A Concise History of The United States of America Vol III

RELIGION IN THE UNITED STATES
A Concise History of the

United States of America
vol III
The religions of the united States
Henry Epps
A concise history of the united states of America vol III
1
Preface
Religion in the United States is characterized by both a wide diversity of religious beliefs and practices
and by a high adherence level. According to recent surveys, 80 percent of Americans identify with a
religious denomination and 36 percent state that they attend services nearly every week or more.[1] A
majority of Americans report that religion plays a "very important" role in their lives, a proportion
unique among developed nations.[2] Many faiths have flourished in the United States, including those
spanning the country's multicultural immigrant heritage, as well as those founded within the country:
these have led the United States to become one of the most religiously diverse countries in the world.[3]
The majority of Americans (76% to 80%) identify themselves as Christians.[4][5] According to the
American Religious Identification Survey (ARIS), those who identify themselves as Catholics make up
about 25% of the adult population, while "other Christians" account for another 51%.[6] According to
the same survey, other religions (including, for example, Judaism, Buddhism, Islam, and Hindu)
collectively make up about 4% of the adult population, another 15% of the adult population claim no
religious affiliation, and 5.2% said they did not know, or they refused to reply.[6] According to ARIS,
religious belief varies considerably by region. The lowest rate is in the West with 59% reporting a belief
in God, and the highest rate in the South at 86%.
Despite a high level of religious adherence, only 9% of Americans in a 2008 poll said religion was the
most important thing in their life, compared with 45% who said family was paramount in their life and
17% who said money and career was paramount.[8] Mark Chaves, a Duke University professor of
sociology, religion and divinity, found that 92% of Americans believed in God in 2008 but that they have
significantly less confidence in their religious leaders than they did a generation ago[9]. Polls have also
shown that doubts about the existence of a god have grown rapidly among younger Americans.
From early colonial days, when some English and German settlers came in search of religious freedom,
America has been profoundly influenced by religion.[11] That influence continues in American culture,
social life, and politics.[12] Several of the original Thirteen Colonies were established by settlers who
wished to practice their own religion within a community of like-minded people: the Massachusetts Bay
Colony was established by English Puritans (Congregationalists), Pennsylvania by British Quakers,
Maryland by English Catholics, and Virginia by English Anglicans.
The text of the First Amendment to the country's Constitution states that "Congress shall make no law
respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the
freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the
Government for a redress of grievances." It guarantees the free exercise of religion while also
preventing the government from establishing a state religion. The Supreme Court has also interpreted
this as preventing the government from having any authority in religion.
Although some New England States continued to use tax money to fund local Congregational churches
into the 1830s, the United States was the first nation to have no official state-endorsed religion.[13]
Modeling the provisions concerning religion within the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom, the
2
framers of the Constitution rejected any religious test for office, and the First Amendment specifically
denied the federal government any power to enact any law respecting either an establishment of
religion or prohibiting its free exercise, thus protecting any religious organization, institution, or
denomination from government interference. The decision was mainly influenced by European
Rationalist and Protestant ideals, but was also a consequence of the pragmatic concerns of minority
religious groups and small states that did not want to be under the power or influence of a national
religion that did not represent them.
A 2006 CBS News Poll of 899 U.S. adults found that 76% of those surveyed believed in a god, while 9%
believed in "some other universal spirit or higher power", 8% believed in neither, and 1% were unsure.
A 2008 survey of 1,000 people concluded that, based on their stated beliefs rather than their religious
identification, 70% of Americans believe in a personal God, roughly 12% of Americans are atheist or
agnostic, and another 12% are deistic (believing in a higher power/non-personal God, but no personal
God).[6]
A late 2009 online Harris poll of 2,303 U.S. adults (18 and older)[15] found that "82% of adult Americans
believe in God", the same number as in two earlier polls in 2005 and 2007. Another 9% said they did not
believe in God, and 9% said that they were not sure. It further concluded, "Large majorities also believe
in miracles (76%), heaven (75%), that Jesus is God or the Son of God (73%), in angels (72%), the survival
of the soul after death (71%), and in the resurrection of Jesus (70%). Less than half (45%) of adults
believe in Darwin’s theory of evolution but this is more than the 40% who believe in creationism.....
Many people consider themselves Christians without necessarily believing in some of the key beliefs of
Christianity. However, this is not true of born-again Christians. In addition to their religious beliefs, large
minorities of adults, including many Christians, have "pagan" or pre-Christian beliefs such as a belief in
ghosts, astrology, witches and reincarnation.... Because the sample is based on those who agreed to
participate in the Harris Interactive panel, no estimates of theoretical sampling error can be calculated."
3
4
Table of contents
Section One
Abrahamic lineage of Faith
1 Christianity in America
2 Islam in America
3 Jewish faith in America
Section Two
Dharmic (or Eastern) lineage of faiths
1 Buddhism
5
10
11
12
13
14
15
6
7
Section One the Abrahamic lineage of Faith
Chapter One
Christianity in America
Christianity is the most popular religion in the United States, with around 77% of polled Americans
identifying themselves as Christian in 2009.[1][2][3] This is down from 86% in 1990, and slightly lower
than 78.6% in 2001.[4] About 62% of those polled claim to be members of a church congregation.[5] In
the mid-1990s the United States had the largest Christian population on earth, with 224 million
Christians.[6]
Protestant denominations accounted for 51.3%, while Roman Catholicism, at 23.9%, was the largest
individual denomination. The study categorizes white evangelicals, 26.3% of the population, as the
country's largest religious cohort;[3] another study estimates evangelicals of all races at 30–35%.[7] The
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormon) is the fourth largest church in the United States,
and the largest church originating in the US.[8][9]
Christianity was introduced to the Americas as Europeans beginning in the 16th and 17th centuries first
colonized it. Today most Christian churches are Mainline Protestant, Evangelical, or Roman Catholic.
Christian denominations in the United States are usually divided in three large groups, Evangelicalism,
Mainline Protestantism and Roman Catholicism. Christian denominations that do not fall within either of
these groups are mostly associated with ethnic minorities, i.e. the various denominations of Eastern
Orthodoxy.
A 2004 survey of the United States identified the percentages of these groups as 26.3% (Evangelical),
22% (Roman Catholics), and 16% (Mainline Protestant.)[7] In a Statistical Abstract of the United States,
based on a 2001 study of the self-described religious identification of the adult population, the
percentages for these same groups are 28.6% (Evangelical), 24.5% (Roman Catholics), and 13.9%
(Mainline Protestant.) [10]
8
Protestantism
Main article: Protestantism in the United States
In typical usage, the term mainline is contrasted with evangelical.
The Association of Religion Data Archives (ARDA) counts 26,344,933 members of mainline churches
versus 39,930,869 members of evangelical Protestant churches.[11] There is evidence that there has
been a shift in membership from mainline denominations to evangelical churches.[12]
As shown in the table below, some denominations with similar names and historical ties to Evangelical
groups are considered Mainline.
Evangelicalism is a Protestant Christian movement. In typical usage, the term mainline is contrasted with
evangelical. Theologically conservative critics accuse the mainline churches of "the substitution of leftist
social action for Christian evangelizing, and the disappearance of biblical theology," and maintain that
"All the Mainline churches have become essentially the same church: their histories, their theologies,
and even much of their practice lost to a uniform vision of social progress."[13] Most adherents consider
its key characteristics to be: a belief in the need for personal conversion (or being "born again"); some
expression of the gospel in effort; a high regard for Biblical authority; and an emphasis on the death and
resurrection of Jesus.[14] David Bebbington has termed these four distinctive aspects conversionism,
activism, biblicism, and crucicentrism, saying, "Together they form a quadrilateral of priorities that is the
basis of Evangelicalism."[15]
Note that the term "Evangelical" does not equal Fundamentalist Christianity, although the latter is
sometimes regarded simply as the most theologically conservative subset of the former. The major
differences largely hinge upon views of how to regard and approach scripture ("Theology of Scripture"),
as well as construing its broader world-view implications. While most conservative Evangelicals believe
the label has broadened too much beyond its more limiting traditional distinctives, this trend is
nonetheless strong enough to create significant ambiguity in the term.[16] As a result, the dichotomy
between "evangelical" vs. "mainline" denominations is increasingly complex (particularly with such
innovations as the "Emergent Church" movement).
The contemporary North American usage of the term is influenced by the evangelical/fundamentalist
controversy of the early 20th century. Evangelicalism may sometimes be perceived as the middle ground
between the theological liberalism of the Mainline (Protestant) denominations and the cultural
separatism of Fundamentalist Christianity.[17] Evangelicalism has therefore been described as "the third
of the leading strands in American Protestantism, straddl[ing] the divide between fundamentalists and
liberals."[18] While the North American perception is important to understand the usage of the term, it
by no means dominates a wider global view, where the fundamentalist debate was not so influential.
