MODULATION

given over a channel.

not always suitable for direcT tans mission
Baseband sighals ae
This conversion
furiher modified to faci li fa fe tansmission.
These signals 3e vsually to is vsed
MODULA TION. Tn this process, the baseband signal
rocess is knowh 3s

some parameter of a high fregvency carrier sighal.

modify
3s amplilude
of high fregvency, and of its parametevs (such
one
A carvier is a sinusoid we have
varied in proportioh to the baseband signal mlt), A ccordingly,
fregvency or phase) s
Phase Modulation (Pm).
Amplitude modvlation (AM), freqvency Modulation (Fm) o

AAAAAMM
CARRIEA

mt Modulating
(Baseband)
Signal
 SOME iMPORTANT AEASONS FoR moOULATION
O Ease of Radiation For efficient radialion of electvomagnetic encray, the radiating
antenna shold be on ihe order of one tenth or more of the wavelength of the sighal
radiated. For many baseband signals, 1he wavelongths ae toa large for reasonable
antenng dimensions, For example, the þowey in a shech signal is rohcentrated at frequencies
in the Yange of 100 to 3000 Hz.. The cottesponding wavelength is lo0 to 300o Km, This

lohg wavelength would hecessitate an impracticably large antenna. A 1 mHa. cavie has a
wavelength of only 3oom, therefore, if we modulate speech sighal on 1 mH. carrier, we need
antenna whose size is on the order of 30m.

Simulfaheous Transmission ot Several SighalsIf sevenl yadio stations broad casT audio
with each other
baseband sighals divecily without any moditication, the sighaBs wovld intevfere
because 1he spectha of all the signals occuby move ov less the same bandwidth. Thus,
it would
ohe vadio ot televisioh siation at a
time. This is wasteful
be to
possible frem
broad rast only
This problem can
because the channel bandwid ih may be much lakger thah that of the sighal.
be solved if we mod vlate each sighat oh cavtiers of diffevent fregvencies, If
carier

the spectra of the modulated signals willhot

treqvencies are chosen suficiently fav aparT,
At the receivel, tunable band pass filtris
overlap and thos will not intevfere with ea otbel,
ch
can be used to selet one of the radio siation, This method of transmitting seveval
signals simultaheously is Ehohn as Frequency Division. Multiplexing (FoM).

Effec ting the Exchange of SNR with B We have shown eavlier thai it is possible
10 eKchange SV fov B and vice versa. FM o Pm can effect svch ahxcha nge. The
amount of modulation vsed contvols the exhange of SNA and B.
INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS

A is set of information or dafa, Examples in clvde a

SIGNAL signal a

sales of a cotporafion, ete. In all these exdnples,

Telephone o a television signal, monthly
the independent vanable
thesighals are function of time (indeþendent variable), Howevet,
aveY a surfare is ohctop
can be oiher than time as nell. For example, chavge density

ot space, not time.

which may modity them or

SYSTEMS Signals may be proressed forther by systems
is an entity that pocesses a
extra cT additional infotmation from them. Thus, a system may be
made
A system
(inputs) fo yield ahother set of sighals (ovtputs).
set of Signals realisalion)
mechanical, or hydraulic systems (hardware
up of physical components as in electical,
an algotithm (software realisation).
or it may be

+00
for real signals
SIGNAL ENERGY E, = t) dt

lgCel'dt for complex valved sighal

Tf we
un der g°(t) which is always posi tive.
This is actvally tne area areas can cancel each other.
hot ) , þositive
and neyatve
taKe glt) a»d
then E
does hof 0 as tl>,
Alseif gl)
is a better measvre.
In such a case signal power

T/2
SIGNAL PoWER Pin gc) dt
T->00
T/2
that is
the 1ine average ( mean) of the signal amplitude squared,
is
the mean sqvared value of g(t).

Sgoare root of Pp is the familia Yool meah square (ths) v3jve of glt).

The meah of an entity averaged over a lavge Time inler val apþtoaching intinity exists if
he entity is either periodic ov has a stalistical reg ularily, Oher wise, avetaye may hot exist,
 3) S16NAL WITH
FINITE ENERGY

SIGNAL WlTH
FlNITE Po wER

Measure of energy or þower is indicative capability of the signal, hof the actual energy

Or powe

and the rms Value of

DeTer mine The power
L=
gt) = C Cos (w,t +0)

g) =
C as(at +6)+ C2 Cos (Wt +
e)
gCt)= De4kt
Because it is a periodic
This is 3 periadic signa) with þeriod. To 2
Ans (a)
its energy over one þetiod 27
signal, we compute its power by averaging
solve the þroblem by avraging over an
However, for sake of 9eneralily, we shall
infinitely large. time interval.
T/2
P im cCos(ut+0) dt
T
T
T/2
1 C 1+ Cas(2a,t +
2) dt

T
-T/2
T/2
T/2

Jm
C dt Sin C Cos (20t+20) dt
To2T T 2T
-T/2
 in
The second tcrm on ihe 1ghf hand Side is zcro be cause the integval apþearing
T
this tem represents the area Undek a sinusoid over a very large time interval
with T 0o. This area is at mosT eqval to the area of half the cyde because
areas of a sinusoid. The avea of
of cance lations of the þositive and negative
this half cycle multiplied by 2T with T-- o i s clearly zero.

2
Sinusoid of amplitude C has power C regavdless of its freqven cy and phase

r m s value = P = C
N2

T/2
Ans.Cb =im T>o
CCas(at +e)+ CCos(wt+ 0,)dt

l2 TI
- _lin colat+0)dt Dime T
C CosLat + e) dt
T>0
T-00
-Tl2

T2
m
n 2CC Cos (t+8,) Cos ( t +e) dt
+
T
-Tl2

abd
third term above is equal to
The
sum of two sinusoids with freqven cies +Wg

-W Area under any sinosoid large time interval is at most egual to the area
over a
and hegative cycles. This area
bnder half the cycle because of cancellations of þositive
mulliblied by 20 with T-> o is dearly zevo.
T

T2 Tl2

=T-_lon Ca(aytlnt +e) dt im Cos*(izt + @) dt

Tl T/2

C C Cas done in (a) above)

 Cy Cos(nt +On) where CWn is diff eienT
Th general, if glt)= fov all h.

theh h

we aveage
is comblex. Since this Signal
is periodic,
Ans. Cc) Th this case the sighal
it only ove a petiod T.
To
loeia"y *dt

let) = 1
To
lol dt becavse

rms valve = P= D

CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS

Discrete Time
ContinvoUs Time and

Analog and Digital

and Aperiodic
Peviadic
and Power
(4 Energy
Probabilis1ic
Detevministic and
 gt) D6ITAL
90)
ContihuoUS Time

ANALOG t
Continuovs Time

9 DIGITAL gt)
Olscrete Time
ANALOG t
Oiscrele Time

A Sighal whose amplitude can take on any valve in a cohtinvovs range is an analog signal.

A signal where amblitude can take on only a fini te himber of valyes is a digifal signal

APER1ODIC SIGNALS
PERIODIC AND

A signal g(t) is said to be periodic if r some Positive conslanl T .

t
9()= glt +T)
The smallest valve of T. that satisfies above Condítion is the þeriod of glt).
A sighal is aperiodic if it is hoft þeriodic,

L L L
To

Periodic Signal ot þetíod 1,

 ENERGY AND POWER SIGNALS
and a signa) with a finite þower
A signal with finite enevgy is an energy signal
enekgy siglhal it,
is a power Signal. In ether wovds, 8 Signal g(t is an

t
2
le]dt <

(mean sqvare value) is a powe sighal.

A Signal ith a finite and non 2evo powet
T/2

T00 T
e at
-T/2

PoWER is time average of ENE RGY.

