micromachines
Article
A Fast-Response Driving Waveform Design Based on
High-Frequency Voltage for Three-Color
Electrophoretic Displays
Hu Zhang 1,2 , Zichuan Yi 1, *, Liming Liu 1 , Feng Chi 1 , Yunfeng Hu 1 , Sida Huang 1 , Yu Miao 1 and Li Wang 3






Citation: Zhang, H.; Yi, Z.; Liu, L.;
Chi, F.; Hu, Y.; Huang, S.; Miao, Y.;
Wang, L. A Fast-Response Driving
Waveform Design Based on
High-Frequency Voltage for
Three-Color Electrophoretic Displays.
Micromachines 2022, 13, 59. https://
doi.org/10.3390/mi13010059
Academic Editors: Zebing Mao,
Jin Xie and Hong Ding
Received: 19 December 2021
Accepted: 26 December 2021
Published: 30 December 2021
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Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
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This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Micromachines 2022, 13, 59. https://doi.org/10.3390/mi13010059
1 College of Electron and Information, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China Zhongshan
Institute, Zhongshan 528402, China; 202021020727@std.uestc.edu.cn (H.Z.); liulmxps@126.com (L.L.);
chifeng@semi.ac.cn (F.C.); shanhuyf@163.com (Y.H.); hsida0130@163.com (S.H.); myseeking@126.com (Y.M.)
2 School of Electronic Science and Engineering (National Exemplary School of Microelectronics), University of
Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu 611731, China
3 School of Information Engineering, Zhongshan Polytechnic, Zhongshan 528400, China; creekxi@163.com
* Correspondence: yizichuan@zsc.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-173-2282-6330
Abstract: Three-color electrophoretic displays (EPDs) have the characteristics of colorful display,
reflection display, low power consumption, and flexible display. However, due to the addition of red
particles, response time of three-color EPDs is increased. In this paper, we proposed a new driving
waveform based on high-frequency voltage optimization and electrophoresis theory, which was used
to shorten the response time. The proposed driving waveform was composed of an activation stage,
a new red driving stage, and a black or white driving stage. The response time of particles was
effectively reduced by removing an erasing stage. In the design process, the velocity of particles
in non-polar solvents was analyzed by Newton’s second law and Stokes law. Next, an optimal
duration and an optimal frequency of the activation stage were obtained to reduce ghost images
and improve particle activity. Then, an optimal voltage which can effectively drive red particles
was tested to reduce the response time of red particles. Experimental results showed that compared
with a traditional driving waveform, the proposed driving waveform had a better performance.
Response times of black particles, white particles and red particles were shortened by 40%, 47.8%
and 44.9%, respectively.
Keywords: three-color electrophoretic displays; driving waveform; response time; reference grayscale;
high-frequency voltage
1. Introduction
As one of the most important media for human-computer interaction, displays are
playing an increasingly important role in our daily life. Electrophoretic electronic paper is
the most widely used reflective display due to advantages such as low power consumption,
paper-like reading experience, large viewing angle, and low mass [1–6]. However, multi-
color display cannot be achieved by traditional EPDs because only black particles and white
particles are encapsulated [7]. The application of this electronic paper technology is limited.
In 2018, a three-color EPD technology was proposed, which could solve the problem of
insufficient color in EPDs [8]. However, the three-color EPD has not been popularized, and
the poor performance of driving waveform is one important reason.
The driving waveform is a voltage sequence that can control the up and down move-
ment of particles in microcapsules [9–13]. The color displayed by pixels is determined by
the position of particles. When driving waveforms are applied to a three-color EPD, the
time for it to refresh from an original image to a target image is called the response time,
which can reflect the performance of the driving waveform [14,15]. An electric field model
of EPDs was proposed, which provided a theoretical basis for optimizing driving wave-
forms [16–18]. Some disadvantages of traditional EPDs have been solved by optimizing
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/micromachines
Micromachines 2022, 13, 59 2 of 12

driving waveforms, such as long response time, flickers, and ghost images [19,20]. For
example, a driving waveform for shortening the response time of traditional EPDs was
proposed. The activation pattern of this driving waveform was changed to a high-frequency
voltage [21]. Flickers can be effectively reduced by high-frequency voltage. In addition,
another method to shorten the response time was proposed, but the relationship between
particle activity and voltage frequency was not discussed [22]. As for three-color EPDs,
red particles have larger volume and mass than black or white particles, so the response
time of red particles is long, which severely limits the application scenarios of three-color
EPDs [23]. Therefore, it is valuable to analyze the force on particles and propose a new
driving waveform. In order to realize high-performance three-color EPDs, many driving
waveforms have been proposed. A damped oscillation waveform was proposed to separate
red particles and black particles to improve red saturation, but the response time of red
particles was increased [24]. The reference grayscale was optimized by a driving waveform,
which can reduce the response time of black particles and white particles. But the response
time of red particles was not reduced [25]. Moreover, a driving waveform for shortening
red particle response time was proposed. The distance between particles and electrode
plate was adjusted to obtain an optimal reference grayscale [26]. These driving waveforms
can only reduce the response time of specific particles and are not universal, but they
provide a reference direction to design a new driving waveform with high performance.
In order to realize the fast response of three-color EPDs, a driving waveform based
on high-frequency voltage was proposed in this study. Using Stokes law and Newton’s
second law, the forces on particles in microcapsules were analyzed. The optimal frequency
and duration of the activation stage were the designed to improve particles activity. At the
same time, flickers and ghost images can be reduced by the proposed driving waveform.