Evangelicals held the view that the modernist and liberal parties in the Protestant churches had
surrendered their heritage as Evangelicals by accommodating the views and values of the world. At the
same time, they criticized their fellow Fundamentalists for their separatism and their rejection of the
9
Social Gospel as it had been developed by Protestant activists of the previous century. They charged the
modernists with having lost their identity as Evangelicals and the Fundamentalists with having lost the
Christ-like heart of Evangelicalism. They argued that the Gospel needed to be reasserted to distinguish it
from the innovations of the liberals and the fundamentalists.
They sought allies in denominational churches and liturgical traditions, disregarding views of
eschatology and other "non-essentials," and joined also with Trinitarian varieties of Pentecostalism.
They believed that in doing so, they were simply re-acquainting Protestantism with its own recent
tradition. The movement's aim at the outset was to reclaim the Evangelical heritage in their respective
churches, not to begin something new; and for this reason, following their separation from
Fundamentalists, the same movement has been better known merely as "Evangelicalism." By the end of
the 20th century, this was the most influential development in American Protestant Christianity.
The National Association of Evangelicals is a U.S. agency, which coordinates cooperative ministry for its
member denominations.
Mainline Protestantism
Main article: Mainline (Protestant)
The mainline Protestant Christian denominations are those Protestant denominations that were
brought to the United States by its historic immigrant groups; for this reason they are sometimes
referred to as heritage churches.[19] The largest are the Episcopal (English), Presbyterian (Scottish),
Methodist (English and Welsh), and Lutheran (German and Scandinavian) churches.
Many mainline denominations teach that the Bible is God's word in function, but tend to be open to
new ideas and societal changes.[20] They have been increasingly open to the ordination of women.
Mainline churches tend to belong to organizations such as the National Council of Churches and World
Council of Churches.
William Hutchison called the seven largest U.S. mainline denominations the "Seven Sisters of American
Protestantism."[21][22] In reference to the major liberal groups during the period between 1900 to
1960.
United Methodist Church 7,931,733 members (2008)[23]
Evangelical Lutheran Church in America 4,709,956 members (2008)[23]
Presbyterian Church (USA) 2,209,546 members (2007)[24]
Episcopal Church in the United States of America (2008) 2,116,749 members[23]
American Baptist Churches in the USA 1,358,351 members (2008)[23]
United Church of Christ 1,145,281 members (2008)[23]
Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) 691,160 (2008)
10
The Association of Religion Data Archives also considers these denominations to be mainline:[11]
Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) 350,000 members
Reformed Church in America 269,815 members (2005)[25]
International Council of Community Churches 108,806 members (2005)[26]
National Association of Congregational Christian Churches 65,569 members (2000)[27]
North American Baptist Conference 64,565 members (2002)
Universal Fellowship of Metropolitan Community Churches 44,000 members (1998)[28]
Moravian Church in America, Northern Province 24,650 members (2003)[29]
Moravian Church in America, Southern Province 21,513 members (1991)[30]
Latvian Evangelical Lutheran Church in America 12,000 members (2007)
Congregational Christian Churches, (not part of any national CCC body)
Moravian Church in America, Alaska Province
The Association of Religion Data Archives has difficulties collecting data on traditionally African
American denominations. Those churches most likely to be identified as mainline include these
Methodist groups:
African Methodist Episcopal Church
Christian Methodist Episcopal Church
Mainline Protestant (also sometimes called "mainstream American Protestant"[1] and "oldline
Protestant"[2][3][4][5]) is a group of Protestant churches in the United States contrasted with
evangelical, fundamentalist, and charismatic groups. The group used to comprise a majority of all
churchgoers in the early 20th century, but is now a minority even among Protestants. Mainline churches
include the United Methodist Church (UMC), the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA), the
Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) (PCUSA), the Episcopal Church, the American Baptist Churches, the United
Church of Christ (Congregationalist), the Disciples of Christ, and the Reformed Church in America, among
others.
Mainline churches share a common approach to social issues that often leads to collaboration in
organizations such as the National Council of Churches.[6] Because of their involvement with the
ecumenical movement, mainline churches are sometimes (especially outside the United States) given
11
the alternative label of ecumenical Protestantism.[7] These churches played a leading role in the Social
Gospel movement and were active in social causes such as civil rights and equality for women.[8] As a
group, the mainline churches have maintained religious doctrine that stresses social justice and personal
salvation.[9] Politically and theologically, contemporary mainline Protestants tend to be more liberal
than non-mainline Protestants.
Members of mainline denominations have played leadership roles in many aspects of American life,
including politics, business, science, the arts, and education, including founding most of the leading
educational institutes in the US.[10] Since the 1960s, however, mainline groups have shrunk as a
percentage of the American population as increasing numbers of American Protestants have come to
affiliate instead with fundamentalist, evangelical, or charismatic churches, or with no church at all.
Mainline denominations peaked in membership in the 1950s and have declined steadily in the last half
century. From 1960 to 1988, mainline church membership declined from 31 million to 25 million, then
fell to 21 million in 2005.[11][12] While in 1970 the mainline churches claimed most Protestants and
more than 30 percent of the population as members,[13] today they are a minority among American
Protestants, claiming approximately 15 percent of American adults among their adherents in 2009.[14]
Variation
Mainline churches hold a wide range of theologies—conservative, moderate and liberal.[34] The
inclusion of a denomination in the mainline Protestant category does not imply that every member of
that denomination, nor even every member of their clergy, accepts some of the beliefs generally held in
common by other mainline churches. They allow considerable theological latitude. Moreover, mainline
denominations have within them Confessing Movements or charismatic renewal movements which are
more conservative in tone.
Liberal
About half of mainline Protestants describe themselves as liberal.[34] Liberal theology emerged from
the anti-slavery debates in the antebellum United States, a turning point in American theology. The
issue of slavery forced antislavery theologians, including William Ellery Channing, Francis Wayland, and
Horace Bushnell, to reconcile what they perceived as contradictory loyalties to the Bible and to
antislavery reform. Unable to use the letter of the Bible to make a scriptural case against slavery in itself,
the moderates argued that although slavery had been acceptable in biblical times, it had become a sin.
Antislavery Protestantism required a theory of moral progress, an idea that became fundamental to the
development of late-19th-century liberal Evangelical Protestantism. The antislavery argument from
moral progress, along with the moral progress represented by abolition, established a progressive
conception of revelation that was further developed by late-19th-century liberal theologians, including
Newman Smyth, Lyman Abbott, and Theodore Munger. Once they had adopted the idea that moral
values evolve, it was not hard to come to terms with the impact of modernity, critical biblical
scholarship, and Darwinism.[35]
12
Mainline Christian groups are often more accepting of other beliefs and faiths.[34] These church bodies
are often comparatively more comfortable with gender inclusive language in contemporary translations
of the Bible. Mainline churches tend to be open to new ideas, new understandings of morality, and
societal changes without abandoning what they consider to be the historical foundations of the
Christian faith. For example, mainline churches are open to the ordination of women and have become
increasingly open to gay ordination.
Conservative
Nearly one-third of mainline Protestants call themselves conservative, and most local mainline
congregations have a strong, active conservative element.[34] Mainline denominations are historically
Trinitarian and proclaim Jesus Christ as Lord and Son of God; they adhere to the historic creeds such as
the Nicene Creed, the Apostles' Creed, and the Athanasian Creed.
Moderate
In practice, mainline churches tend to be theologically moderate and influenced by higher criticism, an
approach used by scholars to separate the Bible's earliest historical elements from perceived later
additions and intentional distortions. Mainline denominations generally teach that the Bible is God's
Word in function, but that it must be interpreted both through the lens of the cultures in which it was
originally written, and examined using God-given reason. A 2008 survey conducted by the Pew Research
Center found that only 22 percent of the 7,500 mainline Christians surveyed said the Bible is God's Word
and is to be interpreted as literally true, word for word. Thirty-eight percent thought that the Bible is
God's Word but is not to be taken literally, word for word. Twenty-eight percent said the Bible was not
the Word of God but was of human origin.[36]
Social justice
The mainline denominations emphasize the biblical concept of justice, stressing the need for Christians
to work for social justice, which usually involve politically liberal approaches to social and economic
problems. Early in the 20th century, they actively supported the Social Gospel.
Mainline churches were basically pacifistic before 1940, but under the influence of people such as
Reinhold Niebuhr they supported World War II and the Cold War.[37] They have been far from uniform
in their reaction to homosexual behavior, though generally more accepting than the Catholic Church or
the more conservative Protestant churches.[38]
Statistics
Protestant churches as a whole have held steady in total membership in the last half century, but since
the national population has grown they have shrunk from 63% of the population in 1970 to 54% by
2000. The Mainline denominations comprised 55% of all Protestants in 1973, and 46% in 1998.[13]
While the term "mainline" once implied a certain numerical majority or dominant presence in
mainstream society, that is no longer the case. Both evangelical and fundamentalist Christian groups
13
have been growing, but mainline Christianity—both membership and worship attendance—has been
shrinking.[9]
The number of mainline congregations in the U. S. declined from more than 80,000 churches in the
1950s to about 72,000 in 2008.[14] About 40% of Mainline Protestants in the 1990s were active in
church affairs, compared to 46% of the conservatives.[39]
Various causes have been cited, including monotonous and ponderous liturgies, intimidating worship
surroundings, and too much tradition.[40] Behaviorally, only one-third (31 percent) of mainline adults
believe they have a personal responsibility to discuss their faith with people who have different beliefs.