Observe that
signal wilh finite energy has 2evo power.
Sihce is over an infini tely large interval, a
avevaging has infinite enekgy.
3nd, signal with inite þower
a

a Signal can be neithe

and power sighal. But
Theretore, 3 Signal cannot be both enevgy

ramp signal is such an example.

ehergy nor þower signal. The

AND RANDOM SiGNALS

DE TERMiNIS TIC
ih either mathematical er graphica
A signal whose physical describtioh is kho wh Completely, probabilistic
DETERMINISTIC
siGNAL. Tf a signal iskho wh only in terms of
torm, is a mathematical
its Complete
value, mean sqvared valve, etc., rather thah
describfion, Such as mean

is AANDOM SI GNAL.
a
or graphical description

A POINT TO NOTE T/2 time average

shows that signal þower is the
A glance 3t the eqvation _ino
P=T t ) dt
T

this is time meah

Inean sqvave valve of g Ct), But a

of its sqvared valve, In other wovds, la

or mean
slatistical mtan syuare valve of a variable
nd ho a statistical mean" (to be studied latey), The
valve of glt) ill be denofed by Tt is

is denated by *2. Similarly, the time'mean sqvare

Hore<g(t)> and ) represent the same thing.
represented by <glt)> conveionally and theve
THIS NOTA TION, WE SEE THAT, +T/2
USING

= Time averaye g'Ct) T-00

in t ) dt ms
T

mean of i -T2
$quahed value

glt)
 SOME USEFUL sIGNAL OPERAT1ONS

Ct)
0TIME SHIFTING
Consider a signal g (t) ahd the same
Signal delaycd by T secohds whch We
shall denote by dlt). Whafever habpens
t
in glt) at some instant t alo happens
in dt) T secohds la tel, pCt)= g(t-T)
at the instant t+T.
t+Tg(t or le)- gCt-T

Tf Tis þositive, shift is to the right Cdelay) T

If T is negative, shift is to the left (advance) g (t+T)
blt) =

t-
K
T

TIME SCALING gCt)

sígnal ih
The compressioh ot exþahsioh of a

TIME SCALING.
time is khown as

in
The signal dlt) g{2t) is compressed
=

time by a factor of 2. Therefoe whatever T2

pt) $lt)-9l28)
happens in glt) at some instanf t also
happens fo dlt) at the instanT t/2.
So we can say that pl 2) = 9(t)

or glt) = 9 (2t)
2
pCt) det)=9(E)
In case of 4lt) = g(at),

O1, (t) is compressed in time. 2T

2T
eapanded in time.
0 1 , 9(t) is
TIME INVERSION ( TIME ACVERSAL
Time invehsion may be considered a speial case
9Ct)
of time scaling with Q= -I. 2

As sceh f1omfhe figure, g(-t can be

t
cbtained by redatng g (t) by 180 aboot
the vevtical axis.
= Ninot image of glt) abovt the vertical axis.
g-t)
What evey habþens in gt) at inslant t

a haPPens in gt) at instant t.

t-
+2

g-4)
tla tla
 UNIT 1PUL SE FUNCTION

imporanf fonetions in the study

Imbulse Function S(t) is one of the
most
The Unit
is defined as: S C is endefined
ot signals and sysiems. It
+ at t-0.
s ) dt = 1
St) = 0 for t #0 3nd

Unit Ipulse ahd.

E0
its approXima tion.

A FUNCT1ON BY AN IM PULSE
MULTIPLICATION OF

If a funct lon olt) is continuous at t=0, then dlt) SE) =

plo) st)
mulkiplird by Slt-T), then dt) Slt-T) =
¢(T) S{t-T)
Also, if dlt) is
continuous at t =T.
provided dlt) is

UNIT 1MPULSE FUNCTION

0F THE
SAMPLING PROPERTY

From aboVe equations, we also cohclvde thaT d) 80) dt =

dlo)S(t) dt =
do

This is known as SAMPLING Cor SIF TING) PRO PERTY of the Unit Imbulse.
An th er forin of this pvoperty is

p(t) S(t-T) dt=ó(T)

at the ihslant where the impulse

We have 3ssUmed. thal the fun ction is Continuous
the impulse tonction is delined
not as an ovdinary
lorated.. In a igorous aphreach, fonctial)
We say hothi ng abouT whar the impulse
is

function but as a genevalised fonciioih,

if is debined in Terns of the
eifecl it bas d) 3 1es7 4hcticn Ct).
locKs like. Instead,
t0
also write
We Can (O t0
 UNIT STEP FUNCTION ult)
the UNIT STEP FUNCTlON ult)
Ahoiher fami liar and usefol function is

defined by: 1,t0

ult) = , t:0
at t=0 (so that it has value of zevo for t D),
Tfwe want to start a signal
the signal ith u lt). A signal that does hot starf befove
we only need to moltply then
called a CAUSAL sighal. In other words, if glt) = o for t<0,
t 0 is

