2.

6 CONTINUOUS-TIME SYSTEMS
 2.6 CONTINUOUS-TIME SYSTEMS
• Interconnecting Systems:
1. A summing junction.

 The output signal of the junction is defined to be the sum of the input signals.
 2.6 CONTINUOUS-TIME SYSTEMS
2. A product junction.

 The output signal of the junction is defined to be the product of the input
signals.
 2.6 CONTINUOUS-TIME SYSTEMS
• We next define two basic connections for systems.
1. the parallel connection.
 2.6 CONTINUOUS-TIME SYSTEMS
2. The second basic connection for systems is called the series, or cascade,
connection.
 2.6 CONTINUOUS-TIME SYSTEMS
• Example 2.16 page 63: Consider the system of the following Figure.
Write the equations that represent the system.
2.6 CONTINUOUS-TIME SYSTEMS
 2.6 CONTINUOUS-TIME SYSTEMS
• Feedback System:
 A system is called a feedback systems if the system output is expressed as a
function of both the system input and the system output.
 2.6 CONTINUOUS-TIME SYSTEMS
• Example 2.17 page 64: Consider the system of the following Figure.
Write the equations that represent the system.
2.6 CONTINUOUS-TIME SYSTEMS
2.7 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUOUS-
TIME SYSTEMS
2.7 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUOUS-
TIME SYSTEMS
2.7 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUOUS-
TIME SYSTEMS
2.7 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUOUS-
TIME SYSTEMS
2.7 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUOUS-
TIME SYSTEMS
2.7 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUOUS-
TIME SYSTEMS
2.7 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUOUS-
TIME SYSTEMS
2.7 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUOUS-
TIME SYSTEMS
2.7 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUOUS-
TIME SYSTEMS
2.7 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUOUS-
TIME SYSTEMS
2.7 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUOUS-
TIME SYSTEMS
2.7 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUOUS-
TIME SYSTEMS
2.7 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUOUS-
TIME SYSTEMS
 2.7 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUOUS-
TIME SYSTEMS
• Solution:
(i) This system is memoryless, because the output is a function of the input at
only the present time.
(ii) The system is not invertible, because, for example y(nπ)=0, regardless of
the value of the input. Hence, the system has no inverse.
(iii) The system is causal, because the output does not depend on the input at a
future time.
(iv) The system is stable, the output is bounded for all bounded inputs, because
the multiplier sin (2t) has a maximum value of 1.
2.7 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUOUS-
TIME SYSTEMS
(v) time variant because

(vi) Linear because

 Introduction
 Consider a system described by:
𝑥 𝑡 ⟶𝑦 𝑡

This system is time invariant if a time shift of the input results in the
same time shift of the output—that is, if:
𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑡0 ⟶ 𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑡0

 This system is linear, provided that the principle of superposition

applies:
𝑎1 𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑥2 𝑡 ⟶ 𝑎1 𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑦2 𝑡
 Introduction
 In this chapter, we consider continuous-time systems that are both
linear and time invariant.
 We will refer to these systems as continuous-time LTI (linear time
invariant) systems.
 We have several reasons for emphasizing these systems:
1) Many physical systems can be modeled accurately as LTI systems.
For example, the basic electric-circuit models of the resistance,
inductance, and capacitance are LTI models.
2) We can solve mathematically the equations that model LTI systems
for both continuous-time and discrete-time systems. No general
procedures exist for the mathematical solution of the describing
equations of non-LTI systems.
 Introduction
3) Much information is available for both the analysis and design of LTI
systems.

4) We can sometimes model a general signal 𝑥 𝑡 as a sum of functions:

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑥2 𝑡 + ⋯ .

The system response is then the sum of the responses to the standard
functions:
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑦2 𝑡 + ⋯ .

Where 𝑦𝑖 𝑡 is the response to 𝑥𝑖 𝑡 , 𝑖 = 1,2, … .

 3.1: Impulse representation of continuous-time signals.

 we use the preceding result to express 𝑥 𝑡 as an integral involving an

impulse function:
∞ ∞
න 𝑥 𝜏 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = න 𝑥 𝑡 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
−∞ −∞

∞
= 𝑥 𝑡 න 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑥 𝑡
−∞

We rewrite this equation as

∞
𝑥 𝑡 = න 𝑥 𝜏 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
−∞
 3.2: Convolution for continuous time LTI systems.

 With the input an impulse function, we denote the LTI system

response in Figure 3.1 as ℎ 𝑡 ; that is:
𝛿 𝑡 ⟶ℎ 𝑡

 Because the system is time invariant, the response to a time-shifted

impulse function, 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑡0 is given by
𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑡0 ⟶ ℎ 𝑡 − 𝑡0

 The notation ℎ ∙ will always denote the unit impulse response.

 3.2: Convolution for continuous time LTI systems.

 We now derive an expression for the output of an LTI system in terms

of its unit impulse response ℎ 𝑡
 3.2: Convolution for continuous time LTI systems.

