ALL TERRAIN VEHICLE MOUNTED WITH GROUND

PENETRATING RADAR

PROJECT REPORT

submitted by

ADARSH T N (TKM16MP002)

C S FARZUL HAZAN (TKM16MP023)

NIDAL SAIDALAVI (TKM16MP046)

AKHIL B (LTKM16MP)

to

the APJAbdul Kalam Technological University

in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Bachelor of
Technology in Mechanical Engineering.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

TKM COLLEGE OF ENINEERING, KOLLAM JULY 2020

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING TKM
COLLEGE OF ENINEERING, KOLLAM

CERTIFICATE
Certified that this report entitled ‘All terrain vehicle mounted with ground penetrating
radar’ is the report of project presented by Adarsh T N, B16MPA01, C S Farzul Hazan,
B16MPA, Nidal Saidalavi, B16MPA, Akhil B, B16MPA during 2019-
2020 in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of
Technology in Mechanical Engineering of the APJ Abdul Kalam Technological
University.

Prof. Ahammed Bilal A

Assistant Professor
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
T K M College of Engineering, Kollam

Dr. Shajahan C A
Professor
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
T K M College of Engineering, Kollam

Dr. Mohammed Sajid N.K

Head of the Department
Dept. of Mechanical Engg.
T K M College of Engineering,
Kollam

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 DECLARATION
I, ................................. …………(name of student) hereby declare that, this project report
entitled ‘All terrain vehicle mounted with ground penetrating radar’ is the bonafide work
of mine carried out under the supervision of Prof. Ahammed Bilal A, Assistant Professor,
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, T K M College of Engineering, Kollam. I declare that,
to the best of my knowledge, the work reported herein does not form part of any other
project report or dissertation on the basis of which a degree or award was conferred on an
earlier occasion to any other candidate. The content of this report is not being presented
by any other student to this or any other University for the award of a degree. Signature:
Name of the Students: Adarsh T N (TKM16MP002)
C S Farzul Hazan (LTKM16MP023)
Nidal Saidalavi( TKM16MP046)
Akhil B (TKM16MP)
Year :
Signature(s) :

Name of Guide(s): Prof. Ahammed Bilal A

Assistant Professor
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
T K M College of Engineering, Kollam

Countersigned with Name:

Head, Department of Mechanical Engineering
T K M College of Engineering, Kollam. Date:

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We take this opportunity to express my deep sense of gratitude and sincere thanks to all
who helped me to complete the project successfully.

We are deeply indebted to my guide Prof. Ahammed Bilal A, Assistant Professor,

Department of Mechanical Engineering for her excellent guidance, positive criticism, and
valuable comments. We are greatly thankful to Dr Mohammed Sajid N.K, Head of
Mechanical Engineering Department for his support and cooperation. Also we are greatly
thankful to our advisors Dr. Shajahan C A, professor, Department of Mechanical
Engineering and Prof. Firoz N, Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical
Engineering for their support and cooperation.

Finally I thank my parents and friends near and dear ones who directly and indirectly
contributed to the successful completion of my project.

Adarsh T N

C S Farzul Hazan

Nidal Saidalavi

Akhil B

Place:
Date:

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 ABSTRACT
The ground rescue operations that needs to be carried out during the time of natuaral
hazards , specifically landslides , earthquakes etc.., is a dangerous and time consuming
work and the probability of a high rescue rate diminishes exponentially as the time passes
by. But still the need for innovations in these areas are not in the limelight of scientific
expeditions and find least importance to the policy makers all around the world.

In this paper, we propose a new novel design that incorporates a Ground Penetrating
Radar(GPR) system into a specially designed All Terrain Vehicle(ATV). And the whole
setup would function in such a way that the ATV which is of unmanned type carries the
GPR payload to any distress zones in the hazard affected locations.The basic design of
the ATV is of rocker-bogie mechanism which is the most common system deign for
application involving rough terrains.

GPR uses the principle of scattering of electromagnetic waves to locate buried objects.
The fundamental principle of operation is the same as that used to detect aircraft overhead,
but with GPR that antennas are moved over the surface rather than rotating about a fixed
point.

We propose the application of this integrated mobile radar unit in such a way that , the
ATV would carry the payload (GPR sensor and allied components) through the rough
terrains, and throughout the path, the radar will be preparing data of the sub-surface by
continuously sending and recieving electro-magnetic radiations.

Key words: All Terrain Vehicle(ATV), Ground Penetrating Radar(GPR), Unmanned, rocker-bogie
mechanism, electromagnetic waves, scattering etc...

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 CONTENTS

Title Page no:

LIST OF FIGURES ⅴ

LIST OF TABLES ⅷ

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO ALL TERRAIN VEHICLE 1
1.2 UNMANNED GROUND VEHICLE (UGV) 5
1.3 BASICS OF GROUND PENETRATING RADAR 9
1.4 MOTIVATION 11
1.5 OBJECTIVES 11

CHAPTER-2: LITERATURE REVIEW 12

2.1 LITERATURE ON ROCKER-BOGIE MECHANISM 12
2.1.1 THE ROCKER
2.1.2 THE BOGIE
2.1.3 FEATURES
2.2 LITERATURE ON GROUND PENETRATING RADAR 13

CHAPTER 3: COMPONENTS AND DESCRIPTION 18

3.1 BATTERY 18
3.1.1 LEAD-ACID WET CELL 18
3.1.2 CONSTRUCTION
3.1.3 CHEMICAL ACTION
3.1.4 CARING FOR LEAD-ACID BATTERIES
3.1.5 CURRENT RATINGS
3.1.6 SPECIFIC GRAVITY

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 3.1.7 CHARGING THE LEAD-ACID BATERY
3.2 DC MOTOR
3.2.1 FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE
3.2.2 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF DC MOTOR
3.2.3 ELECTROMAGNETS AND MOTORS
3.2.4 THE ARMATURE
3.2.5 PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER
3.3 REMOTE CONTROL UNIT
3.3.1 TRANSMITTER
3.3.2 RECIEVER
3.4 WIRELESS VIDEO CAMERA
3.5 WHEELS
3.5.1 POLY URETHANE WHEELS
3.5.2 RAW MATERIALS
3.6 GPR SYSTEM

CHAPTER 4: DESIGN OF UNMANNED ALL TERRAIN

VEHICLE
4.1 DESIGN
4.2 SPECIFICATIONS

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION 60
5.1 SUMMARY 60
5.2 ACHIEVEMENTS 61
5.3 FUTURE SCOPES IN THE WORK 65

REFERENCES 66

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Title Page no:

Fig 2.1 Components used in UGV design 2

Fig 1.3.1: EM wave propagation depends on dielectric and conductivity

properties of material 3

Fig 3.1.1 Schematic cross sectional view of Lead-Acid battery 8

Fig 3.1.2 Chemical reactions happening in batteries at discharging and

charging situations 10

Fig 3.2.1 Illustration of flemings left hand rule 15

Fig 3.2.2 Schematic diagram of bipolar DC motor 16

Fig 3.2.3 Illustration of working of a simple motor 17

Fig 3.2.4 Various sectional views of the armature winding 18

Fig 3.3.1 Block diagram of signal transmission system 20

Fig 3.3.2 Block diagram of signal reception system 21

Fig 3.4.1 Connection diagram of wireless video camera system 22

Fig 3.5.1 Chemical Composition of Poly Urethane 23

Fig 3.5.2 Different types of Methylene Diphenyl Diisocyanate 24

Fig 4.1.1 3D model of the proposed rocker-bogie mechanism 26

Fig 4.2.1 Basic rocker – bogie vehicle schematic 27

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 LIST OF TABLES

Title Page no:

Table 3.1 Major components and description 7

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 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
The introduction chapter explains the radar and basic vehicle design information,
motivation, Objective and strategy and the structure of the report.

1.1. INTRODUCTION TO ALL TERRAIN VEHICLE

ATV means, all terrain vehicle which is specially designed for a off roads driving. ATV
is designed for very rough terrain, jumps, maneuverability and endurance. Usually they
carry humans and are meant for sports purposes, but in this paper we are specifically
looking at the unmanned version of all terrain vehicle. That is we are combining the off-
road maneuverability of all terrain vehicle along with the remote control and steerability
of Unmanned Groung Vehicle(UGV). The design of ATV proposed through this paper is

1.2. UNMANNED GROUND VEHICLE

Unmanned Ground Vehicle(UGV) is a land based vehicle which generally have a set of
sensors installed on it to observe the environment, using the data from its sensors UGV
either takes a decision itself using some intelligent algorithm or relays that data to a human
operator to some other location who given the data control the UGV accordingly. UGV’s
are generally classified into two categories; Autonomous, which is an intelligent machine
it sense, plans and then acts in a rational fashion to achieve the output without any
interaction of any human. Remote Operated, which doesn’t plan for itself, but is an
automated machine which sends the data to a human operator, then acts on human
decision. Both of these types have their own advantage and disadvantages for instance in
case of some life threatening situation like bomb disposal in some crowded area a human
operated UGV is preferred rather than an intelligent algorithm. The choice of type of
UGV depends on the application. In the development of UGV factors like type of
environment and application objectives are to be considered. Figure 1.2.1 illustrates the
general components used in UGV design.

An autonomous UGV has the objectives of: taking a percept input, i-e- at any given
instance taking all the data from the sensors installed on the UGV; understanding and
analyzing the environment; with the help of some algorithms localizing itself within that
environment; identifying the goal and the current position thus building a map; planning
its motion with respect to the map generated; issuing appropriate commands to the

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actuators installed on UGV to achieve the desired performance. A more intelligent
autonomous UGV may keep saving the percept input to its percept sequence as it follows
it path, keeping a record of things UGV has observed on its way.

Fig. 2.1 Components used in UGV design (Nathir A et al., 2012)

1.3. BASICS OF GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

Ground penetrating radar (GPR) produces high frequency electromagnetic (EM) waves
to map structure and utilities under the subsurface. GPR depends on physical
characteristics of the subsurface to generate signal return. GPR works the same was as
traditional radar. GPR produces strong frequency pulses EM waves normally at 10 MHz
to 1000 MHz to obtain subsurface information. GPR utilizes the principle of scattering
electromagnetic wave (EM) to find target or interfaces covered inside opaque substances
or earth material. Generally, ground penetrating radar works by an electromagnetic wave
is transmitted into the ground and being reflected depend on the dielectric properties of
the subsurface materials itself. Figure 1.3.1 represemts the diagramatic representation of
EM wave propogation. At the surface, the reflected wave is received and according to
general principle, depth of penetration decrease as the frequency increase with increase
in resolution. The recorded signal then registered as amplitude and polarity against two
way travel time.