9 t is ceusal.

ult)
-al
e
ult)
aulhipld 7

by
for positive a

, taO ult) dul= s(9

s(t) dt =0, te<0 dt
Note that
TRIGONO METHIC FouRIER SERIES

Consider 3 Signal sel:

Sin na,t, ..- }
1 , Cosat, Cos 20st, Cos ha,t, , S i n t , Sin2 , t , . . ,
havmohic of lhe sinuseid of
A sinusoid of fregvency hw, is called the n'
serves as
fregvency W whn nis n ihteger. The sinuso id. of fregvency W
an ah chor in this seT, called 1he FUNDA MEN TAL, of which all the remaining
is ihe 0th harmon ic in he set as
Teims 8re harmonicS, The const1an tetm 1

Cos (Ox 4t) = 1.

hich is the
thogo na| dver any iterual of duvation T
The above set is o

This tollows from the eqvations:

eriod of the fundame nfal.
T.l2
Cos nt Cos ma,t dt mh

Te 2 n m+0

Sin hwt Sin ma,t dt o m +h

Sin h t Cos mw,t dt m,n

t+To
means
for any valve of t

above mentioned seT is orthogonal

over any Cont iguous
Above eqvat ions show thaf the

inter val of duration T.. This

is the trigonometvic sef which cah be shoun fo be a comp lete
trigonometvic Fourier Series ovey any
set. Therefore, we Can express a signal gt) by a

interval ot duration T, seconds as:

g(t)= Do +, Cas t + aq Cos 20,t + . . . t b, Sin4st + b, Sin2,t+.

ttsttT
whele , = 27t
t)=a + nCos nu.t+ b Sin na,t
h 1 T
 The fovtitr coefticients can be evaluated as follows:

2 9t) Cos hat dt

Q, g) dt On
T
To

dt
by 9Ct) Sin n44t
To
h-l,23-

DIRICHLET CONDITIONS
EXISTENCE OF THE FoURIER SERIES

re twe basic conditiohs for the existence of the Fovrier Series:

There
Existence of these Cocfficients is gvaranfeed
Ofor seies to exist, Aa, n, by must be finite.
it absolutely integrable over ohe period
glt) is
Ipdt e o
T
and mihima in ohe þeriod,
The tunction 9(t) have only a finite number of maxima
in þeiod.
tinite hombek of finite discontinvities
one

and iT may have only a

Fouier Series tor the þeriodic sqvare wave W(t)

O = Find the trigonometric
shown below,

L BiPoLAR
To

SQUARE PULSE
2To

PERIODIc slGNAL

yedraw the Same above wavetotm showing move details,

We
Ans
ONE PERIOD

2
 T4 316/4 T

a 9) dt=F ) dt + dt
T4 3To /4

27)
T 4

0
NoW wE FIND an To
T4 3T14

2 dt * Cos nist dt + Cos neat dt

9 ) Cas hat dt
= Cos hwt
T T.4

Ta4 3T4 la

2 Sin hustl Sin hi,t Sin htl3

4
To(nw)
T W, 2r. Using this We opeh the
We Khow that T,-27 or
=

Definite Integrals in the above equation.

2 SihheTe-
4
- Sin hu,3T
Sih huT
4
+/Sih h , T. - Sin nti, 37.

h(27)
Sin 6nh
Sin 2Th Sin 6n Sin 2)4 Sin 2Th
4 4 4
h7

2 Sm T 2 Sin6zh +Sin2Th S i n 2rh =0

2 4 h

Sin 3ah
2
h
Usiny the idenlity
Sn - Sin = 2Co( Snh
4 n 7T Sin(uCos(n)| 2
Now we make 1he followihg fable

Sin ( Cos (nn) molilitation of Sin("Cs(nh)

-1

O
-1

AND So ON

Q=4/
ag4/4T

ag 4/3x
4/
ag=4/Sn
Os and so on

6
-4/+T Next we find b
 Sm hat dt
b, To 90
3T/4 T
To/4
Sin n t dt + Sin ha,t dt
Sin nw,t dt

Tol4 3T/4
3T4 To
Tol4
2 Cos nwet Cos nat| Cos Cos hust
T.(hn)

3nd then open up the definite integrals.

