpness

also image unsharpness Conclusion for Magnification
The geometric Unsharpness is calculated by Technique
u g = d  (M −1)
The total unsharpness can be estimated approximately by An optimal magnification allows, that the
smallest perceptible flaw flsmin is smaller
uT  ug + ui
2 2 than the focal spot size d or the detector
unsharpness ui!
The projected unsharpness (image unsharpness) is defined
as the ratio between total unsharpness and magnification.

uT This determines the

u Pim = perceptibility of details
M 35 36

Radiation Contrast, Noise Radiation Contrast, Noise

and Imaging Requirements and Imaging Requirements

6
 Effect of the Unsharpness on the Contrast Evaluation – Illumination Intensity

minimal contrast

6000
geometric unsharpness 15 cm
geometric unsharpness nearly equivalent to the
about 0.5 width of the object width of the object
Luxmeter

Distance = 100 cm
ug ug

37 38

Radiation Contrast, Noise Radiation Contrast, Noise

and Imaging Requirements and Imaging Requirements

Evaluation – Illumination Intensity Distance Square-Law

Radiation source

1500 2 x Distance
30 cm =
¼ of Intensity

Luxmeter
Distance = 200 cm

39 40

Radiation Contrast, Noise Radiation Contrast, Noise

and Imaging Requirements and Imaging Requirements

Conclusion for System Optimization

Since always a compromise has to be found

between the required radiation intensity and the
focal size of the X-ray tubes, always a system
specific for the individual application (X-ray
tube, detector, geometry) has to be selected with
defined minimum flaw perceptibility.

41

Radiation Contrast, Noise

and Imaging Requirements