Tenure of pastors in mainline churches tends to be somewhat brief. On average, these pastors last four
years before moving to another congregation. That is about half the average among Protestant pastors
in non-mainline churches.[14]
Demography
Demographers have examined the statistical basis of the long-term decline in the mainstream
membership versus the growth in the conservative denominations.[41]
There are four basic factors: birth rates; switching between denominations; departure from
Protestantism; and conversions from non-Protestant sources. By far the main cause is birth rates—low
for the mainline bodies, and high for the conservatives. The second most important factor is that fewer
conservatives switch to mainline denominations than before. Secularization (moving to "no religion") is
a third factor.
Despite speculation to the contrary, switching from a mainline to a conservative denomination is not
important in accounting for the trend, because it is constant over the decades. Finally, conservative
denominations have had a greater inflow of converts.[41]
Evidence from the General Social Survey indicates that higher fertility and earlier childbearing among
women from conservative denominations explains 76% of the observed trend: conservative
denominations have grown their own. Mainline denomination members have the lowest birthrate
among American Christian groups. Unless there is a surge of new members, rising death rates are
predicted to diminish their ranks even further in the years ahead.[34]
Statistical analysis gives no support for the notion that theological or social conservatism or liberalism
has much impact on long-term growth trends.[42]
Minorities
Mainline churches have had difficulty attracting minorities, particularly Hispanics. Hispanics comprise 6
percent of the mainline population but 16 percent of the US population. The Barna Group considers the
failure of mainline Protestants to add substantial numbers of Hispanics to be portent for the future,
given both the rapid increase of the Hispanic population as well as the outflow of Hispanics from
14
Catholicism to Protestant churches in the past decade, most of whom are selecting evangelical or
Pentecostal Protestant churches.[14]
Trends
Some other findings of the Barna Group:
From 1958 to 2008, mainline church membership dropped by more than one-quarter to roughly 20
million people—15 percent of all American adults.
From 1998 to 2008, there was a 22 percent drop in the percentage of adults attending mainline
congregations who have children under the age of 18 living in their home.
In 2009, nearly 40 percent of mainline church attendees were single. This increase has been driven
higher by a rise in the number of divorced and widowed adherents.
From 1998 to 2008, volunteerism dropped 21 percent; adult Sunday school participation decreased 17
percent.
The average age of a mainline pastor in 1998 was 48 and increased to 55 by 2009.
Pastors on average remain with a congregation for four years compared to twice that length for non-
mainline church leaders.[14]
Recent statistics from the Pew Forum provide additional explanations for the decline.Evangelical church
members are younger than those in mainline denominations. Fourteen percent of evangelical
congregations are between 18 and 29 (compared to 2 percent), 36 percent between 30 and 49, 28
percent between 50 and 64, and 23 percent 65 or older. Not paralleling the decline in membership is the
household income of members of mainline denominations. Overall, it is higher than that of evangelicals:
25% Reported less than a $30,000 income per year.
21% Reported $30,000-$49,999 per year.
21% Reported an income of $100,000 per year or more, compared to only 13 percent of
evangelicals.[36]
Protestantism's hundreds of different denominations are loosely grouped according to three fairly
distinct religious traditions—evangelical Protestant churches (26.3 percent of the overall adult
population), mainline Protestant churches (18.1 percent) and historically black Protestant churches (6.9
percent).[43]
15
The Association of Religion Data Archives ARDA counts 26,344,933 members of mainline churches
versus 39,930,869 members of evangelical Protestant churches.[27]
Apostolic/Nicene creed
The Apostles' Creed (Latin: Symbolum Apostolorum or Symbolum Apostolicum), sometimes titled
Symbol of the Apostles, is an early statement of Christian belief, a creed or "symbol".[1] It is widely used
by a number of Christian denominations for both liturgical and catechetical purposes, most visibly by
liturgical Churches of Western tradition, including the Latin Rite of the Catholic Church, Lutheranism,
Anglicanism, and Western Orthodoxy. It is also used by Presbyterians, Methodists, and
Congregationalists.
The Apostles' Creed was based on Christian theological understanding of the Canonical gospels, the
letters of the New Testament and to a lesser extent the Old Testament. Its basis appears to be the old
Roman Creed. Because of its early origin, it does not address some Christological issues defined in the
later Nicene and other Christian Creeds. It thus says nothing explicitly about the divinity of either Jesus
or of the Holy Spirit. This makes it acceptable to many Arians and Unitarians. Nor does it address many
other theological questions that became objects of dispute centuries later.
The name of the Creed may come from the probably 5th-century tradition that, under the inspiration of
the Holy Spirit after Pentecost, each of the Twelve Apostles dictated part of it.[2] It is traditionally
divided into twelve articles. However, Ambrose refers to the "Creed of the Apostles" in 390.
Original Latin form
Credo in Deum Patrem omnipotentem, Creatorem caeli et terrae, et in Iesum Christum, Filium Eius
unicum, Dominum nostrum, qui conceptus est de Spiritu Sancto, natus ex Maria Virgine, passus sub
Pontio Pilato, crucifixus, mortuus, et sepultus, descendit ad inferos, tertia die resurrexit a mortuis,
ascendit ad caelos, sedet ad dextra Parties omnipotent is, inde ventures est indicate Vivos et mortuus.
Credo in Spiritum Sanctum, sanctum Ecclesiam catholic is, sanctorum communionem, remission
peccatum, cairns resurrection, and vitam aeternam. Amen.[17]
16
Catholic Church
The Catechism of the Catholic Church gives the following English translation of the Apostles' Creed.[18]
In its discussion of the Creed,[19] the Catechism maintains the traditional division into twelve articles,
the numbering of which is here added to the text.
1. I believe in God, the Father almighty, creator of heaven and earth. 2. I believe in Jesus Christ, His only
Son, our Lord. 3. He was conceived by the power of the Holy Spirit and born of the Virgin Mary. 4. He
suffered under Pontius Pilate, was crucified, died, and was buried. 5. He descended to the dead. On the
third day, he rose again. 6. He ascended into heaven and is seated at the right hand of the Father. 7. He
will come again to judge the living and the dead. 8. I believe in the Holy Spirit, 9. the holy catholic
Church, the communion of saints, 10. the forgiveness of sins, 11. the resurrection of the body, 12. and
life everlasting. Amen.
The English text used in the Mass of the Roman Rite since 2011 is:
I believe in God, the Father almighty, Creator of heaven and earth, and in Jesus Christ, his only Son, our
Lord, who was conceived by the Holy Spirit, born of the Virgin Mary, suffered under Pontius Pilate, was
crucified, died and was buried; he descended into hell; on the third day he rose again from the dead; he
ascended into heaven, and is seated at the right hand of God the Father almighty; from there he will
come to judge the living and the dead. I believe in the Holy Spirit, the holy catholic Church, the
communion of saints, the forgiveness of sins, the resurrection of the body, and life everlasting.
Amen.[20][21]
Church of England
In the Church of England there are currently two authorized forms of the creed: that of the Book of
Common Prayer (1662) and that of Common Worship (2000).
Book of Common Prayer[22][23][24]
I believe in God the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven and earth: And in Jesus Christ his only Son our
Lord, Who was conceived by the Holy Ghost, Born of the Virgin Mary, Suffered under Pontius Pilate, Was
crucified, dead, and buried: He descended into hell; The third day he rose again from the dead; He
ascended into heaven, And sitteth on the right hand of God the Father Almighty; From thence he shall
come to judge the quick and the dead. I believe in the Holy Ghost; The holy Catholick Church; The
Communion of Saints; The Forgiveness of sins; The Resurrection of the body, And the Life everlasting.
Amen.
Common Worship[25]
I believe in God, the Father almighty, creator of heaven and earth. I believe in Jesus Christ, his only Son,
our Lord, who was conceived by the Holy Spirit, born of the Virgin Mary, suffered under Pontius Pilate,
17
was crucified, died, and was buried; he descended to the dead. On the third day he rose again; he
ascended into heaven, he is seated at the right hand of the Father, and he will come to judge the living
and the dead. I believe in the Holy Spirit, the holy catholic Church, the communion of saints, the
forgiveness of sins, the resurrection of the body, and the life everlasting. Amen.
Lutheran Church
I believe in God, the Father Almighty, maker of heaven and earth. And in Jesus Christ, his only Son, our
Lord, who was conceived by the Holy Spirit, and born of the virgin Mary, suffered under Pontius Pilate,
was crucified, died and was buried. He descended into hell. On the third day He rose again from the
dead. He ascended into heaven and sits at the right hand of God the Father Almighty. From thence He
will come to judge the living and the dead. I believe in the Holy Spirit, the holy Christian church, the
communion of saints, the forgiveness of sins, the resurrection of the body, and the life everlasting.