We puf WT. = 2r

Cos Cos Cos 2Th -

Cos ban
Cos2a 4 4
4
h77

2 Cos 2rn - 2 Cos 6xh - 1 + os 27h

4 4
h7t
This is 1, h

2 Cos 2Th Cos 6h

4
h 7t

Using the identity

2 2 Sin (7Tn) Sin(
h 7t CosA-Cos -2Sin/R*8SinA-6
NoW Sin 7Th=0 v h

b=0 h
ANO WE HAVE
FoUND THAT
a, + Cos neat + b Sin nw,t||
NoW
alt) =

n a 0 bn=0

Cos 3w,t Cos Sw,t Cos 7 t

, ts, Ct)= 4TCLCos
wt +
+...|
 APERiODIC SIGNAL REPRESENTATION BY FoURIER INTEGRAL

An apeviodie signal g(t) by a foutier Integval can be represented 3s

+00 a t dt

G() 9) e g= Ga)e da
27T

This integial is basitally a fovrier series Cin the limit) with funda mental

ieguency
treguencyY Aw--0. We call G(A) as the fourier trans form of g() and

lt) as the invekse Fourier Tiansform of Gla).

G() fL(t 3hd gt)= f [ Gw]

Since G(u) is complex, we have both anplitude and angle (or phase) spectra

G(u) = Amplitude egC)=Angle Cor Phase)

-at
the Fourier Tansfotm of e ul).
3 = Find

eult)
C-
to +00 /8,C)
00jt.
Ga)= gt)edt
ult) edt

Cat i ) t
dt

- (a+ju)t|

Tn this calcolation, it is
assemed thal a>0.
If a<0, then Foutier Intega)
-1 o-1
does nof converge and hence
a+jw
Fovnier Trans form of e"ult)
does hof exist.
 FREQUENTLY USED FUNCTIONS
USEFUL DEFINITIONS OF So MME

Beet angelar Pulse

O UNIT GATE FUNCTION tect()
1 rect
TUNIT
HEIGHT

-1/2 +1/2

UNIT woTH
Centred at Zevo rect(a) expanded by a factor T
(Twidihof þolse.)
1 , x4/2
rect ( x ) = , laxl >1/2

1/2, l) -4/2

Triangelar Polse
UNIT TRIANGLE FUNCTION
A(

UNI T
HEIGHT

-4/2 0 +4l

UNIT WI DTH
Polse Widih=T
Centered at Zero

)expanded by a factor of T.

(1 - 21a, 1al< 2
= ,la42
TNTERfOLAT ION FUNCT1ON Sinc ()
The function Sih is the "sint ovey avaumenT function denoted by Sinc ().
T is Sometimes abo written as Sa(). Some authors desine Sinclx)= Sin TN

This fun ction plays An impor1ant ole in sighal pocess ing9. It is also Khoh as
FLTERING or INTER POLA TING functioh. We define Sinc()=Sin

Some poinis to note about Sinc (

O Sinc (x) is en even functioh of .
2Sinc(a) = 0 when an = 0. This means Sinc(a) = 0 at = t r , t 2 r , +37, .
Howeve at =0 Sinc (x) is mdeterminate.
Using L Hspital's role, we find Sinelo) = 1.

