Articles

Journal of Career Development

36(3) 207-227
ª Curators of the University
Separation-Individuation, of Missouri 2010
Reprints and permission: http://www.
Exploration, and Identity sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/0894845309345848

Diffusion as Mediators of http://jcd.sagepub.com

the Relationship Between

Attachment and Career
Indecision

Haley M. Downing1 and Margaret M. Nauta1

Abstract
The purpose of this study was to test the fit of a theoretical model in which
separation-individuation, career exploration, and identity diffusion were specified
as mediators of the relationship between attachment functioning (anxious and avoi-
dant) and career indecision (informational and personal–emotional). Structural
equation modeling (SEM) with latent variables was used to examine the fit of the
model to self-report data provided by college students (N ¼ 285). The model pro-
vided a good fit to the data, with most theorized paths being significant and in the
predicted direction. However, expected paths between separation-individuation
and the career-related variables were not significant, raising questions about this
construct as a mediator of attachment–career indecision relationships. Implications
for future research and for intervention are presented.

Keywords
attachment, separation-individuation, career exploration, identity diffusion, career
indecision

1
Illinois State University, Illinois USA

Corresponding Author:
Haley M. Downing, Department of Counseling, University of Akron, 27 S. Forge Street, Akron, OH 44325
Email: hmd@uakron.edu

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208 Journal of Career Development 36(3)

Adolescence and early adulthood are associated with a number of developmental

challenges. Among these is the need to form a clear identity that allows for the spe-
cification and implementation of a career choice (Super, 1957). Although a minority
of individuals identifies a career goal early in life and works steadily toward the
implementation of that goal, career indecision—the inability to specify a career
goal—is common among young adults (Gaffner & Hazler, 2002).
Being undecided about a career is not necessarily developmentally inappropriate
for adolescents and young adults (Super, 1957), and some have even argued that
such indecision may simply represent a healthy open-mindedness (Krumboltz,
1992). Nevertheless, career indecision is associated with psychological distress
(Multon, Heppner, Gysbers, Zook, & Ellis-Kalton, 2001) and, thus, is a common
presenting concern at university counseling centers (Chandler & Gallagher, 1996).
Accordingly, understanding the antecedents to career indecision is an important goal
because it may inform interventions that would be useful for those who are seeking
to clarify their career goals.
Attachment—defined as ‘‘an enduring affectional bond of substantial intensity’’
(Armsden & Greenberg, 1987, p. 428)—has been implicated both theoretically
(e.g., Blustein, Prezioso, & Schultheiss, 1995) and empirically (e.g., Roisman, Baha-
dur, & Oster, 2000) as a precursor to career decision-making difficulties. Although
attachment traditionally refers to child–caregiver relationships, these early relation-
ships are believed to form the basis for one’s later relationship schemas (Ainsworth,
1989; Bowlby, 1988), resulting in global attachment functioning (sometimes also
referred to as working models of attachment). Secure attachment functioning is char-
acterized by comfort with interpersonal closeness and a belief that others can be
trusted, whereas insecure attachment takes two forms (Brennan, Clark, & Shaver,
1998; Fraley & Shaver, 2000). Anxious attachment involves an intense fear of aban-
donment and concerns about self-worth, and avoidant attachment involves discomfort
with closeness and a sense that others are untrustworthy (Brennan et al., 1998, p. 48).
Exactly how attachment functioning and career indecision are related remains
somewhat unclear. Varied perspectives, including family systems (Lopez &
Andrews, 1987), identity development (Blustein et al., 1995; Marcia, 1966), and
vocational exploration (Blustein, 1992) theories, offer insight into this link, and it
is likely that variables drawn from these theories work in conjunction with attach-
ment to affect career indecision. With a few exceptions (Blustein, Walbridge,
Friedlander, & Palladino, 1991; Lee & Hughey, 2001; Lucas, 1997; Mattanah, Han-
cock, & Brand, 2004; Tokar, Withrow, Hall, & Moradi, 2003), however, researchers
have focused on only a single variable drawn from one theory to explain the relation-
ship between interpersonal functioning and some aspect of career development.
Moreover, only two known studies (Blustein et al., 1991; Tokar et al., 2003) have
examined the relationship between attachment and career indecision in particular.
Thus, very little is known about how variables drawn from multiple theories function
together to explain the link between attachment and career indecision. The purpose
of this study was to develop an integrative, theory-driven model of mediators of the

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Downing and Nauta 209

Attachment Informational
avoidance .37* career
.22* Exploration
indecision
–.12

.45* Separation-
individuation –.08 .24*
–.22*
.00
Personal-
Attachment Identity .23*
emotional
anxiety .10 diffusion
career indecision
.37*
.24*

Figure 1. Structural model

*p < .05.

relationship between attachment and career indecision and to examine its fit among
college students. The model is shown in Figure 1, and the theoretical and empirical
rationale for each of the paths is explained below.

The Theoretical Model

According to family systems theory (Lopez & Andrews, 1987), one consequence of
problematic attachment functioning is difficulty forming an identity separate from
one’s caregivers (separation-individuation). Those with attachment anxiety may
avoid separation-individuation as a way of maintaining closeness to caregivers; this
negative association between attachment anxiety and separation-individuation was
predicted in our model and has been previously empirically supported (Tokar
et al., 2003). Theoretically, those with attachment avoidance may actually have
heightened separation-individuation from caregivers as a result of their reluctance
to depend on and trust others. Thus, in our model, we hypothesized a positive rela-
tionship between attachment avoidance and separation-individuation. Van Ecke
(2007) found that attachment avoidance was positively associated with career
decision-making confusion among adult immigrants, but because that was the first
known career-development study to have examined attachment avoidance, little is
known about how attachment avoidance may relate to other variables theoretically
linked to career indecision. This study is the first to examine how attachment avoid-
ance may work with separation-individuation to predict career indecision.
Separation-individuation is relevant to career decision making partly because
autonomous functioning promotes exploration of the self and of the world of work
(Blustein et al., 1995). Dependence on caregivers may lead those with low
separation-individuation to engage in little self or environmental exploration,
instead relying heavily on others to make decisions for them. However, those who

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have individuated from caregivers begin to make decisions autonomously and,

therefore, have opportunities to learn about themselves and the world. Indeed,
Kracke (1997) found a positive relationship between individuation and vocational
exploration, and this positive relationship was posited in our model as well.
Relatedly, according to family systems theory, separation-individuation also
promotes ego identity development (Lopez & Andrews, 1987). As conceptualized
by Marcia (1966), a healthy ego identity is contingent on having experimented
with a variety of activities and experiences that provide information about the self
and then having committed to beliefs about oneself and one’s preferences on the
basis of that experimentation. Those with low separation-individuation may expe-
rience identity diffusion—in which they have neither explored aspects of the self
nor committed to an identity (Marcia, 1966)—because they do not view them-
selves as independent from their caregivers and, thus, do not develop clear and sta-
ble self-beliefs, instead relying on external input and feedback. Thus, we expected
a negative relationship between separation-individuation and identity diffusion;
this relationship has been supported by previous empirical research (Schultheiss
& Blustein, 1994).
In our model, separation-individuation was hypothesized to mediate the relation-
ship between the attachment constructs and both exploration and identity diffusion
because a secure working model of attachment theoretically allows one to use par-
ents and other members of one’s social network as secure bases from which to
explore and individuate, eventually establishing an independent and autonomous
identity. Although this mediational relationship has not been examined empirically,
previous research does provide some support for relationships that are consistent
with this conceptualization. For example, students from enmeshed families with low
individuation have been found to experience difficulties establishing identities that
are independent from their parents, which, in turn, led to broad deficits in
decision-making abilities (Kinnier, Brigman, & Noble, 1990). Students with higher
separation-individuation scores have also shown greater adjustment to college
(Mattanah et al., 2004) and aspirations to advance in their career fields (Rainey &
Borders, 1997), while also reporting fewer symptoms of loneliness (Mattanah
et al., 2004).
We note that in several empirical studies (e.g., O’Brien, 1996; Salami & Aremu,
2007; Tokar et al., 2003; Wolfe & Betz, 2004) maternal and paternal attachment and
individuation have been found to have differential associations with career-relevant
constructs. These differences appear to be complex, varying by participant gender
and parent type and the interaction between the two (e.g., Ryan, Solberg, & Brown,
1996). The pattern of differences has also been somewhat inconsistent across studies
(O’Brien, 1996) and has yet to be linked in a discernible way to theory. Thus,
although we risk obscuring important differences by treating maternal and paternal
separation-individuation as a single construct in our model, existing literature and
theory did not appear to provide clear guidance for positing specific differences in
their relationships with other variables.

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Downing and Nauta 211

Because by definition exploration is a critical ingredient in ego identity develop-

ment (Marcia, 1966), in our model, we posited a negative relationship between self and
environmental exploration and identity diffusion. This latter relationship is consistent
with prior research (Blustein, Devenis, & Kidney, 1989) that has revealed a positive
relationship between career exploration and identity achievement, which is the oppo-
site of identity diffusion. The variables of exploration and identity diffusion occupy the
same level in the posited model because of their functional relationship; although it is
conceptually distinct, exploration is a component process of identity development.
Identity diffusion may also result directly from attachment anxiety or avoidance.
Whereas those with attachment security tend to use social relationships as a ‘‘secure
base’’ from which to take risks and learn about the self (Blustein et al., 1985, 1989),
those with attachment anxiety or avoidance may experience identity diffusion
because their fear of abandonment or mistrust of others does not provide a secure
base for interpersonal learning and validation. Hence, they have fewer opportunities
to develop firm beliefs about the self. In support of this argument, Tokar et al. (2003)
found that having a crystallized vocational identity (an important component of
one’s overall identity) was positively related to attachment security and negatively
associated with attachment anxiety (attachment avoidance was not examined in that
study). Because both attachment anxiety and avoidance are known to interfere with
perceptions of interpersonal security and social support, we expected positive rela-
tionships between both attachment anxiety and identity diffusion and between
attachment avoidance and identity diffusion.
Finally, in our model, two aspects of career indecision were specified as out-
comes. Theory (Chartrand, Robbins, Morrill, & Boggs, 1990) and previous research
(Dickinson & Tokar, 2004; Guay, Ratelle, Senecal, Larose, & Deschenes, 2006)
have distinguished between career indecision that results from a need for informa-
tion about the self or the world of work (informational career indecision) and affec-
tive or characterological indecision that presumably results from delayed or
dysfunctional development (personal–emotional career indecision). Although these
dimensions of career indecision are related, informational career indecision
responds to interventions designed to increase access to information, whereas
personal–emotional career indecision may require intervention focusing on
long-standing relationship issues even if information is provided (Lucas, 1997). Our
theoretical model includes both informational and personal–emotional career
indecision as outcome variables, but the paths leading to these outcomes differ based
on their theoretical antecedents.
By definition, informational career indecision results from a lack of information
about the self, the environment, or both. An individual’s ability to make career deci-
sions is considered by most career development theorists to be related to her or his
degree of self-awareness as well as his or her understanding of the world of work
(Gati & Saka, 2001; Wanberg & Muchinsky, 1992). Therefore, in our model, infor-
mational career indecision was predicted to be directly negatively related to the
degree of self and environmental exploration individuals have completed.

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Personal–emotional career indecision may be related to a need for additional

information, but it is also assumed to represent indecisiveness in general and anxiety
about making career choices (Chartrand et al., 1990). Identity diffusion may help
explain this form of career indecision, as failing to commit to an identity leads to
general confusion and a reliance on others (Marcia, 1980). In addition, identity-
diffused individuals tend to report coping with challenges through detachment
(Marcia, 1980), which likely contributes to decision-making difficulties in general
and career decision making in particular. Thus, we expected a positive relationship
between identity diffusion and personal–emotional career indecision. Because of the
general doubts about the self and their ability to handle challenges that those with
high degrees of attachment anxiety experience (Brennan et al., 1998), we also
expected that there would be a direct positive relationship between attachment anxi-
ety and personal–emotional career indecision.

Previous Integrative Research

Although there is theoretical and, in some cases, empirical support for the bivariate
relationships specified in our model, only three known studies have examined poten-
tial mediators of the relationship between attachment and any career-related variables.
O’Brien, Friedman, Tipton, and Linn (2000) found that career-related self-efficacy
mediated the relationship between parental attachment and career aspirations for
young adult women. In a similar vein, Mattanah et al. (2004) found that separation-
individuation mediated the relationship between parental attachment security and
college adjustment. Tokar et al. (2003) found support for vocational self-concept
crystallization (an aspect of identity) as a mediator of the relationships between attach-
ment anxiety and career indecision and between separation-individuation and career
indecision. Because the study of Tokar et al. (2003) did not examine attachment avoid-
ance, it remains unknown whether identity mediates the relationship between attach-
ment avoidance and career indecision. In a study investigating the relationship of
attachment and separation on vocational commitment, Blustein et al. (1991) found that
commitment was best predicted by a combination of parental attachment and indivi-
duation but did not examine these variables within the context of a mediating relation-
ship. We also located no empirical studies in which exploration was examined as a
mediator of the relationship between attachment and any career-related variables.
Thus, our model builds on theory and prior research and has the potential to yield new
information about how attachment and career indecision are related.

Method
Participants

Participants were 285 college students at a large, midwestern university, of whom

200 (70%) were female and 85 (30%) were male. The participants had a mean age

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of 19.42 years (SD ¼ 2.16). The racial/ethnic profile of the sample resembled that of
the university from which the participants were recruited, with 230 (81%) identify-
ing as Caucasian, 23 (8%) as Hispanic, 18 (6%) as African American, 6 (2%)
as Asian/Pacific Islander, 1 (<1%) as Native American, and 5 (2%) as ‘‘Other’’;
2 students did not indicate their race/ethnicity. In total, there were 117 (41%)
freshmen, 83 (29%) sophomores, 50 (18%) juniors, and 32 (11%) seniors; 3 students
did not indicate their year in school. In total, 36 (13%) students had undeclared
majors, and the others had a wide variety of majors.

Measures
Participants completed the following five measures. Measures were administered in
their entirety to preserve their psychometric integrity, but as described below for a
few of the measures, scores from only some subscales were used in the analyses.

Experiences in Close Relationships Scale–Revised (ECRS-R; Brennan et al., 1998).

Attachment functioning was assessed with the ECRS-R that measures functioning
in adult romantic relationships. Although parent–child attachment was of interest
in this study, retrospective reports about the nature of parent–child relationships
would have questionable validity; adult romantic relationship functioning is com-
monly used as a proxy for parent–child attachment functioning because it is believed
to reflect general relationship schemas derived from parent–child relationships
(Brennan et al., 1998). The ECRS-R comprises two subscales (18 items each), one
measuring attachment anxiety and one measuring attachment avoidance. The anxi-
ety subscale reflects a fear of rejection and preoccupation with abandonment; items
in this subscale include, ‘‘My desire to be very close sometimes scares people away’’
and ‘‘I’m afraid that once a partner gets to know me, he or she won’t like who I really
am.’’ The avoidance subscale measures a fear of intimacy and discomfort with
getting close to others; this subscale includes items such as, ‘‘I prefer not to show
a partner how I feel deep down’’ and ‘‘I am nervous when partners get too close
to me.’’ For each item, participants were asked to rate how they ‘‘generally experi-
ence relationships, not just what is happening in a current relationship’’ (Brennan
et al., 1998, pp. 69-70) using a 7-point Likert-type scale (1 ¼ strongly disagree;
7 ¼ strongly agree). Thus, possible scores for each subscale range from 18 to 136,
with lower values indicating more secure attachment functioning and higher values
indicating greater attachment anxiety or avoidance.
The ECRS-R has been found to produce scores with greater reliability and valid-
ity estimates than alternative adult attachment measures (Sibley, Fischer, & Liu,
2005). Previous research has revealed Cronbach’s a reliability coefficients for the
ECRS-R anxiety and avoidance subscales ranging from .91 to .93 and .92 to .94,
respectively (Fairchild & Finney, 2006). In this study, a was .91 for the anxiety sub-
scale and .95 for the avoidance subscale. The ECRS-R subscales’ validity has been
supported by showing that its anxiety scores are positively associated with emotional

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reactivity and its avoidance scores are associated with emotional cut-off (Wei,
Vogel, Ku, & Zakalik, 2005).

Psychological Separation Inventory (PSI; Hoffman, 1984). The 138-item PSI assessed
four dimensions of separation from one’s parents. Functional independence (FI; 13
items) reflects the ability to manage one’s affairs without parental assistance. Items
from this subscale include ‘‘I wouldn’t make a major purchase without my mother’s/
father’s approval.’’ Emotional independence (EI; 17 items) represents freedom from
excessive need for approval and emotional support; items include ‘‘Being away from
my mother/father makes me feel lonely.’’ Conflictual independence (CI; 25 items)
reflects freedom from guilt, responsibility, and resentment toward one’s parents.
Items include ‘‘I feel like I am constantly at war with my mother/father.’’ Finally,
attitudinal independence (AI; 14 items) reflects an ability to ascribe to beliefs and
values that differ from one’s parents’; a sample item is, ‘‘My attitudes regarding
national defense are similar to my mother’s/father’s’’ (Hoffman, 1984).
Participants rate each item separately regarding their relationship with their
mother and their father, using a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 ¼ not at all true of
me; 5 ¼ very true of me). Although separate maternal and paternal scores for each
subscale can be calculated, in this study, combined scores were used because differ-
ences in relationships with fathers and mothers were not part of the theoretical
model. We also noted that for each of the PSI subscales mother and father scores
were significantly positively correlated in our study, providing additional justifica-
tion for treating them as a single construct in the model. Because previous research
has shown that the FI, EI, and AI subscales correlate fairly highly with each other but
have no or weak relationships with CI (Hoffman, 1984; O’Brien, 1996), CI subscale
scores were not used in this study. The possible score ranges for the FI, EI, and AI
subscales were 26–130, 17–85, and 14–70, respectively, with higher scores reflect-
ing greater separation/individuation from one’s parents.
In previous research, Cronbach’s a reliability coefficients for the PSI subscales
have been shown to range from .84 to .92 (Hoffman, 1984). In this study, a coeffi-
cients ranged from .86 to .93. The PSI scores’ construct validity has been established
by showing that they correlate with personal adjustment, problems in romantic
relationships, and academic problems (Hoffman, 1984).

Career Exploration Survey (CES; Stumpf, Colarelli, & Hartman, 1983). The CES is
intended ‘‘to index career-search behaviors, reactions to exploration, and beliefs
about exploration’’ (Stumpf et al., 1983, p. 192). In this study, two CES subscales
were used. The five-item self-exploration (SE) subscale assessed behaviors involv-
ing self-assessment and retrospection (e.g., ‘‘Understood a new relevance of past
behavior for my future career’’) and the six-item environment exploration (EE) sub-
scale measured behaviors relevant to exploration of organizations and occupations
(e.g., ‘‘Went to various career orientation programs’’). Respondents used a 5-point
Likert-type scale (1 ¼ very little; 5 ¼ very much) to rate how often they engaged

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in relevant exploration behaviors in the last 3 months. Scores for each subscale are
derived by summing responses to its items. The possible range of scores for the SE
scale is 5–25, and the possible range for the EE scale is 6–30. Higher scores are
reflective of greater exploration.
Previous research has revealed Cronbach’s a reliability coefficients ranging from
.83 to .88 for the EE subscale and .88 for the SE subscale (Ketterson & Blustein,
1997). In this study, a coefficients were .84 and .86 for the SE and EE subscales,
respectively. The SE and EE subscales’ convergent validity been supported by
showing that their scores predict career exploration outcomes such as vocational
self-concept crystallization and attitudes toward planning (Hamer & Bruch, 1997).

Extended Objective Measure of Ego Identity Status–Revised (EOM-EIS-R; Bennion &

Adams, 1986). The 64-item EOM-EIS-R assessed participants’ identity status. In this
scale, 16 items assess each of Marcia’s (1966) four identity statuses: achievement,
moratorium, foreclosure, and diffusion. Respondents use a 6-point Likert-type scale
(1 ¼ strongly disagree; 6 ¼ strongly agree) to rate the degree to which statements
about having explored and committed to an identity with respect to domains such as
religion, politics, philosophical lifestyle, friendships, gender roles, and recreation
are true of them (Bennion & Adams, 1986). The possible range of scores for each
of the four subscales is 16–96, with higher scores reflecting a greater resemblance
to that identity status. In this study, we used only the diffusion subscale because the-
oretically both a lack of exploration and commitment to an identity are expected to
result from difficulties with separation-individuation. A sample item from the diffu-
sion subscale is, ‘‘I really have never been involved in politics enough to have made
a firm stand one way or the other.’’
In previous research, the EOM-EIS-R diffusion subscale has been found to have a
Cronbach’s a reliability coefficient of .74 (Nauta & Kahn, 2007). In this study, a was
.71. The EOM-EIS-R’s subscale scores’ convergent validity has been supported by
expected correlations with other measures of identity (Rosenthal, Gurney, &
Moore, 1981).

Career Factors Inventory (CFI; Chartrand & Robbins, 1997). The CFI assessed parti-
cipants’ degree of career indecision. The CFI comprises four subscales: need for
career information (NCI; six items), need for self-knowledge (NSK; four items),
career choice anxiety (CCA; six items), and generalized indecisiveness (GI; five
items). Respondents rate each item using a 5-point Likert-type scale. Together,
scores from the NCI and NSK subscales are believed to represent indecision stem-
ming from an informational deficit, whereas those from the CCA and GI subscales
represent affective or personal–emotional difficulties associated with career deci-
sion making (Chartrand et al., 1990); this two-factor model has been supported
empirically (Dickinson & Tokar, 2004).
Previous research has revealed that Cronbach’s a reliability coefficients for the
CFI subscales range from .87 to .91 (Chartrand & Nutter, 1996). In this study, a for

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the NI, NSK, CCA, and GI subscales were .78, .81, .86, and .79, respectively. CFI
subscale scores correlate in expected directions with measures of trait anxiety, goal
instability, vocational identity, and self-esteem (Chartrand et al., 1990).

Procedure
Participants signed up for the study using the Psychology Department’s participant
pool. They attended small-group data collection sessions in which they gave
informed consent and completed the measures in a counter-balanced order. The
researcher then provided a debriefing and gave participants documentation of their
participation, which allowed them to earn extra credit in some psychology classes.

Results
Means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations among all the measured variables
are shown in Table 1.
Structural equation modeling (SEM) with latent variables was used to test the fit
of the theoretical model. The SEM procedure analyzed the covariance matrix and
used the maximum likelihood (ML) estimation method with the MPlus Version 2
statistical software (Muthén & Muthén, 1998). Several fit indices were used to eval-
uate the model fit. A comparative fit index (CFIn) value of .95 or greater, a root
mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) value of .06 or less, and a standar-
dized root mean square residual (SRMR) value of .08 or less are considered to reflect
good model fit (Hu & Bentler, 1999).
The first step in SEM is to test a measurement model to assess how well the mea-
sured variables represent their latent constructs. This measurement model then pro-
vides a baseline estimate of fit to which the theoretical (structural) model is
compared. To create latent variables, it is necessary to have multiple indicators of
each. When possible, we used the measures’ subscales as separate indicators of the
latent construct they represent. In some cases, however, we did not have multiple
subscales representing a given construct, so we created item parcels using proce-
dures described by Russell, Kahn, Spoth, and Altmeier (1998).
In the measurement model, the latent variables attachment avoidance and attach-
ment anxiety were each measured by three item parcels from the ECRS-R-avoidance
and ECRS-R-anxiety subscales, respectively. The FI, EI, and AI subscales of the PSI
were used as indicators of the latent construct separation-individuation. Exploration
was measured by three parcels of items drawn from the EE and SE subscales of the
CES, and identity diffusion was measured by three parcels of items from the EOM-
EIS-R diffusion subscale. Finally, the latent variables informational career indeci-
sion and personal–emotional career indecision were measured by the NI and NSK
subscales and the CCA and GI subscales of the CFI, respectively. All the latent vari-
ables were allowed to covary. The measurement model, w2 (131, N ¼ 285) ¼ 261.44,
p < .0001, provided a good fit to the data (CFIn ¼ .96, RMSEA ¼ .06; SRMR ¼ .05).

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Table 1. Means, Standard Deviations, and Intercorrelations Among the Measured Variables

Measure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

1. Avoidance 1.00 .43** .11 .08 .15** .05 .03 .27** .06 .11 .14* .14*
2. Anxiety 1.00 .12* .10 .04 .02 .07 .16** .10 .17** .30** .29**
3. Functional independence 1.00 .80** .61** .10 .09 .01 .14* .04 .10 .08
4. Emotional independence 1.00 .56** .08 .09 .03 .13* .13* .11 .14*
5. Attitudinal independence 1.00 .02 .05 .17** .16** .16** .13* .19**
6. Environmental exploration 1.00 .33** .08 .21** .17** .08 .12*
7. Self-exploration 1.00 .02 .12* .29** .01 .01
8. Identity Diffusion 1.00 .04 .08 .17** .21*
9. Need for career information 1.00 .52** .25** .11
10. Need for self-knowledge 1.00 .06 .06
11. Career choice anxiety 1.00 .52**
12. Generalized indecisiveness 1.00
M 2.97 3.07 31.46 40.45 26.68 15.36 15.44 47.52 22.13 15.31 16.26 14.51
SD 1.24 1.09 9.52 11.80 10.68 5.68 4.51 9.83 4.44 3.40 5.28 4.14
Note. N ¼ 285.
* p < .05. ** p < .01.

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All the factor loadings were significant, ps < .01, ranging from .57 to .94, and are
available from the authors.
The next step was to test the theoretical model shown in Figure 1. In this model,
informational career indecision was directly predicted by exploration, and personal–
emotional career indecision was directly predicted by identity diffusion and
attachment anxiety. Identity diffusion was predicted by exploration, separation-
individuation, attachment anxiety, and attachment avoidance, and exploration was
directly predicted by separation-individuation. Finally, separation-individuation was
predicted by attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance. Informational and per-
sonal–emotional career indecision were allowed to correlate with each other, as were
attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance. This model, w2(140, N ¼ 285) ¼
275.95, p < .0001, CFIn ¼ .95, SRMR ¼ .06, RMSEA ¼ .06, also provided a good
fit to the data. In addition, the structural model did not differ significantly from the
measurement model in terms of overall fit, Dw2(9, N ¼ 285) ¼ 14.51, p > .05.
The model accounted for 14% of the variance in informational career indecision,
21% of that in personal–emotional career indecision, 10% of that in identity diffu-
sion, 2% of that in exploration, and 5% of that in separation/individuation.
Figure 1 shows the path estimates for the structural model. Most of the theorized
paths were significant and in the predicted direction, although there were some
exceptions. Specifically, contrary to prediction, separation-individuation was signif-
icantly related to neither exploration nor identity diffusion, and both exploration and
attachment anxiety were unrelated to identity diffusion. Finally, whereas the rela-
tionship between exploration and informational career indecision was expected to
be negative, it was actually positive.
The structural model provided a good fit to the data, but we wanted to determine
whether its fit was superior to a plausible alternate model. A more parsimonious
alternative to the model we tested is one in which attachment anxiety and avoidance
have no direct relationships with the identity and career indecision variables but
instead are related to these variables solely via their association with separation-
individuation. To assess this possibility, we tested the fit of a model that was iden-
tical to the structural model but omitted the direct paths between attachment anxiety
and identity diffusion, between attachment anxiety and personal–emotional career
indecision, and between attachment avoidance and identity diffusion. Based on the
fit indices, this alternate structural model, w2(143, N ¼ 285) ¼ 320.82, p < .0001,
CFIn ¼ .94, SRMR ¼ .10, RMSEA ¼ .07, did not meet the criteria for good fit.
Thus, the direct paths between the attachment variables and the identity and career
indecision variables that are posited in the original structural model appear to be
needed.

Discussion
In this study, we examined a theoretical model predicting two dimensions of career
indecision. Although the relationships in the model were derived from theory and

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many of the bivariate relationships had been supported by earlier studies, no previ-
ous research had investigated separation-individuation, exploration, and identity dif-
fusion simultaneously as mediators of the relationship between attachment and
career indecision.
Several of the hypothesized relationships in our model were supported. Consistent
with earlier research (Tokar et al., 2003), our findings suggest that individuals with
higher attachment anxiety may tend to separate or individuate less from parents. How-
ever, as predicted, those with higher attachment avoidance tended to report greater
separation-individuation from parents. Nevertheless, the role of separation-
individuation in the relationship between attachment and career indecision appeared
to be minimal, as separation-individuation was not significantly related to exploration
or identity diffusion. Although this finding was contrary to expectation given family
systems theory’s (e.g., Lopez & Andrews, 1987) contention that independent function-
ing is essential for healthy ego identity development and the argument of Blustein
et al. (1995) that independent functioning will promote career exploration, our study
is not the first to find a lack of support for the role of separation-individuation in career
development. Several other studies have found either no (Blustein et al., 1991; Lucas,
1997; Santos & Coimbra, 2000) or very weak (Kinnier et al., 1990) relationships
between separation-individuation and variables theoretically related to career indeci-
sion. Thus, the role of separation-individuation as a mediator of the relationship
between attachment and career indecision seems questionable.
More recent theoretical approaches have criticized the implicit assumption that
‘‘individuated is better’’ and have proposed models that conceptualize relational
interdependence as functional and necessary for career development. Qualitative
investigations have found support for the latter notion. Individuals describe using
personal (often parent or close sibling) relationships as sources of support and moti-
vation throughout difficult junctures in the decision-making process, often using
others as a ‘‘sounding board’’ or seeking support for a change in direction
(Schultheiss, Kress, Manzi, & Glasscock, 2001). In the current study, the importance
of support in close relationships was conceptualized as an internal working model,
but it may be the case that ongoing positive interactions would predict healthy out-
comes better than does individuation.
Similar to Tokar et al. (2003), who found that vocational identity crystallization
partially mediated the relationship between attachment and career indecision, we
also obtained support for the role of identity in the relationship between attachment
and career indecision. In this case, attachment avoidance was associated with greater
identity diffusion, and identity diffusion, in turn, was associated with greater per-
sonal–emotional career indecision. Thus, high degrees of attachment avoidance may
be associated with career indecision, in part, because those who avoid close relation-
ships with others and feel others cannot be trusted tend to struggle with forming a
clear and stable sense of themselves and their preferences across a variety of life
realms. This finding is consistent with arguments (Blustein et al., 1989, 1995) that
a ‘‘secure base’’ provided by one’s social support network helps to facilitate the

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development of a healthy ego identity. Unlike Tokar et al. (2003), however, we did
not find support for identity diffusion as a mediator of the relationship between
attachment anxiety and career indecision, as attachment anxiety and identity diffu-
sion were not significantly related. It is possible that the relationship between attach-
ment anxiety and identity holds only when identity is conceptualized narrowly, with
respect to a vocational identity, as in the study of Tokar et al., but this speculation
awaits further empirical inquiry.
Although apparently not a function of greater identity diffusion, attachment anxi-
ety, like attachment avoidance, did appear to be a risk factor for greater personal–
emotional career indecision. Therefore, ultimately those high in both attachment
avoidance and anxiety may experience greater degrees of a form of career indecision
that is believed to persist even when individuals have adequate information about
themselves and the world of work (Lucas, 1997). The findings from our study sug-
gest that the link between attachment and career indecision may vary depending on
the nature of one’s relationships with important others. As a result, conceptualizing
attachment dichotomously as secure versus insecure would likely be inadequate for
understanding its association with career-related variables.
An initially surprising finding from our study was the positive relationship between
exploration and informational career indecision. Having explored the self and the
world of work should reduce career indecision, as it provides individuals with a basis
for prioritizing their career goals (Gati & Saka, 2001; Wanberg & Muchinsky, 1992),
so we had expected this relationship to be negative. We believe our unexpected pos-
itive relationship may be a function of our having used the CES exploration subscales
as a measure of exploration. This measure asks respondents about their degree of
recent (the last 3 months) career exploration of the self and the world of work as
opposed to the degree of exploration ever conducted. Those high in informational
career indecision may currently be engaging in greater exploration as a healthy way
of taking steps to reduce their indecision. Accordingly, because of the time frame
assessed by the exploration measure we used, our model may have made more sense
had we considered exploration as a consequence, rather than an antecedent, of infor-
mational career indecision. A measure of exploration that asked participants about
their degree of self and environmental exploration at any time in the past would have
been more consistent with the theoretical order of the variables in our specified model.
We suspect that the recency of exploration assessed by the CES also accounts for the
nonsignificant association between exploration and identity diffusion in our model. It
may simply take time for information gleaned from exploration to result in a clear pic-
ture of one’s preferences and a commitment to an identity, and exploration activities
conducted in the last 3 months may not yet have achieved that outcome.

Implications for Intervention

Consistent with earlier research (e.g., Tokar et al., 2003), our findings suggest
that those college students with high attachment anxiety may be at risk for