Amen.[26][27]
The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, the largest Lutheran denomination in the United States,
uses the ELCA ecumenical version which states "the Holy Catholic Church".[28] The phrase "he
descended to the dead" is footnoted to indicate the alternate reading: "or 'he descended into hell,'
another translation of this text in widespread use". It does not alter the phrase "the holy catholic
church". The ELLC version is also used in the Evangelical Lutheran Worship, which is the primary worship
resource for the ELCA[29] and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada.[30]
The Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod, in its current hymnal Lutheran Service Book includes the phrase
"he descended into hell."[31]
The Church of Denmark still uses the phrase "We renounce the devil and all his works and all his ways"
as the beginning of this creed, before the line "We believe in God etc.". This is mostly due to the
influence of Grundtvig. See (da).
Unity of the Brethren
In the version recited by Unity churches, the only variation from the Lutheran Creed is "I believe in the
holy Christian Church," instead of the "catholic Church."
United Methodist Church
18
The United Methodists commonly incorporate the Apostles' Creed into their worship services. The
version which is most often used is located at #881 in the United Methodist Hymnal, one of their most
popular hymnals and one with a heritage to John Wesley, founder of Methodism.[32][33] It is notable
for omitting the line "he descended into hell", but is otherwise very similar to the Book of Common
Prayer version. The 1989 Hymnal has both the traditional version and the 1988 ecumenical version (see
below), which includes "he descended to the dead."
I believe in God the Father Almighty, maker of heaven and earth; And in Jesus Christ his only Son our
Lord: who was conceived by the Holy Spirit, born of the Virgin Mary, suffered under Pontius Pilate, was
crucified, dead, and buried; the third day he rose from the dead; he ascended into heaven, and sitteth at
the right hand of God the Father Almighty; from thence he shall come to judge the quick and the dead. I
believe in the Holy Spirit, the holy catholic church,[34] the communion of saints, the forgiveness of sins,
the resurrection of the body, and the life everlasting. Amen.
The United Methodist Hymnal also contains (at #882) what it terms the "Ecumenical Version" of this
creed—a version which is identical to that found in the Episcopal Church's current Book of Common
Prayer. This form of the Apostles' Creed can be found incorporated into the Eucharistic and Baptismal
Liturgies in the Hymnal and in The United Methodist Book of Worship, and hence it is growing in
popularity and use.
Ecumenical version of the English Language Liturgical Consultation
The English Language Liturgical Consultation (ELLC) is an international ecumenical group whose primary
purpose is to provide ecumenically accepted texts for those who use English in their liturgy. In 1988 it
produced a translation of the Apostles' Creed, distinguished among other things by its avoidance of the
word "his" in relation to God. The text is as follows:[35]
I believe in God, the Father almighty, creator of heaven and earth. I believe in Jesus Christ, God's only
Son, our Lord, who was conceived by the Holy Spirit, born of the Virgin Mary, suffered under Pontius
Pilate, was crucified, died, and was buried; he descended into hell. On the third day he rose again; he
ascended into heaven, he is seated at the right hand of the Father, and he will come to judge the living
and the dead. I believe in the Holy Spirit, the holy catholic Church, the communion of saints, the
forgiveness of sins, the resurrection of the body, and the life everlasting. Amen.
Liturgical use in Western Christianity
19
The liturgical communities in western Christianity that derive their rituals from the Roman Missal,
including those particular communities which use the Roman Missal itself (Roman Catholics), the Book
of Common Prayer (Anglicans / Episcopalians), the Lutheran Book of Worship (ELCA Lutherans),
Lutheran Service Book (Missouri-Synod Lutherans), use the Apostles' Creed and interrogative forms of it
in their rites of Baptism, which they consider to be the first sacrament of initiation into the Church.
Roman Catholic Church
Rite of Baptism
An interrogative form of the Apostles' Creed is used in the Rite of Baptism (for both children and adults).
The minister of baptism asks the following questions (ICEL, 1974):
Do you believe in God, the Father almighty, creator of heaven and earth? Do you believe in Jesus Christ,
his only Son, our Lord, who was born of the Virgin Mary, was crucified, died, and was buried, rose from
the dead, and is now seated at the right hand of the Father? Do you believe in the Holy Spirit, the holy
catholic Church, the communion of saints, the forgiveness of sins, the resurrection of the body, and life
everlasting?
To each question, the catechumen, or, in the case of an infant, the parents and sponsor(s)
(godparent(s)) in his or her place, answers "I do." Then the celebrant says:
This is our faith. This is the faith of the Church. We are proud to profess it, in Christ Jesus our Lord.
And all respond: Amen.
Profession of faith at Mass
Since the 2002 edition, the Apostles' Creed is included in the Roman Missal with the indication, "Instead
of the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed, especially during Lent and Easter time, the baptismal Symbol of
the Roman Church, known as the Apostles’ Creed, may be used."[36] Previously the Nicene Creed was
the only profession of faith that the Missal gave for use at Mass, except in Masses for children; but in
some countries use of the Apostles' Creed was already permitted.
Church of England
The Apostles' Creed is used in the non-Eucharistic services of Matins and Evening Prayer (Evensong). It
is invoked after the recitation or singing of the Canticles, and it is the only part of the services in which
the congregation traditionally turns to face the altar, if they are seated transversely in the quire.
20
Episcopal Church (United States)
The Episcopal Church uses the Apostles' Creed as a Baptismal Covenant for those who are to receive the
Rite of Baptism. Regardless of age, candidates are to be sponsored by parents and/or godparents.
Youths able to understand the significance of the Rite may go through the ritual speaking for
themselves. Younger children and infants rely on their sponsors to act upon their behalf.
1. The celebrant calls for the candidates for Baptism to be presented.
2. The catechumen or sponsors state their request for Baptism.
3a. If the catechumen is of age, the celebrant will ask him or her if he or she desires Baptism, to which
the catechumen will respond: "I do."
3b. If the candidate relies on sponsors, the celebrant asks them if they will raise the child in "the
Christian faith and life" (ECUSA BCP), and will raise the child through "prayers and witness to grow into
the full stature of Christ" to which the parents will state to each, "I will, with God's help."
4. A series of questions is then asked, to which the reply is always "I renounce them":
Do you renounce Satan and all the spiritual forces of wickedness that rebel against God? Do you
renounce the evil powers of this world, which corrupt and destroy the creatures of God? Do you
renounce all sinful desires that draw you from the love of God?
5. The second half of the query is asked, to which the reply is always "I do":
Do you turn to Jesus Christ and accept him as your Savior? Do you put your whole trust in his grace and
love? Do you promise to follow and obey him as your Lord?
6. The Apostles' Creed is then recited by candidates, sponsors and congregation, each section of the
Creed being an answer to the celebrant's question, 'Do you believe in God the Father (God the Son, God
the Holy Spirit)?'
The Catholic Church in America

The Catholic Church in the United States is part of the worldwide Catholic Church, the Christian Church
in full communion with the Pope. With more than 77.7 million registered members, it is the largest
single religious denomination in the United States, comprising 25 percent of the population.[1]
21
According to a new 2011 study by the Center for Applied Research in the Apostolate at Georgetown
University, "The US Catholic population is currently 77.7 million."[2] The United States has the third
largest Catholic population in the world, after Brazil and Mexico.
Catholicism arrived in what is now the United States during the earliest days of the European
colonization of the Americas. The first Catholic missionaries were Spanish, having come with Christopher
Columbus to the New World on his second voyage in 1493.[3] They established missions in what are
now Florida, Georgia, Texas, New Mexico, California, and the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico.[4] French
colonization came later, in the early 18th century, with the French establishing missions in the Louisiana
Territory districts: St. Louis, New Orleans, Biloxi, Mobile, the Alabamas, Natchez, Yazoo, Natchitoches,
Arkansas, Illinois,[5] and Michigan.[6]
The number of Catholics has grown during the country's history, at first slowly in the early 19th century
through some immigration and through the acquisition of territories (formerly possessions of France,
Spain, and Mexico) with predominately Catholic populations. In the mid-19th century, a rapid influx of
Irish and German immigrants made Catholicism the largest religion in the United States. This increase of
Catholics was met by widespread prejudice and hostility, often resulting in riots and the burning of
churches. The nativist Know Nothing party was first founded in the early 19th century in an attempt to
restrict Catholic immigration. This party believed that the United States was a Protestant nation and the
influx of Catholics threatened its purity and mission, even its very existence.
Since the 1960s, the percentage of Americans who are Catholic has stayed roughly the same, at around
25%,[7] due in large part to increases in the Latino population over the same period.
