Dip B1-6.3.2 - 3 - Aircraft Materials - Wood and Fabric SR 16-12-06

AARC Diploma
MODULE 6
Materials and Hardware
6.3.2/3 Aircraft Materials –Wood and Fabric
Riyadh College
Student Resource Riyadh College
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2016-12-06 B1-6.3.2/3 Aircraft Materials –Wood and Fabric Page 2 of 76

Training Material Only
Knowledge Levels
Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence
Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge
levels indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either
the category B1 or the category B2 basic knowledge levels.
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:
LEVEL 1
A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives:
• The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
• The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using
common words and examples.
• The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
LEVEL 2
A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives:
• The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the
subject.
• The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as
appropriate, typical examples.
• The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with
physical laws describing the subject.
• The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and
schematics describing the subject.
• The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using
detailed procedures.
LEVEL 3
A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and
comprehensive manner.
Objectives:
• The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other
subjects.
• The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using
theoretical fundamentals and specific examples.

• The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to
the subject.
• The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple
drawings and schematics describing the subject.
• The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using
manufacturer's instructions.
• The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and
measurements and apply corrective action where appropriate.

AARC EASA Diploma

Module 6.3 – Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic
Table of Contents
6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 9
6.3.2 Wooden Structures ................................................................................................... 9
6.3.2.1 Construction Methods of Wooden Airframe Structures..................................... 9
The Use of Wood 9
Fuselage Structure 9
Wing Structure 10
6.3.2.2 Characteristics of Wood and Glue used in Aeroplanes..................................... 11
Timber Testing 12
Sawing Timber 14
Alternatives to Spruce 16
Timber Defects 16
Use of Plywood 17
Fabrication of Aircraft Wooden Components 19
Glue 20
Mixing and Application 21
Testing Glued Pieces 22
Glued Joints 22
Construction Joints 22
Plywood Skin Repairs 24
Joint Preparation 25
Assembly 26
6.3.2.3 Preservation and Maintenance of Wooden Structures .................................... 28
6.3.2.4 Types of Defects in Wood Material and Wooden Structures............................ 28
Common Defects in Wood Stock 28
6.3.2.5 Detection of Defects in Wooden Structures .................................................... 31
Structural Survey 31
Defects in Glued Structures 31
Access Holes 34
Timber Condition 34
Compression-Shake 35
Water Penetration 35

Miscellaneous Defects 37
Joint Failure 38
6.3.2.6 Repair of Wooden Structure ........................................................................... 39
Wing Spar Repairs 39
Wing Rib Repairs 44
Trailing Edge Repair 45
Plywood Skin Repairs 45
6.3.3 Fabric Covering ....................................................................................................... 50
6.3.3.1 Characteristics and Types of Fabrics used in Aeroplanes ................................. 50
Fabric Properties 51
Material Classifications 52
Tapes 56
Thread 56
Dope 57
Dope Additives 59
Solvents 60
The Process of Covering Using Fabric 60
Seams, Stitches and Stringing 62
Doping 65
6.3.3.2 Inspection Methods used for Fabric ................................................................ 67
Excess Tension 68
Loose Fabric 68
Coating Cracks 69
Fabric Identification 69
Coating Identification 70
Strength Criteria for Aircraft Fabric 70
Fabric Testing 70
Fabric Replacement 71
6.3.3.3 Types of Defects in Fabric ............................................................................... 72
Adhesion 72
Blushing 72
Bubbles and Blisters 72
Dull Finish 72
Fisheyes 72

Orange Peel 73
Pinholes 73
Roping 73
Rough Finish 73
Runs and Sags 73
6.3.3.4 Repairs to Fabric Coverings............................................................................. 73
Repair of Cuts and Tears 73
Rejuvenation of the Dope Film 76

Module 6.3 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement

This document is to be used for training purposes only.
Certification Statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation (EC) No.1321/2014 Annex III (Part-
66) and the associated Knowledge Levels as specified below:
Licence
Part 66 Category
Objective
Reference
B1
Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 6.3
Composite and non-metallic other than wood and fabric
Characteristics, properties and identification of common (a) 2
composite and non-metallic materials, other than wood,
used in aircraft;
Sealant and bonding agents; 2
The detection of defects/deterioration in composite and (b) 2
non-metallic material;
Repair of composite and non-metallic material 2
Wooden structures
Construction methods of wooden airframe structures 2
Characteristics, properties and types of wood and glue used 2
in aeroplanes
Preservation and maintenance of wooden structure 2
Types of defects in wood material and wooden structures 2
The detection of defects in wooden structure 2
Repair of wooden structure 2
Fabric covering
Characteristics, properties and types of fabrics used in
aeroplanes
Inspections methods for fabric
Types of defects in fabric
Repair of fabric covering

6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic

6.3.2 Wooden Structures
6.3.2.1 Construction Methods of Wooden Airframe Structures
The Use of Wood
Although many designers and manufacturers switched to all metal construction in the 1930s, the
advent of World War II, brought spruce back to the fore. Manufacturers used the material in the
construction of a large number of aircraft to reduce the reliance on strategic resources such as
steel and aluminium. Some aircraft were of mixed timber and metal construction while others
were almost entirely wooden.
The use of Sitka spruce was carried into post-war construction in many aircraft. During this time in
aviation history spruce was cheaper than aluminium or steel. However, because of the high
demand for aircraft production during this period, forests of this popular wood were rapidly
depleted.
Fuselage Structure
There are three basic types of wooden airframe fuselage construction.
Truss
The truss assembly carries all the flight and
landing load on the structure through the
frame work. Any skin over the structure is only
to exclude weather and foreign objects, plus
for aerodynamic fairing. The skin takes no
load.
Semi-Monocoque Construction
The external skin of the aircraft supports some or most of the load on the structure. This is as
opposed to using an internal framework that is then covered with a non-load-bearing skin.

Monocoque Construction
Monocoque fuselage construction methods are not widely used today. The technique was first
used in aircraft in the 1930’s. The skin and bulkheads carry all the flight and landing loads.
Semi-monocoque and monocoque structures can be skinned with plywood, sheet metal or
composite.
Wing Structure
Common configuration for wing and
stabiliser structure is to incorporate
front and rear spars which take the
majority of the structural loads and
transfers them to the fuselage. Wires,
struts, ribs and skins provide additional
load paths and reinforcing, plus
provide the wing shape.
Drag Wires
Oppose drag loads, the tendency for
drag to push the wing rearwards
opposite the direction of flight.
Anti-Drag Wires
Support the wing in the opposite direction to the drag wires. Drag and Anti-Drag wires triangulate
the structure between the compression struts giving it strength and rigidity.
Compression Struts
The tendency for the spars to be pulled together and crushing the ribs is prevented by
compression struts or compression ribs. As the name implies, compression struts supports
compression loads so are placed between the front and rear spars at each Drag and Anti-Drag wire
attachment point forming ‘rib bays’.

Ribs
Ribs give shape to the wing and support the non-load bearing skin which is typically fabric or
sometimes plywood.
Leading Edge
The leading edge is normally fabric covered, sheet aluminium alloy, plywood or composite to give
the leading edge shape and to protect the wing from erosion and impact damage.
6.3.2.2 Characteristics of Wood and Glue used in Aeroplanes
From the very beginning of aviation, wood has been used in
aircraft construction. Early aircraft designers and builders
often used ash or hickory. They were looking for a type of
wood that was relatively lightweight yet also very strong. Just
before World War I, Sitka spruce was discovered by aircraft
builders and found to be very well suited to their needs. The
strength to weight ratio was is very favourable for aircraft use,
pound for pound it has twice the tensile strength of
aluminium.
Although by volume, wood is not as strong as steel or
aluminium, the construction can be designed so that the
necessary strength is achieved with corresponding savings in
weight. Many designers prefer to use wooden spars in
acrobatic aircraft because the wood will withstand the bending
loads imposed during aerobatics better. Unlike metal, wood
does not weaken from fatigue. This, of course, is an advantage to the aircraft builder. Wood is
used in fabricating spars, ribs, longerons and stringers, leading edges, etc. Sheet plywood is easily
formed into shapes making it the obvious choice for wing tip bows, fuselage and wing skins etc.
Sitka spruce has long been recognized as the best type of wood to use in the construction of
aircraft. It is the standard against which all other woods are judged. It is light in weight with a
corresponding greater strength and toughness than is found in other woods. It is easily worked,
uniform in texture, resistant to rotting, and has no odour. It can also be obtained in clear, straight-
grained pieces having very few defects. This is possible because of the size of a mature spruce
tree.

Timber Testing
The grade of the timber will depend on the results of tests for moisture content, density,
brittleness, splitting and growth rate. The figures given below are for Sitka spruce but will be
similar for all aircraft grade timber.
The Moisture Content
The Moisture Content may be measured with a Moisture Meter, or by weight. In either case the
first six inches of the plank will be discarded as it may be drier than the rest. When testing by
weight, a sample will be cut off and weighed (W1), then dried in an oven at 100-105°C until two
successive weighing yield the same result (W2).
The following formula can then be used to determine the moisture content as a percentage:
A moisture content of 15% +/- 2% is normally acceptable.

Density
Density of the timber is found by weighing a sample of known volume and multiplying the result to
give a figure in pounds per cubic foot or kilograms per cubic metre. Spruce generally varies
between 20lb and 36lb per cubic foot (320kg – 577kg per cubic metre). For Grade A spruce the
density should be greater than 24lb per cubic foot at 15% moisture.
Brittleness
Brittleness is determined by using an Izod type impact test machine. A notched test piece of 5.25 x
0.875 inches square is placed in the machine and the blow applied tangentially to it. The test piece
should resist a load of at least 5 foot-pounds (0.69 metre-kilograms). A tolerance of 0.5 foot-
pounds may be allowed providing any fracture shows sufficient fibre. Alternatively a 12 x 1 inch
square test piece may be tested in a weight dropping machine and should withstand 13 foot-
pounds without showing signs of tension failure on the vertical sides.
Splitting Test
A Splitting Test is used to confirm the true grain direction and run of the timber sample. A blunt
chisel is used so that the wood is split rather than cut and the split is made away from the edge for
greater accuracy. The maximum acceptable grain slope is 1:15.

Growth Rate
Growth rate is indicated by the number of annual
growth rings per inch in the timber and varies to
some extent. Timber exhibiting less than 6 rings
per inch (25mm) should be rejected.
Springwood or Earlywood grows early in the
season. It is characterised by light colour, large
fibres and thin cell walls.
Summerwood or Latewood grows later in the
season. It is dark in colour with small fibres and
thick cell walls.
These alternating spring and summer growth rings create the visible annual rings.

Sawing Timber
The timber is generally cut into flat planks which may be Rift-sawn or Tangentially-sawn as shown.
Shrinkage occurs at a maximum in the direction tangential to the growth ring, is moderate in the
radial direction and at a minimum longitudinally. For this reason Rift-sawn material shrinks in only
one direction and does not tend to warp, while tangentially sawn timber is more prone to cupping,
warping and distortion.
Rift-sawn timber is more expensive to produce while Tangentially-sawn timber is cheaper and can
be produced in larger boards
Quarter sawing produces a higher proportion of Rift-sawn or near Rift sawn timber than plain or
through sawing, but as can be seen produces smaller boards, more waste and requires more
handling during the sawing process.
Edge sawn timber is not acceptable for use in aircraft construction

Cut pieces of wood are shipped from the saw mill to the supplier. They are typically sent in lengths
of between 10-20 feet at a nominal width of 6 inches. The boards will be planed smooth on the
flat surfaces and rough cut on the edges. A board cut in this manner is termed a S2S board,
meaning it has been surfaced on 2 sides. The nominal 6-inch width is often a problem for the
aircraft builder because it may be slightly less or more than 6 inches.

The largest single member of a timber built airframe is usually the wing spar. When the builder
needs a finished 6-inch spar for an aircraft the supplier may have difficulty providing that
dimension. The nominal 6- inch width may only finish to slightly over 5 inches when the edges are
cut smooth. Widths over 6 inches, lengths over 14 feet, and a thickness over 1 inch is scarce. This
is because the wood must be free from defects and typically the larger the piece of wood the
more likelihood of discovering a disqualifying defect.

Alternatives to Spruce
As Sitka Spruce is now expensive and difficult to obtain a number of alternatives have been
identified. Some of these grown in North America are Douglas Fir, Noble Fir, Western Hemlock,
White Pine, White Cedar, and Yellow Poplar. The most readily available are Douglas Fir, White
Pine, and Western Hemlock.
Certain other timbers are also approved for aircraft use around the world. These include
Bollywood, Bunya Pine, Hoop Pine, Klinki Pine, Maple, Silver Silkwood and Silver Quandong.
Timber Defects
The timber shall be of uniform colour. It shall be free from obvious and incipient decay, blue stain,
knots, shakes, splits, seasoning checks, internal checks, compression failures, compression wood,
resin and bark pockets, pith streaks, callus tissue, insect attack, wane or want, blemishes due to
handling and other injuries.
The following imperfections are permitted:
• Pin-knots and/or needle traces not exceeding 0.75 mm diameter and not closer than 50
mm;
• Sloping grain as determined by the splitting test: not exceeding 1 in 16;
• Spring: not exceeding 1 in 600 or 5 mm in 3 m;
• Bow: not exceeding 1 in 300 or 10 mm in 3 m;
• Twist: not exceeding 7 mm in 1 m2 of face area.
The moisture content of each plank shall be determined by means of an approved electrical
moisture meter. Tests shall be made at points approximately 500 mm from each end at the mid-
length. The three readings shall each be between 10 and 15 per cent, and the individual readings
shall not vary by more than 2 per cent in any plank.
In laminated assemblages the difference in average moisture content between any two
laminations shall not exceed 3 per cent.
The density of each plank shall not be less than 385 kg m3 when the moisture content, calculated
on the weight of the oven-dried wood, is 12 per cent. For each 1 per cent increase or decrease of
moisture content from 12 per cent the density value shall be increased or decreased respectively
at the rate of 1.92 kg m3.