2. Principle of Three-Color EPDs

The structure of three pixels of three-color EPDs is shown in Figure 1. They are pre-
pared based on microcapsule technology. Non-polar solvents, black particles, red particles,
and white particles are encapsulated in microcapsules [27,28]. Microcapsules are sand-
wiched between a pixel electrode plate and a common electrode plate [29]. Compared with
the traditional color EPD realized by a layered structure, this structure can achieve higher
luminance [30,31]. Three kinds of particles in microcapsules have different sizes, polarities,
and electric charges. The white particles are negatively charged, and the black and red
particles are positively charged. Therefore, particles have different mobility and threshold
voltages. Different colors can be displayed by applying different driving waveforms [32].
As shown on the right in Figure 1, when it is driven by a negative polarity voltage, white
particles move to the top of microcapsule, and the pixel displays white. As shown on the
left in Figure 1, when it is driven by a high positive polarity voltage, black particles are
closer to the top of microcapsule than the red particles, so the pixel displays black. In
contrast, as shown in the middle in Figure 1, when it is driven by a low positive polarity
voltage, the pixel displays red. Particles remain motionless when no voltage is applied [33].
The image of three-color EPDs can be perfectly preserved for a long time.
As one of the most critical technologies of this new electrophoretic technology, the
driving waveform directly affects the motion state of particles. Therefore, it is necessary
to analyze the force on particles in microcapsules to optimize the driving waveform. In
microcapsules, the density of particles is approximately equal to that of the non-polar
solvents, which can prevent sedimentation of particles. Gravity and buoyancy of particles
cancel out. Therefore, particles are affected by the combined viscous force of non-polar
solvents and the electric field force. The acceleration of particles can be calculated according
to Newton’s second law, as shown in Equation (1).

Uq dv
F= − 6πηvR = ma = m (1)
d dt
Micromachines 2022, 13, 59 3 of 12

where F is the resultant force; U is the voltage applied to applied to pixels in real time; q is
the amount charge of a particle; d is the distance between the pixel electrode plate and the
common electrode plate; η is the liquid viscosity coefficient; ν, R, m are the speed, sphere
radius, and mass of the particle, respectively; a is the acceleration of the particle; and t is
the duration of the voltage applied to two electrode plates. When the initial condition of
the particle is static, the relationship between ν and t can be calculated by Equation (1), as
shown in Equation (2).
Uq 6πηR
Micromachines 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW v= (1 − e − m t ) 3 of(2)
13
6πdηR

Figure 1.
Figure A schematic
1. A schematic diagram
diagram of of aa three-color
three-color EPD.
EPD. Each
Each pixel
pixel is
is composed
composed of of non-polar
non-polar solvents,
solvents,
particles, aa pixel
white particles, red particles, black particles, pixel electrode
electrode plate,
plate, and
and aa common
common electrode
electrode plate.
plate.
The color displayed
displayed byby pixels
pixelsdepends
dependson onthe
theapplied
appliedvoltage.
voltage.The
Thecolor
colorisiswhite
whitewhen
when the
the voltage
voltage is
is negative
negative polarity.
polarity. TheThe color
color is black
is black whenwhen the voltage
the voltage is high
is high positive
positive polarity.
polarity. The is
The color color
red is red
when
when the voltage
the voltage is low is low positive
positive polarity.
polarity.

As
Theone of the most
relationship criticalthe
between technologies of this new
distance of particle electrophoretic
movement and t cantechnology,
be obtainedthe
by
driving waveform
integrating directly
the velocity; affects in
as shown theEquation
motion state
(3). of particles. Therefore, it is necessary
to analyze the force on Z t particles in microcapsules to6πηR optimize the driving waveform. In
microcapsules, the density Uq m qUm of the non-polar sol-
s= vdtof
0 =
particles is(tapproximately
+ e− m equal
t
) − to that
2 2 R2 d
(3)
vents, which can prevent 0 6πdηR 6πηR 36π
sedimentation of particles. Gravity andη buoyancy of particles
cancel out. Therefore, particles are affected by the combined viscous force of non-polar
where s is the distance of particle movement. It can be seen that s is proportional to t. In
solvents and the electric field force. The acceleration of particles can be calculated accord-
addition, the inertia of a particle is small and can be ignored. Therefore, when a high-
ing to Newton’s second law, as shown in Equation (1).
frequency voltage is applied, particles are driven to oscillate in a certain range. The higher
the frequency, the smaller the oscillation 𝑈𝑞 range of particles. 𝑑𝑣
𝐹= 6𝜋𝜂𝑣𝑅 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚 (1)
𝑑 𝑑𝑡
3. Experimental Results and Discussion
where 𝐹 is the resultant force; 𝑈 is the voltage applied to applied to pixels in real time;
3.1. Experimental Platform
𝑞 is the amount charge of a particle; 𝑑 is the distance between the pixel electrode plate
An common
and the optical experimental
electrode plate;platform wasliquid
𝜂 is the developed
viscosityby coefficient;
us to test performance
𝜈, 𝑅, 𝑚 are of thea
traditional driving waveform and the proposed driving waveform.
speed, sphere radius, and mass of the particle, respectively; 𝑎 is the acceleration of the It can record red
saturation
particle; andand𝑡 luminance value.ofThe
is the duration theresponse
voltage time of red
applied to particles can beplates.
two electrode characterized
When theby
red saturation. The response time of black particles and white particles can
initial condition of the particle is static, the relationship between 𝜈 and 𝑡 can be calcu- be characterized
by luminance.
lated by Equation The
(1),platform
as shownconsisted
in Equationof a(2).
computer (H430, Lenovo, Beijing, China),
a function generator (AFG3022C, Tektronix, Beaverton, OR, USA), a voltage amplifier
(ATA-2022H, Agitek, Xi’an, China), 𝑣= and 𝑈𝑞
a colorimeter
1 𝑒 (Arges-45, Admesy, Ittervoort, The (2)
Netherlands). The three-color EPD was 6𝜋𝑑𝜂𝑅
designed by us, and it was used as a test object in
this experiment.
The relationship between the distance of particle movement and 𝑡 can be obtained
The workflow
by integrating of the entire
the velocity; experiment
as shown is shown
in Equation (3). in Figure 2. First, software packages
MATLAB and Arbexpress were used to edit driving waveforms and generate tfw format
files, which are recognized by the 𝑈𝑞 𝑚 𝑞𝑈𝑚
𝑠= 𝑣𝑑𝑡 = function𝑡 generator. 𝑒 Second, a universal serial bus (USB) (3)
6𝜋𝑑𝜂𝑅 6𝜋𝜂𝑅 36𝜋 𝜂 𝑅 𝑑
where 𝑠 is the distance of particle movement. It can be seen that 𝑠 is proportional to 𝑡.
In addition, the inertia of a particle is small and can be ignored. Therefore, when a high-
frequency voltage is applied, particles are driven to oscillate in a certain range. The higher

Micromachines 2022, 13, 59
(ATA-2022H, Agitek, Xian, China), and a colorimeter (Arges-45, Admesy, Ittervoort
Netherlands). The three-color EPD was designed by us, and it was used as a test obje
this experiment.
The workflow of the entire experiment is shown in Figure 2. First, software pack
MATLAB and Arbexpress were used to edit driving waveforms and generate 4 of 12 tfw fo

files, which are recognized by the function generator. Second, a universal serial bus (
was used to transmit the files to the function generator. The voltage amplifier was
was used to transmit the files to the function generator. The voltage amplifier was then
used to amplify voltage to drive the three-color EPD. Finally, the colorimeter was pl
used to amplify voltage to drive the three-color EPD. Finally, the colorimeter was placed
onthe
on thethree-color
three-color
EPDEPD during
during the experiment
the experiment and Admesy
and Admesy software
software was used towas used to co
collect
and record luminance value and red saturation in
and record luminance value and red saturation in real time.real time.

Figure
Figure 2. 2. Flow
Flow chart
chart of luminance
of luminance value
value and redand red saturation
saturation data acquisition.
data acquisition.

3.2. Driving Waveform Design

3.2. Driving Waveform Design
As shown in Figure 3, the four stages of the traditional driving waveform of three-
As shown
color EPDs in Figure
are as follows: 3, the four
an erasing stage,stages of thestage,
an activating traditional driving
a red driving waveform
stage, and a of t
colororEPDs
black whiteare as follows:
driving an erasing
stage [34,35]. stage,
An original an activating
image stage,
can be erased by aa−red
15 Vdriving
voltage stage, a
in
black or white driving stage [34,35]. An original image can be erased by a of
the erasing stage. In the activating stage, a four-cycle square wave with a period −15 V vo
340 ms and
in the an amplitude
erasing stage. In of the
30 Vactivating
are used to stage,
activateaparticles. Thesquare
four-cycle activating stagewith
wave and the
a period o
erasing stage take a long time, which lead to a long response time of particles. A number
ms and an amplitude of 30 V are used to activate particles. The activating stage an
2, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW of flickers are caused by alternating positive and negative voltages in the activation 5 of 13 stage.
erasing
Its stagevalue
commercial take isa long time,
seriously whichdue
affected leadto to a long
these response time
disadvantages. of particles.
Therefore, a new A num
driving waveform that can reduce flickers and shorten the response time is needed. activation s
of flickers are caused by alternating positive and negative voltages in the
Its commercial value is seriously affected due to these disadvantages. Therefore, a
driving waveform that can reduce flickers and shorten the response time is needed.
As shown in Figure 4, the three stages of the proposed driving waveform of t
color EPDs are as follows: an activating stage, a new red driving stage, and a bla
white driving stage. Compared with Figure 3, the erasing stage is removed and th
sponse time of particles is reduced. According to Equation (3), particles oscillate wit
certain range when the voltage frequency is high. The grayscale is gradually driven
certain value. Ghost images can be effectively reduced. After the activation stage, b
particles are in the middle of microcapsules. Low red saturation is caused if red par
are driven directly. Therefore, a reference grayscale optimization voltage is added t
new red driving stage, and red particles can be driven by the positive polarity volta
this stage. The black or white driving stage is the same as the traditional driving w
form.