 We show that a system’s response to any input signal, 𝑥 𝑡 is

expressed as an integral involving only the input function and the
system’s impulse response function, ℎ 𝑡 .

 This interaction between the input signal and the impulse response
function is called convolution.

 Convolution can be visualized as an extended application of

superposition.

 For an LTI system, the system’s response to an impulse input is always

the same form, regardless of the time that the impulse is applied.
 3.2: Convolution for continuous time LTI systems.
 According to the principle of superposition, an LTI system’s total
response to a sum of inputs is the sum of the responses to each
individual input.
 It follows that if the input is a sum of weighted, time-shifted impulses
∞

𝑥 𝑡 = ෍ ∆ 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑘∆
𝑘=0
 then the output signal is a sum of weighted, time-shifted impulse
responses:
∞

𝑦 𝑡 = ෍ ∆ ℎ 𝑡 − 𝑘∆
𝑘=0
 3.2: Convolution for continuous time LTI systems.
 Example 3.1:
 3.2: Convolution for continuous time LTI systems.
 Example 3.1:
 3.2: Convolution for continuous time LTI systems.
 Example 3.1:
 3.2: Convolution for continuous time LTI systems.
 Example 3.1:
 3.2: Convolution for continuous time LTI systems.
 Example 3.1:
 3.2: Convolution for continuous time LTI systems.
 Example 3.1:
 3.2: Convolution for continuous time LTI systems.

 The convolution integral is expressed by the following notation:

∞
𝑦 𝑡 = න 𝑥 𝜏 ℎ 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑥 𝑡 ∗ ℎ 𝑡
−∞

 Let
𝑠 = 𝑡−𝜏 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜏 = 𝑡−𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝜏 = −𝑑𝑠
∞ −∞
𝑦 𝑡 = න 𝑥 𝜏 ℎ 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = න 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑠 ℎ 𝑠 −𝑑𝑠
−∞ ∞

∞
= න 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑠 ℎ 𝑠 𝑑𝑠
−∞
 3.2: Convolution for continuous time LTI systems.

 Next we replace 𝑠 with 𝜏 in the last integral, and thus the convolution
can also be expressed as
∞ ∞
𝑦 𝑡 = න 𝑥 𝜏 ℎ 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = න 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝜏 ℎ 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
−∞ −∞

 The convolution integral is symmetrical with respect to the input 𝑥 𝑡

signal and the impulse response ℎ 𝑡 and we have the property:
𝑦 𝑡 =𝑥 𝑡 ∗ℎ 𝑡 =ℎ 𝑡 ∗𝑥 𝑡
 3.2: Convolution for continuous time LTI systems.

 by considering the convolution integral for a unit impulse input; that

is, for 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝛿 𝑡 :
𝑦 𝑡 =𝛿 𝑡 ∗ℎ 𝑡 =ℎ 𝑡

 Because of the time-invariance property, the general form is given by:

𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑡0 = 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑡0 ∗ ℎ 𝑡 = ℎ 𝑡 − 𝑡0

 This general property may be stated in terms of a function 𝑔 𝑡 as

𝛿 𝑡 ∗𝑔 𝑡 =𝑔 𝑡

And
𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑡0 ∗ 𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑔 𝑡 − 𝑡0 ∗ 𝛿 𝑡 = 𝑔 𝑡 − 𝑡0
 3.2: Convolution for continuous time LTI systems.
 Example 3.2:
 3.2: Convolution for continuous time LTI systems.
 Example 3.2:
 3.2: Convolution for continuous time LTI systems.
 Example 3.2:
 3.2: Convolution for continuous time LTI systems.
 Example 3.3:
 3.2: Convolution for continuous time LTI systems.
 Example 3.3:
 3.2: Convolution for continuous time LTI systems.
 Example 3.4:
 3.2: Convolution for continuous time LTI systems.
 Example 3.4:
 3.2: Convolution for continuous time LTI systems.
 Example 3.4:
 3.2: Convolution for continuous time LTI systems.
 Example 3.4:
 3.2: Convolution for continuous time LTI systems.
 Example 3.4:
 3.2: Convolution for continuous time LTI systems.
 Example 3.4:
 3.2: Convolution for continuous time LTI systems.
 Example 3.5:
 3.2: Convolution for continuous time LTI systems.
 Example 3.5:
 3.2: Convolution for continuous time LTI systems.
 Example 3.5:
 3.2: Convolution for continuous time LTI systems.
 Example 3.5:
 3.2: Convolution for continuous time LTI systems.
 Example 3.5:
 3.2: Convolution for continuous time LTI systems.
 Example 3.5:
 3.2: Convolution for continuous time LTI systems.
 Example 3.5:
 3.2: Convolution for continuous time LTI systems.
 Example 3.6:
 3.2: Convolution for continuous time LTI systems.
 Example 3.6:
 3.2: Convolution for continuous time LTI systems.
 Example 3.6: