Advantages of Digital Images

• Archiving on digital media (no image decomposition over the years,

copies of identical quality, retrieval from data bases to reduce
searching time)
• Quantitative evaluation (measurements, differences in wall thickness
X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I derived from grey value variations)
Lecture 06 • Image processing (to improve the visual evaluation, as a preparatory
step for the computer aided image interpretation)
• Fast image transmission (taking advantage of the telecommunication,
“remote expertise”)
• Computer aided image interpretation (automatic flaw recognition)
• Combination of the radiographic inspection with other testing methods
• Reconstructions (determination of 3D-volume data from a series of 2D
projections)
1 2

Digital Radiology
X-Ray Sensitive Level II I
Detectors X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I

Working Cycle and Application of Phosphor Imaging Plates

Read out of IP, digitisation

and erasure
Exposure of Imaging plate

Imaging Cassette
Plate
Exposure

IP

Computed Radiography (CR) with Lead

Screen Data Acquisition

Phosphor Imaging Plates

PC

Data Output

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X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I

Storage Principle of Luminescence Imaging Plates

BaFBr:Eu scintillator → BaFBr:Eu storage phosphor 5 6

X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I

1
 Comparison of different imaging plates Evaluation of Computed Radiography
Electron microscopy:
Advantages of the phosphor Disadvantages of the phosphor
imaging plate technology: imaging plate technology
• high linearity • limited spatial resolution (see
• large dynamic range > 105 Fig. 6.3)
• high sensitivity • high sensitivity at low energies
• thousand times reusable • as a consequence, higher
impact from scattered radiation
• no chemical processing
• installable into digital image
processing
Crystallite structure of an IPC2 Crystallite structure of an UR-1
screen made by AGFA, high speed screen made by Fujifilm, low
but low resolution speed but high resolution
7 8

Physikalische Grundlagen X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I

IP Plates in Use Spider Net Graph of Major CR Parameters

Subdivision of imaging plate types in comparison to old

film type classification in “coarse, fine and very fine
grained films”

Un- Sensitive
IP-plate type Speed sharpness, layer Colour Application
Granularity thickness

Medical,
Corrosion,
NDT gamma, fast high thick white
Wall thickness
NDT high energy

NDT standard Welding, testing

medium medium medium white
applications class A, Casting

NDT high
Welding, testing
70 ASTM E 2446-16
resolution slow low thin blue
class B 9 10
applications

X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I

Noise Sources
Influence of Image Noise on the Visibility of Details

Typical noise sources in digital radiography:

1. EXPOSURE CONDITIONS: Photon noise, depending on exposure dose

(e.g. mAs or GBqmin). This is the main factor! SNR increases with higher
exposure dose.
2. Limitation for the maximum achievable SNR:
1. DETECTOR: Structural noise of DDAs and Imaging Plates also called
Intensity

Intensity

Contrast Contrast fixed pattern noise (due to variations in pixel to pixel response and
Signal Signal inhomogeneities in the phosphor layer).
(Base material) (Basematerial)
2. OBJECT:
Notch visible! Length Notch not visible! Length
1. Crystalline structure of material (e.g. nickel based steel, mottling)
Contrast/Noise is high Contrast/Noise is low 2. Surface roughness of test object
Signal/Noise is high Signal/Noise is low
11 12

2
 Essential Parameters for Image Quality in Digital Radiography

The 3 essential Parameters are: Combined Parameters

➢ Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) Contrast to Noise- SNRN as Equivalence Value for
➢ Specific Contrast (µeff) Ratio (CNR) Optical Density and Film System Class
➢ Basic spatial resolution (SRb) Normalized SNR
(SNRN)
Further derived parameters:
Contrast Sensitivity, CS = 1/CNR
Efficiency, SNRN at 1 mGy
ISO Speed S at SNRN = 70, S = 1000/dose(mGy) 13 14

Bildqualität digitaler Detektoren X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I

New CR Characterization Scheme

Step Wedge Method: Measure Signal/Noise Ratio
and grey value New characterization by performance levels as given in the
draft revision of ASTM E 2446-16.
Cu-step wedge
Additionally, a specified EPS performance is required.
Collimator
CR System Minimum Maximum Maximum
Classification SNRN iSRbdetector achieved EPS
(normalized value [µm] by E 746 [%]
to SRb=88.6
µm)
CR Special 200 50 1.00
Cu-Filter
X-ray tube Cu-step wedge IP in a cassette
CR Level I 100 100 1.41
Fig. 1: Scheme for the measurement of the SNR with the step
CR Level II 70 160 1.66
wedge method.
15
CR Level III 50 200 1.92 17

X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I CR Level I and II required in 17636-2

Class A: SNRN = 70, Class B: SNRN = 100

What is Optical Density 2 Calibration Graph ISO 16371-1

SNR=f(Grey value) Classification
at a Digital Detector? ASTM E 2446
120
Can be used to determine a y = 24,053Ln(x) - 87,63
grey value for a specific 110

SNRN as equivalent value 100

for a film system (here
CR Film ASTM E 1815 class I) and 90
Collimator
an optical density of 2.
SNR_N

SNRN > 70 80
Grey value > 570
SNRN = 70 70
Scanner
sensitivity 400
Opt. Density = 2 → GV = 710
Latitude 3 60
Serie wedge R28
It shall be noted that this 50

X-ray tube Cu-step wedge IP in a

grey value can only be Logarithmisch (Serie
cassette used for the calibrated 40 wedge R28)
Fig. 1: Scheme for the measurement of the SNRN Here: all areas in the digital image with system and its specific
with the step wedge method. values above SNRN = 70 and above GV = 30
parameter set, as e.g. gain, 100 600 1100 1600 2100 2600 3100
710 are equivalent to a film radiograph with scan speed and scan pixel Grey value
optical density > 2 and performance level 18II. 19
size.

X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I

3
 Correction of Correction of Characteristic Curves
BAS 2000 Characteristic Curves of log. Scanners Required
required
a) Imaging plate system with log.
Amplifier.
IP The grey level is proportional to
Uncorrected Image
the wall thickness.
b) Digitized film.
yields too high SNR
The grey level is proportional to values!
the light intensity behind the film.

X-ray tube

Film
Correction of characteristic Linearized grey values required for
curve via LUT required
20
SNR measurement 21

X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I

Correction of
Characteristic Curves

After correction with

System
characteristic transfer
Curve via LUT
Selection
but
by
no normalization with
spatial resolution yet! ISO
17636-2
Normalization with basic

CR
spatial resolution SRbimage:

SNRN = SNR * 88,6µm/SRbimage DDA

(88,6 µm)² = Aperture of 100 µm  (E 1815) 22 23

X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I

Exposure Measurement of Spatial Resolution

conditions: 1. MTF measurement 2. Duplex wire measurement

-SNRN
1.
-Lead screens
Sharp edge IQI

ISO17636-2
ISO 19232-5, ASTM E 2002, EN 462-5

1. Derivative

MTF at 20 %
ISO 16731, ASTM E 2445
Classification of Systems
24 25

X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I

4
 The CR Phantom for Quality Assurance
Comparison Between Phosphor Imaging Plates
Fast IP
X-ray tube 320 kV

Standard IP

HD IP blue

Digital grey values

Scan pixel size 28 µm
duplex wire number
unsharpness
26 27

X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I

SNRN and Intensity near BAM-snail

20x400 window recommended
The CR Phantom for Quality Assurance

28 29

X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I

Documentation of Long Term Stability Tests

High Definition CR Systems for Welding

Systems available down to

• 12 µm pixel pitch and
• < 40 µm unsharpness
• “weld quality”
BAM 5: 8 mm steel

HD CR:
„VistaScan“,
of Duerr, Germany

FUJI IP‘s, light blue

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X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I

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 Duerr: High Definition CR System

BAM Certificate: ISO 16371-1

32 33

X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I

Digital Radiography for Pipeline Testing

BAM Certificate: ISO 16371-1
•36 inch 12.7 mm Wall thickness Pipe Weld (SWSI-panoramic exposure )

CRxFlex Computed
Radiography Scanner FilmFree meeting
17.04.2007

GE Oil & Gas

CRxVision
34 35

X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I

Computer Based Inspection of an Insulated Pipelines /

Advantages of Computed Radiography
Compared with Film Radiography
Projection Radiography

Application of Phosphor
Imaging Plates for
Corrosion and Wall
Thickness Measurements

1. Higher sensitivity
→ shorter exposure time

2. Digital data available

→ computer based evaluation
with digital algorithms Imaging plate
→ higher accuracy exposure

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X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I

6
 Photon Noise in Radiology in
Representative Quality Indicator: Weld Sample BAM 5. Dependence on Exposure Time:

EN 462-2 Step Hole

ASTM E747 / EN 462-2 Type IQI „H1“
Fe 13 Wire Penetrameter

RQI see ASTM E 1817

Normalized at constant contrast
ASTM E1025 Inconel
5 Hole Penetrameter ASTM E2002 duplex wire CNR and SNR increase with increasing exposure time due to improved
BAM 5 is a hand welded steel plate (St 35) 8 mm thick, the welding seam is max. 10 mm thick.
38
photon statistics 39

It contains all types of welding flaws, especially nice cracks at the surface of the welding seam.
X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I

Computed Radiography: Limitations by SNRN-Saturation BAM 5 test weldment, 8 mm steel, 120 kV, different CR system classes:
due to Structure Noise of Imaging Plates CR IP 5/130: CR IP 3/130: CR IP 1/130:
400