Figure 3. A schematic diagram

Figure of the traditional
3. A schematic diagram ofdriving waveform.
the traditional drivingItswaveform.
four parts Itsare
fourasparts
follows:
are as the
follows: the
first part is an erasing
firststage,
part is the second
an erasing parttheissecond
stage, an activation
part is an stage, thestage,
activation thirdthepart
thirdispart
a red
is a driving
red driving stage,
stage, and the fourthandparttheisfourth
a black orisaawhite
part black or driving
a whitestage.
drivingThe variable
stage. 𝑉 isVthe
The variable R isdriving
the drivingvoltage
voltage of red
𝑇 , 𝑇 and
of red particles, andparticles, , 𝑇TE1, , and
TA1 , T𝑇R1 , and
are Tthe
D1 are the duration
duration of the
of the erasingstage,
erasing stage, the
the activation
activationstage, the
stage, the red drivingred driving
stage, andstage,
the and theor
black black or white
white driving
driving stage,
stage, respectively.
respectively.

As shown in Figure 4, the three stages of the proposed driving waveform of three-color
EPDs are as follows: an activating stage, a new red driving stage, and a black or white
driving stage. Compared with Figure 3, the erasing stage is removed and the response
time of particles is reduced. According to Equation (3), particles oscillate within a certain
range when the voltage frequency is high. The grayscale is gradually driven to a certain
value. Ghost images can be effectively reduced. After the activation stage, black particles
Micromachines 2022, 13, 59 5 of 12

Figure 3. A schematic diagram of the traditional driving waveform. Its four parts are as follows: the
first part is an erasing
are stage, the second
in the middle part is an activation
of microcapsules. Low red stage, the third
saturation partifisred
is caused a red driving
particles are driven
stage, and the fourthdirectly.
part is aTherefore,
black or aawhite driving stage. The variable 𝑉 is the driving
reference grayscale optimization voltage is added to voltage
the new red
𝑇 , 𝑇stage,
of red particles, anddriving , 𝑇 and red 𝑇particles
, and are the
can duration
be drivenof
bythe
the erasing
positive stage,
polarity the activation
voltage in this stage.
stage, the red driving stage,
The blackand the black
or white or white
driving stage driving stage,
is the same respectively.
as the traditional driving waveform.

Figure 4. A schematic diagram

Figure of the proposed
4. A schematic diagram ofdriving waveform.
the proposed drivingIts three parts
waveform. are as
Its three follows:
parts the
are as follows: the
first part is an activating stage,
first part is anthe secondstage,
activating partthe
is asecond
new red
part driving
is a new stage, and stage,
red driving the third partthird
and the is apart is a
black or white drivingblackstage. The
or white driving stage.𝑉The
variable isvariable
the driving voltage
VR is the drivingof red particles,
voltage and and
of red particles, 𝑇 ,T𝑇A2 ,, TX , TR2 ,
𝑇 , and 𝑇 are theand duration of the
TD2 are the activation
duration stage, the
of the activation optimized
stage, reference
the optimized grayscale
reference ininthe
grayscale thered
red driving
driving stage, the driving red
stage, the particles
driving in theinred
red particles the driving stage,
red driving stage,and
and the duration
the duration of the
of the blackblack or driving
or white
white driving stage,stage, respectively.
respectively.
3.3. Frequency Optimization of Activation Stage
3.3. Frequency Optimization of Activation Stage
In order to maximize particle activity after the activation stage, the optimal voltage
In order to maximize
frequency inparticle activity
this stage needs toafter the activation
be tested. stage,frequency
When the voltage the optimalis low,voltage
the alternating
positive and negative voltages cause a number of flickers in
frequency in this stage needs to be tested. When the voltage frequency is low, the alter- the three-color EPD. The
obvious flickers can be detected by the human eye when the voltage
nating positive and negative voltages cause a number of flickers in the three-color EPD. frequency is less than
50 Hz. Therefore, high-frequency voltages with frequency of 50 Hz to 150 Hz were applied
The obvious flickers can be detected by the human eye when the voltage frequency is less
to the three-color EPD. The value of TA2 was set to 2000 ms. The activity of particles can be
than 50 Hz. Therefore, high-frequency
represented voltages
by the response time. with frequency of 50 Hz to 150 Hz were
The response time of black𝑇andwas
applied to the three-color EPD. The value of whiteset to 2000
particles arems. Theinactivity
shown of parti-
Figure 5a,b, respectively.
cles can be represented by the
The error barsresponse time.by three repeated experiments. It can be proved that the
were obtained
The responsevoltage
time offrequency
black andwas directly
white proportional
particles to the
are shown inresponse time.respectively.
Figure 5a,b, When the frequency
was 50 Hz, the response time was the shortest and the activity
The error bars were obtained by three repeated experiments. It can be proved that of particles was the
thehighest.
When the frequency was too high, the duration of positive and negative voltages in a cycle
voltage frequency was directly proportional to the response time. When the frequency
was extremely short. Particles oscillated in a very small range according to Equation (3),
was 50 Hz, the response time
which led to was the shortest
insufficient andofthe
activation activity
particles. of particles
Therefore, was thefrequency
the optimal highest. for the
When the frequency was too high, the duration
activation stage was set to 50 Hz. of positive and negative voltages in a cycle
was extremely short. Particles oscillated in a very small range according to Equation (3),
3.4. Duration Optimization of Activation Stage
which led to insufficient activation of particles. Therefore, the optimal frequency for the
activation stage was set to 50the
As for proposed driving waveform, the activation stage plays an important role
Hz.
in reducing ghost images because the erasing stage is removed. Hence, the optimal TA2
needs to be determined. The frequency of this stage was set to 50 Hz, and TA2 was set to
2000 ms to ensure that ghost images were eliminated. Initial states of the three-color EPD
were set to black, red, and white. In different initial states, the luminance changed with
activation time are shown in Figure 6. The experimental results showed that when TA2 was
shorter than 660 ms, the luminance of the black initial state and the red initial state could be
increased, and the luminance of the white initial state could be decreased. The luminance
oscillated in a small range when TA2 was longer than 660 ms. All pixels were driven to a
uniform grayscale when TA2 was 660 ms, which proved that ghost images can be effectively
Micromachines 2022, 13, 59 6 of 12

Micromachines 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 13

(a) (b)the response time of

reduced. Therefore, in order to reduce ghost images and minimize
particles, TA2 was set to 660 ms.
Figure 5. The response time of particles when they were activated by different frequency vol
The frequency was directly proportional to the response time. The error bars were obtained by
repeated experiments. (a) The response time of black particles was 2256 ms when the frequenc
50 Hz. (b) The response time of white particles was 2476 ms when the frequency was 50 Hz.

3.4. Duration Optimization of Activation Stage

As for the proposed driving waveform, the activation stage plays an importan
in reducing ghost images because the erasing stage is removed. Hence, the optima
needs to be determined. The frequency of this stage was set to 50 Hz, and 𝑇 was
2000 ms to ensure that ghost images were eliminated. Initial states of the three-color
were set to black, red, and white. In different initial states, the luminance changed
activation time are shown in Figure 6. The experimental results showed that whe
was shorter than 660 ms, the luminance of the black initial state and the red initial
could be increased, and the luminance of the white initial state could be decreased
(a)
luminance oscillated in a small range when 𝑇 was(b) longer than 660 ms. All pixels
Figure
drivenFigure 5. The response
to a 5.uniform time
grayscale
The response
of particles
whenwhen
time of particles 𝑇 they
when they
waswere
660
were
activated by different
ms, which
activated
frequency
proved
by different
voltages.
thatvoltages.
frequency ghost image
The frequency was directly proportional to the response time. The error bars were obtained by three
be effectively reduced.
The frequency
(a)Therefore,
was directly
repeated experiments.
proportional in order
of blackto
to the
The response time reduce
response time.
particles ghost
The error
was 2256
barsimages andbyminimize
were obtained
ms when the frequency
three
was th
sponse repeated
50 time experiments.
Hz. (b)of (a)
Theparticles,
response time𝑇 of white
The response time
wasparticles of
set to 660black particles was 2256 ms when the frequency
ms.ms when the frequency was 50 Hz.
was 2476 was
50 Hz. (b) The response time of white particles was 2476 ms when the frequency was 50 Hz.
3.4. Duration Optimization of Activation Stage
As for the proposed driving waveform, the activation stage plays an important role
in reducing ghost images because the erasing stage is removed. Hence, the optimal 𝑇
needs to be determined. The frequency of this stage was set to 50 Hz, and 𝑇 was set to
2000 ms to ensure that ghost images were eliminated. Initial states of the three-color EPD
were set to black, red, and white. In different initial states, the luminance changed with
activation time are shown in Figure 6. The experimental results showed that when 𝑇
was shorter than 660 ms, the luminance of the black initial state and the red initial state
could be increased, and the luminance of the white initial state could be decreased. The
luminance oscillated in a small range when 𝑇 was longer than 660 ms. All pixels were
driven to a uniform grayscale when 𝑇 was 660 ms, which proved that ghost images can
be effectively reduced. Therefore, in order to reduce ghost images and minimize the re-
sponse time of particles, 𝑇 was set to 660 ms.

Figure 6. The luminance value of the three-color EPD changed with TA2 in different initial colors.
The luminance value tended to a stable value when TA2 was longer than 660 ms.
Figure 6. The luminance value of the three-color EPD changed with 𝑇 in different initial c
The luminance
3.5. Drivingvalue tended
Voltage to a stable
Optimization of Redvalue when 𝑇 was longer than 660 ms.
Particles
The traditional driving waveform was used in this experiment. The effect of direct
current (DC) voltage on red particles was tested. The value of TE1 was set to 500 ms, and
the VR s were set to 1 V to 5 V. The red saturation changes with VR is shown in Figure 7.
The error bars were obtained by three repeated experiments. The result showed that the
red saturation was directly proportional to VR when VR was increased from 1 V to 3.5 V.
This phenomenon proved that red particles cannot be driven when VR was lower than the