Each plank accepted as complying with this specification shall be ink stamped with the following
particulars:
• The standard name of the timber (i.e. Klinki)
• The number of this specification.
Use of Plywood
Aircraft grade plywood is normally made of birch wood veneers bonded together. The harvested
birch log is cut to length, dressed to a circular cross section and steamed or hot water soaked to
soften it. It is then mounted in a lathe and a stationary knife the same length as the log is used to
peel a continuous veneer of predetermined thickness as the log rotates. In this way up to 95% of
the log can be used.
The veneers are dried to about 6% moisture content then cut to size and inspected. Aircraft grade
(GL 1) plywood must be free from all technical defects and the veneers which make it up are
selected accordingly. Joints are allowed if the face veneers are matched in structure and colour.
The veneers are laid up with grain directions normally alternating at 90°, which, in 3 ply material,
gives greater rigidity in the direction of the grain on the face veneers. A 45° offset is sometimes
used which gives greater rigidity in all directions and is slightly stronger, but more expensive to
produce. A controlled amount of Phenolic resin glue is applied to each veneer and the assembly is
then placed in a hydraulic press and heated under pressure to cure the glue.

The resultant plywood boards are available in panels 0.8 to

12mm thick and up to 1550 x 1550 mm in size. They are
stronger than an equivalent thickness solid wooden board
because of the cross grain assembly although slightly
heavier. The Phenolic resin glue, while adding to the weight
of the panel, offers a high degree of resistance to moisture
and other environmental factors.
Other types of timber have been used and sometimes birch
with a mahogany face ply is specified for skins because of its
resilience and finish properties. Thicker panels with a light
weight core such as balsa wood have been made for various
specialist applications.
With the careful application of moisture, heat and pressure,
plywood can be moulded to fairly complex shapes and is
thus used for wing and fuselage skin panels.
The World War 2 DeHavilland Mosquito high performance bomber was built almost entirely of
wood and the fuselage was constructed in the following manner:
The light, strong, very streamlined structure was formed by sandwiching 9.5 mm (three-eighths
inch) Ecuadorian balsa wood between Canadian birch plywood skins that varied in thickness from
4.5 mm to 6 mm (about ¼ inch). The plywood/balsa/plywood sandwich was formed inside
concrete moulds of each fuselage half. Each side also held seven birch plywood formers (frames)
reinforced with spruce blocks, plus bulkheads, floors, and other structural members. As the glue
cured, heated metal clamps held the skin layers tight to the mould. Technicians finished the edge
of each half of the fuselage with male and female wedge joints as fitters attached wiring and other
equipment to the inner walls. Final fuselage assembly was reminiscent of a typical plastic model
airplane kit as the two halves were glued and screwed together.

Fabrication of Aircraft Wooden Components

All parts made for aircraft construction or repair must be fabricated in accordance with an
approved drawing. The type, size and grain direction of the timber should be clearly stated. Any
substitution of materials used must be made with the relative properties clearly understood. All
material must be carefully inspected prior to use to ensure that there has been no deterioration
during transit and storage.
Simple flat parts may be made from board, strip or sheet material and cut with a fine toothed saw.
A bench saw may be used for more substantial parts while a band saw is useful for complex shapes
but a good quality edge finish is essential. Parts may be planed to contour but sanding solid wood
should be avoided to prevent the build-up of dust.
Pieces with more complex cross sections will be machined from plank or strip wood to provide
consistency.
Curved parts like wing rib caps are made by soaking or steaming the strip material then clamping it
in a jig to set the bend. The curve set by the jig will normally be more pronounced than the desired
finished shape as the wood will always spring back slightly when removed. This must be
determined by experimentation. It may take several days for the wood to dry and the shape to be
set permanently.
Wing spars may be produced in several ways. Solid wood spars have a high degree of strength but
are limited in size by timber availability and by weight in smaller applications. Where a stronger
wood such as Douglas Fir is substituted for spruce, the timber may be routed out on both sides to
produce an 'I' beam. A solid spar can also be produced by laminating several thinner pieces
together with glue.

Box spars and built-up I beam spars

can be fabricated to greater sizes,
using smaller component pieces.
Box spars are often composed of
solid or laminated transverse
members (Spar Booms or Caps)
joined by plywood webs.
Alternatively, two solid members
can be routed and bonded together
to form and internally routed box
spar.
Built-up I beams usually consist of a
solid web with strips bonded to
either side to form the spar cap.
Glue
While woodscrews and bolts are used for critical joints in a timber airframe the vast majority of
joints are made with glue.
Casein
A powdered glue derived from milk protein, it deteriorates with moisture and temperature
variations and is susceptible to fungal attack. It is therefore obsolete for aircraft use but is still
employed elsewhere. It leaves an alkaline residue which must be carefully removed before a joint
is re-glued with a more modern alternative.
Plastic Resin Glues
Urea-Formaldehyde glues such as Aerolite were developed in the 1930s and are still widely used.
The glue powder contains urea, formaldehyde and a thickening filler and is mixed with water for
use. It must be used in conjunction with an acid catalyst/ hardener. Normally the glue is applied to
one surface and the hardener to the other, the two being immediately brought together and
clamped. When mixed to a working consistency of thick cream the glue has a pot life of 4-5 hours
and when assembled with hardener, a setting time of 1.5 - 4 hours. The joint attains maximum
strength 3-5 days depending on temperature and humidity. It has good gap bridging qualities and
when cured has good resistance to moisture, temperature extremes and fuel. There is some
question of the reliability of these glues in a tropical environment and their use has been banned
for primary structure in Australia, however they are still approved for use in the USA and Europe.
Resorcinol Glues
Two part Resorcinol-Formaldehyde glue such as Aerodux. Comprised of a resin and a hardener
which are mixed prior to use, it has a pot life of 3-4 hours and a setting time of 8 hours. The joint
reaches full mechanical strength after approximately 1 week. The resin often contains a filler such
as ground nut shell which gives some gap bridging properties. When cured it has high resistance to
temperatures and chemical attack, and is waterproof. When sanded, the dust may cause a severe
allergic reaction.

Epoxy Resin
Various high strength two part resin systems and structural adhesives are available. With a pot life
ranging from 3-4 minutes to several hours, and cure times from under 1 hour at room
temperature, Epoxy glues are very versatile. Waterproof and chemical resistant, there is, however,
some question over the long-term durability of these resins exposed to high temperatures. Epoxy
resin softens at elevated temperatures and, although it regains its original strength when cooled,
any unusual load applied in its softened state may weaken the joint. Uncured components can
cause allergic reaction.
Mixing and Application
Pot Life
The length of time glue or adhesive will remain workable. It is affected by temperature and
humidity. The adhesive must be discarded when its pot life expires. Read the SDS, if unfamiliar
with the product. PPE must be worn.
The maximum time allowed between
applying the glue and joining the parts
together is called the Open Assembly Time.
The maximum time between joining the
parts and applying pressure and heat is the
Closed Assembly Time.
Handling or Setting time is the period after
which the joint can be unclamped and
moved.
Cure time is the time taken for the full
chemical reaction to occur and maximum
strength to be achieved, it may be the same
as the setting time but is often considerably
longer.
All these times vary with temperature and humidity so it is important to consult the
manufacturers' data sheets.
It is important to use only glues approved for aircraft construction and follow the constructors'
recommendations. The glue manufacturers preparation and mixing instructions must also be
closely adhered to, to obtain the optimum properties of the product. For example the pot life of
Aerolite may be extended by adding more water to the mix, but the resultant joints in softwood
will be weaker because the thinner glue soaks into the wood, away from the glue line. The cure
time of most glues can be accelerated with the application of heat but excessive heating disrupts
the chemical reaction and weakens the bond.
When properly used the glue should be stronger than the wood it is joining. When home building
from a kit or from plans an inspector may ask for a test piece from each batch of glue used. This
will be tested to destruction to ensure the wood fails before the glue and prove the integrity of
the glue mix and joining technique.

Testing Glued Pieces

Satisfactory glue joints in aircraft should develop the full strength of the wood under all conditions
of stress. Tests should be made by the mechanic prior to gluing a joint of a major repair, such as a
wing spar. Whenever possible, perform tests using pieces cut from the actual wood used for the
repair under the same mechanical and environmental conditions that the repair will undergo.
Perform a sample test using two pieces of scrap wood
from the intended repair, each cut approximately 1" ×
2" × 4". The pieces should be joined by overlapping
each approximately 2 inches. The type of glue,
pressure, and curing time should be the same as used
for the actual repair. After full cure, place the test
sample in a bench vise and break the joint by exerting
pressure on the overlapping member. The fractured
glue faces should show a high percentage of at least
75 percent of the wood fibres evenly distributed over
the fractured glue surface.
Glued Joints
When manufacturing or repairing aircraft structure; the grain orientation of the wood used is of
great importance. Generally the designers plans or repair scheme will indicate the grain direction
to be used, but if it is not specified it must be remembered that the direction with the greatest
strength is along the grain. Consideration of the purpose of the joint and the likely loads on it will
indicate the grain direction to be used for optimum strength.
Most joints in a wooden aircraft structure are butt joints where two or more components meet or
cross. The strength of end grain joints is limited and will usually depend on the surface area in
contact so it is often necessary to add corner blocks, gussets or splice plates to increase the
contact area and distribute loads.
For further repairs refer to AC 43 manual
Construction Joints


Longitudinal members are joined

by scarf joints, where both parts
are tapered and the taper faces
are bonded together. For
maximum strength the material
should be tapered at between
12:1 and 15:1, a greater taper
reduces the strength because the
wood becomes too thin at the
ends of the joint, while a smaller
taper reduces the contact area.
Repair parts can sometimes be
spliced in using a scarf joint
without need of doublers, thus
retaining the original contour
and thickness.
Primary structural members usually require doublers on both sides of the joint, staggered as
shown to transfer the loads across the joint.
Plywood skins are also joined by scarfing but a high degree of accuracy is required when preparing
the joint to ensure a good bond and smooth joint.
Plywood Skin Repairs
Plywood skin can be repaired using a number of different methods depending on the size of the
hole and its location on the aircraft. Manufacturer’s instructions, when available, should be the
first source of a repair scheme. AC 43.13-1

Joint Preparation
Joint preparation is of paramount importance. It should be remembered that the properties of
both the timber and the glue are affected by temperature and humidity so pieces of wood that are
to be joined should be kept in the same environment for at least 12 hours.
The surfaces to be joined
must be planed flat and
smooth to ensure
intimate contact. Do not
use sandpaper on new
timber as this fills the
pores in the wood with
minute dust particles
and reduces adhesion.
It is permissible to lightly
sand old, polished or
hard surfaces and
plywood, but not to the
extent that the flatness
is altered.
Any irregularities such as chips or damaged grain will weaken the joint despite the gap bridging
properties of most glue.
The joint area should be thoroughly cleaned with a vacuum cleaner immediately prior to gluing.
The surfaces must be clean and dry, free from any grease, wax, varnish, dope or old glue. A
Wetting Test may be used to check for contamination. A drop of water is placed on the surface
and observed.

If it spreads rapidly (in seconds or minutes) it is an indication that the surface may be bonded
successfully. The surface must be thoroughly dried before any glue is applied.
Glue should be applied thinly and evenly to the surfaces to be bonded in the manner specified by
the manufacturer.
The parts must then be brought together as quickly as possible (within the Open Assembly Time)
to prevent ingress of contaminants and to allow any small adjustments in position or alignment
before hardening starts (within the Closed Assembly Time).
Pressure must be applied evenly, especially where large contact areas are involved.
This excludes air pockets and produces a thin, continuous film of glue (the Glue or Bond Line)
ensuring maximum mechanical strength.
Excess glue should be removed around the joint while still wet, and heat applied as necessary.
Assembly
Small screws, nails or staples may be used to apply pressure to the parts during the setting process
but these are usually
removed when the
joint is fully cured.
Care must be taken
that the metal
fastener does not split
small parts or cause
excessive grain
damage, the head
should be seated on the surface without crushing the fibres.
Because pressure must be even, multiple rows of nails may be needed. The nails should be 1 inch
apart in rows ½ inch apart staggered so that each one is no more than ¾ inch from the next. They
should penetrate the lower member of the joint by at least 3/8 inch but must not protrude
through it. On small joints, thin plywood nailing strips may be used to spread the load.
Flat bonderized steel nails, brass plated to prevent rusting

are used in conjunction with glued joints to improve holding
power.
Nailing is often used to clamp parts together and apply
pressure while adhesives cure, the nails are then removed.
Nails and screws can have an adverse effect, there is a
considerable risk of splitting the wood and they can provide a
path for moisture ingress.

The standard aircraft nail is AN301-18 or AN301-20.