350

300 M=2
SNR normalized

250

200

150 D2, DR, IX25

100
D3, M100 FujiFilm CR XG1, ST VI
D4, MX125
D5, T200 M=5
50 D7, AA400
D8, H800

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
SQRT (Dose / mGy)
Dose : 1x Dose : 4.3x Dose : 43x
40 41

Normalized SNR vs. square root of Exposure Dose

X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I CR mit Speicherfolien

Comparison film  CR / HD-CR on elongated flaws (e.g. cracks): Fujifilm: scanner DynamIX HR replaced by HR²
2013 new:
desktop

2008 standing:
Medizin:
FCR
Prima T2
• Pixel size 100µm + 50µm • Pixel size 100µm + 50µm + 25µm
• 12 Bit log. • 14 Bit log.
• Cassette system, Barcode on IP • Cassettes and screens, no barcode
10 mm Imaging plates:
Imaging plates:
ST-VI (white) 100µm Pixel:
ST-VI (white) 100µm Pixel:
C1 film (6.5 min) Standard CR (6.5 min) HD-CR (50 min) ISO Speed=150, SRb=130µm, SNRmax=150
ISO Speed=125, SRb=130µm, SNRmax=145
UR-1 (blue) 50µm Pixel:
digitized BSR = 40 µm BSR = 130 µm BSR = 40 µm ISO Speed=160, SRb = 60µm, SNRmax=280
UR-1 (blue) 50µm Pixel:
SNRnorm~ 246 SNRnorm~ 145 SNRnorm~ 290 UR 1 (blue) 25 µm Pixel:
ISO Speed= 25, SRb =80µm, SNRmax=210
all images high pass filtered 42 ISO Speed=100, SRb = 40µm, SNRmax=240 43

X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I

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 Dürr NDT: new scanner HD-CR 35 NDT Plus Contacless scanning of IP surface
By magnetic rollers on IP back side:
2006: Special ferromagnetic IPs required!
12.5 µm 14 Bit linear
2009 2014 new: CRxVision 35 µm, 3x16 bit sqrt.
50 µm, 16 bit lin. Based on CR 12-X (Medical, „affordable“)

12.5 µm 12 Bit linear

2013:

HD-CR 35 NDT Plus

Imaging plates : IPC2 (white, SR b=160µm), IPS (white, SRb=80µm), IPU (blue, SRb=40µm)
44 45

X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I

SNR improvement by scanner update (exchange) Background–Calibration of Imaging Plates (Structure Noise)
CRxFlex with IPU, 50 µm Pixel CRxVision with IPU, 35 µm Pixel
After Calibration
by Flatfield-Exposure
and image matching with
Matlab (imtransform),
C. Gollwitzer

Raw data before

Calibration

- ISO Speed (IPS: from 1000 to 2000, IPU: from 200 to 640)
AND SNRmax (IPS: from 210 to 330, IPU: from 200 to 280) improved by scanner !
- Essential influence of scanner clearly shown! 46 47

X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I

Scratched imaging plates Film Replacement by Computed Radiography (CR)

- The image quality improves with increasing exposure time.

Original data with scratches:
Result of algorithms developed for DDA calibration applied on CR plates
- The structural noise of the IPs limits the max. achievable SNR.
After Filtering by ISee!: - Step hole, plate hole and wire image quality indicators measure
the increase of CNR as product of SNR and µeff.
- Reduction of contrast by tube voltage increase can be
compensated by increased SNR and vs. versa
- European standards require high definition systems for X-ray
applications.
- The normalized SNRN is independent on the unsharpness, and is
considered as the equivalent value to the selection of a film
system and a required minimum opt. density.
48 49

X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I

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 Assembly of an X-ray Image Intensifier

electron trajectory electrodes of the

electron optics
incident
X-ray
beams illuminated
output
screen

Radioscopy with Image Intensifiers

vacuum flask
input screen

photo cathode

50 51

X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I

Radioscopy: Analogue Camera with Image Intensifier Digital Camera with an Image Intensifier

Analogue video signal Computer

X-ray
X-ray intensifier Graphic
Analog TV
intensifier board
Computer

Optics and Graphic

Camera board

52 53

X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I

New Detectors in Radiology

Advantages: X-ray intensifier
➢ Real time systems
➢ Dynamic testing Basis of all modern radioscopy devices

➢ Application of image processing

➢ Contrast enhancement by
image integration and
Anishading-correction

➢ Defined exposure geometry

Bild der Anlage
(tomography possible)

Disadvantages: Automated car wheel inspection

➢ Limited spatial resolution
➢ High weight and large dimension
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X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I

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Radiograph of a Cast Aluminium Part with a Digital Camera

END

www.bam.de
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uwez@bam.de 57

X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I X-Ray Sensitive Detectors I

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