Figure 6. The luminance value of the three-color EPD changed with 𝑇 in different initial colors.
The luminance value tended to a stable value when 𝑇 was longer than 660 ms.
 current (DC) voltage on red particles was tested. The value of 𝑇 was set to 500 ms, a
the 𝑉 s were set to 1 V to 5 V. The red saturation changes with 𝑉 is shown in Figur
The error bars were obtained by three repeated experiments. The result showed that
red saturation was directly proportional to 𝑉 when 𝑉 was increased from 1 V to 3.5
Micromachines 2022, 13, 59 This phenomenon proved that red particles cannot be driven when 𝑉 was 7 of 12lower th
the threshold voltage of red particles. However, the red saturation was inversely prop
tional to 𝑉 when 𝑉 was increased from 3.5 V to 5 V. The voltage exceeded the thresh
threshold
voltage ofvoltage of red particles.
black particles. However,
Therefore, the red
black saturation
particles werewas inversely
also drivenproportional
to the common e
to VR when VR was increased from 3.5 V to 5 V. The voltage exceeded the threshold voltage
trode plate, which causes the red saturation to decrease. Red particles can be effectiv
of black particles. Therefore, black particles were also driven to the common electrode
driven
plate, which the 𝑉the
whencauses s were set to 3 to
red saturation V,decrease.
3.5 V, and
Red4 particles
V. The redcan saturation reached
be effectively driven 0.55, 0
and
when0.51,
the respectively.
VR s were set to 3 V, 3.5 V, and 4 V. The red saturation reached 0.55, 0.56, and
0.51, respectively.

Figure 7. The red saturation changed with VR when the three-color EPD was driven by a traditional
Figure 7. The red saturation changed with 𝑉 when the three-color EPD was driven by a traditio
driving waveform. The error bars were obtained by three repeated experiments. Red particles cannot
driving waveform. The error bars were obtained by three repeated experiments. Red particles c
be driven when VR was too low, and black particles were also driven to the common electrode plate
not be driven
when VR was too high.𝑉Red
when was too low,
particles can and black particles
be effectively werethe
driven when also
VRdriven to to
s were set the3 V,
common
3.5 V, electr
plate when
and 4 V. 𝑉 was too high. Red particles can be effectively driven when the 𝑉 s were set to
3.5 V, and 4 V.
3.6. New Red Driving Stage Optimization
In order
3.6. New Red to shortenStage
Driving response time of red particles and improve red saturation, the new
Optimization
red driving stage was optimized in two aspects: TX and VR . The frequency of the activation
stageInwasorder to50shorten
set to Hz; TA2response
was set totime
660 ms;of the
redTparticles and improve red saturation,
X s were set to 0 ms to 150 ms; and
new
the Vred driving
R s were set to stage
3 V, 3.5was
V, andoptimized
4 V. The timein when
two aspects: 𝑇 and of
the red saturation 𝑉 pixels
. Thereached
frequency of
0.5 was called
activation stagethewas
response
set totime
50 of
Hz; red𝑇particles.
was set Thetoinfluence
660 ms;ofthe 𝑇 s were
different TX s and VR s0 ms to
set to
ms; and the 𝑉 s were set to 3 V, 3.5 V, and 4 V. The time when the red saturation of pix
on the response time is shown in Figure 8. The error bars were obtained by five repeated
experiments. The results showed that the response time of red particles was negatively
reached 0.5 was called the response time of red particles. The influence of different
correlated with VR . According to Equation (2), the particle velocity is directly proportional
and
to the𝑉 voltage.
s on theThe response
higher the timeVR ,isthe
shown
shorterinthe
Figure
response8. The
time.error bars displayed
The color were obtainedby by f
repeated experiments. The results showed that the response time
pixels were a superposition of black and red when TX was less than 50 ms. Therefore, of red particles was n
atively correlated
black particles were with 𝑉 .toAccording
still close the common toelectrode
Equation (2),and
plate, thethe
particle velocity
red saturation is directly p
cannot
portional to the voltage. The higher the 𝑉 , the shorter the responseXtime. was
reach 0.5. The response time of red particles was also directly proportional to T . This The color d
because by
played as Tpixels
X increased,
werethe a red particles moved
superposition to the pixel
of black and electrode
red when plate.
𝑇 Inwasconclusion,
less than 50
the optimal TX and VR were set to 50 ms and 4 V, respectively.
Therefore, black particles were still close to the common electrode plate, and the red
uration cannot of
3.7. Performance reach 0.5. The
the Proposed response
Driving time of red particles was also directly proportio
Waveform
to 𝑇 The
. This was because as 𝑇 increased, the red and
performance of the proposed driving waveform particles moveddriving
the traditional to thewave-
pixel electro
plate. In conclusion,
form was compared inthe optimal
a series 𝑇 and 𝑉Aswere
of experiments. settraditional
for the to 50 msdriving
and 4 V, respectively.
waveform,
the parameters of each stage needed to be tested. The value of TE1 was determined by
Equation (4) when the target color was red, or it was equal to TD1 when the target color
was black or white; VR was set to 4 V; the TR1 s were set to 2000 ms to 4000 ms; and the TD1 s
were set to 100 ms to 600 ms. As shown in Figures 9 and 10, the error bars were obtained by
five repeated experiments. As the driving time increased, the minimum luminance value
 Micromachines 2022, 13, 59 8 of 12

was 3.67 when the three-color EPD was driven to black, the maximum luminance value
machines 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
was 40.8 when it was driven to white, and the maximum red saturation was 0.51 when it
was driven to red. However, the luminance and red saturation tended to be saturated with
the increase of driving time. Therefore, the optimal TR1 and TD1 were set to 3000 ms and
500 ms, respectively.
15TE1 = VR × TA1 (4)

Figure 8. The response time of red particles changed with 𝑉 and 𝑇 . The error bars were obtained
by five repeated experiments. The response time was directly proportional to 𝑇 and inversely pro-
portional to 𝑉 . The optimal response time was 2.53 s when 𝑉 was 4 V and 𝑇 was 50 ms.