• AN301 is the Part Number
• -18 is the diameter in ‘American Wire Gauge’ (18
gauge).
• -20 is the diameter in ‘American Wire Gauge’ (20
gauge).
• -3 is the length in 1/8 inch
Example: AN301-20-3.
When applying varnish to protect the finished structure you

must ensure all nail holes are properly sealed to prevent the
ingress of moisture. Screw holes may need to be sealed with
proprietary filler before varnishing.
Where possible screw clamps, spring clamps and hydraulic or
electric presses are the preferred method of applying
pressure to the joints as they do not damage the fabric of the
timber. The pressure required varies depending on the type
of timber and the glue to be used. Softwood joined by
Resorcinol-Formaldehyde resin type glue will typically
require 125-150 pounds per square inch while hardwood will
need 150-200 pounds per square inch. Always consult the
glue manufacturer’s instructions.
Refer AC 43.13-1

6.3.2.3 Preservation and Maintenance of Wooden Structures

After assembly of a structure or
repair, the timber and joints must be
thoroughly protected to prevent the
wood from drying out and becoming
brittle, or rotting due to excess
moisture. This is done by the
application of an approved varnish
or lacquer to all surfaces of the
structure.
The varnishes normally used
nowadays are two-part Epoxy resins
which provide excellent protection
and do not react with the solvents
and dopes used for fabric coverings
as polyurethane varnishes are prone to.
6.3.2.4 Types of Defects in Wood Material and Wooden Structures
After timber has been cut it should be examined for defects. Some of the more common defects
are outlined in the following paragraphs.
Common Defects in Wood Stock
Dote Disease
This is the worst of all defects and does much damage to
the wood. It is an inherent disease which only occurs at
the base of the living tree. When the tree is felled it is cut
at a point ten feet or more above the ground as a
precaution against the possibility of dote.
Cut pieces of timber should be examined not only on the
sides but also on the ends; dote will be recognised by the
presence of brownish yellow patches, somewhat similar
to thin mineral oil spots.
Dote is contagious and any infected wood should be burnt.
Decay or Rot
A defect similar to dote disease can develop after a tree has been felled if the timber is exposed to
excessive soaking and partial drying.
Dry-rot fungus requires a certain amount of moisture to establish itself but once the disease is
established it thrives on the moisture already in the wood.
The decayed wood is brown in colour and appears as though it had been charred; the timber is
rendered soft and dry, and will flake off easily.
When dry rot is present it gives off an odour similar to mushrooms.

Incorrect Grain Inclination

The limit of grain inclination for spruce is 1 in 15 for
grade A, and 1 in 12 for grade B. The inclination
should be checked to ensure that the above limits
are not exceeded.
The most usual method of determining the
inclination of the grain is by examining the flower-
face of the timber to find the rein ducts. It will
readily be seen whether they are straight or
inclined.
If the inclination exceeds the limits specified, the
timber should be classified in a lower grade.
Heart-Shake
This defect usually follows the course of a sap duct
longitudinally and is usually visible on the tangential surface.
The use of a small size feeler gauge will assist in finding the
depth of the shake. The defect should be cut out of the timber.
Ring-Shake
This defect is indicated by a parting of the annular rings. Ring-
shakes are usually caused by frost, particularly after a heavy
rainfall. The defect should also be cut out of the timber.
Knots
There are several kinds of knots which may be encountered when examining cut timber; among
these are the dead-knot, the budknot and the pin-knot. The presence of any of these knots can
have a detrimental effect. Generally they should not be more than a quarter of an inch in diameter
but no hard and fast rules can be specified; each case must be decided on its merits. Timber with
clusters of pin-knots in it should be rejected.

Pitch Holes
There are two kinds of pitch holes,
one being the horizontal type which
usually appears at the base of a
knot, and the other the vertical type
which is sometimes referred to as a
gum pocket. Gum pockets may be
either ‘alive’ (the gum seam has not
dried out) or ‘dead’, and in the case
of the latter, the timber should be
rejected.
Tests on ‘live’ gum pockets indicate that the timber in the region of the gum pocket usually gives a
better result than the remainder of the timber.
Blue Stain
This defect only occurs in sapwood which should not be used in aircraft parts.
Compression Wood
(not allowable)
Difficult to detect, has appearance of
excessive summer growth, high specific
gravity, little contrast between spring and
summer growth.
Compression Failures
(not allowable)
These failures are caused by wood being
overstressed in compression during
natural growth, or during handling as a log, buckling of fibres appearing as streaks on the surface
at right angles to the grain.
Some defects are allowed in the wood as follows:
• Hard knots (up to 3/8 inch diameter, must meet chart specs).
• Pin knot clusters (allowable if minimal effect of grain direction).
• Pin knot clusters (allowable if minimal effect of grain direction).
• Pitch pockets (allowable if meets strict chart specs).
• Mineral streaks (not allowable if decay is present).

6.3.2.5 Detection of Defects in Wooden Structures

There is no reason why aircraft constructed in these materials should not have a satisfactory life
provided they are protected from the adverse effects of extreme temperature and humidity and
are kept in suitable hangars when not in use. It must be remembered that the controlled moisture
content in seasoned wood is essential for its strength. Long-term storage in hot, dry conditions can
be as detrimental as cold damp ones.
Structural Survey
Before commencing a detailed examination of an aircraft structure, the aircraft should be
inspected externally for signs of gross deformation, such as warped wing structures, tail surfaces
out of alignment or evidence of obvious structural failure. In some cases of advanced deterioration
this assessment may be sufficient to pronounce the aircraft beyond economical repair and thus
avoid further work.
Whenever possible the aircraft should be housed in a dry, well ventilated hangar and all inspection
panels, covers and hatches removed before continuing with the survey. The aircraft should be
thoroughly dried out before examining glued joints or carrying out repairs. Immediately after
opening the inspection panels, etc., each component should be checked for smell. A musty smell
indicates fungal growth or dampness and, if present, necessitates further examination to establish
which areas are affected.
Where the wings, fuselage or tail unit are designed as integral stressed structures, such as inner
and outer ply skins glued and screwed to structural members (Double Skin Structure, below left)
no appreciable departure from the original contour or shape is acceptable.
Where single skin plywood structures are concerned, some slight sectional undulation or panting
between panels may be permissible provided the timber and glue is sound. However, where such
conditions exist, a careful check must be made of the attachment of the ply to its supporting
structure and moderate pressure with the hand, to push the ply from the structure, should be
used.
Defects in Glued Structures
Provided that protective varnish was applied to all exposed wood surfaces after gluing and
satisfactorily maintained during the life of an aircraft, rapid deterioration of timber and glued
joints would be unlikely. However, access to internal structure is often difficult or even impossible
and deterioration takes place for a variety of reasons.
Some of the main factors which may cause deterioration are:
• Chemical reactions of the glue itself due to ageing or moisture, to extremes of temperature
or to a combination of these factors;
• Mechanical forces due mainly to timber shrinkage;
• Development of mycological growths (i.e. fungus);
• Oil percolating from the engine installation;
• Fuel contamination due to system leaks or spillage in the tank bays;
• Blockage of water drainage holes.

Aircraft which are exposed to large cyclic changes of temperature and humidity are especially
prone to timber shrinkage which in turn may lead to glue deterioration. The amount of movement
of timber members due to these changes varies with the volume of each member, the rate of
growth of the tree from which the timber was cut and the way in which the timber was converted.
Thus, two major members in an aircraft structure, secured to each other by glue, are unlikely to
have identical characteristics and differential loads will, therefore, be transmitted across the glue
film with changes of humidity. This will impose stresses in the glued joint which, in temperate
zones, can normally be accommodated when the aircraft is new and for some years afterwards.
However, with age the glue tends to deteriorate, even when the aircraft is maintained under ideal
conditions and stresses at the glued joint, due to changes in atmospheric conditions, may cause
failure of the joint.
In most wooden aircraft the main spars are of box formation consisting of long top and bottom
transverse members (i.e. spar booms) joined by plywood webs. The spar booms may be built up
from laminations glued together and at intervals vertical wooden blocks are positioned between
the two booms to add support to the plywood sides. The main spars carry most of the loads in
flight and are, at times, subject to flexing. The glued joints should, therefore, be free from
deterioration but, unless the spar is dismantled or holes cut in the webs, internal inspection may
be virtually impossible.
Long exposure to inclement weather or strong sunlight will tend to destroy the weatherproofing
qualities of fabric coverings and of surface finishes generally. If fabric-covered ply structures are
neglected under these conditions the surface finish will crack, allowing moisture to penetrate to
the wooden structure and resulting in considerable deterioration through water soakage.
Glue Line
When checking a glue line (i.e. the edge of the
glued joint) for condition, all protective
coatings of paint should be removed by careful
scraping; it is important to ensure that the
wood is not damaged during the scraping
operation.
The inspection of the glue line is often
facilitated by the use of a magnifying glass.
Where the glue line tends to part or where the
presence of glue cannot be detected or is
suspect, then, providing the wood is dry, the
glue line should be probed.
Scraping should cease immediately the wood
is revealed where glue line tends to part or
presence of glue cannot be detected
Probe glue line with a thin feeler gauge if any
penetration is possible joint should be regarded as defective providing the wood is dry

NOTE: It is important to ensure that the surrounding wood is dry, otherwise a false impression of
the glue line would be obtained due to closing of the joint by swelling. In instances where pressure
is exerted on a joint, either by the surrounding structure or by metal attachment devices such as
bolts or screws, a false impression of the glue condition could be obtained unless the joint is
relieved of this pressure before the glue line inspection is carried out.
Refer to AC 43.13-1B/2A
The contours and alignment of leading and trailing edges are of particular importance and a
careful check should be made for deformities. Any distortion of these light ply and spruce
structures indicates deterioration and a careful internal inspection should be made for security of
these parts to the main wing structure. If a general deterioration is found in these components the
main wing structure may also be affected.
Where there are access panels or inspection covers on the top surfaces of wings or tailplane, care
is necessary to ensure that water has not entered at these points where it can remain trapped to
attack the surrounding structure.
Splits in the proofed fabric covering on plywood surfaces should be investigated by removing the
defective fabric in order to ascertain whether the ply skin beneath is serviceable. It is common for
a split in the ply skin to be the cause of a similar defect in the protective fabric covering.
Fabric having age cracks and thick with repeated doping, may indicate that the structure
underneath has not been critically examined for a considerable time. Insertion patches in the
fabric could also indicate that structural repairs have been made at that point.
Whilst a preliminary survey of the external structure may be useful in roughly assessing the
general condition of the aircraft, it should be noted that timber and glue deterioration often takes
place inside a structure without any external indications. Where moisture can enter a structure, it
will tend to find the lowest point, where it will stagnate and promote rapid deterioration. Other
causes of glue deterioration are listed above.
Integrity of Glued Joints
Assessment of the integrity of glued joints in aircraft structures presents considerable difficulties
since there is no positive non-destructive method of examination which will give a clear indication
of the condition of the glue and timber inside a joint. The position is made more difficult by the
lack of accessibility for visual inspection.

The inspection of a complete aircraft for glue or wood deterioration will necessitate checks on
remote parts of the structure which may be known, or suspected trouble spots and, in many
instances, are boxed in or otherwise inaccessible. In such instances, considerable dismantling is
required and it may be necessary to cut access holes in ply structures to facilitate the inspection;
such work must be done only in accordance with approved drawings or the repair manual for the
aircraft concerned and, after the inspection has been completed, the structure must be made
good and protected in an approved manner.
NOTE: Where access is required and no approved scheme exists, a scheme should be obtained
from the aircraft manufacturer, an Organisation appropriately approved by the Authorities for
such work or. Refer AC 43.13-1
Access Holes
In general, access holes are circular
in shape and should be cut with a
sharp trepanning tool to avoid
jagged edges. It is essential to avoid
applying undue pressure to the tool,
especially towards the end of the
cut; otherwise damage may be
caused to the inner face of the
panel by stripping off the edge
fibres or the ply laminations.
Where rectangular access holes are
prescribed care is necessary to
ensure that they are correctly
located and that corner radii are in
accordance with drawing
requirements.
The edges of all access holes must
be smoothed with fine glass paper, preferably before inspection is commenced, since contact with
the rough edges may cause wood fibres to be pulled away.
It is important that the whole of the aircraft structure, including its components, e.g. tailplane,
elevators, etc., is inspected in detail before any decision is reached regarding general condition. It
is possible for the main airframe to be in good condition but for a marked deterioration to have
occurred in, for example, a control surface.
Timber Condition
Dry rot and wood decay are not usually difficult to
detect. Dry rot is indicated by small patches of crumbling
wood, whilst a dark discolouration of the wood surface or
grey streaks of stain running along the grain are
indicative of water penetration. Where such
discolouration cannot be removed by light scraping the
part should be rejected, but local staining of the wood by
the dye from a synthetic adhesive hardener can, of
course, be disregarded.

Compression-Shake
When wood has been subjected to compression overload along the wood grains, the grains exhibit
microscopic slip planes and creases (also known as failures). If a large section of wood is subjected
to compression overload a well-defined visible wrinkle across the face of the wood, known as a
compression shake, may be present. The presence of either microscopic compression failures or
visible shakes seriously reduces the load bearing capacity of the wood. However, experience
indicates that even the visible compression shakes may be difficult to detect.
The evidence of a shake is usually associated with a sudden change of a member's cross-section,
which is often directly at the side of a doubler. Shakes could be extremely subtle and hidden by
paintwork or other surface features that hinder their detection.
A compression shake may result from abnormal bending overloads often experienced during
relatively innocuous situations such as a heavy landing or a landing gear collapse. Unlike a crack in
metal, a compression shake in wood does not progress during the aircraft’s normal utilisation.
However, once the wood is subjected to a load in excess of its reduced load bearing capacity, it
may catastrophically fail without any warning.
Water Penetration
Structure
In some instances where water penetration
is suspected, the removal of a few screws
from the area in question will reveal, by their
degree of corrosion, the condition of the
surrounding joint.
Slight corrosion of the screw due to the

adhesive will occur following the original
construction; therefore, the condition of the
screw should be compared with that of a
similar screw, removed from another part of
the structure known to be free from water
soakage.

NOTE: Plain brass screws are normally used for reinforcing glued wooden members, although zinc
coated brass is sometimes used. Where hard woods such as mahogany or ash are concerned, steel
screws are sometimes used. Unless otherwise specified by the aircraft constructor, it is usual to
replace screws with new screws of identical length but one size larger.
Another means of ascertaining if water penetration has
taken place is to remove the bolts holding fittings at spar
root-end joints, aileron hinge brackets, etc. (opposite right).
Primary joints may have bushed holes and the bushes should
also be withdrawn. Corrosion on the surface of these bolts
and bushes and timber discolouration, will provide a useful
indication of any water penetration which has taken place.
Bolts and bushes should be smeared with an approved
protective treatment before being refitted through wooden
members.
NOTE: When refitting bolts it is important to ensure that the
same number of shrinkage washers are fitted as were fitted
originally.
Experience of a particular aircraft will indicate those portions
of the structure most prone to water penetration and
moisture entrapment (e.g. at window rails or the bottom
lower structure of entry doors), but it must be borne in mind
that this is not necessarily indicative of the condition of the
complete aircraft.
Where drain holes have become blocked, water soakage will
invariably be found. Drain holes should be cleared during
routine maintenance.
Water Penetration of Top Surface
The condition of the proofed-fabric covering on ply surfaces is of
great importance. If any doubt exists regarding its proofing
qualities or if there are any signs of poor adhesion, cracks, or other
damage, it should be peeled back to reveal the ply skin.
The condition of the exposed ply surface should be examined and
if water penetration has occurred, this will be shown by dark grey
streaks along the grain and a dark discolouration at ply joints or
screw countersunk holes, together with patches of discolouration.
If these marks cannot be removed by light scraping or, in the case
of advanced deterioration, where there are small surface cracks or
separation of the ply laminations, then the ply should be rejected.
Where evidence of water penetration is found, sufficient of the
surfaces should be stripped to determine its extent.
Providing good care is taken of the protective covering from the
beginning, much deterioration can be avoided.

Miscellaneous Defects
During the inspection of the aircraft, the structure should be examined for other defects of a more
mechanical nature. Guidance on such defects is given below:
• Shrinkage. Shrinkage of timber, as well as inducing stresses in glued joints, can cause
looseness of metal fittings or bolts and, if fluctuating loads are present, can result in
damage to the wood fibres at the edges of the fittings or around the bolt holes. Shrinkage
can be detected by removing any paint or varnish as described previously and attempting
to insert a thin feeler gauge between the timber and the fitting or bolt head.
• Elongated Bolt Holes. Where bolts secure fittings which take load carrying members, or
where the bolts are subject to landing or shear loads, the bolt holes should be examined
for elongation or surface crushing of the wood fibres. The bolts should be removed to
facilitate the
examination and,
in some cases, the
bolt itself may be
found to be
strained.
Rectification of
elongated bolt
holes must be
carried out in
accordance with
the approved
Repair Manual, the
usual method
being to open out
the holes and fit
steel bushes.
• Bruising and Crushing. A check should be made for evidence of damage such as bruises or
crushing of structural members, which can be caused, for example, by over tightening
bolts. Repair schemes for such damage are governed by the extent and depth of the
defect.
• Previous Repairs. When examining a structure for signs of the defects mentioned above,
particular attention should be paid to the integrity of repairs which may have been carried
out previously.

Joint Failure
A glued joint may fail in service as a result of an accident or due to excessive mechanical loads
having been imposed upon it, either in tension or in shear. It is often difficult to decide the nature
of the load which caused the failure, but it should be borne in mind that glued joints are generally
designed to take shear loads.
If a joint is designed to take tension loads, it will be secured by a number of bolts or screws (or
both) fairly closely pitched in the area of tension loading. If a failure occurs in this area, it is usually
very difficult to form an opinion of the actual reasons for it, due to the considerable break-up of
the timber occurring in close proximity with the fasteners.
In all cases of glued joint failure, whatever the direction of loading, there should be a fine layer of
wood fibres adhering to the glue, whether or not the glue has come away completely from one
section of the wood member. If there is no evidence of fibre adhesion, this may indicate glue
deterioration, but if the imprint of wood grain is visible in the glue this is generally due to ‘case
hardening’ of the glue during construction of the joint and the joint has always been below
strength. If the glue exhibits a certain amount of crazing or star shaped patterns, this indicates too
rapid setting, or the pot life of the glue having been exceeded. In these cases, the other glued
joints in the aircraft should be considered suspect.

Damage caused by a heavy landing may be found some distance away from the landing gear
attachment points. Secondary damage can be introduced by transmission of shock from one end
of a strut or bracing to its opposite end, causing damage well away from the point of impact. A
thorough inspection of the existing paint or varnish at suspected primary or secondary impact
points may reveal, by cracks or flaking, whether damage has actually occurred.
6.3.2.6 Repair of Wooden Structure

The basic criteria for any aircraft repair are that the repaired structure must not only be as strong
as the original structure and the rigidity of the structure and the aerodynamic shape must also be
equivalent. Materials used for the repair of wooden structure should be the same as the original
unless they have become obsolete. If substitutions are made, they must produce a repair that
meets the basic requirements of the manufacturer and the local Regulatory Authority.
Wing Spar Repairs
There are several types of wooden spars that are likely to be encountered in aircraft construction.
Each type of spar is unique in design and requires specific repair procedures. The Aircraft
Maintenance Manual, the SRM or the AC 43.13-1B/2A will contain the relevant repair information
and procedures.
Splices in solid spars must not be made under the attachment fittings for the wing root, landing
gear, engine mount, lift struts or inter-plane struts.
If damage occurs in any of these areas, replace the entire spar. No more than two splices can be
installed in one spar.
Attachments for minor fittings such as those for drag or anti-drag wires or compression members
are allowed to pass through the spar

Some of the most common wood spars include solid spars, laminated spars with rectangular cross-
sections and externally routed spars with cross-sections resembling I-beams. The I-beam spar is
routed to reduce weight while still providing adequate strength requirements. There are also built-
up box spars that utilise upper and lower flanges of solid spruce with webs of plywood. Other
types include built-up I-beam spars with spruce webs and flanges as well as internally routed box-
spars made up of two rectangular pieces of spruce glued together then routed to reduce weight.
The following repairs may be carried out to damaged spars in accordance with the manufactures
repair manual, AC43 repair manual or a certified repair scheme from a recognised and approved
organisation.
Scarf Repair
If an inspection reveals a longitudinal crack in a solid wood spar, repair it by carefully scraping
away the finish on both sides of the spar and gluing reinforcing plates of spruce or plywood on
each side of it. Reinforcing plates should be one-quarter as thick as the spar and extend beyond
each end of the crack for at least three times the thickness of the spar. Bevel the ends of the
reinforcing plates with a 5:1 taper to within a 1/8-inch thickness of the plate and attach the plates
with glue, using no nails.

Repair of a longitudinal crack in a solid spar.

Splices in solid spars must not be made under the attachment fittings for the wing root, landing
gear, engine mount, lift struts or inter-plane struts. I damage occurs in any of these areas, replace
the entire spar. No more than two splices can be installed in one spar.
Attachments for minor fittings such as those for drag or anti-drag wires or compression members
are allowed to pass through the spar.
If a solid laminated or internally routed spar is damaged on its top or bottom edge, repair it,
providing that all of the damage can be removed without exceeding manufacturers' limits. Clean
out the damaged material to a depth of no more than one-quarter of the spar thickness. Once the
damage is removed taper the ends of the area to a 5:1 slope then insert and glue a spruce block.
Finally, glue spruce or plywood reinforcing plates to each side of the spar, making them one-
quarter the thickness of the spar and extending at least three times the thickness of the spar
beyond each end of the damage. Taper the plates to a 5:1 slope to within a 1/8-inch thickness of
the plate.
Repair to a damaged edge of a solid wing spar.

Splice solid or rectangular wood spars using a scarf repair that requires a taper of 10:1 or 12:1.
Glue reinforcement plates to the end of the splice. If the splice is to be made without
disassembling the wing, use special care to prepare the spar and the repair material. Cut the spar
and the new material to the proper scarf angle.
Once the cut is prepared, put the two scarfed ends together and clamp them to a back-up board
that is the same width as the spar and thick enough to give good, solid support. Align the support
with the original spar and clamp it securely with cabinetmaker’s parallel clamps or ‘C’ clamps. Pass
a fine-toothed cross-cut saw through the scarf joint to remove material that does match properly.
The strength of the scarf joint
depends heavily on making sure the
bevel cuts match precisely. To ensure
a tight glued joint, use a very sharp
plane or wood chisel to make a
perfectly smooth surface with open
pores. Do NOT used sandpaper to
smooth the surface because sawdust
will clog the pores and not allow the
glue to properly adhere to the wood,
weakening the joint.
Repairs to a solid spar using a scarf joint.
Splayed Repair
Spread the properly mixed glue on each prepared surface, join the pieces and then apply even
pressure, being sure that the spar is in correct edge alignment. When the glue has cured form the
recommended time, remove the clamps and pressure block and inspect the glue line, carefully
cutting away any glue that has squeezed from the joint. Once inspected and cleaned, glue
reinforcement plates over each end of the scarf. Make these plates from solid spruce or plywood,
one-quarter the thickness of the spar and extend the plates across the spar at six times the spar
thickness on each side of the scarf line. Taper the ends at 2:1 to prevent abrupt changes in the
cross-sectional area of the repaired spar. Do not drill new boltholes in the spar until the splice is
completed.
Splice repair for a solid wood spar.

Build Up
A built-up I-beam spar repair requires a 10:1 to 12:1 scarf joint between the original spar and the
new material. This type of repair requires that solid spruce filler blocks be placed in between the
spar flanges for extra support. It also requires plywood reinforcement plates, one-half the spar
web thickness, to be glued to the spar flange and filler blocks to make a box-type repair at the
splice.
Splice repair for a built-up I-beam spar.

Built-up box spars carry the greatest loads of any of the wooden spars. For this reason, the built-
up box spar repair is the most critical and therefore requires the use of approved drawings as
proper guidelines. The typical built-up box spar repair consists of removing portions of the webs
from both side of the spar and cutting flanges to a 10:1 or 12:1 taper. Then splice in new flanges
and spruce reinforcement plates, one-half the thickness of the flanges and install them from the
inside of the spar.
Built-up box spar repair, using approved drawings.

When replacing the webs on repaired box-spars, install filler blocks that are the same thickness as
the flanges between the flanges. Scarf the undamaged portion of the web to a taper of 10:1 and
install a filler block at a point centred under each scarf joint. Stagger the scarf cuts in two webs
along the spar rather than directly across from each other to improve the strength of the webs. As
before, glue the joints together and glue and nail the filler blocks in place. When the glue has
cured, glue and nail a plywood cover strip over the end of the splice.
Splice repair for a built-up wood box spar.

Wing Rib Repairs
Wood wing ribs are usually made of spruce strips that have a cross-section of approximately 1/4-
to 5/16-inch. These small strips accept the air loads from the covering of the wing and transmit
them into the spars. When manufacturing ribs, soften the upper and lower cap strips with steam
before bending them over a form. Cap strips are the upper and lower surfaces that attach to the
supporting web. These strips carry the bending loads of the wing and provide a surface for
attaching the wing skin. When dry after steaming, place them in a jig and cut all the cross
members to fit between them. Cover each intersection between a vertical member and a cap strip
with a gusset made of mahogany plywood. Glue the gussets to the strips and secure them with
brads to provide the pressure needed to make strong glue joints. Slip the completed ribs over the
spars and assemble and square up the wing truss with the drag and anti-drag wires adjusted to the
proper tension.
Cap strip repairs
If a cap strip is broken between two of the upright
members, cut the strip to a taper 12 times its
thickness. Then cut a new piece of the same type of
material with a matching taper. Cut a reinforcing
block of spruce the same size as the cap strip and
16 times as long as its width and glue it to the
inside of the cap strip. Then cover the both the cap
strip and reinforcement with plywood faceplates
that are glued to the strip and held with brads.
Splice repair to a rib located over a spar.

If the damage is located above one of the upright members, cut the cap strip with a 10:1 taper
with the centre of the cut over the upright member. Then splice a new piece of cap strip material
into the structure. The upright member serves as the reinforcement so no block is needed under
the splice. Put the splice plates of thin plywood on each side of the splice so that none of the joints
depends upon end-grain gluing.
It is sometimes necessary to replace only the leading or trailing edge portion of a rib, so cap strips
may be cut at a spar. When the cap strips are cut over a spar, use 10:1 taper and glue gussets of
plywood the same size as the original to each side of the rib.
Trailing Edge Repair
The trailing edge of a wing is the most likely to be damaged by moisture collecting and causing the
wood to rot. All wings must incorporate drainage grommets at the lowest part of each rib to drain
accumulated moisture. Drainage grommets also ventilate the compartment to prevent
condensation. Occasionally, grommets will clog with dirt and not allow adequate drainage.
Subsequently, moisture will collect around the wood structures producing an environment
conducive to decay. If there is any movement when the trailing edge is flexed, cut away the
trailing edge fabric and inspect the edge structure. If the rear end of the rib has rotted, cut it away
and cut a spruce block to fit the removed rib section. Then cut reinforcing plates of plywood, glue
them into place and fasten new trailing edge finishing materials to the repaired ribs.
Most wooden wings utilise metal compression members. However, wooden compression
members are used on certain aircraft. When it is necessary to repair wood compression members,
use a 10:1 scarf joint. Glue reinforcing plates that are made of the same material as the
compression member on each side of the splice and the length of which is 12 times the
compression member’s thickness. Cover the entire repair with plywood to form a boxed rib.
Plywood Skin Repairs
Aircraft which incorporate plywood skins normally carry a large amount of stress from the flight
loads. Therefore, make repairs to plywood skins in strict accordance with the Aircraft Maintenance
Manual, the SRM or the AC 43.13-1B/2A. Repairs made in accordance with these publications will
most likely be approved by the local Regulatory Authority. If there is no suitable publication
available, consult the aircraft manufacturer for a suitable repair scheme.
Use circular or elliptical plywood patches in plywood skin repair to avoid the stress concentrations
developed by abrupt changes in the cross-sectional areas of square or rectangular patches. There
are several types of plywood patches approved for aircraft applications and these are shown on
the following pages.

Splayed Patch
Small holes in thin plywood skin may be repaired by a splayed patch. Use this type of patch is the
skin is less than or equal to 1/10-inch thick and the hole can be cleaned out to a diameter of less
than 15 thicknesses (15T) as shown.
Splayed patch repair on thin plywood skins.

To fabricate a splayed patch, tape a small piece of scrap plywood over the centre of the damage.
Use it to rest the point of a drafting compass and draw two concentric circles. Draw one circle to
form the trim size of the hole which can be no more than 15T. For the other circle, the size of the
outside of the patch can be no more than 5T beyond the edge of the hole.
To produce the patch, remove the inner circle with a sharp knife and then, using a wood chisel,
taper the edges evenly from the outer circle to the edge of the hole. Cut the plug patch from the
same material as the original skin and taper it to fit the hole exactly. Apply glue to the tapered
edges of the hole and the tapered cut on the patch. Put the patch in place, aligning the face grain
of the patch with the face grain of the skin. Once installed; place a piece of vinyl plastic or waxed
paper over the patch. With a pressure plate slightly larger than the patch, apply pressure and
allow the glue to cure. After the glue has cured, remove the pressure plate, fill, sand and finish the
repair to match the rest of the surface.

Surface Patch
If an aeroplane’s plywood skin is
damaged, repair it with a surface patch
covered with aircraft fabric and finish it to
match the rest of the aeroplane. This does
not produce the best looking repair, but
its simplicity and economy of time and
labour make it a suitable repair for most
working-type aeroplanes.
A surface patch is a simple but effective skin repair.

Plug Patch
Make a perfectly flush patch in a section of plywood skin by trimming the damage to a round or
oval shape. Put a doubler inside the structure for support the glue the patch to the doubler.
The plug patch glued to an internal doubler, makes a fine flush patch.

Scarfed Patch
The most difficult patch to make on plywood skin is the scarfed patch. However, because it makes
the least change in skin thickness or rigidity, it is preferred for most stressed wood skin repairs.
The scarfed patch is the most suitable for stressed wood skin repairs.

6.3.3 Fabric Covering

6.3.3.1 Characteristics and Types of Fabrics used in Aeroplanes
In the very early days of aviation an aeroplane consisted of a wooden framework braced with
wires, and a fabric covering on the wings, stabilisers and control surfaces for aerodynamic
purposes. It soon became apparent that covering the fuselage not only reduced the drag
generated by the structure and improved the aircraft’s efficiency but also offered the pilot some
protection.

Although metal and plywood were used for engine cowls and cockpit walls, fabric continued to be
the main form of airframe covering through to the mid-1930s despite the changes in framework
material to steel tube and aluminium. By World War II stressed metal skinned semi-monocoque
airframes allowed far greater performance to be achieved and the full advantages of the gas
turbine engine to be realised. However, fabric covering was still employed in less demanding
environments such as low performance aircraft and the control surfaces of large aircraft. In fact,
because of the weight advantages, fabric covered rudders, ailerons and elevators were used on
some large aircraft through to the 1950s. Since then only light aircraft have been fabric covered.
Before the 1960’s the majority of fabric covered aircraft used organic mediums such as Cotton or
Linen. This was treated with dope which tightened the fabric and protected it from moisture and
sunlight. Since the 60’s synthetic, or man-made, fabrics such as polyester and glass fibre have
rapidly become the norm.
The natural fabric covering materials and processes have shortcomings not associated with
synthetic fabrics. Their greater flammability, degeneration due to exposure to mildew and fungus,
difficulty in application and greater susceptibility to the ultraviolet (UV) light, all combine to
dictate a fabric replacement interval of 10 to 15 years. Because of this many older aircraft have
been re-covered using the new synthetic materials.
However, synthetic fabrics also have an inherent maintenance shortcoming. Since their resilience
can lead to replacement intervals far greater than those of natural fabrics, up to 25 years, this
causes greater intervals between airframe structural inspection opportunities. Structural
deterioration can go undetected for many years causing a slow decline of the aircraft’s structural
integrity. Timely inspection of airframe structures is of equal importance to wooden or composite
airframes as it is to metal structures. Extensive examination of any structure requires the complete
removal of the fabric for adequate and comprehensive inspection.
Regardless of the fabric used, it must be fitted tightly to the airframe to maintain the aerodynamic
contours, and securely attached to transfer air loads to the structure and prevent fretting and
distortion. The methods of tightening and attachment vary depending on the fabric type used.
Fabric Properties
Cotton fabrics are produced in a range of weaves and weights, each having different properties.
They are made from spun threads of mercerised cotton fibre (Mercerisation is a chemical process
which increases the tensile strength of the
fibre and its absorption characteristics) which
are selected and woven into a cloth to meet
the required specification. Normally plain
weave – one over, one under – is used
MERCERZING, named after an English textile
manufacturer who in 1844 invented the
process of strengthening a material, namely
cotton, with caustic soda so as to give the
material strength and in some cases lends a
silky appearance.
SELVEDGE, the edge of a fabric that is woven
so that it will not ravel or fray.

THREAD COUNT Number of threads per inch.

WARP: Threads running the length of the fabric.
WEFT (woof or fill): threads running perpendicular to the warp.
BIAS: Runs diagonally across the warp and weft. Bias cut fabric allows the fabric to stretch around
compound curves.
Thread count: number of threads/inch
Aircraft fabrics are woven either from threads or ‘yarns’ of spun natural fibres or from manmade
monofilaments. Natural fibre fabrics like cotton and linen have a ‘nap’, a soft surface of loose fibre
ends, while monofilaments such as polyester and glass extend to the ends of the fabric unbroken.
Threads running lengthwise are termed the ‘warp’ and those running crosswise are termed the
‘weft’ (or ‘woof’ or ‘fill’ in the United States). The number of yarns per inch varies with different
weights of fabric and is not necessarily the same in both warp and weft. The non-fraying edge of
the fabric is termed the ‘selvedge’. The woven fabric is supplied as a roll or 'bolt'.
Material Classifications
There are two basic fabric classifications:
• Natural fibres;
• Synthetic fabrics.
Natural or Organic Fibres
Grade ‘A’ Mercerized cotton. Found in three weights:
• 80 lb/inch
• 65 lb/inch
• 50 lb/inch
80 lb/inch means a 1” wide fabric strip must be able to support 80 pounds in tension without
breaking. The material has a tearing strength of 5 lbs and a thread count of 80-84 threads per
inch.
Although no longer available there are many aircraft still flying today covered in intermediate
weight fabrics.
Grade A cotton has a wing loading more than 9 lb/ft2. It is used for speeds greater than 160 MPH.
Intermediate grades of cotton fabric have a wing loading less than 9 lb/ft2. They are used for
speeds below 160 MPH. They have a tearing strength of 4 lbs and a thread count of up to 84
threads per inch. Intermediate cotton fabric grades are used mainly on gliders.
Disadvantages
Natural fabrics are susceptible to mildew and rot.

Synthetic Fabrics
Approved synthetic fabrics must display identification information printed on its surface.
Advantages:
Synthetic fabrics resist deterioration by ultraviolet rays. They are also resistant to mildew attack
and rot.
Disadvantages:
Requires careful following of process to ensure correct final product.
Synthetic fabrics must be approved and
display identification info printed on its
surface.
When repairs are required first determine
the fabric type, check the aircraft records
or check the inside of wings and fuselage
for the required fabric identification
stamps.
Synthetic covering is covered by a STC
(Supplemental Type Certificate) and usually
is part of a system that must be adhered
to.
The cloth may be pre-treated to make it compatible with butyrate dope and is sometimes supplied
coated with dope to prevent weave distortion. Nitrate dopes are not used with glass cloth.
Polyester fabric is a durable man made polymer which is resistant to moisture, acids, alkalis, fuel
and oils. It is susceptible to deterioration when exposed to ultraviolet radiation and must
therefore be completely covered by protective coatings in service.
The material is produced by polymerisation of selected acids and alcohols, extruded in its molten
state to form filaments. The filaments are then heat stretched to the desired denier (or diameter)
of fibre prior to weaving. The heat stretching imparts a ‘memory’ into the fibre, enabling it to
shrink back when sufficient heat is applied, however, overheating will cancel the memory and
cause the fabric to stretch and become thinner. Excessive heat will cause the material to melt and
burn.
Polyester fabric comes in different weights and strengths. The most common fabrics are light
weight, medium weight, and heavy-duty. Light weight fabric weighs 1.7 ounces per square yard.
That equates to a total fabric weight of about 9 pounds on a typical light aircraft. Medium weight
fabric weighs 2.7 ounces per square yard bringing the total weight of fabric only to about 14
pounds for a light aircraft. Heavy-duty fabric weighs in at 3.4 ounces per square yard bringing the
weight up to about 18 pounds. Typically, the coatings of dope and paint will add 30-40 additional
pounds to the overall weight. This is dependent upon the process applied.

The strength of fabrics varies from a breaking strength of about 70 pounds per square inch for
light weight fabric up to about 130 pounds per square inch for heavy-duty. Selection of fabric for
an aircraft should always be in accordance with the manufacturer’s or designer’s instructions.
Typically, an ultralight, glider, or an airplane with a small horsepower engine (below 65 HP) can
safely use light weight fabric. For an aerobatic aircraft, large bi-plane, vintage warplane or
agricultural crop duster, in short, any high wing loading aircraft operating under severe conditions,
use heavy-duty fabric. All other aeroplanes (this constitutes the majority) should use the medium
weight fabric. If in doubt, err on the side of caution, problems are much more likely to occur if a
lighter weight fabric than the one recommended is used.
Synthetic Fabric Types
Polyester Fibre, two approved brands: Ceconite® and PolyFiber
Glass Fibre one approved brand: Razorback®
Note: Poly-Fiber, Ceconite, HIPEC and Superflite use the same fabric but the dopes and techniques
used with each make them distinctive processes, covered by different Supplemental Type
Certificates (STC’s). Mixing of materials and chemicals, including processes and application
methods, voids the STC, making the repair un-approved
Recovering an aircraft is considered a major repair therefore must be performed and certified by a
person licensed to carryout fabric covering.
Major repairs or recovering must be entered into the aircraft log. A change of fabric type is a
major modification. A Supplemental Type Certificate (STC) must be raised before carrying out a
modification.

The fabric may be attached to the structure by stringing or by use of fabric adhesive. As Polyester
shrinks with the application of moderate heat, a domestic iron can be used to tighten it onto an
aircraft structure. If a tautening dope is used after heat shrinking the fabric may become over
tensioned, causing damage to the structure. It is, therefore, important to use only the dope
specified by the cloth or covering system manufacturer. These may be of the non-tautening nitrate
and butyrate types, or more modern polyurethane or vinyl dopes.
Glass Fibre
Glass fibre is produced as a monofilament and its fabrics are generally stronger than cotton or
polyester. They are not susceptible to moisture, fuel, oil or ultraviolet but will deteriorate if
exposed to acid rain. Often used to cover wings, tail planes and flying control surfaces, Glass fibre
does not shrink with heat and tightens only slightly with tautening dope and so must be tensioned
when fitted.
Glass fibres do not burn, however dopes and paints used with it may support combustion.
Synthetic fabrics have an inherent maintenance shortcoming. Because they have a greater service
life (replacement intervals up to 25 years, are greater than those of natural fabrics), that means
there are greater intervals between airframe structural inspection opportunities. This means that
any structural deterioration may go undetected for many years as there is no need to take the skin
off the aircraft.
The cloth may be pre-treated to make it compatible with butyrate dope and is sometimes supplied
coated with dope to prevent weave distortion. Nitrate dopes are not used with glass cloth.
Fabric Identification
Cotton Fabric
Identified by an off-white colour, it has a thread count
of 80 to 94.
Aircraft Linen
Identified by a slightly darker shade than cotton and
irregular thread spacing.
Polyester Fabric
Whiter in colour than cotton or linen. Polyester is a
monofilament.
Glass Fabric
White in colour, pre-coated with a blue tinted dope as
a primer

Tapes
Cloth tapes compatible with each of the fabric types are
available in various widths for covering leading edges,
trailing edges and ribs, and for repair work. The
materials are often supplied with serrated or ‘pinked'
edges and sometimes self-adhesive versions are
available. Special anti-chafe tape is generally used on
those members where chafing may occur between the
structure and the fabric and also externally to protect
the fabric against damage by the stringing cord.
Surface/Finishing Tape
This is usually made of the same material as
the covering, available with ‘pinked’ or
straight edge.
Pinked edge tape provides better edge
adhesion qualities.
Used for:
• Reinforcing Openings
• Covering Rib stitching
• Streamlining
• Reinforcing seams
Thread
Compatible threads for sewing are used for both manufacture and repair. For hand sewing thread
of 7 - 16lb breaking strength is used single or double as required. For machine sewing thread of 10
lb breaking strength is normally used.

Stringing Cord
Flax or Nylon Stringing or Lacing cord of around 60 lb breaking strength is normally used. Should
be waxed before use to lubricate and preserve the cord
Dope
Dope is primarily used to protect the fabric
covering of an aircraft from damage by
environmental factors such as moisture,
sunlight and pollution. It also prevents the
passage of air through the fabric and reduces
friction, which improves the efficiency of the
airframe.
Certain dopes have the property that they
shrink when drying and tighten the fabric.
Most dopes can be used to stick fabric
patches onto the covering for repairs and
access holes and, sometimes, to stick the
fabric to the structure.
To obtain an even coating over large areas it is normal to spray the dope using an air pressure
spray gun. The initial coat, and dope applied to small areas and repairs may be brushed on but
care must be taken to ensure the coat is even and not to thick.
The type of dope used depends on a number of factors including the type of fabric, the type of
varnish used on wooden structure, the environment in which the aircraft will be stored and
operated, the performance requirements of the aeroplane and it’s covering, and the availability of
the materials.

The main types of dope in common use are:

Cellulose nitrate – HIGHLY FLAMMABLE
Has excellent adhesive qualities therefore it is used as a primary coat, its use as subsequent and
finishing coats is not recommended because of its high flammability. Nitrate dope, because of its
relationship to gun cotton, burns rapidly in its liquid, dry or powdered states (sanding dust).
Aircraft finished in Nitrate dope have been known to burn from wing tip to wing in seconds.
Cellulose Acetate Butyrate – ‘butyrate’ or ‘CAB’
Cellulose acetate butyrate with plasticizers and thinners. All dopes tauten the fabric including non-
tautening dope. Tautening continues as the plasticisers evaporate out over time. Care should be
taken not to warp the structure of the aircraft by applying too much of the wrong dope.
Advantages are:
• More fire resistant than nitrate dope
• Provides greater shrinkage of the fabric
• Available as clear or pigmented with aluminium powder, red oxide and colours
Synthetic Dopes
Polyurethane and vinyl based dopes are:
• Available in all colours
• Will not support combustion
• Used on trade name fabrics as part of their system. Never mix covering systems or finishes.
The system must be followed exactly for correct protection and strength.
Dopes are principally comprised of resins to provide the base, plasticisers to ensure flexibility and
prevent brittleness, pigments to exclude light and add colour, and solvents to thin the solution to a
working consistency. A retarder or anti-blush thinner is sometimes used. This contains slow drying
solvents which prevent the temperature drop and consequent condensation which causes
blushing in a dope finish. A fungicide may be included in the formulation or added to the first coat
for additional fabric protection.
Among the pigments used are red (iron) oxide, sometimes added to clear dope to improve its
durability and adhesion, and aluminium powder or paste is added to light-proof the coating.
The vapours produced by the dope and the solvents used to clean
the equipment are also hazardous to health.
The operator must be protected from the fumes in the manner
described by the dope manufacturer in their technical literature.
Any instance of skin, eye or throat irritation, difficulty in
breathing or a dry cough must be treated by immediate removal
from the area and medical advice should be sought.
In order to accomplish a proper dope job with a good finish it is
important to control the temperature and humidity of the spray shop. Adequate ventilation with
a through flow of fresh air to remove the solvent vapours and atomised dope is also required.

Ventilation should be provided by an explosion proof fan at floor level as the vapours are heavier
than air. The rate of flow is dictated by the size of the spray shop and is governed by national
regulations. The inlet should be positioned to prevent draughts, preferably in a separate room.
This will also allow the air to be pre-heated and prevent cooling in the spray area.
Many of the problems associated with doping are caused by incorrect temperature of the dope,
the structure or the air. If the temperature is too low, the evaporation of the solvents in the dope
will cool the surface being doped and cause moisture to condense and be trapped in the finish. If it
is too high, drying will be too rapid and pin holes or blisters may form in the surface.
For best results the dope and the structure or components should be kept in the spray shop and
the environment maintained at 21-26°C prior to and during the spray process.
Humidity must also be controlled. The desired range is 45 to 50%, but doping can be satisfactory
between 20 and 70% humidity depending on airflow and temperature.
All spray equipment, brushes and mixing containers must be kept scrupulously clean. Thinners
should be used before the dope has dried and Methyl-Ethyl-Ketone (MEK), or a similar solvent,
used on dried dope. Rubber seals in spray guns should be removed before immersion in MEK to
clear blockages.
IMPORTANT READ THE MSDS BEFORE USING ANY DOPE!
Dope Additives
Fungicide
Prevents mildew and fungus from weakening natural fabrics. The
additive contains zinc or copper.
It is applied to fabric before dope.
Aluminium Powders
The aluminium powders are mixed with clear dope and applied
before decorative finish.
Aluminium oxide powder forms an aluminium layer to reflect
ultraviolet rays.
The aluminium powder is different from pigmented silver dope.
Rejuvenator
Rejuvenator is a thin dope-like finish with powerful solvents.
It is applied on old dope to soften and penetrates the old
dope.
Rejuvenator also replaces plasticisers and solvents that have
evaporated and oxidized and can extend life of covering.
Fabric should be checked for condition and strength before
rejuvenator is used.

Solvents
When thinning Nitrate Dope or Butyrate Dope, use nitrate dope or lacquer thinner.
Acetone
Acetone should be used only as cleaner for brushes and spray guns.
NEVER use acetone as a thinner!
Retarders
Retarder is a slow evaporating thinner which is used to slow the drying
time of dope or paint.
Retarder is used when humidity is high. Retarders can be used to rectify:
• Blushing and pin holes
• Bubbles and blisters.
The Process of Covering Using Fabric

General
The structure to be covered should be inspected for foreign objects and adequacy of protective
treatments. All comers or edges and any projections such as bolts or screw heads likely to contact
the fabric must be covered with anti-chafe tape. Where serious chafing may occur and a strong
reinforcement is required, a canvas or leather patch may be sewn to a fabric patch, then doped
into position.
In order to prevent dope from reacting with any protective treatment and to prevent fabric from
adhering to wooden structure, all aerofoil members which will be in contact with the fabric are
normally covered with adhesive cellulose or aluminium tape, or painted with dope-resistant white
paint.
Where stringing is likely to be chafed by parts of the structure, protection should be provided by
wrapping such parts with cotton tape. Before the tape is applied the structure should be treated
with varnish to protect it from corrosion should the tape become wet.

An aircraft fabric may be fitted with the warp or weft running at 45° to the slipstream, or in line
with the slipstream. The former (bias) method is generally considered to be stronger and more
resistant to tearing, but the latter method is used on most light aircraft. The method used in a
particular instance should follow that of the original manufacture unless otherwise approved.
Prefabricated Envelopes
Pre-sewn envelope for wings and fuselage are available for production aircraft and popular
homebuilt types.
Envelope Method of Wing Covering
Most of the vendors of aircraft covering materials can supply fabric envelopes to fit almost any
certificated airplane and many of the more popular homebuilt models. The envelopes are sewed
to fit in order to minimize the amount of hand stitching or cementing required in the installation
of the fabric.
To cover a wing by the envelope method, support the
inspected and prepared wing on two padded sawhorses.
Another method is with one sawhorse under the spars
near the tip and a jig, such as the one in the figure above,
attached to the spars at the wing root.
Slip the covering envelope over the wing from the tip and
straighten the seam along the trailing edge and around
the wing tip bow If the original fabric was sewed in place
at the root and in the control surface wells, duplicate the sewing with approved hand-sewing
thread. Fold back about a half-inch of material on both pieces to be joined and use a baseball
stitch with at least four stitches per inch. Lock the stitching every six inches with a modified seine
knot.
Mainplanes
The envelope is drawn over the wing tip and gradually worked down over the mainplane,
generally keeping the spanwise seam in line with the trailing edge. When the cover is located it is
secured (by stitching, cementing, or retaining strip) to the inboard end of the mainplane, any
necessary openings for cables, struts, tank caps, etc., are cut and stringing is applied as necessary.
Fuselage
The fin and fuselage envelopes are often supplied separately and in some cases the fuselage
envelope is open, or partially open, at the bottom, to simplify fitting. The fin envelope is usually
fitted first, and then the fuselage envelope is stretched forwards over the fuselage and secured in
the same way as the original fabric. The cover is usually cemented or doped to the fuselage
formers.
Control Surfaces
Control surface envelopes are usually left open at the hinge line, where they are secured by
cementing, doping or stitching.

Blanket Method of Covering

The blanket method refers to the fact that the fabric is wrapped or blanket-covered with the
fabric. Use a blanket large enough to cover the entire wing, top and bottom. If the blanket is be
made of machine-sewn, grade-A cotton, use a French fell or folded fell seam and two parallel rows
of stitches.
For airplanes with a never-exceed speed of more
than 150 mph, the blanket will have to be sewn
together along the trailing edge, using either a
plain overthrow or baseball stitch. This type of
covering is seldom used for airplanes with a high
never exceed speed because of the large amount
of hand labour involved in sewing.
Mainplanes and Tailplanes
The cover is normally made-up from lengths of fabric machine-stitched together side-by-side. This
is laid round the surface, starting and finishing at the trailing edge and joined by hand stitching. On
some aircraft with light alloy structure, hand stitching is dispensed with, the cover edges being
wrapped round the tip and trailing edge and doped into position. The cover is then attached to the
ribs by stringing.
Fuselage
A number of different methods are used to attach fabric to the fuselage. The fabric is not normally
attached in one piece, but usually consists of several pieces (e.g. sides, top and bottom, which are
doped separately onto the frame, or sewn together at their edges. Joins or seams are covered
with doped-on tape. Since the air loads on the fuselage are not as great as on the mainplanes, it is
not usual to employ stringing, although it may be specified in some instances.
Control Surfaces
These are covered in a similar way to the mainplanes and usually require stringing. The fabric is
normally folded round the hinge line, since this is usually straight and sewn together round the
remaining contour of the surface.
Seams, Stitches and Stringing
The seams in the fabric covering should be either parallel to the fore-and-aft line of the aircraft or
on a bias, depending on the covering method used. With the exception of trailing edge or leading
edge joints (where such action cannot be avoided) seams should never be made at right angles to
the direction of airflow. Two types of machined seams are employed, the balloon seam and the
lap seam.
The Balloon Seam
The balloon seam, sometimes referred to as the ‘French Fell’, is normally specified for all fabric
joints and is illustrated below. To make the seam, the edges of the fabric are folded back 0.625 in
(16 mm) and are then fitted into each other as shown, tacked together and then machine sewn
with nine stitches per inch (four stitches per centimetre) in two parallel lines 0.375 in (9 mm) apart
and 0.125 in (3 mm) from either edge. After completion, the seam should be examined over a
strong electric light (preferably a light-box) to ensure that the inside edges of the fabric have not
been missed during sewing.

The Lap Seam

The lap seam, illustrated below, should only be used
when specified by the manufacturer. Unless the
selvedges are present, the edges of the fabric should
be serrated with ‘pinking’ shears. The edges should
overlap each other by 1.25 in (31 mm) and should be
machine sewn with nine stitches per inch (four
stitches per centimetre), the stitch lines being 0.5 in
(12 mm) apart and 0.375 in (9 mm) from the edges.
After stitching, a 3 in (75 mm) wide serrated-edge
fabric strip should be doped in position.
Hand Sewing
Apart from the herring-bone stitch and the boot stitch, which are used for repair work and are
described later, the only other stitches used are the overhand stitch (sometimes referred to as the
‘trailing-edge’ stitch) and the lock stitch. The overhand stitch is used for trailing edges, wing tips,
wing root ends and wherever a sudden change of section occurs.
Overhand Stitch
Sufficient excess fabric should be allowed for
turning under before sewing is commenced; a
0.5 in (12 mm) turn-under is usually
sufficient. An even gap of about 0.25 in (6
mm) (usually) should be allowed for pulling
up the two edges to obtain the correct fabric
tension, but this figure can only be
determined finally by experience of the work
in hand.
The sewing should follow the contour of the
component evenly to ensure a good finish
after doping. The number of stitches should
be eight per inch (three per centimetre), a
lock stitch being included approximately
every 2 in (50 mm). Overhand stitching is
illustrated below, the lock stitch being shown
as the last stitch before the stitching is pulled
tight.
All natural fibre threads used for hand sewing
and all cord used for stringing (when not pre-
waxed), should be given a liberal coating of
beeswax. This protects the thread, facilitates sewing and reduces the likelihood of damaging the
fabric or enlarging the stitch holes.

Stringing
Nylon or Flax cord is normally used
for stringing purposes and is
generally applied in single strands
as shown. As an alternative, but
only when approved by the
manufacturer, doubled No. 18
thread may be used during repair
work.
When the fabric covering of the
component has been completed,
cotton tape should be stretched
centrally over each rib, top and
bottom and stitched into position
at the trailing edge.
Using a stringing needle and commencing at the top surface, the stringing cord should be passed
through the tape and fabric as close to the rib as possible, out through the bottom fabric and tape,
round the lower rib boom and back up through both surfaces again. A double knot should be used
to secure the first and last stringing loops and after each 18 in (450mm). In between, single knots
may be used.
The stringing pitch is normally 3 in (75mm) but in the slipstream area or on aircraft of more than
2000 Ib (910kg) weight, the pitch is often reduced to 1.5 in (37 mm). Variations from these pitches
will be stipulated in the relevant aircraft manuals and it may be necessary to vary the pitch in
order to avoid internal structure or control runs.
When the stringing has been completed a strip of serrated tape, 1.5 in (37 mm) wide, should be
doped over the stringing line on both surfaces, care being taken to ensure that no air is trapped
under the tape and that the tape is securely attached to the main cover.
NOTE: The knots depicted are typical but a different type of knot may be specified by the
manufacturer.
Boom Stringing
This type of stringing is used on deep aerofoil sections. The
procedure is similar to that described above, except that
the cord is passed round the rib boom instead of round the
entire rib. Top and bottom surfaces are therefore attached
separately and the inside of each boom must be taped to
prevent chafing of the stringing cord. Alternate rib and
boom stringing is sometimes used on aerofoils of medium
depth, i.e. between 6 and 12 in (150 and 300 mm).