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personal–emotional career indecision. Previous research had not investigated the

relationship between attachment avoidance and career indecision, but our results
suggest that individuals whose attachment functioning is characterized by a discom-
fort with closeness and a belief that others are untrustworthy may also be at risk for
greater personal–emotional career indecision. Previous research has shown these
individuals express greater reluctance to seek counseling voluntarily (Shaffer,
Vogel, & Wei, 2006; Vogel & Wei, 2005), so aggressive outreach programming
might be needed to provide interventions as a way of reducing their increased risk
for career indecision. Because personal–emotional career indecision tends not to
be ameliorated by the provision of information about the self or the world of
work (Lucas, 1997), individuals high in either attachment anxiety, avoidance, or
both, may require family or relational interventions as a way of addressing their
career concerns.
Greater attachment avoidance appeared to be associated with personal–emotional
career indecision partly because of its association with greater identity diffusion.
Those who are high in attachment avoidance may miss opportunities to explore
aspects of the self and commit to an identity because they avoid interpersonal close-
ness that would offer validation and a secure base from which to take risks to learn
about the self (Blustein et al., 1985, 1989). Group vocational counseling may be an
ideal form of intervention for such individuals because it would allow them to
experiment with trusting others within a safe environment (Yalom & Leszcz,
2005). They could be coached to engage in self-disclosure and use others in the
group to help them explore and begin to commit to an identity. Peers may give direct
feedback, thereby helping to identify one’s unique qualities (Kram & Isabella,
1985). They may also validate one’s self-perceptions through mirroring or reflecting
back one’s prominent characteristics (Blustein & Flum, 1999; Flum, 2001).

Limitations and Ideas for Future Research

The results of our study need to be considered within the context of its limitations.
First, although the relationships in our theoretical model assume development over
time, our cross-sectional design clearly does not allow us to determine temporal pre-
cedence. One previous study (Roisman et al., 2000) used a longitudinal design to
verify the association between infant attachment and adolescents’ career decision-
making difficulties, but mediators of this relationship were not examined. It would
be useful for future research to examine mediators of the relationship between
attachment and career indecision using longitudinal designs. An additional limita-
tion of the current design is the exclusive use of self-report measures, which inflate
the risk of common-method variance. It would be useful to test the fit of the theore-
tical model using corroborative reports from parents or others to supplement infor-
mation about participants’ attachment functioning and separation-individuation.
Second, our sample was predominantly Caucasian and female. Although we are
aware of no theoretical or empirical arguments that suggest the relationships in the

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model may vary by racial/ethnic group, previous research (e.g., Tokar et al., 2003)
has revealed gender differences in many of the bivariate relationships specified in
our model. Our male sample was not of a sufficient size to allow for an examination
of gender invariance, but doing so in future research would be important. Likewise,
previous research (e.g., O’Brien, 1996; Salami & Aremu, 2007; Tokar et al., 2003;
Wolfe & Betz, 2004) has revealed differences in maternal and paternal attachment
and separation-individuation and their associations with career-related constructs. It
would be useful to attempt to link these differences to theory and, if warranted,
examine maternal and paternal separation-individuation as distinct constructs with
differential relations to other constructs in our model.
Finally, our model, although including several predictors, explained only 14% of
the variance in informational career indecision and 21% of the variance in personal–
emotional career indecision. Thus, a great deal of variance in both remains to be
explained by other variables not included in our model. Other constructs known
to be associated with attachment anxiety or avoidance include decreased self-
esteem, self-efficacy, and internal locus of control (Brennan et al., 1998) and might
be important to include in future examinations of the relationship between attach-
ment and career indecision.

Conclusions
The theoretical model tested in this study helps to explain some of the variance in
career indecision by using collective knowledge of a person’s attachment function-
ing, separation-individuation, exploration behaviors, and ego identity diffusion. This
pan-theoretical approach seems necessary considering the varied perspectives that
offer insight into the difficulties that contribute to career indecision and helps to
illustrate ways in which career development intersects with personal development
and interpersonal relationship functioning. The results seem to support the use of
nontraditional vocational counseling approaches, including the use of interpersonal
relationships to help resolve career decision-making difficulties. Although much
previous research has operationalized attachment as secure/insecure, the current
model shows that development may differ depending on the types of attachment
functioning the client exhibits, whether anxious, avoidant, or even a combination
of both.

Acknowledgment
The authors thank Jeffrey H. Kahn for providing feedback on an earlier draft of this
article.

Authors’ Note
A version of this research was presented at the 2008 International Counseling
Psychology Convention in Chicago, IL. The research was based on the first author’s
master’s thesis under direction of the second author. Haley M. Downing is now

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enrolled in the doctoral program in counseling psychology at the University of

Akron.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declare no conflicts of interest with respect to their authorship and/or
publication of this article.

Funding
The authors received no financial support for their research and/or authorship of
this article.

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Bios
Haley M. Downing completed her master’s degree in clinical-counseling psychology at Illi-
nois State University and is currently a doctoral student in the Collaborative Program in Coun-
seling Psychology at the University of Akron. Her research interests include career and
identity development and their intersection with issues of social class. In her free time, she
enjoys hiking, reading, and live sports and music.

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Margaret M. Nauta received her PhD in counseling psychology from Iowa State University.
She is a professor in the psychology department at Illinois State University, where she is
affiliated with the clinical-counseling master’s degree program. She conducts research on
social and cognitive factors associated with individuals’ career development and on the rela-
tionships among career interests, self-efficacy, and personality. She enjoys reading, playing
piano, and spending time with her family.

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