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 Fig-1.3.1: EM wave propagation depends on dielectric and conductivity properties of
material

1.4.OBJECTIVES
The objective of the work is
 The project is intended in incorporating the GPR system into a specially designed
ATV (Unmanned Ground Vehicle Type).
 To help the emergency response teams in rescue operations in time of natural
hazards such as landslide , By detecting the areas of interest for rescue operations
by analyzing the presence of humans and other structures that are trapped under
the ground.
 To carry out unmanned civil , structural and geographic surveys on hazardous
areas for accurate data collection and further planning.

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 CHAPTER-2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 LITERATURE ON ROCKER-BOGIE MECHANISM

Over the past decade, the rocker-bogie suspension design has become a proven mobility
application known for its superior vehicle stability and obstacle-climbing capability. The
rocker-bogie system is the suspension arrangement developed in 1988 for use in NASA's
Mars Pathfinder's and Sojourner rover. The rocker-bogie suspension system passively
keeps all six wheels of the vehicle in contact with the ground even on uneven surfaces.
The rocker-bogie suspension mechanism which was currently NASA’s approved
design for wheeled mobile robots, mainly because it had study or resilient capabilities
to deal with obstacles and because it uniformly distributes the payload over its 6 wheels
at all times. It also can be used for other purposes to operate in rough roads and to climb
the steps. It was having lots of advantages but one of the major disadvantages is the
rotation of the mechanism when and where is required. The rotation can be possible by
providing individual motors to individual wheels which causes arise in cost and
complicacy in design

2.1.1 THE ROCKER

The "rocker" part of the suspension comes from the rocking aspect of the larger, body-
mounted linkage on each side of the rover. These rockers are connected to each other and
the vehicle chassis through a differential. Relative to the chassis, the rockers will rotate
in opposite directions to maintain approximately equal wheel contact. The chassis
maintains the average pitch angle of both rockers. One end of a rocker is fitted with a
drive wheel, and the other end is pivoted to the bogie.

2.1.2 THE BOGIE

The "bogie" part of the suspension refers to the smaller linkage that pivots to the rocker
in the middle and which has a drive wheel at each end. Bogies were commonly used as
load wheels in the tracks of army tanks as idlers distributing the load over the terrain, and
were also quite commonly used in trailers of semi-trailer trucks. Both tanks and semi-
trailers now prefer trailing arm suspensions.

2.1.3 FEATURES

The rocker-bogie design has no springs or stub axles for each wheel, allowing the rover to
climb over obstacles, such as rocks, that are up to twice the wheel's diameter in size while
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keeping all six wheels on the ground. As with any suspension system, the tilt stability is
limited by the height of the center of gravity. Systems using springs tend to tip more easily
as the loaded side yields. In order to go over a vertical obstacle face, the front wheels are
forced against the obstacle by the center and rear wheels. The rotation of the front wheel
then lifts the front of the vehicle up and over the obstacle. The middle wheel is then pressed
against the obstacle by the rear wheels and pulled against obstacle by the front until it is
lifted up and over. Finally, the rear wheel is pulled over the obstacle by the front two
wheels. During each wheel's traversal of the obstacle, forward progress of the vehicle is
slowed or completely halted. This is not an issue for the operational speeds at which these
vehicles have been operated to date.

The rocker-bogie suspension based rovers has been successfully introduced for the Mars
Pathfinder and Mars Exploration Rover (MER) and Mars Science Laboratory (MSL)
missions conducted by apex space exploration agencies throughout the world. The
proposed suspension system was currently the most favored design for every space
exploration company indulge in the business of space research.

2.1 LITERATURE ON GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

History of Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) The foundation for radar systems in general
was laid by Christian Hülsmeyer when he obtained the worldwide first patent in radar
technology on April 30, 1904. Six years later Gotthelf Leimbach and Heinrich Löwy
applied for a patent to use radar technology to locate buried objects with radar technology.
This system used surface antennas together with a continuous-wave radar. In 1926, a pulse
radar system was introduced and filed for a patent by Dr. Hülsenbeck. The particular
invention improved the depth resolution and is still widely used today.

Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) is a geophysical method that uses radar pulses to image
thesubsurface.This nondestructive methoduses electromagneticradiation inthe microwave
band (UHF/VHF frequencies) of the radio spectrum, and detects the reflected signals from
subsurface structures. GPR can have applications in a variety of media, including rock,
soil, ice, fresh water, pavements and structures. In the right conditions, practitioners can
use GPR to detect subsurface objects, changes in material properties, and voids and cracks.

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GPR uses high-frequency (usually polarized) radio waves, usually in the range 10 MHz to
2.6 GHz. A GPR transmitter and antenna emits electromagnetic energy into the ground.
When the energy encounters a buried object or a boundary between materials having
different permittivities, it may be reflected or refracted or scattered back to the surface. A
receiving antenna can then record the variations in the return signal. The principles
involved are similar to seismology, except GPR methods implement electromagnetic
energy rather than acoustic energy, and energy may be reflected at boundaries where
subsurface electrical properties change rather than subsurface mechanical properties as is
the case with seismic energy.

The electrical conductivity of the ground, the transmitted center frequency, and the
radiated power all may limit the effective depth range of GPR investigation. Increases in
electrical conductivity attenuate the introduced electromagnetic wave, and thus the
penetration depth decreases. Because of frequency-dependent attenuation mechanisms,
higher frequencies do not penetrate as far as lower frequencies. However, higher
frequencies may provide improved resolution. Thus operating frequency is always a trade-
off between resolution and penetration. Optimal depth of subsurface penetration is
achieved in ice where the depth of penetration can achieve several thousand metres (to
bedrock in Greenland) at low GPR frequencies. Dry sandy soils or massive dry materials
such as granite, limestone, and concrete tend to be resistive rather than conductive, and
the depth of penetration could be up to 15 metres (49 ft). However, in moist or clay-laden
soils and materials with high electrical conductivity, penetration may be as little as a few
centimetres.