Stringing Tension
Care must be taken to ensure that all stringing is maintained at a satisfactory tension and that it is
not so tight as to cause distortion of the ribs.
Slipstream Area
For stringing purposes, the slipstream area is considered to be the diameter of the propeller plus
one rib on either side. In the case of multi-engined aircraft, the entire gap between the
slipstreams, regardless of its width, is also considered to be slipstream area.
Doping
Environment
Dopes are highly flammable due to their volatile solvents and the low flash point, heavy vapour
they produce. Because of this they must be stored in a manner described by various government
regulations and acts of parliament and used in a carefully controlled environment.
Apart from the normal sources of ignition – cigarettes, naked flames etc., the main risk is posed by
static electricity discharge. The process of sanding dried dope between coats will generate a static
charge which, if discharged rapidly to earth, may cause a spark to ignite residual solvent vapour in
and around the structure.
The action of spraying dope will cause the build-up of a static charge at the spray gun while a floor
contaminated with dried dope may also pick up a charge when swept. It is therefore important
that the structure being doped, the equipment and the operator are all bonded to earth. The
operator should wear overalls made of cotton and leather soled boots.
Electrical equipment may also produce sparks, so any used in the doping area must be explosion-
proof and approved as such. The use of pneumatic power tools is strongly recommended.
The vapours produced by the dope and the solvents used to clean the equipment are also
hazardous to health. The operator must be protected from the fumes in the manner described by
the dope manufacturer in their technical literature. Any instance of skin, eye or throat irritation,
difficulty in breathing or a dry cough must be treated by immediate removal from the area and
medical advice should be sought.
In order to accomplish a proper dope job with a good finish it is important to control the
temperature and humidity of the spray shop. Adequate ventilation with a through flow of fresh air
to remove the solvent vapours and atomised dope is also required.
Ventilation should be provided by an explosion proof fan at floor level as the vapours are heavier
than air. The rate of flow is dictated by the size of the spray shop and is governed by national
regulations. The inlet should be positioned to prevent draughts, preferably in a separate room.
This will also allow the air to be pre-heated and prevent cooling in the spray area.
Many of the problems associated with doping are caused by incorrect temperature of the dope,
the structure or the air. If the temperature is too low, the evaporation of the solvents in the dope
will cool the surface being doped and cause moisture to condense and be trapped in the finish. If it
is too high, drying will be too rapid and pin holes or blisters may form in the surface. For best
results the dope and the structure or components should be kept in the spray shop and the
environment maintained at 21-26°C prior to and during the spray process. Humidity must also be
controlled. The desired range is 45 to 50%, but doping can be satisfactory between 20 and 70%
humidity depending on airflow and temperature.

All spray equipment, brushes and mixing containers must be kept scrupulously clean. Thinners
should be used before the dope has dried and Methyl-Ethyl-Ketone (MEK), or a similar solvent,
used on dried dope. Rubber seals in spray guns should be removed before immersion in MEK to
clear blockages.
The spray shop must be kept clean, free of dust and dried overspray.
Procedures
The fabric covered structure or components must be inspected to ensure that:
• The underlying structure has been protected with dope proof paint or tape as required
• Fabric attachment is correct and secure
• The correct tension has been applied prior to use of tautening dope (if too slack no amount
of doping will tighten it, if too tight structural damage or distortion may occur)
• All dust has been removed from the surface
• Plastic and metal components have been adequately protected.
The best looking and most durable film is produced by using several coats of dope that are low in
solids. The Dope Scheme is a schedule listing the coats required to achieve the desired finish. The
following is a description of the doping process for nitrate and butyrate doping of cotton fabric.
The priming coats are the first ones applied to the raw fabric, encapsulating the fibres and forming
the mechanical attachment. The first coat is normally thinned by 25-50% and applied by brush to
ensure good penetration, but must not be allowed to form drips or runs on the opposite surface.
When doping wings, the top and bottom areas behind the spar are treated first and allowed to
shrink, before the leading edge is doped. This ensures even tightening and prevents wrinkles
forming on the leading edge cap.
Any drainage eyelets, grommets inspection rings are
attached at this stage and tapes laid using a heavy coat of
dope where required, carefully brushed to remove air
pockets.
A coat of thicker dope may now be applied by spray. This should be lightly sanded to remove the
fibre ends and produce a smooth finish. The surface is rinsed with water and thoroughly dried
after sanding.
Filling coats are sprayed on next as cross coats. One light coat is sprayed moving the gun in one
direction, then a second applied at moving right angles to the first before it dries. This may be
repeated several times to satisfy the scheme. The final filling coat should be wet sanded to
produce a smooth finish and the surface rinsed with water and dried again. At this stage the
structure should be tested by placing a light inside and checking the fabric is light proof.

A number of pigmented and/or clear Finishing coats are now applied. There should not be less
than three of these and each should be lightly sanded before application of the next.
The final coat should be allowed to dry for at least one month before being polished with rubbing
compound and waxed. The surface should be waxed annually thereafter.
The dope scheme will require between 6 and 12 coats of dope depending on the tautness and
finish desired. A typical low tautness scheme will be comprised of:
Type Low Tautness High Tautness

Priming 3-4 coats transparent tautening dope 1 coat red oxide tautening dope
6-7 coats transparent tautening
Priming/Filling N/A
dope
2 coats aluminium finish non-tautening
Filling 2 coats aluminium tautening dope
dope
1-2 coats pigmented finish non- 1-2 coats pigmented finish non-
Finishing
tautening dope tautening dope
1-2 coats pigmented finish non- 1-2 coats pigmented finish non-
Gloss Finish
tautening finish dope tautening finish dope
The schemes used for polyester fabric are similar, but, as the threads are not fibrous, the first
Priming coat must wet the inner surface to ensure encapsulation and good mechanical
attachment. The modern polyurethane and vinyl dopes commonly used with polyester fabric have
additives to improve adhesion to the fabric.
Glass fibre fabric has a loose weave which makes it more difficult to dope. It is normally pre-
treated with dope so the first coat applied must be thinned only enough to soften this treatment
and provide good adhesion. The pressure used for spraying should be the minimum required for
atomisation to prevent the dope blowing through the fabric and causing runs on the reverse side.
Subsequent coats should be progressively heavier until the weave fills and the cloth tightens.
6.3.3.2 Inspection Methods used for Fabric
Periodic inspections and repair of fabric should be performed as routine procedures during the life
of the fabric, whether it is organic cotton or a polyester alternative. Areas that are known to
deteriorate most rapidly should be inspected more regularly.
It is important to inspect surfaces that are exposed to direct sunlight or large temperature
fluctuations. Also areas covered with darker colours which absorb more heat are susceptible to
more rapid deterioration.

Open the inspection rings during examination of the fabric. Visually inspect the interior of the wing
and fabric using an inspection mirror and a powerful torch. Pay special attention to the material
around control cable inlets, inspection rings and drain grommets, looking for evidence of physical
wear and general deterioration. Continue the inspection of the interior of the wing by looking for
condensation or markings and residue from evaporated water. Look for any signs of rot or decay
and use your sense of smell to detect any musty odours or mushroom-like smells. If the inspection
reveals excessive deterioration or minor rips and tears, a repair will be necessary to return the
fabric covering to its original strength and tautness.
Loose finishing tape and reinforcing patches; chafing under fairings; brittle, cracking, peeling, or
deteriorated coatings; fabric tears and rock damage; broken or missing rib lacing; and rodent nests
are unacceptable. The entire fabric covering should be uniformly taut with no loose or wrinkled
areas, or excess tension which can warp and damage the airframe.
Excess Tension
There are no methods or specifications for measuring acceptable fabric tension other than
observation. Excess tension may warp critical components, such as longerons, wing rib, and
trailing edges out of position, weakening the airframe structure.
Excess tension with cotton, linen, and glass fibre fabric covering is usually caused by excessive
dope film on a new covering, or continuous shrinking of an originally satisfactory dope film as the
plasticizers migrate from the dope with age. Heat from sun exposure accelerates plasticizer
migration.
Excess tension with polyester fabric, coated with dope, is usually caused by the combined tension
of the heat tautened polyester fabric and continuous shrinking of the dope film as the plasticizers
migrate from the dope with age.
Loose Fabric
Fabric that flutters or ripples in the propeller slipstream, balloons, or is depressed excessively in
flight from the static position, is unacceptable. Loose or wrinkled cotton, linen, and glass fabric
covering may be caused by inadequate dope film; poor quality dope; fabric installed with excess
slack; or by a bent, broken, or warped structure.
Loose or wrinkled polyester fabric covering, finished with coatings other than dope, may be
caused by inadequate or excessive heat application; excess slack when the fabric was installed; or
bent or warped structure. Polyester fabric which does not meet aircraft quality specifications is
likely to become loose after a short period of time.
Glass fabric covering should be tested with a large suction cup for rib lacing cord failure and
reinforcing tape failure caused by chafing on all wing ribs and other structural attachments
throughout the airframe. Particular attention should be given to the area within the propeller
slipstream. If failure is indicated by the covering lifting from the static position, the rib lacing cord
and reinforcing tape must be reinstalled with double the number of original laces.
NOTE: Temporary wrinkles will develop in any fabric coated and finished with dope, when
moisture from rain, heavy fog, or dew is absorbed into a poor-quality dope film, causing the film to
expand. Temporary wrinkles may also develop with any type of thick coatings, on any type of
fabric, when an aircraft is moved from a cold storage area to a warm hangar or parked in the
warming sunshine, causing rapid thermal expansion of the coating.

Coating Cracks
Fabric exposed through cracks in the coating may be initially tested for deterioration by pressing
firmly with a thumb to check the fabric’s strength. Natural fibres deteriorate by exposure to
ultraviolet radiation, mildew, fungus from moisture, high acid-content rain, dew, fog, pollution,
and age. Polyester filaments will deteriorate by exposure to UV radiation.
Glass fabric will not deteriorate from UV exposure, but will be deteriorated by acid rain, dew
fallout, and chafing if loose in the propeller slipstream area.
Cotton, linen, and glass fabric coverings are dependent solely on the strength and tautening
characteristics of the dope film to carry the air loads. Dope coatings on heat-tautened polyester
fabric will also absorb all the air loads because the flexibility of polyester filaments is higher than
the dope film. Polyester fabric that is coated with materials other than dope, is dependent solely
on the heat tautening and low-elongation characteristics of the polyester filaments to develop
tension and transmit the air loads to the airframe without excess distortion from a static position.
Cracks in coatings will allow any type of exposed fabric to deteriorate. Cracks should be closed by
sealing or removing the coatings in the immediate area and replace with new coatings, or recover
the component.
Fabric Identification
Cotton Fabric meeting aircraft specifications can be identified by an off-white colour and thread
count of 80 to 94 (or up to 110 in light fabrics) in both directions.
Aircraft linen conforming to British specifications may be identified by a slightly darker shade than
cotton fabric and irregular thread spacing. The average thread count will be about the same as
Grade A fabric (80- 84). The non-uniformity of the linen thread size is also noticeable, with one
thread half the size of the adjacent thread. When viewed under a magnifying glass, the ends of the
cotton and linen fibre nap may be seen on the backside. The nap is also seen when the coating is
removed from the front or outside surface. A light-purple colour showing on the back side of
cotton or linen fabric indicates a fungicide was present in the dope to resist deterioration by
fungus and mildew.
Polyester fabric conforming to aircraft specifications is whiter in colour than cotton or linen. The
fabric styles adapted for use as aircraft covering have a variety of thread counts, up to 94,
depending on the manufacturing source, weight, and breaking strength. Polyester is a
monofilament and will not have any nap or filament ends showing.
Glass fabric is white in colour and one type is pre-coated with a blue tinted dope as a primer, and
to reduce weave distortion during handling. Thread count will be approximately 36 per inch. Glass
fibres are monofilaments so the fabric will not have any nap or filament ends showing unless they
are damaged.
When a small fabric sample can be removed from the aircraft and all the coatings removed, a burn
test will readily distinguish between natural fabric, polyester, and glass fabric. Cotton and linen
will burn to a dry ash, polyester filaments will melt to a liquid and continue burning to a charred
ash, and glass filaments, which do not support combustion, will become incandescent over a
flame.

Coating Identification
Tautening nitrate or butyrate dope must be used to develop tension on cotton, linen, and glass
fabrics. When a small sample can be removed, burn tests will distinguish nitrate dope-coated
fabric from butyrate dope-coated fabric by its immediate ignition and accelerated combustion.
Butyrate dope will burn at less than one-half the rate of nitrate dope. Coating types other than
nitrate or butyrate dope may have been used as a finish over dope on cotton, linen, and glass fibre
fabric coverings.
If the fabric type is determined to be polyester, coating identification should start by reviewing the
aircraft records and inspecting the inside of the wings and the fuselage for the required fabric
source identification stamps for covering materials authorised under the STC. The manual,
furnished by the holder of the STC-approved fabric, should be reviewed to determine whether the
coatings are those specified by the STC.
Coating types, other than those authorised by the original STC, may have been used with prior
approval of the competent authority, and this would be noted in the aircraft records. The
presence of dope on polyester can be detected by a sample burn test.
Strength Criteria for Aircraft Fabric
The condition of the fabric covering must be
determined on every 100 hour and annual
inspection, because the strength of the fabric is a
definite factor in the airworthiness of an
aeroplane. Fabric is considered to be airworthy
until it deteriorates to a breaking strength less
than 70 percent of the strength of new fabric
required for the aircraft. For example, if grade-A
cotton is used on an airplane that requires only
intermediate fabric, it can deteriorate to 46
pounds per inch width (70 percent of the
strength of intermediate fabric) before it must be
replaced.
Fabric installed on aircraft with a wing loading less than 9 lb. per square foot (psf), and a Vne less
than 160 mph, will be considered un-airworthy when the breaking strength has deteriorated
below 46 lb. per inch width, regardless of the fabric grade. Fabric installed on aircraft with a wing
loading of 9 lb. per square foot and over, or a Vne of 160 mph and over, will be considered un-
airworthy when the breaking strength has deteriorated below 56 lb. per inch width.
Fabric installed on a glider or sail-plane with a wing loading of 8 lb. per square foot and less, and a
Vne of 135 mph or less, will be considered un-airworthy when the fabric breaking strength has
deteriorated below 35 lb. per inch width, regardless of the fabric grade.
Fabric Testing
The only Regulatory Authority-approved method of testing the tensile strength of aircraft fabric is
the pull-test in which a 1 inch-wide strip of fabric is pulled apart by a machine and an accurate
value of fabric strength is determined.

Maule and Seyboth tests (mechanical devices used to test fabric by pressing against or
punching/piercing the finished fabric) are used by Approved Maintenance Organisations (AMOs)
to determine the condition of the fabric as a guide. They are used at the discretion of the
mechanic to base an opinion on the general fabric condition.
These punch tests accuracy will depend on the individual
device calibration, total coating thickness, brittleness, and
types of coatings and fabric. Mechanical devices are not
applicable to glass fibre fabric that will easily shear and
indicate a very low reading regardless of the true breaking
strength.
If the fabric test results are in the lower breaking strength
range with the mechanical punch tester or if the overall
fabric cover conditions are poor, then more accurate pull-
tests must be made.
Fabric Replacement
General
The replacement of fabric, including covering of a flying surface, is regarded as a major repair and
should be performed by an appropriately authorised organisation or Licensed Aircraft
Maintenance Engineer.
The selection of fabric type (and associated processes) can depend on many factors. These may
include:
• Suitability of the materials and processes (airframe varnish/dope compatibility etc.)
• Availability of fabric and its associated chemicals, tapes, cords, threads, etc.
• Skill of the maintainer in the chosen material and process.
• Type of operation the aircraft is involved in (agricultural, high speed/aerobatics, glider).
• Availability of suitably calibrated tools and equipment.
If the replacement fabric differs from the fabric detailed in the aircraft’s Type Certificate (TC), then
a Supplemental Type Certificate (STC) or other authorisation is required to make the substitution.
Synthetic fabric manufacturers have gained STC approval for many aircraft types allowing the re-
covering of older aircraft.
Many aircraft maintenance manuals have limited information regarding the recovering process
required on the aircraft, with most manuals referring to stitching patterns and special covering
techniques unique to the aircraft. If recovering an aircraft using Grade A cotton, an approved
document for application guidance, in conjunction with aircraft’s maintenance manual, is the US
Federal Aviation Administration’s (FAA) Advisory Circular (AC) 43.13-1B/2B and the UK CAA’s CAP
747 GR No. 8, and CAP 562 Leaflet 51-150. These documents outline all acceptable techniques for
a range of practices, from doping and repairs to inspection.

Should an alternate material be chosen to cover an aircraft, and then the materials and
procedures should be detailed in the STC. This includes, but is not limited to, items such as
chemicals (paint and dopes), stitching threads, finishing and lacing tapes, fabric attaching
hardware (rivets, PK screws & clips), inspection rings, drain grommets and material. Failure to
comply with all aspects of the STC, including materials and methods, will void the STC, making the
repair un-approved.
Equipment
The equipment requirements for performing fabric work are minimal. However, several items are
required to be calibrated prior to use to ensure to compliance to instructions covered in either the
STC or aircraft maintenance manual. If utilising one of the synthetic materials that require heat for
fabric shrinkage, then the heat source (generally an household iron) must be checked for its
various temperature settings.
Storage
If using an organic material such as cotton, then certain environmental conditions must be met.
This includes a room temperature of (typically) 16 to 21°C and a minimum relative humidity of
70%. Storage of fabric should be in clean dry areas away from direct sunlight. The conditions
required for storing synthetic materials are broadly similar.
6.3.3.3 Types of Defects in Fabric
Adhesion
Problems most commonly occur between the fabric and the first coat and between the aluminium
and the subsequent coat, particularly if excess aluminium powder is added. Use of a solvent
moistened ‘Tack Rag’ just prior to applying each coat is recommended.
Blushing
This is a white or greyish cast that forms on the dope surface and is caused by moisture
condensing on the uncured dope surface resulting in the nitrocellulose precipitating out. It can be
prevented by careful humidity and temperature control or using retarder in the dope. A blushed
area can be repaired by adding retarder to the next coat, which allows the solvents to attack the
surface and cause it to flow out.
Bubbles and Blisters
These are caused by the surface of the dope drying before all the solvents have evaporated. This
may happen if the dope is applied to deeply, if the previous coat is not dry, or if the temperature is
too high.
Dull Finish
This may be caused by holding the spray gun too far from the surface so that the dope settles as a
semi-dry mist. Small areas of dullness may be caused by porosity of the surface.
Fisheyes
These are small areas which have not dried uniformly due to surface contamination with oil, wax
or silicone products. Cleanliness is essential and use of a tack rag is recommended. When doping a
repair, all wax polish should be removed from the area with solvent.

Orange Peel
This is an effect caused by insufficient dope thinning, holding the spray gun too far from the
surface, using too high an atomising pressure or using a thinner which evaporates too quickly. It
can also be caused by a cold damp draught over the surface.
Pinholes
These are small blisters and have the same causes. They can also be caused by water or oil
contamination in the spray gun air supply.
Roping
This is a condition which occurs when the dope dries as it is being brushed causing an uneven
surface. It is common when the dope is cold or is over-brushed.
Rough Finish
This is caused by dirt and dust on the surface, insufficient sanding or low working temperatures.
Runs and Sags
These are the result of too thick a coat being applied, especially to vertical surfaces. They are
caused by incorrectly adjusted equipment or poor technique.
6.3.3.4 Repairs to Fabric Coverings
General
If the fabric has been damaged extensively, it is usually impractical and uneconomical to make
satisfactory repairs by sewing and patching. The extent and location of damage to the fabric that
may be repaired will be detailed in the repair section of the aircraft manual concerned, but
extensive damage is often made good by replacing complete fabric panels. However, the
replacement of large fabric panels, particularly on one side of a component, may lead to distortion
of the structure and it may be advisable to completely re-cover the component
Before attempting any repair to the fabric covering, the cause of the damage should be
ascertained. The internal structure should be inspected for loose objects such as stones, remains
of birds, insects, etc., and any structural damage made good. Using thinners, all dope should be
removed from the fabric surrounding the damaged area before any stitching is carried out, since
doped fabric will tear if any tension is applied to the repair stitches.
Repair of Cuts and Tears
Cuts and tears in fabric are sometimes caused by stones thrown up by the slipstream or wheels,
but more generally result from accidental damage during ground movement or servicing. Damage
may also be caused by bird strikes. Any damaged structure should be made good and fabric
repairs carried out according to the type of damage, as detailed in the following paragraphs.
Herring-bone Stitch
The herring-bone stitch (also known as the
‘ladder stitch’) should be used for repairing
straight cuts or tears which have sound
edges. The stitches should be made as
shown, with a lock knot every 6 in (150 mm).

There should be a minimum of four stitches to the inch (two stitches to the centimetre) and the
stitches should be 0.25 in (6 mm) from the edge of the cut or tear.
After the stitching has been completed, 1 in (25 mm) wide serrated tape should be doped over the
stitching. A square or rectangular fabric patch should then be doped over the whole repair,
ensuring that the edges of the patch are parallel to the warp and weft of the fabric covering and
that they overlap the repair by 1.5 in (37 mm). The original doping scheme should then be
restored.
Repairs with ‘Woods’ Frame
On some aircraft, repairs to cuts
and tears with jagged edges,
which cannot be stitched as
described in the previous
paragraphs, can be repaired by
using the Woods frame method.
Repairs of up to 2 in (50 mm)
square may be made, provided
they are clear of seams or
attachments by a distance of not
less than 2 in (50 mm).
The affected area should be cleaned with thinners or acetone and repaired in the following
manner:
• The Woods frame should be doped into position surrounding the damaged fabric and, if
the frame is of the square type, the edges should be parallel to the weft and warp of the
covering. When the dope has dried, the damaged portion of the fabric should be cut out
and the aperture covered by a fabric patch.
• If Woods frames are not readily available they can be made from cellulose sheet 0.030 in
(0.8 mm) thick with minimum frame width of 1 in (25 mm); in the case of the square type
of frame the minimum corner radii should be 0.5 in (12 mm). In some special cases, aircraft
manufacturers use 0.080 in (2 mm) plywood for the manufacture of the frames, in which
case it is important to chamfer the outer edges of the frame to blend with the aerofoil
contour.
Repair by Darning
Irregular holes or jagged tears in fabric
may be repaired by darning provided
the hole is not more than 2 in (50 mm)
wide at any point. The stitches should
follow the lines of the warp and weft
and should be closely spaced as shown.
The whole repair should be covered
with a serrated fabric patch in the
usual way, with an overlap of 1.5 in (37
mm) from the start of the darn.

Repair by Insertion
For damage over 4 in (100 mm) square, insertion repairs are generally used, either of the two
methods described below being suitable.
Normal Insertion Repair
The damaged area of the fabric should be cut out to form a square or rectangular hole with the
edges parallel to the weft and warp. The corners of the hole should then be cut diagonally, to
allow a 0.5 in (12 mm) wide edge to be folded under the fabric and this should be held in position
with tacking or hemming stitches.
The patch should be made 1 in (25 mm) larger than the cut-out area and its edges should be
folded under for 0.5 in (12 mm) and tacked in position in a manner similar to that described
above. In this condition the size of the insertion patch should be similar to, or slightly smaller than,
that of the cut-out area.
The insertion patch should be held in position inside the cut-out area with a few tacking stitches
and then sewn in position using a herring-bone stitch of not less than two stitches to the
centimetre (four stitches to the inch), as shown. A 1 in (25 mm) wide tape should then be doped
over the seams.
For small repairs a square or rectangular cover patch, with frayed or serrated edges, should be
doped in position ensuring that the patch overlaps the edge of the tape by 1.25 in (31 mm). Where
the size of the insertion patch is more than 9 in (225 mm) square, a 3 in (75 mm) wide fabric
serrated tape is often used; the tape should be mitred at the corners and doped in position. The
original finish should then be restored.

Alternative Insertion Repair

An alternative repair is shown
diagrammatically below. This
consists of cutting away the
damaged fabric as described
above, but, in this case, the
edges of the aperture as well as
the edges of the insertion patch
are turned outwards.
The insertion patch is attached to the fabric cover by stitching along the folded-up edges as near
to the contour of the component as practicable (i.e. about 0.0625 in (1 mm) above the surface)
using the boot stitch. The edges are then doped down and the repair covered with a doped-on
fabric patch.
Boot Stitch. Two threads should be used

for the boot stitch. The stitches should
be made as shown (diagrammatically)
and the ends of both threads tied
together in a lock knot every 6 in (150
mm), and at the end of a seam.
Rejuvenation of the Dope Film

If fabric loses its strength, there is nothing to do but remove it and recover the aircraft. But if the
fabric is good and the dope is cracked, it may be treated with rejuvenator, a mixture of very
potent solvents and plasticizers, to restore its resilience. The surface of the fabric is cleaned and
the rejuvenator sprayed on in a wet coat. The solvents soften the old finish so the plasticizers can
become part of the film. When the rejuvenator dries, the surface should be sprayed with two
coats of aluminium-pigmented dope, then sanded and a third coat of pigmented-pigmented dope
applied, followed with the coloured dope finish. When repairing, rejuvenating, and refinishing
covering materials approved under an STC, instructions in the manual furnished by the material
supplier should be followed.


Dip B1-6.3.2 - 3 - Aircraft Materials - Wood and Fabric SR 16-12-06

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AARC Diploma

2016-12-06 B1-6.3.2/3 Aircraft Materials –Wood and Fabric Page 2 of 76

2016-12-06 B1-6.3.2/3 Aircraft Materials –Wood and Fabric Page 3 of 76

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AARC EASA Diploma

2016-12-06 B1-6.3.2/3 Aircraft Materials –Wood and Fabric Page 5 of 76

2016-12-06 B1-6.3.2/3 Aircraft Materials –Wood and Fabric Page 6 of 76

2016-12-06 B1-6.3.2/3 Aircraft Materials –Wood and Fabric Page 7 of 76

Module 6.3 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement

2016-12-06 B1-6.3.2/3 Aircraft Materials –Wood and Fabric Page 8 of 76

6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic

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2016-12-06 B1-6.3.2/3 Aircraft Materials –Wood and Fabric Page 11 of 76

A moisture content of 15% +/- 2% is normally acceptable.

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2016-12-06 B1-6.3.2/3 Aircraft Materials –Wood and Fabric Page 13 of 76

Edge sawn timber is not acceptable for use in aircraft construction

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The resultant plywood boards are available in panels 0.8 to

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Fabrication of Aircraft Wooden Components

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Box spars and built-up I beam spars

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Testing Glued Pieces

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Longitudinal members are joined

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Flat bonderized steel nails, brass plated to prevent rusting

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The standard aircraft nail is AN301-18 or AN301-20.

When applying varnish to protect the finished structure you

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6.3.2.3 Preservation and Maintenance of Wooden Structures

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Incorrect Grain Inclination

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6.3.2.5 Detection of Defects in Wooden Structures

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Slight corrosion of the screw due to the

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6.3.2.6 Repair of Wooden Structure

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