3.7. Performance of the Proposed Driving Waveform

The performance of the proposed driving waveform and the traditional driving
waveform was compared in a series of experiments. As for the traditional driving wave-
form, the parameters of each stage needed to be tested. The value of 𝑇 was determined
by Equation (4) when the target color was red, or it was equal to 𝑇 when the target color
was black or white; 𝑉 was set to 4 V; the 𝑇 s were set to 2000 ms to 4000 ms; and the
𝑇 s were set to 100 ms to 600 ms. As shown in Figures 9 and 10, the error bars were
obtained by five repeated experiments. As the driving time increased, the minimum lumi-
nance value was 3.67 when the three-color EPD was driven to black, the maximum lumi-
nance value was 40.8 when it was driven to white, and the maximum red saturation was
0.51 when it was driven to red. However, the luminance and red saturation tended to be
saturated with the increase of driving time. Therefore, the optimal 𝑇 and 𝑇 were set
to 3000 ms and 500 ms, respectively.
Figure 8. The response time of red particles changed with VR and TX . The error bars were obtained
15𝑇 time
= 𝑉was
× directly
𝑇
with 𝑉 and 𝑇 .XThe error(4)
by five repeated experiments. The response proportional to T and inversely
Figure 8. The response time of red particles changed wer bars
proportional to VR . The optimal response time was 2.53 s when VR was 4 V and TX was 50 ms.
by five repeated experiments. The response time was directly proportional to 𝑇 and inve
portional to 𝑉 . The optimal response time was 2.53 s when 𝑉 was 4 V and 𝑇 was 50 m

3.7. Performance of the Proposed Driving Waveform

The performance of the proposed driving waveform and the traditiona
waveform was compared in a series of experiments. As for the traditional drivi
form, the parameters of each stage needed to be tested. The value of 𝑇 was de
by Equation (4) when the target color was red, or it was equal to 𝑇 when the tar
was black or white; 𝑉 was set to 4 V; the 𝑇 s were set to 2000 ms to 4000 ms
𝑇 s were set to 100 ms to 600 ms. As shown in Figures 9 and 10, the error b
obtained by five repeated experiments. As the driving time increased, the minim
nance value was 3.67 when the three-color EPD was driven to black, the maximu
nance value was 40.8 when it was driven to white, and the maximum red satura
0.51 (a)
when it was driven to red. However, the luminance (b) and red saturation ten
saturated with the increase of driving time. Therefore, the optimal 𝑇 and 𝑇
Figure 9. The luminance value changed with TD1 ; the error bars were obtained by five repeated
to 3000 ms and(a)
experiments. 500
Thems, respectively.
luminance value when the three-color EPD was driven to black. (b) The
luminance value when it was driven to white.
15𝑇 =𝑉 ×𝑇
 Figure 9. The luminance value changed with 𝑇 ; the error bars were obtained by five repe
experiments. (a) The luminance value when the three-color EPD was driven to black. (b) The l
Micromachines 2022, 13, 59 9 of 12
nance value when it was driven to white.