GPR has many applications in a number of fields. Engineering applications include

nondestructive testing (NDT) of structures and pavements, locating buried structures and
utility lines, and studying soils and bedrock. In environmental remediation, GPR is used
to define landfills, contaminant plumes, and other remediation sites, while in archaeology
it is used for mapping archaeological features and cemeteries.

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 CHAPTER-3: COMPONENTS AND DESCRIPTION
The major parts that are effectively employed in the fabrication of the all terrain vehicle
mounted with ground penetrating radar are described below:

Sl. No. PARTS Qty. Material

1 Battery 1 Lead Acid

2 Wheels 6 Rubber

3 Video Camera 1 -

4 D.C Motor 6 -

5 Remote Control 1 Electronics

6 GPR system 1 -

Table 3.1 Major components and description

3.1 BATTERY :

A battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external

connections for powering electrical devices. Batteries come in many shapes and sizes,
from miniature cells used to power hearing aids and wristwatches to small, thin cells used
in smartphones, to large lead acid batteries or lithium-ion batteries in vehicles, and at the
largest extreme, huge battery banks the size of rooms that provide standby or emergency
power for telephone exchanges and computer data centers.

We use lead acid battery to power the vehicle, and so about the lead acid cells are explained
below.

3.1.1 LEAD-ACID WET CELL

Where high values of load current are necessary, the lead-acid cell is the type most
commonly used. The electrolyte is a dilute solution of sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄). In the
application of battery power to start the engine in an auto mobile, for example, the load
current to the starter motor is typically 200 to 400A. One cell has a nominal output of
2.1V, but lead-acid cells are often used in a series combination of three for a 6-V battery
and six for a 12-V battery.
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The lead acid cell type is a secondary cell or storage cell, which can be recharged. The
charge and discharge cycle can be repeated many times to restore the output voltage, as
long as the cell is in good physical condition. However, heat with excessive charge and
discharge currents shortends the useful life to about 3 to 5 years for an automobile battery.
Of the different types of secondary cells, the lead-acid type has the highest output voltage,
which allows fewer cells for a specified battery voltage.

Figure 3.1.1 Schematic cross sectional view of Lead-Acid battery

3.1.2 CONSTRUCTION

Inside a lead-acid battery, the positive and negative electrodes consist of a group of
plates welded to a connecting strap. The plates are immersed in the electrolyte, consisting
of 8 parts of water to 3 parts of concentrated sulfuric acid. Each plate is a grid or
framework, made of a lead-antimony alloy. This construction enables the active material,
which is lead oxide, to be pasted into the grid. In manufacture of the cell, a forming charge
produces the positive and negative electrodes. In the forming process, the active material
in the positive plate is changed to lead peroxide (pbo₂). The negative electrode is spongy
lead (pb).

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Automobile batteries are usually shipped dry from the manufacturer. The electrolyte is
put in at the time of installation, and then the battery is charged to from the plates. With
maintenance-free batteries, little or no water need be added in normal service. Some types
are sealed, except for a pressure vent, without provision for adding water.

3.1.3 CHEMICAL ACTION

Sulfuric acid is a combination of hydrogen and sulfate ions. When the cell discharges,
lead peroxide from the positive electrode combines with hydrogen ions to form water and
with sulfate ions to form lead sulfate. Combining lead on the negative plate with sulfate
ions also produces he sulfate. Therefore, the net result of discharge is to produce more
water, which dilutes the electrolyte, and to form lead sulfate on the plates.

As the discharge continues, the sulfate fills the pores of the grids, retarding circulation of
acid in the active material. Lead sulfate is the powder often seen on the outside terminals
of old batteries. When the combination of weak electrolyte and sulfating on the plate
lowers the output of the battery, charging is necessary.

On charge, the external D.C. source reverses the current in the battery. The reversed
direction of ions flows in the electrolyte result in a reversal of the chemical reactions. Now
the lead sulfates on the positive plate reactive with the water and sulfate ions to produce
lead peroxide and sulfuric acid. This action re-forms the positive plates and makes the
electrolyte stronger by adding sulfuric acid.

At the same time, charging enables the lead sulfate on the negative plate to react with
hydrogen ions; this also forms sulfuric acid while reforming lead on the negative plate to
react with hydrogen ions; this also forms currents can restore the cell to full output, with
lead peroxide on the positive plates, spongy lead on the negative plate, and the required
concentration of sulfuric acid in the electrolyte.

The chemical equation for the lead-acid cell is

Charge

Pb + pbO₂ + 2H₂SO₄ 2pbSO₄ + 2H₂O

Discharge

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On discharge, the pb and pbo₂ combine with the SO₄ ions at the left side of the equation
to form lead sulfate (pbSO₄) and water (H₂O) at the right side of the equation.

One battery consists of 6 cell, each have an output voltage of 2.1V, which are connected
in series to get an voltage of 12V and the same 12V battery is connected in series, to get
an 24 V battery. They are placed in the water proof iron casing box.

Figure 3.1.2 Chemical reactions happening in batteries at discharging and charging

situations

3.1.4 CARING FOR LEAD-ACID BATTERIES

Always use extreme caution when handling batteries and electrolyte. Wear gloves,
goggles and old clothes. “Battery acid” will burn skin and eyes and destroy cotton and
wool clothing.

The quickest way of ruin lead-acid batteries is to discharge them deeply and leave them
stand “dead” for an extended period of time. When they discharge, there is a chemical
change in the positive plates of the battery. They change from lead oxide when charge
out lead sulfate when discharged. If they remain in the lead Sulfate State for a few days,
some part of the plate dose not returns to lead oxide when the battery is recharged. If the
battery remains discharge longer, a greater amount of the positive plate will remain lead

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sulfate. The parts of the plates that become “sulfate” no longer store energy. Batteries
that are deeply discharged, and then charged partially on a regular basis can fail in less
then one year.

Check your batteries on a regular basis to be sure they are getting charged. Use a
hydrometer to check the specific gravity of your lead acid batteries. If batteries are cycled
very deeply and then recharged quickly, the specific gravity reading will be lower than it
should because the electrolyte at the top of the battery may not have mixed with the
“charged” electrolyte.

Check the electrolyte level in the wet-cell batteries at the least four times a year and top
each cell of with distilled water. Do not add water to discharged batteries. Electrolyte is
absorbed when batteries are very discharged. If you add water at this time, and then
recharge the battery, electrolyte will overflow and make a mess.

Keep the top of your batteries clean and check that cables are tight. Do not tighten or
remove cables while charging or discharging. Any spark around batteries can cause a
hydrogen explosion inside, and ruin one of the cells, and you.

On charge, with reverse current through the electrolyte, the chemical action is reversed.
Then the pb ions from the lead sulfate on the right side of the equation re-form the lead
and lead peroxide electrodes. Also the SO₄ ions combine with H₂ ions from the water to
produce more sulfuric acid at the left side of the equation.

3.1.5 CURRENT RATINGS

Lead-acid batteries are generally rated in terms of how much discharge currents they can
supply for a specified period of time; the output voltage must be maintained above a
minimum level, which is 1.5 to 1.8V per cell. A common rating is ampere-hours (A.h.)
based on a specific discharge time, which is often 8h. Typical values for automobile
batteries are 100 to 300 A.h.

As an example, a 200 A.h battery can supply a load current of 200/8 or 25A, used on 8h
discharge. The battery can supply less current for a longer time or more current for a
shorter time. Automobile batteries may be rated for “cold cranking power”, which is

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related to the job of starting the engine. A typical rating is 450A for 30s at a temperature
of 0 degree F.

Note that the ampere-hour unit specifies coulombs of charge. For instance, 200 A.h.
corresponds to 200A*3600s (1h=3600s). the equals 720,000 A.S, or coulombs. One
ampere-second is equal to one coulomb. Then the charge equals 720,000 or 7.2*10^5ºC.
To put this much charge back into the battery would require 20 hours with a charging
current of 10A.

The ratings for lead-acid batteries are given for a temperature range of 77 to 80ºF. Higher
temperature increase the chemical reaction, but operation above 110ºF shortens the battery
life. Low temperatures reduce the current capacity and voltage output. The ampere-hour
capacity is reduced approximately 0.75% for each decreases of 1º F below normal
temperature rating. At 0ºF the available output is only 60 % of the ampere-hour battery
rating.

In cold weather, therefore, it is very important to have an automobile battery unto full
charge. In addition, the electrolyte freezes more easily when diluted by water in the
discharged condition.

3.1.6 SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Measuring the specific gravity of the electrolyte generally checks the state of discharge
for a lead-acid cell. Specific gravity is a ratio comparing the weight of a substance with
the weight of a substance with the weight of water. For instance, concentrated sulfuric
acid is 1.835 times as heavy as water for the same volume. Therefore, its specific gravity
equals 1.835. The specific gravity of water is 1, since it is the reference.

In a fully charged automotive cell, mixture of sulfuric acid and water results in a specific
gravity of 1.280 at room temperatures of 70 to 80ºF. as the cell discharges, more water is
formed, lowering the specific gravity. When it is down to about 1.150, the cell is
completely discharged.

Specific-gravity readings are taken with a battery hydrometer, such as one in figure (7).
Note that the calibrated float with the specific gravity marks will rest higher in an
electrolyte of higher specific gravity.

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The decimal point is often omitted for convenience. For example, the value of 1.220 in
figure (7) is simply read “twelve twenty”. A hydrometer reading of 1260 to 1280 indicates
full charge, approximately 12.50 are half charge, and 1150 to 1200 indicates complete
discharge.

The importance of the specific gravity can be seen from the fact that the open-circuit
voltage of the lead-acid cell is approximately equal to

V = Specific gravity + 0.84

For the specific gravity of 1.280, the voltage is 1.280 = 0.84 = 2.12V, as an example.
These values are for a fully charged battery.

3.1.7 CHARGING THE LEAD-ACID BATERY

The requirements are illustrated in figure. An external D.C. voltage source is necessary
to produce current in one direction. Also, the charging voltage must be more than the
battery e.m.f. Approximately 2.5 per cell are enough to over the cell e.m.f. so that the
charging voltage can produce current opposite to the direction of discharge current.

Note that the reversal of current is obtained just by connecting the battery VB and charging
source VG with + to + and –to-, as shown in figure. The charging current is reversed
because the battery effectively becomes a load resistance for VG when it higher than VB.
In this example, the net voltage available to produce charging currents is 15-12=3V.

A commercial charger for automobile batteries is essentially a D.C. power supply,

rectifying input from the AC power line to provide D.C. output for charging batteries.

Float charging refers to a method in which the charger and the battery are always
connected to each other for supplying current to the load. In figure the charger provides
current for the load and the current necessary to keep the battery fully charged. The battery
here is an auxiliary source for D.C. power.

It may be of interest to note that an automobile battery is in a floating-charge circuit. The

battery charger is an AC generator or alternator with rectifier diodes, driver by a belt from
the engine. When you start the car, the battery supplies the cranking power. Once the

13
engine is running, the alternator charges he battery. It is not necessary for the car to be
moving. A voltage regulator is used in this system to maintain the output at approximately
13 to 15 V.

The constant voltage of 24V comes from the solar panel controlled by the charge controller
so for storing this energy we need a 24V battery so two 12V battery are connected in
series.

It is a good idea to do an equalizing charge when some cells show a variation of 0.05
specific gravity from each other. This is a long steady overcharge, bringing the battery to
a gassing or bubbling state. Do not equalize sealed or gel type batteries.

With proper care, lead-acid batteries will have a long service life and work very well in
almost any power system. Unfortunately, with poor treatment lead-acid battery life will
be very short.

3.2 D.C MOTOR :

An electric motor is a machine which converts electrical energy to mechanical energy.

Its action is based on the principle that when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, it experiences a magnetic force whose direction is given by Fleming’s left
hand rule. When a motor is in operation, it develops torque. This torque can produce
mechanical rotation. DC motors are also like generators classified into shunt wound or
series wound or compound wound motors.

3.2.1 FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE

Keep the force finger, middle finger and thumb of the left hand mutually perpendicular
to one another. If the fore finger indicates the direction of magnetic field and middle
finger indicates direction of current in the conductor, then the thumb indicates the direction
of the motion of conductor.

3.2.2 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF DC MOTOR

Figure show a uniform magnetic field in which a straight conductor carrying no current
is placed. The conductor is perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field.

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In figure II the conductor is shown as carrying a current away from the viewer, but the
field due to the N and S poles has been removed. There is no movement of the conductor
during the above two conditions. In figure III the current carrying conductor is placed in
the magnetic field. The field due to the current in the conductor supports the main field
above the conductor, but opposes the main field below the conductor.

Figure 3.2.1 Illustration of flemings left hand rule

The result is to increase the flux density in to the region directly above the conductor and
to reduce the flux density in the region directly below the conductor. It is found that a
force acts on the conductor, trying to push the conductor downwards as shown by the
arrow. If the current in the conductor is reversed, the strengthening of flux lines occurs
below the conductor, and the conductor will be pushed upwards.

Now consider a single turn coil carrying a current as shown in the above figure. in view
of the reasons given above, the coil side A will be forced to move downwards, whereas
the coil side B will be forced to move upwards.

The forces acting on the coil sides A and B will be of same magnitude. But their direction
is opposite to one another. As the coil is wound on the armature core which is supported
by the bearings, the armature will now rotate. The commutator periodically reverses the
direction of current flow through the armature. Therefore the armature will have a
continuous rotation.

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A simplified model of such a motor is shown in figure VI. The conductors are wound
over a soft iron core. DC supply is given to the field poles for producing flux. The
conductors are connected to the DC supply through brushes. Let's start by looking at the
overall plan of a simple 2-pole DC electric motor. A simple motor has 6 parts, as shown
in the diagram below.

 An armature or rotor
 A commutator
 Brushes
 An axle
 A field magnet
 A DC power supply of some sort

Figure 3.2.2 Schematic diagram of bipolar DC motor

An electric motor is all about magnets and magnetism: a motor uses magnets to create
motion. If you have ever played with magnets you know about the fundamental law of all
magnets: Opposites attract and likes repel. So if you have 2 bar magnets with their ends
marked north and south, then the North end of one magnet will attract the South end of
the other. On the other hand, the North end of one magnet will repel the North end of the
other (and similarly south will repel south). Inside an electric motor these attracting and
repelling forces create rotational motion.

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 In the diagram above and below you can see two magnets in the motor, the armature (or
rotor) is an electromagnet, while the field magnet is a permanent magnet (the field magnet
could be an electromagnet as well, but in most small motors it is not to save power).

3.2.3 ELECTROMAGNETS AND MOTORS

To understand how an electric motor works, the key is to understand how the
electromagnet works. An electromagnet is the basis of an electric motor. You can
understand how things work in the motor by imagining the following scenario. Say that
you created a simple electromagnet by wrapping 100 loops of wire around a nail and
connecting it to a battery. The nail would become a magnet and have a North and South
pole while the battery is connected.

Now say that you take your nail electromagnet, run an axle through the middle of it, and
you suspended it in the middle of a horseshoe magnet as shown in the figure below. If you
were to attach a battery to the electromagnet so that the North end of the nail appeared as
shown, the basic law of magnetism tells you what would happen: The North end of the
electromagnet would be repelled from the north end of the horseshoe magnet and attracted
to the south end of the horseshoe magnet.

The South end of the electromagnet would be repelled in a similar way. The nail would
move about half a turn and then stop in the position shown.

Figure 3.2.3 Illustration of working of a simple motor

You can see that this half-turn of motion is simple and obvious because of the way magnets
naturally attract and repel one another. The key to an electric motor is to then go one step
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further so that, at the moment that this half-turn of motion completes, the field of the
electromagnet flips. The flip causes the electromagnet to complete another half-turn of
motion.

You flip the magnetic field simply by changing the direction of the electrons flowing in
the wire (you do that by flipping the battery over). If the field of the electromagnet flipped
at just the right moment at the end of each half-turn of motion, the electric motor would
spin freely.

3.2.4 THE ARMATURE

Figure 3.2.4 Various sectional views of the armature winding

The armature takes the place of the nail in an electric motor. The armature is an
electromagnet made by coiling thin wire around two or more poles of a metal core. The
armature has an axle, and the commutator is attached to the axle. In the diagram above
you can see three different views of the same armature: front, side and end-on. In the end-
on view the winding is eliminated to make the commutator more obvious. You can see
that the commutator is simply a pair of plates attached to the axle. These plates provide
the two connections for the coil of the electromagnet.

3.2.5 THE COMMUTATOR AND BRUSHES

The "flipping the electric field" part of an electric motor is accomplished by two parts: the
commutator and the brushes. The diagram at the right shows how the commutator and

18
brushes work together to let current flow to the electromagnet, and also to flip the direction
that the electrons are flowing at just the right moment. The contacts of the commutator are
attached to the axle of the electromagnet, so they spin with the magnet. The brushes are
just two pieces of springy metal or carbon that make contact with the contacts of the
commutator.

3.2.6 PUTTING ALL TOGETHER

When you put all of these parts together, what you have is a complete electric motor, the
armature winding has been left out so that it is easier to see the commutator in action. The
key thing to notice is that as the armature passes through the horizontal position, the poles
of the electromagnet flip. Because of the flip, the North pole of the electromagnet is always
above the axle so it can repel the field magnet's North pole and attract the field magnet's
South pole.

If you ever take apart an electric motor you will find that it contains the same pieces
described above: two small permanent magnets, a commutator, two brushes and an
electromagnet made by winding wire around a piece of metal.

Almost always, however, the rotor will have three poles rather than the two poles as shown
in this article. There are two good reasons for a motor to have three poles:

 It causes the motor to have better dynamics. In a two-pole motor, if the

electromagnet is at the balance point, perfectly horizontal between the two poles
of the field magnet when the motor starts; you can imagine the armature getting
"stuck" there. That never happens in a three-pole motor.
 Each time the commutator hits the point where it flips the field in a two-pole motor,
the commutator shorts out the battery (directly connects the positive and negative
terminals) for a moment. This shorting wastes energy and drains the battery
needlessly. A three-pole motor solves this problem as well.
 It is possible to have any number of poles, depending on the size of the motor and
the specific application it is being used in.

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3.3 REMOTE CONTROL UNIT:

3.3.1 TRANSMITTER

The message to be communicated has to be first converted into an electrical signal by

the help of a suitable transducer. The electrical signal so obtained has to be suitable
processed and amplified before being fed to the channel. The information signal called the
modulating signal is used to modulate a high frequency sine wave signal. The type of
modulation depends on the requirements.

The carrier signal generated by the oscillator goes to the RF output power amplifiers
through the buffer and RF amplifiers. The RF amplifier sends the signal containing all
bands of frequencies.

Figure 3.3.1 Block diagram of signal transmission system

3.3.1 RECIEVER

Practically all receivers today are super heterodyne. The RF amplifier is tuned to the
required incoming frequency. The output of the RFA is combined with the local oscillator
voltage and normally converted into a signal of lower fixed frequency. This IF signal
contains the same modulation as the original carrier. It is then amplified and detected to
obtain information.

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 Figure 3.3.2 Block diagram of signal reception system

A fixed frequency difference is maintained between the local oscillator and RF

frequency with the help of capacitance tuning. IF stage consists of a number of
transformers which provides a large gain. The characteristics of the IFA are kept
independent of the frequency to which the receiver is tuned, so that the sensitivity of the
super heterodyne remains fairly uniform throughout its tuning range. The various blocks
of super heterodyne receiver is explained as follows.

3.4 WIRELESS VIDEO CAMERA:

Wireless security cameras are closed-circuit television (CCTV) cameras that transmit a
video and audio signal to a wireless receiver through a radio band. Many wireless security
cameras require at least one cable or wire for power; "wireless" refers to the transmission
of video/audio. However, some wireless security cameras are battery-powered, making
the cameras truly wireless from top to bottom.

Wireless cameras are proving very popular among modern security consumers due to their
low installation costs (there is no need to run expensive video extension cables) and
flexible mounting options; wireless cameras can be mounted/installed in locations
previously unavailable to standard wired cameras. In addition to the ease of use and
convenience of access, wireless security camera allows users to leverage broadband
wireless internet to provide seamless video streaming over-internet.

Connection Diagram:

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 Figure 3.4.1 Connection diagram of wireless video camera system

3.5 WHEELS:

The category of wheels choosen for the application of this work is Poly-Urethane
wheels.

3.5.1 POLY URETHANE WHEELS

Prof. Dr. Otto Bayer (1902-1982). Prof. Dr. Otto Bayer is recognized as the “father” of
the polyurethanes industry for his invention of the basic diisocyanate polyaddition process.

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 Figure 3.5.1 Chemical Composition of Poly Urethane

Polyurethane (PUR and PU) is a polymer composed of organic units joined by carbamate
(urethane) links. While most polyurethanes are thermosetting polymers that do not melt
when heated, thermoplastic polyurethanes are also available.

3.5.2 RAW MATERIALS

The main ingredients to make a polyurethane are di- and tri-isocynates and polymols.
Other materials are added to aid processing the polymer or to modify the properties of the
polymer.

Isocyanates used to make polyurethane have two or more isocyanate groups on each
molecule. The most commonly used isocyanates are the aromatic diisocyanates, toluene
diisocyanate (TDI) and methylene diphenyl diisocyanate, MDI.

TDI and MDI are generally less expensive and more reactive than other isocyanates.
Industrial grade TDI and MDI are mixtures of isomers and MDI often contains polymeric
materials. They are used to make flexible foam (for example slabstock foam for mattresses
or molded foams for car seats) rigid foam (for example insulating foam in refrigerators)
elastomers (shoe soles, for example), and so on. The isocyanates may be modified by
partially reacting them with polyols or introducing some other materials to reduce
volatility (and hence toxicity) of the isocyanates, decrease their freezing points to make
handling easier or to improve the properties of the final polymers.

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 Figure 3.5.2 Different types of Methylene Diphenyl Diisocyanate

3.6 GPR SYSTEM:

GPR equipment consists of antennas, electronics and a recording device.The transmitter

and receiver electronics are always separate, but in a fixed-mode configuration, they are
often contained in different boxes, while in some systems that are designed for moving-
mode operation, all of the electronics are contained in one box. In some cases, the
electronics may be mounted on top of the antennas, which makes for a compact system,
but it also decreases the operational flexibility of the system.

In the moving mode of operation, a radar wave is transmitted, received and recorded each
time that the antenna has been moved a fixed distance across the surface of the ground, or
material that is being investigated.

Since a single record of a transmitted pulse is called a trace, the spacing between
measurement points is called the trace spacing. The trace spacing that is chosen should be
a function of the target size and the objectives of the survey. A single trace over two layers
is shown in Figure 3.6.1. Traces that are displayed side-byside form a GPR time-distance
record, or GPR cross section, which shows how the reflections vary in the subsurface. If
the contrasts in electrical properties (e.g. changes in permittivity) are relatively simple,
then the GPR time-distance record can be viewed as a twodimensional pseudo-image of
the earth, with the horizontal axis the distance along the surface, and the vertical axis being
the two-way travel time of the radar wave.

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The two-way travel time on the vertical axis can be converted to depth, if the permittivity
(which can be converted to velocity) is known. The GPR time-distance record is the
simplest display of GPR data that can be interpreted in terms of subsurface features. A
GPR time-distance record can also be produced by making a series of fixed-mode
measurements at a constant interval between traces on the surface.

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CHAPTER-4: DESIGN OF UNMANNED ALL TERRAIN VEHICLE
This chapter deals with the proposed design and construction methodology of the
vehicle.

4.1 DESIGN:

After thorough literature review and lectures, we created a simple 3D model of the rocker-
bogie mechanism. Figure 4.1.1 illustrates the drawing of the rocker-bogie system mode
on SOLID WORKS 2020 software.

Figure 4.1.1 3D model of the proposed rocker-bogie mechanism

4.2 SPECIFICATIONS:

Basic tube length = 1.97 cm

Basic tube width = 1.18 cm

Basic tube thickness = 0.10

Radius of curvature of tubes at corner = 0.20 cm

Length of the rocker side tobe from rectangular frame to center of wheel = 14 cm

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Length of rectangular frame = 20 cm

Breadth of rectangular frame = 18 cm

Offset clamp length from frame to bogie = 6 cm

Side Length of L-shaped bogie = 10 cm

Preffered material : Mild Steel

Figure 4.2.1 Basic rocker – bogie vehicle schematic

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 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION
5.1. SUMMARY

This work on unmanned all terrain vehicle showe how rocker bogie system works.
Furthermore the designed rocker bogie is capable of climbing an angle up to 45˚. Moreover
designed and develop a multi-utility functional vehicle that can be transported easily to
any desired remote location when necessary to take part in study processes. The project
also proposed the implementatio of a low cost way to fabricate GPR module which can
penetrate as deep as 2 – 4 meters. Above all the integration of the UATV along with the
GPR module confirmed on the possibility of remotely controlled GPR sensors for real-
time analysis of sub surfaces.

5.2 FUTURE SCOPES IN THE WORK

The proposed integrated design of GPR mounted ATV is formulated with least
constraints in mind including ability to transverse terrains with inclinations less than or
equal to 45 degree and the ability to carry the approx 1.5 kg of payload safely with out
damage. But in actual scenarios the constraints could change drastically by application
even new parameters arises which need to be adressed such as slippery grounds , marshy
soil etc... Hence this proposed work will be a base model for future improvements in both
the vehicle design as well as GPR capabilities to meet the challenges.

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 REFERENCES
P. Panigrahi, A. Barik, Rajneesh R. & R. K. Sahu, “Introduction of Mechanical Gear Type
Steering Mechanism to Rocker Bogie”, Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research
(IJIR) Vol-2, Issue-5, ISSN: 2454-1362,2016.

A. Bhole, S. H. Turlapati, Raja shekhar V. S, J. Dixit, S. V. Shah, Madhava Krishna K,

“Design of a Robust Stair Climbing Compliant Modular Robot to Tackle Overhang on
Stairs” arXiv:1607.03077v1 , 11 Jul 2016.

Vincenzo Ferrara , Margarita Chizh , Andrea Pietrelli , COST Action TU1208 "Civil
Engineering Applications of Ground Penetrating Radar” , 20th EGU General Assembly,
EGU2018, Proceedings from the conference held 4-13 April, 2018 in Vienna, Austria,
p.8560

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