Sine l ) is the þro ducT of an oscillat ing sinusoid of feviod 2n and a monotonica ly
oscillatiohs of period 27,
deceasing tunction Theefore, sincla) exhibits sinusoicdal
with ampli tude decreasing continuously as 1 /
Sine ()
 SOME NUMERIOALS 0N FoURIER TRANS FOR M
gt)

3= Find 1he Fourier Tanstorm of the Gate Polse t

-Tl2 +TI2

FAhns= We can Wite that g) rect( (

=

-jut
Gl) =red ( dt

+T/2
e a t
reet () 1 for ltl < T/p
dt be cause =

and zero elsewheve.

tla

2 Sin (72) Using the identity e= Cas + j Sin

EULER FORmULA

Sin (T/2) by rearranging abo Ve equation.

thT
Re call that Sinc(a)=0 when =
Sinc( Sine
Sinc( ) = 0 wheh a =tnz

when £Z

T Note that at w=0,

G() = Glo) = t Sinclo)

T
-4r
T et() T Sinc(
is a fovrier Transterm þair
before moving to i, BANDW1O TH Of eet ( )
on w ds euSs

. shectvum G()braks at w-0 and deeays at hig hev fveq ven cies.
in lower
is a low pass signal ith most of its signal energy
Theefcre, reet(
SIG NAL BANDWID TH is the difference between the highesT
frequency compcnents.
(significant) freqven cy and the lowest, fieqve ney in the sigha) speetrum. Strietly speaking,
the bandwidth is co in the presenf case.
berause Glu) extendsrom 0 to ,
the tist lobe fvom CU = 0 t
Howevek, uch of dhe spectrum is con ceptvated withih
consfder W= 2n to be highest (significant) froqvency
W=2 W e may

a rough estimate of the bañd width

of a rectangulav
in he spectvom. Therefove,
rad/s H .
Ha. (2a vadians 1 cyele)
olse of width T secnds is
2 o T
less and vice versa,
This abo implies it T is large, bandwidth reqvired is

unit S)
impulse S(t).
=Find the fovritr transform of the

Using sanpling property

of inpulse tvansfotm,
Ans= -jut
FL&O] &tt)e dt=

is tovrier trans form Þair.

s) 1
gCt)-t ) G()=1

5
5=Find the inuiise Fouiitr Tansfoim of Slu).
of inpule Hunction,
Aps= Using sampling beperty
4-C0
jat
S )eda
2T 2

OK 1 2r Sl)
sta)
2
Gl)= 27 Sla)

t W

following manner. g(t)=1 is a de sighal

We can interpret the above resvlt in the
W =0 (de).
hich has single fveqvency

a de signal,
whaf does ah impulse at
of
Q If impulse at W=0 is spectrum transform of Slu-)?
what is the , inverse faunier
represent Tn other wovds,
w
inpulse function,
Ans= Using sampling þroperty of +00 WT

F[s-)) =
s(a-a) ed
27
2Tt

jt OR e 27 S(w-
e Sl-
Deed 3 single evevlauting
To represenT the everlasting exponential e,we
Thevwdore, the spectkom Consists of a single
expenential d e ith .

componen T trequeny W= W

ju,t
it also follaws that e 2T S(o+a)
From abeve result,
 sinoseid s ait.
=Find Fouier Transform of ever lasting
(e )
formula, Cos t
=
Eoler's
Ans= Using

brevioUs qvestion,
e 2 n Stw-w)
We have found in the
and 2 r S( +u)
t jt 2Stw-u) + S(w)
Adding both, e +e

Jat
--jwst
TlSta-) + Slw +)
e + e

7tSl-w) + Slw +u)

Cos Wt

tvansform is lihea in natvre.

add both becavse fouriev
We covld gaC) Gz Ca)
and
Tf 9,t9 G , ()
a,G,C)+ a Gg (
+ a,92(t)
hen a,8,)

Cos W,t Gla)

get) =

AAA
result canbe inteypreted in the following manher. An everlautin sinusoid

The above
and e Thevefore,
two evevlasling esponenlials e
Cas Cat can be sythesized. by a
andn d - .
cies W
tonsists fwe components of frequen
of only
the Fouriey Spectrum

(16
 of sign function showh below,
SFind he Founity Tvensfoim sgh T as

t0
sgnt= t0 +1

t-

0t
Ans= The tvansfovm of gn Can be obtained by considering sqn t as a sUm

the limit a-0

two exponenitials as shown below, in as

-eult) ime ult) eu-t)

-

sgn t
-

a0L

t
-ul-t)

F[sm t= inFLe"ult - F[e"ab-t

Wim
a+jw a- jw
a 0

Jim 2jtw
a0 a+2