Figure 10. The red saturation changed with T ; the error bars were obtained by five repeated
R1 𝑇 ; the error bars were obtained by five repeated
Figure 10. The red saturation changed with
experiments. The red saturation was 0.5 when TR1 was 3000 ms.
periments. The red saturation was 0.5 when 𝑇 was 3000 ms.
When the three-color EPD was driven by the two driving waveforms, the color of each
stage When
is shown theinthree-color
Figure 11, and EPD was and
flickers driven by the two
the response time driving
of particleswaveforms,
can be seenthe colo
each stage is shown in Figure 11, and flickers and the response time
in Figure 12. Black curves represent the change process of luminance or red of particles ca
saturation
when the traditional driving waveform was used, and red
seen in Figure 12. Black curves represent the change process of luminance curves represent the change
or red sat
process of luminance or red saturation when the proposed driving waveform was used.
tion when the traditional driving waveform was used, and red curves represent
The results show that when it was driven by the traditional driving waveform, the response
change process
time of black of luminance
particles orminimum
was 2.2 s, the red saturation
luminance when
valuethe proposed
was driving
3.8, and the number waveform
of
used. The results show that when it was driven by the traditional
flickers was 9. The response time of white particles was 2.53 s, the maximum luminance driving waveform
response
value was 40.5,timeandof black particles
the number was 2.2
of flickers wass, 9.
the minimum
The luminance
response time value was
of red particles was 3.8, and
number of flickers was 9. The response time of white particles was 2.53 s, the
5.39 s, the maximum red saturation was 0.5, and the number of flickers was 9. When the maxim
proposed driving
luminance valuewaveform
was 40.5, was applied,
and the response
the number time of black
of flickers was particles was 1.32 s,time of
9. The response
the minimum luminance value was 2.85, and the number of flickers was 1. The response
particles was 5.39 s, the maximum red saturation was 0.5, and the number of flickers
time of white particles was 1.32 s, the maximum luminance value was 42.2, and the number
9.
of When
flickers the
was proposed driving
2. The response time waveform
of red particleswas wasapplied, themaximum
2.97 s, the response time
red of black part
saturation
was
was 0.55, and the number of flickers was 1. Therefore, it was proved that the response time was 1.
1.32 s, the minimum luminance value was 2.85, and the number of flickers
response
and flickerstimecan beofeffectively
white particles
reducedwas by the1.32 s, the maximum
proposed luminance
driving waveform. Comparedvalue was 42.2,
with
the traditional driving waveform, the response time was shortened by
the number of flickers was 2. The response time of red particles was 2.97 s, the maxim 40% and the number
of flickers
red was reduced
saturation by 88.9%
was 0.55, and when the target
the number ofcolor was was
flickers black;1.the response time
Therefore, wasproved
it was
shortened by 47.8% and the number of flickers was reduced by 77.8% when the target color
the response time and flickers can be effectively reduced by the proposed driving w
was white; and the response time was shortened by 44.9% and the number of flickers was
form.
reduced Compared
by 88.9% whenwiththethetarget
traditional
color was driving
red. waveform, the response time was shorte
by 40% and the number of flickers was reduced by 88.9% when the target color was bl
the response time was shortened by 47.8% and the number of flickers was reduced
77.8% when the target color was white; and the response time was shortened by 44
and the number of flickers was reduced by 88.9% when the target color was red.
Micromachines 2022, 13, 59 10 of 12
Micromachines 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 13
Micromachines 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 13

Figure 11. The color of each stage when the three-color EPD was driven by the two driving wave-
Figure 11. TheIt color
forms. of each stagebywhen the three-color EPD was driven by the twotodriving bywaveforms.
Figure(a) wascolor
11. The drivenof to black
each the traditional
stage when driving
the three-color waveform.
EPD (b) It
was driven bywas
thedriven white
two driving wave-
(a) Itthe
was driven
traditional to black
driving by the
waveform. traditional
(c) It was driving
driven to redwaveform.
by the (b)
traditional It was
driving
forms. (a) It was driven to black by the traditional driving waveform. (b) It was driven to white by
driven to
waveform. white
(d) by the
Itthe
was
traditional driven
drivingto driving
traditional black bywaveform.
waveform.the proposed
(c) It driving
(c)was
It was waveform.
driven
driven to red(e)by
to red It the
by was driven to white
thetraditional
traditional bywaveform.
the proposed
driving
driving waveform.
(d) (d) It
driving waveform.
It was driven (f) It
to black bywas
the driven
proposed to red by the
driving proposed(e)
waveform. driving
It was waveform.
driven to white
was driven to black by the proposed driving waveform. (e) It was driven toby the proposed
white by the proposed
driving waveform. (f) It was driven to red by the proposed driving waveform.
driving waveform. (f) It was driven to red by the proposed driving waveform.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)

(c) (d)
(c) (d)

Figure 12. Luminance and red saturation changed with driving time when the three-color EPD was
driven by the two driving waveforms. (a) The luminance value changed with driving time when it
was driven to black. (b) The luminance value changed with driving time when it was driven to white.
(c) The luminance value changed with driving time when it was driven to red. (d) The red saturation
changed with driving time when it was driven to red.
Micromachines 2022, 13, 59 11 of 12

4. Conclusions
In this paper, a new driving waveform based on high-frequency voltage was proposed.
The response time of particles was effectively reduced because the erasing stage was re-
moved. In addition, the activation stage was optimized to activate particles. The frequency
of the activation stage was high and human eyes could not detect flickers. Therefore,
flickers and ghost images were reduced. Compared with the tradition driving waveform,
response time of three-color EPDs can be effectively shortened. It can provide new ideas
for the research of three-color EPDs and provide users with a better visual experience.

Author Contributions: H.Z. designed this project. Z.Y. wrote the initial draft of the manuscript. L.L.
and F.C. carried out most of the experiments and data analysis. Y.H. and S.H. revised the paper.
Y.M. and L.W. gave suggestions on project management and provided helpful discussions on the
experimental results. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (no.
62105056), the Engineering Technology Research Center of Colleges and Universities in Guang-dong
Province (no. 2021GCZX005), the Innovation Team of Colleges and Universities in Guang-dong
Province (no. 2021KCXTD040), the Key Field Project of Colleges and Universities in Guangdong
Province (no. 2020ZDZX3083), the Key Social Welfare and Basic Research Project of Zhongshan City
(no. 2020B2021), the High Level Talent Research Project in Zhongshan Polytech-nic (no. KYG2104),
the Construction Project of Professional Quality Engineering in 2020 (no. YLZY202001), the 2018
Characteristic Innovation Project of Guangdong Province (no. 2018KTSCX290), and the 2019 Social
Public Welfare Project of Zhongshan City (no. 2019B2027), the Guangdong Basic and Applied Basic
Research Foundation (no. 2020A1515010420).
Data Availability Statement: Data is contained within the article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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