Catholics gather as local communities called parishes, usually headed by a priest called its 'pastor', and
typically meet at a permanent church building for liturgies every Sunday and on holy days. Within the
194 geographical (arch)dioceses (excluding the Archdiocese of the Military), there are 17,644 local
Catholic parishes in the United States. The Catholic Church has the third highest total number of local
congregations in the US behind Southern Baptists and United Methodists. However, the average
Catholic parish is significantly larger than the average Baptist or Methodist congregation; there are more
than four times as many Catholics as Southern Baptists and more than eight times as many Catholics as
United Methodists.[8] In the United States, there are 195 archdioceses/dioceses and one 1 apostolic
exarchate:
145 Latin Catholic dioceses
33 Latin Catholic archdioceses
15 Eastern Catholic dioceses
2 Eastern Catholic archdioceses
1 apostolic exarchate for Syro-Malankara Catholic Church
22
Currently, 6 dioceses are vacant (sede vacante, literally "empty seat"), which means they do not
currently have a bishop leading them (their former bishop died or retired and a new bishop has not yet
been named):
Bridgeport, Connecticut
Denver, Colorado
El Paso, Texas
Indianapolis, Indiana
Passaic, New Jersey (Ruthenian)
Tyler, Texas
There are several dioceses in the nation's other four overseas territories. In Puerto Rico, the bishops in
the six dioceses (one metropolitan archdiocese and five suffragan dioceses) form their own episcopal
conference, the Conferencia Episcopal Puertorriqueña. The bishops in US insular areas in the Pacific
Ocean—the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, the Territory of American Samoa, and the
Territory of Guam—are members of the Episcopal Conference of the Pacific.
As of 2012, seven dioceses out of 195 are vacant (sede vacante). Another 14 bishops, including two
cardinals, are past the retirement age of 75.
The central leadership body of the Catholic Church in the United States is the U.S. Conference of
Catholic Bishops, made up of the hierarchy of bishops (including archbishops) of the United States and
the U.S. Virgin Islands, although each bishop is independent in his own diocese, answerable only to the
Holy See. The USCCB elects a president to serve as their administrative head, but he is in no way the
'head' of the Church or of Catholics in the United States. In addition to the 195 dioceses and one
exarchate[9] represented in the USCCB, there are several dioceses in the nation's other four overseas
dependencies. In the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, the bishops in the six dioceses (one metropolitan
archdiocese and five suffragan dioceses) form their own episcopal conference, the Conferencia
Episcopal Puertorriqueña.[10] The bishops in US insular areas in the Pacific Ocean—the Commonwealth
of the Northern Mariana Islands, the Territory of American Samoa, and the Territory of Guam—are
members of the Episcopal Conference of the Pacific.
No primate exists for Catholics in the United States. In the 1850s, the Archdiocese of Baltimore was
acknowledged a Prerogative of Place, which confers to its archbishop some of the leadership
responsibilities granted to primates in other countries. The Archdiocese of Baltimore was the first
diocese established in the United States, in 1789, with John Carroll (1735–1815) as its first bishop. It
23
was, for many years, the most influential diocese in the fledgling nation. Now, however, the United
States has several large archdioceses and a number of cardinal-archbishops.
By far, most Catholics in the United States belong to the Latin Church and the Latin Rite of the Catholic
Church. Rite generally refers to the form of worship ("liturgical rite") in a church community owing to
cultural and historical differences as well as differences in practice. However, the Vatican II document,
Orientalium Ecclesiarum ("Of the Eastern Churches"), acknowledges that these Eastern Catholic
communities are "true Churches" and not just rites within the Catholic Church.[11] There are 14 other
Churches in the United States (23 within the global Catholic Church) which are in communion with
Rome, fully recognized and valid in the eyes of the Catholic Church. They have their own bishops and
eparchies. The largest of these communities in the U.S. is the Chaldean Catholic Church.[12] Most of
these Churches are of Eastern European and Middle Eastern origin. Eastern Catholic Churches are
distinguished from Eastern Orthodox, identifiable by their usage of the term Catholic.[13]
Chicago's Holy Name Cathedral is the mother church of one of the largest Catholic dioceses in the
United States.
Clergy, lay ministers and employees
The Church has over 41,406 diocesan and religious-order priests in the United States; over 30,000 lay
ministers (80 percent of them women); 17,000 men who are ordained as permanent deacons in the
United States (a permanent deacon is a man, either married or single, who is ordained to the order of
deacons, the first of three ranks in ordained ministry;[14] they assist priests in administrative and
pastoral roles); 63,032 sisters; 5,040 brothers; 16 US cardinals; 424 active and retired US bishops; and
5,029 seminarians enrolled in the United States. Overall, it employs more than one million employees
with an operating budget of nearly $100 billion to run parishes, diocesan primary and secondary
schools, nursing homes, retreat centers, diocesan hospitals, and other charitable institutions.[15]
Catholic schools educate 2.7 million students in the United States, employing 150,000 teachers.
Leadership in the Church in the United States falls to its bishops. They are the shepherds of particular
cities and their surrounding areas, called dioceses or sees. There is one non-territorial diocese in the
United States for Catholics in the armed forces. There are approximately 430 bishops and archbishops
who shepherd the nation's 195 dioceses and archdioceses. Each diocese is led by one bishop, known as
its ordinary. Some dioceses (usually those that are larger) also have auxiliary bishops who help the
ordinary. Some also have a retired bishop still in residence. It is possible for a diocese to be temporarily
without a bishop (called a "vacant see") if the ordinary is transferred to a new diocese or dies without a
named successor. Dioceses are grouped together geographically into provinces, usually within a state,
part of a state, or multiple states together (see map below). A province comprises several dioceses
which look to one ordinary bishop (usually of the most populous or historically influential diocese/city)
for guidance and leadership. This lead bishop is their archbishop and his diocese is the archdiocese. The
archbishop is called the 'metropolitan' bishop who oversees his brother 'suffragan' bishops. The
subordinate dioceses are likewise called suffragan dioceses. There are currently 33 metropolitan
24
archbishops in the United States. According to the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops's
website, there are 270 active Catholic bishops in the United States (5 Cardinal Archbishops, 1 Coadjutor
Archbishop, 154 Diocesan Bishops, 73 Auxiliary Bishops, and 9 Apostolic or Diocesan Administrators) and
there are 180 retired Catholic bishops in the United States (10 retired Cardinal Archbishops, 24 retired
Archbishops, 94 retired Diocesan Bishops, 52 retired Auxiliary Bishops). Also according to the USCCB's
website, there are 18 U.S. cardinals (four cardinals currently lead U.S. archdioceses, three cardinals are
not currently diocesan bishops, and eleven cardinals are retired).
Some bishops are created Cardinals by the pope. These are usually conferred upon bishops of
influential or significant dioceses - or upon bishops who have distinguished themselves in a particular
area of service. As of August 2011, there are 19 American cardinals. Not all reside in the United States or
are diocesan ordinaries. Four are sitting archbishops: of Boston, Chicago, Galveston-Houston, and
Washington, DC. Eleven are retired archbishops ("emeritus"): of Baltimore, Denver, Detroit (two), Los
Angeles, New York, Philadelphia (two), San Juan, and Washington, DC (two). Three work in Rome with
the Roman Curia, and one is retired from service in Rome without serving as a diocesan ordinary in the
US.
Institutions
See also: History of Catholic education in the United States
Seminaries
See: List of Roman Catholic seminaries in the United States
According to the 2010 Official Catholic Directory, as of 2009 there were 189 seminaries with 5,131
students in the United States; 3,319 diocesan seminarians and 1,812 religious seminarians. By the
official 2011 statistics, there are 5,247 seminarians (3,394 diocesan and 1,853 religious) in the United
States. In addition, the American Catholic bishops oversee the Pontifical North American College for
American seminarians and priests studying at one of the Pontifical Universities in Rome.
Universities and colleges
Roman Catholic universities and colleges in the United States
According to the Association of Catholic Colleges and Universities, there are approximately 230 Roman
Catholic universities and colleges in the United States with nearly 1 million students and some 65,000
professors.[16] The national university of the Church, founded by the nation's bishops in 1887, is The
Catholic University of America in Washington, DC.
Parochial schools
25
Main article: Catholic schools in the United States
The Catholic parochial school system developed in the early-to-mid-19th century. Most states passed
constitutional amendments, called Blaine Amendments, forbidding the use of tax money to fund
parochial schools.[17] In 2002, the Supreme Court partially vitiated these amendments, in theory, when
they ruled that vouchers were constitutional if tax dollars followed a child to a school, even if it was
religious. However, as of 2009, no state's school system has changed its laws to allow this.[18]
] Healthcare system
In 2002, Catholic health care systems, overseeing 625 hospitals with a combined revenue of 30 billion
dollars, comprised the nation's largest group of nonprofit systems.[19] In 2008, the cost of running these
hospitals had risen to $84.6 billion, including the $5.7 billion they donate.[20] According to the Catholic
Health Association of the United States, 60 health care systems, on average, admit one in six patients
nationwide each year.[21]
Catholic Charities
Catholic Charities is active as one of the largest voluntary social service networks in the United States. In
2009, it welcomed in New Jersey the 50,000th refugee to come to the United States from Burma,
officially the Union of Myanmar. Likewise, the US Bishops' Migration and Refugee Services has resettled
14,846 refugees from Burma since 2006.[22] In 2010 Catholic Charities USA was one of only four
charities among the top 400 charitable organizations to witness an increase in donations in 2009,
according to a survey conducted by The Chronicle of Philanthropy.[23]
Catholic Church and Labor
Main article: Catholic social activism in the United States
The church had a role in shaping the U.S. labor movement, due to the involvement of priests like
Charles Owen Rice and John P. Boland. The activism of Msgr. Geno Baroni was instrumental in creating
The Catholic Campaign for Human Development.
Demographics
There are 68,503,456 registered Catholics in the United States (22% of the US population) according to
the American Bishops' count in their Official Catholic Directory 2010. This count primarily rests on the
parish assessment tax which pastors evaluate yearly according to the number of registered members
and contributors. Estimates of the overall American Catholic population from recent years generally
range around 20% to 28%. According to Albert J. Menedez, research director of "Americans for Religious
26
Liberty," many Americans continue to call themselves Catholic but "do not register at local parishes for a
variety of reasons."[24] Based on Pew Research Center surveys conducted from January 2006 to
September 2006, 25.2% of the American population claim to be followers of the Catholic Church (of a
national population of 300 million residents). According to a new survey of 35,556 American residents
(released in 2008 by the Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life), 23.9% of Americans identify themselves
as Catholic (approximately 72 million of a national population of 306 million residents).[25] The study
notes that 10% of those people who identify themselves as Protestant in the interview are former
Catholics and 8% of those who identify themselves as Catholic are former Protestants.[26] Nationally,
more parishes have opened than closed.
The northeastern quadrant of the US (i.e., New England, Mid-Atlantic, East North Central, and West
North Central) has seen a decline in the number of parishes since 1970, but parish numbers are up in the
other five regions (i.e., South Atlantic, East South Central, West South Central, Pacific, and Mountain
regions).[27] Catholics in the US are about 6% of the church's total worldwide 1.1 billion membership.
A poll by The Barna Group in 2004 found Catholic ethnicity to be 60% non-Hispanic white (mostly Irish,
Italian, German, Polish, French), 31% Hispanic of any race, 4% Black, and 5% other ethnicity (mostly
Filipinos and other Asian Americans, and American Indians).[28][dead link]
Between 1990 and 2008, there were 11 million additional Catholics. The growth in the Latino
population accounted for 9 million of these. They comprised 32% of all American Catholics in 2008 as
opposed to 20% in 1990.[29]
27
28
Chapter Two
Islam in America
From the 1880s to 1914, several thousand Muslims immigrated to the United States from the Ottoman
Empire, and from parts of South Asia; they did not form distinctive settlements, and probably mostly
assimilated into the wider society.[2] Many of the slaves brought to colonial America from Africa were
Muslims;[3][4] it is estimated that 15 to 30 percent of the African slaves were Muslims.[5]
Once very small, the Muslim population of the U.S. increased greatly in the 20th century, with much of
the growth driven by rising immigration and conversion, and a comparatively high birth rate.[6][7] In
2005, more people from Islamic countries became legal permanent United States residents — nearly
96,000 — than in any year in the previous two decades.[8][9] In 2009, more than 115,000 Muslims
became legal residents of the United States.[10]
29
American Muslims come from various backgrounds, and are one of the most racially diverse religious
groups in the United States according to a 2009 Gallup poll.[11] Native-born American Muslims are
mainly African Americans who make up about a quarter of the total Muslim population. Many of these
have converted to Islam during the last seventy years. Conversion to Islam in prison,[12] and in large
urban areas[13] has also contributed to its growth over the years. The immigrant communities make up
the majority, with mainly people of Arab and South Asian descent.
The history of Islam in the United States can be divided into two significant periods: the post-World War
I period, and the last few decades, although some individual members of the Islamic faith are known to
have visited or lived in the United States during the colonial era.[14]
[edit] Earliest records
Estevan of Azamor (or Estevanico) may have been the first Muslim to enter the historical record in North
America. Estevanico was a Berber originally from North Africa who explored the future states of Arizona
and New Mexico for the Spanish Empire.[15][16] He was raised as a Muslim, but converted to Roman
Catholicism upon enslavement.[17]
[edit] Early national period
American views of Islam affected debates regarding freedom of religion during the drafting of the state
constitution of Pennsylvania in 1776. Constitutionalists promoted religious toleration while
Anticonstitutionalists called for reliance on Protestant values in the formation of the state's republican
government. The former group won out, and inserted a clause for religious liberty in the new state
constitution. American views of Islam were influenced by favorable Enlightenment writings from
Europe, as well as Europeans who had long warned that Islam was a threat to Christianity and
republicanism.[18]
When Benjamin Franklin helped establish a non-denominational religious meeting house in Philadelphia,
he emphasized its non-sectarian nature by stating that "even if the Mufti of Constantinople were to
send a missionary to preach Mohammedanism to us, he would find a pulpit at his service".[19] Franklin
also wrote an anti-slavery parody piece claiming to be translation of the response of a government
official at Algiers to a 17th-century petition to banish slavery there; the piece develops the theme that
Europeans are especially suited for enslavement on cultural and religious grounds, and that there would
30
be practical problems with abolishing slavery in North Africa; this satirizes similar arguments that were
then made about the enslavement of Blacks in North America.[20]
Peter Salem, a former slave who fought at the Battle of Bunker Hill, is speculated to have Muslim
connections based on his Islamic-sounding name. "Saleem" means "one who is peaceful" in Arabic and is
related to the word salaam. Salem's name was said by a Jewish man to be similar to the word shalom,
which also means peace. Other American Revolution soldiers with Islamic names include Salem Poor,
Yusuf Ben Ali, Bampett Muhamed, Francis Saba, and Joseph Saba.[21] Another theory on the origins of
Peter Salem's name is that he or his owner's family was from Salem, Massachusetts which was named
for city of Salem (more commonly referred to as Jerusalem) in the Bible.[citation needed]
Between 1785 and 1815, over a hundred American sailors were captive in Algiers for ransom. Several
wrote captivity narratives of their experiences that gave most Americans their first view of the Middle
East and Muslim ways, and newspapers often commented on them. The views were generally negative.
Royall Tyler wrote The Algerine Captive (1797), an early American novel depicting the life of an
American doctor employed in the slave trade who becomes himself enslaved by Barbary pirates. Finally
Presidents Jefferson and Madison sent in the Navy to confront the pirates, and ended the threat in
1815.[22][23][24]
Bilali (Ben Ali) Muhammad was a Fula Muslim from Timbo, Futa-Jallon in present day Guinea-Conakry,
who arrived at Sapelo Island during 1803. While enslaved, he became the religious leader and Imam for
a slave community numbering approximately eighty Muslim men residing on his plantation. During the
War of 1812, Muhammad and the eighty Muslim men under his leadership protected their master's
Sapelo Island property from a British attack.[25] He is known to have fasted during the month of
Ramadan, worn a fez and kaftan, and observed the Muslim feasts, in addition to consistently performing
the five obligatory prayers.[26] In 1829, Bilali authored a thirteen page Arabic Risala on Islamic beliefs
and the rules for ablution, morning prayer, and the calls to prayer. Known as the Bilali Document, it is
currently housed at the University of Georgia in Athens.
[edit] Religious freedom
In 1776, John Adams published "Thoughts on Government," in which he praises the Islamic prophet
Muhammad as a "sober inquirer after truth" alongside Confucius, Zoroaster, Socrates, and other
thinkers.
31
In 1785, George Washington stated a willingness to hire "Mahometans," as well as people of any nation
or religion, to work on his private estate at Mount Vernon if they were "good workmen." It was a
rhetorical statement, as he hired no such people.[27]
In 1790, the South Carolina legislative body granted special legal status to a community of Moroccans. In
1797, President John Adams signed a treaty declaring the United States had no "character of enmity
against the laws, religion, or tranquillity, of Mussulmen".[28]
In his autobiography, published in 1791, Benjamin Franklin stated that he "did not disapprove" of a
meeting place in Pennsylvania that was designed to accommodate preachers of all religions. Franklin
wrote that "even if the Mufti of Constantinople were to send a missionary to preach Mohammedanism
to us, he would find a pulpit at his service."[19]
Thomas Jefferson defended religious freedom in America including those of Muslims. Jefferson explicitly
mentioned Muslims when writing about the movement for religious freedom in Virginia. In his
autobiography Jefferson wrote "[When] the [Virginia] bill for establishing religious freedom... was finally
passed,... a singular proposition proved that its protection of opinion was meant to be universal. Where
the preamble declares that coercion is a departure from the plan of the holy author of our religion, an
amendment was proposed, by inserting the word 'Jesus Christ,' so that it should read 'a departure from
the plan of Jesus Christ, the holy author of our religion.' The insertion was rejected by a great majority,
in proof that they meant to comprehend within the mantle of its protection the Jew and the Gentile, the
Christian and Mahometan, the Hindoo and infidel of every denomination."[29] While President,
Jefferson also participated in an iftar with the Ambassador of Tunisia in 1809.[30]
[edit] Anti-Islam sentiments
However, not all politicians were pleased with the religious neutrality of the Constitution, which
prohibited any religious test. Anti-Federalists in the 1788 North Carolina ratifying convention opposed
the new constitution; one reason was the fear that someday Catholics or Muslims might be elected
president. William Lancaster said:.[31]
Let us remember that we form a government for millions not yet in existence.... In the course of four or
five hundred years, I do not know how it will work. This is most certain, that Papists may occupy that
chair, and Mahometans may take it. I see nothing against it.
32
Indeed, in 1788 many opponents of the Constitution pointed to the Middle East, especially the Ottoman
Empire as a negative object lesson against standing armies and centralized state authority.[32]
[edit] 19th century
Photo of Alexander Russell Webb, U.S. Ambassador to the Philippines, who was a Protestant that
converted to Islam.
There are recorded instances of Muslims in the United States military during the American Civil War.
Muhammad Ali ibn Said (also known as Nicholas Said), formerly enslaved to an Arab master, came to the
United States in 1860 where he found a teaching job in Detroit. In 1863, Said enlisted in the 55th
Massachusetts Colored Regiment in the United States Army and rose to the rank of sergeant. He was
later granted a transfer to a hospital department, where he gained some knowledge of medicine. His
Army records state that he died in Brownsville, Tennessee in 1882.[33] Another Muslim soldier from the
Civil War was Max Hassan, an African who worked for the military as a porter.[34]
A Muslim named Hajj Ali (commonly spelled as "Hi Jolly") was hired by the United States Cavalry in 1856
to raise camels in Arizona and California. He would later become a prospector in Arizona.[35][36] Hajj Ali
died in 1903.[33]
During the American Civil war, the "scorched earth" policy of the North destroyed churches, farms,
schools, libraries, colleges, and a great deal of other property. The libraries at the University of Alabama
managed to save one book from the debris of their library buildings. On the morning of April 4, when
Federal troops reached the campus with order to destroy the university, Andre Deloffre, a modern
language professor and custodian of the library, appealed to the commanding officer to spare one of the
finest libraries in the South. The officer, being sympathetic, sent a courier to Gen. Croxton at his
headquarters in Tuscaloosa asking permission to save the Rotunda. The general's reply was no. The
officer reportedly said, "I will save one volume as a memento of this occasion." The volume selected was
a rare copy of the Qur'an.[37]
33
Alexander Russell Webb is considered by historians to be the earliest prominent Anglo-American

convert to Islam in 1888. In 1893 he was the only person representing Islam at the first Parliament for
the World's Religions.[38]
[edit] Slaves
Drawing of Abdulrahman Ibrahim Ibn Sori who was a Muslim prince from West Africa and made a slave
in the United States.
Many of the slaves brought to colonial America from Africa were Muslims.[3][4] By 1800, some 500,000
Africans arrived in what became the United States. Historians estimate that between 15 to 30 percent of
all enslaved African men, and less than 15 percent of the enslaved African women, were Muslims. These
enslaved Muslims stood out from their compatriots because of their "resistance, determination and
education".[5]
It is estimated that over 50% of the slaves imported to North America came from areas where Islam was
followed by at least a minority population. Thus, no less than 200,000 came from regions influenced by
Islam. Substantial numbers originated from Senegambia, a region with an established community of
Muslim inhabitants extending to the 11th century.[39]
Michael A. Gomez speculated that Muslim slaves may have accounted for "thousands, if not tens of
thousands," but does not offer a precise estimate. He also suggests many non-Muslim slaves were
acquainted with some tenets of Islam, due to Muslim trading and proselytizing activities.[40] Historical
records indicate many enslaved Muslims conversed in the Arabic language. Some even composed
literature (such as autobiographies) and commentaries on the Quran.[41]
Some newly arrived Muslim slaves assembled for communal Salah (prayers). Some were provided a
private praying area by their owner. The two best documented Muslim slaves were Ayuba Suleiman
Diallo and Omar Ibn Said. Suleiman was brought to America in 1731 and returned to Africa in 1734.[39]
34
Like many Muslim slaves, he often encountered impediments when attempting to perform religious
rituals and was eventually allotted a private location for prayer by his master.[41]
Omar Ibn Said (ca. 1770–1864) is among the best documented examples of a practicing-Muslim slave.
He lived on a colonial North Carolina plantation and wrote many Arabic texts while enslaved. Born in the
kingdom of Futa Tooro (modern Senegal), he arrived in America in 1807, one month before the U.S.
abolished importation of slaves. Some of his works include the Lord’s Prayer, the Bismillah, this is How
You Pray, Quranic phases, the 23rd Psalm, and an autobiography. In 1857, he produced his last known
writing on Surah 110 of the Quran. In 1819, Omar received an Arabic translation of the Christian Bible
from his master, James Owen. Omar converted to Christianity in 1820, an episode widely used
throughout the South to "prove" the benevolence of slavery. However, some scholars believe he
continued to be a practicing Muslim, based on dedications to Muhammad written in his Bible.[42][43]
Modern immigration
Turkish immigrant in New York (1912)
Dr. Mufti Mohammad Sadiq, first missionary of the Ahmadiyya movement, who established a mission in
1920
Small-scale migration to the U.S. by Muslims began in 1840, with the arrival of Yemenis and Turks,[39]
and lasted until World War I. Most of the immigrants, from Arab areas of the Ottoman Empire, came
with the purpose of making money and returning to their homeland. However, the economic hardships
of 19th-Century America prevented them from prospering, and as a result the immigrants settled in the
United States permanently. These immigrants settled primarily in Dearborn, Michigan; Quincy,
Massachusetts; and Ross, North Dakota. Ross, North Dakota is the site of the first documented mosque
and Muslim Cemetery, but it was abandoned and later torn down in the mid-1970s. A new mosque was
built in its place in 2005.[38]
1906 Bosnian Muslims in Chicago, Illinois, started the Džemijetul Hajrije (Jamaat al-Khayriyya) (The
Benevolent Society; a social service organization devoted to Bosnian Muslims). This is the longest lasting
incorporated Muslim community in the United States. They met in Bosnian coffeehouses and eventually
opened the first Islamic Sunday School with curriculum and textbooks under Bosnian scholar Sheikh
Ćamil Avdić (Kamil Avdich) (a graduate of al-Azhar and author of Survey of Islamic Doctrines).
1907 Lipka Tatar immigrants from the Podlasie region of Poland founded the first Muslim organization
in New York City, the American Mohammedan Society.[44]
35
1915, what is most likely the first American mosque was founded by Albanian Muslims in Biddeford,
Maine. A Muslim cemetery still exists there.[45][46]
1920 First Islamic mission station was established by an Indian Ahmadiyya Muslim missionary, followed
by the building of the Al-Sadiq Mosque in 1921.
1934 The first building built specifically to be a mosque is established in Cedar Rapids, Iowa.
1945 A mosque existed in Dearborn, Michigan, home to the largest Arab-American population in the
U.S.
Construction of mosques sped up in the 1920s and 1930s, and by 1952, there were over 20
mosques.[38] Although the first mosque was established in the U.S. in 1915, relatively few mosques
were founded before the 1960s. Eighty-seven percent of mosques in the U.S. were founded within the
last three decades according to the Faith Communities Today (FACT) survey. California has more
mosques than any other state.
Chinese Muslims have immigrated to the United States and lived within the Chinese community rather
than integrating into other foreign Muslim communities. Two of the most prominent Chinese American
Muslims are the Republic of China National Revolutionary Army Generals Ma Hongkui and his son Ma
Dunjing who moved to Los Angeles, California after fleeing from China to Taiwan. Pai Hsien-yung, son of
the Chinese Muslim General Bai Chongxi, is a Chinese Muslim writer who moved to Santa Barbara,
California after fleeing from China to Taiwan.
Black Muslim movements
Main articles: Moorish Science Temple of America, Nation of Islam, American Society of Muslims, and
The Nation of Gods and Earths
Malcolm X was the chief spokesman of the Nation of Islam. In 1964 he left the group and became a
Sunni Muslim.
During the first half of the 20th century, a small number of African Americans established groups based
on Islamic and Black supremacist teachings.[47] The first of such groups created was the Moorish
Science Temple of America, founded by Timothy Drew (Drew Ali) in 1913. Drew taught that Black people
were of Moorish origin but their Muslim identity was taken away through slavery and racial segregation,
advocating the return to Islam of their Moorish ancestry.[48]
The Nation of Islam (NOI) was the largest organization, created in 1930 by Wallace Fard Muhammad. It
however taught a different form of Islam, promoting Black supremacy and labeling white people as
"devils".[49] Fard drew inspiration for NOI doctrines from those of Noble Drew Ali's Moorish Science
Temple of America. He provided three main principles which serve as the foundation of the NOI: "Allah
36
is God, the white man is the devil and the so called Negroes are the Asiatic Black People, the cream of
the planet earth". In 1934 Elijah Muhammad became the leader of the NOI, he deified Wallace Fard,
saying that he was an incarnation of God, and taught that he was a prophet who had been taught
directly by God in the form of Wallace Fard. Although Elijah's message caused great concern among
White Americans, it was effective among Blacks attracting mainly poor people including students and
professionals. One of the famous people to join the NOI was Malcolm X, who was the face of the NOI in
the media. Also boxing world champion, Muhammad Ali.[47] Malcolm X was one of the most influential
leaders of the NOI, he advocated complete separation of blacks from whites. He left the NOI after being
silenced for 90 days, he then formed his own black nationalist movement, and made the pilgrimage to
Mecca, converting to Sunni Islam. He is viewed as the first person to start the movement among African
Americans towards Sunni Islam.
W.D. Mohammed moved most of his followers into practising orthodox Islam
After the death of Elijah Muhammad, he was succeeded by his son, Warith Deen Mohammed.
Mohammed rejected many teachings of his father, such as the divinity of Fard Muhammad and saw a
white person as also a worshipper. As he took control of the organization, he quickly brought in new
reforms.[50] He renamed it as the World Community of al-Islam in the West, later it became the
American Society of Muslims. It was estimated that there were 200,000 followers of WD Mohammed at
the time.[51]
WD Mohammed introduced teachings which were based on orthodox Sunni Islam.[52] He removed the
chairs in temples, with mosques, teaching how to pray the salah, to observe the fasting of Ramadan, and
to attend the pilgrimage to Mecca.[53] It was the largest mass religious conversion in the 21st century,
with thousands who had converted to orthodox Islam[citation needed].
A small number of Black Muslims however rejected these new reforms brought by Imam Mohammed,
Louis Farrakhan who broke away from the organization, re-established the Nation of Islam under the
original Fardian doctrines, and remains its leader.[54] As of today it is estimated there are at least
20,000 members.[55] However, today the group has a wide influence in the African American
community. The first Million Man March took place in Washington, D.C. 1995 and was followed later by
another one in 2000 which was smaller in size but more inclusive welcoming individuals other than just
African American men[56] The group sponsors cultural and academic education, economic
independence, and personal and social responsibility. The Nation of Islam has received a great deal of
criticism for its anti-white, anti-Christian, and anti-semitic teachings,[57] and is listed as a hate group by
the Southern Poverty Law Center.[58]
Demographics
According to the U.S. Department of State, the largest ethnic groups of American Muslims are those of
South Asian, Arab and African-American descent
Paterson, New Jersey, within the New York City Metropolitan Area, is becoming an increasingly popular
destination for Muslim immigrants.
37
The U.S. Census Bureau does not collect data on religious identification. Various institutions and
organizations have given widely varying estimates about how many Muslims live in the U.S. Tom W.
Smith, author of "Estimating the Muslim Population in the United States," said that of twenty estimates
he reviewed during a five year period until 2001, none was "based on a scientifically-sound or explicit
methodology. All can probably be characterized as guesses or assertions. Nine came from Muslim
organizations such as the Islamic Society of North America, the Muslim Student Association, the Council
on American-Islamic Relations, the American Muslim Council, and the Harvard Islamic Society or
unspecified "Muslim sources." None of these sources gave any basis for their figures."[59]
Others claim that no scientific count of Muslims in the U.S. has been done, but that the larger figures
should be considered accurate.[60] Some journalists have also alleged that the higher numbers have
been inflated for political purposes.[61][62]
According to a 2001 study written by Ihsan Bagby, an associate professor of Islamic studies at the
University of Kentucky, of American converts to Islam, 64% are African American, 27% are White, 6% are
Hispanic, and 3% are other. Around that time increasing numbers of American Hispanics converted to
Islam. Many Hispanic converts in Houston said that they often had been mistaken as of being of
Pakistani or Middle Eastern descent, due to their religion. Many Hispanic converts were former
Christians.[63]
According to a 2007 religious survey, 72% of Muslims believe religion is very important, which is higher
in comparison to the overall population of the United States at 59%. The frequency of receiving answers
to prayers among Muslims was, 31% at least once a week and 12% once or twice a month.[64] Nearly a
quarter of the Muslims are converts to Islam (23%), mainly native-born. Of the total who have
converted, 59% are African American and 34% white. Previous religions of those converted was
Protestantism (67%), Roman Catholicism (10%) and 15% no religion.
Mosques are usually explicitly Sunni or Shia. There are 1,209 mosques in the United States and the
nation's largest mosque, the Islamic Center of America, is in Dearborn, Michigan. It caters mainly to the
Shi'a Muslim congregation; however, all Muslims may attend this mosque. It was rebuilt in 2005 to
accommodate over 3,000 people for the increasing Muslim population in the region.[65][66]
Approximately half (50%) of the religious affiliations of Muslims is Sunni, 16% Shia, 22% non-affiliated
and 16% other/non-response.[67] Muslims of Arab descent are mostly Sunni (56%) with minorities who
are Shia (19%). Bangladeshis (90%), Pakistanis (72%) and Indians (82%) are mainly Sunni, while Iranians
are mainly Shia (91%).[67] Of African American Muslims, 48% are Sunni, 34% are unaffiliated (mostly
part of the Community of W.Deen Mohammed), 16% other (mostly Nation of Islam and Ahmadiyya) and
2% Shia.[67]
Since the arrival of South Asian and Arab communities during the 1990s there has been divisions with
the African Americans due to the racial and cultural differences; however, since September 11, 2001,
the two groups joined together when the immigrant communities looked towards the African Americans
for advice on civil rights.[68]
38
Tucson Islamic Center, Tucson, Arizona
In many areas, a mosque may be dominated by whatever group of immigrants is the largest. Sometimes
the Friday sermons, or khutbas, are given in languages like Urdu, Bengali or Arabic along with English.
Areas with large Muslim populations may support a number of mosques serving different immigrant
groups or varieties of belief within Sunni or Shi'a traditions. At present, many mosques are served by
imams who immigrate from overseas, as only these imams have certificates from Muslim
seminaries.[69] .[70][71][72]
Contrary to popular perceptions, the condition of Muslims in the U.S. is very good. Among South Asians
in the country, the large Pakistani American community stands out as particularly well educated and
prosperous, with education and income levels exceeding those of U.S.-born whites. Many are
professionals, especially doctors, scientists, engineers, and financial analysts, and there are also a large
number of entrepreneurs. There are more than 15,000 doctors practicing medicine in the USA who are
of Pakistani origin alone[73] and the number of Pakistani American millionaires was reported to be in
the thousands.[74] The seven urban areas with the largest South Asian populations include the New
York, Los Angeles, Dallas/Ft.Worth, Houston, San Franciso Bay Area, Washington/Baltimore and Chicago
areas. The 10 states with the largest Muslim populations are California, New York, Illinois, New Jersey,
Indiana, Michigan, Virginia, Texas, Ohio, and Maryland. Dearborn, Michigan is home to the largest
concentration of Muslims in the United States. 45 percent of immigrant Muslims report annual
household income levels of $50,000 or higher. This compares to the national average of 44 percent.
Immigrant Muslims are well represented among higher-income earners, with 19 percent claiming annual
household incomes of $100,000 or higher (compared to 16 percent for the Muslim population as a
whole and 17 percent for the U.S. average). This is likely due to the strong concentration of Muslims in
professional, managerial, and technical fields, especially in information technology, education, medicine,
law, and the corporate world.[75]
In 2005, according to The New York Times, more people from Muslim countries became legal
permanent United States residents — nearly 96,000 — than in any year in the previous two
decades.[8][9][76] In addition to immigration, the state, federal and local prisons of the United States
may be a contributor to the growth of Islam in the country. J. Michael Waller claims that Muslim
inmates comprise 17-20% of the prison population, or roughly 350,000 inmates in 2003. He also claims
that 80% of the prisoners who "find faith" while in prison convert to Islam.[77] These converted inmates
are mostly African American, with a small but growing Hispanic minority. Waller also asserts that many
converts are radicalized by outside Islamist groups linked to terrorism, but other experts suggest that
when radicalization does occur it has little to no connection with these outside interests.[78][79][80]
Culture
39
Muslims in the United States have increasingly contributed to American culture; there are various
Muslim comedy groups, rap groups, Scout troops and magazines, and Muslims have been vocal in other
forms of media as well.[81]
Within the Muslim community in the United States there exist a number of different traditions. As in the
rest of the world, the Sunni Muslims are in the majority. Shia Muslims, especially those in the Iranian
immigrant community, are also active in community affairs. All four major schools of Islamic
jurisprudence (fiqh) are found among the Sunni community.
Some Muslims in the U.S. are also adherents of certain global movements within Islam such as the Salafi,
the Muslim Brotherhood, the Gulen Movement, and the Tablighi Jamaat.
[edit] Politics
Historically, Muslim Americans tended to support the Republican Party[citation needed] due to that
party's social conservatism. In the 2000 Presidential election, nearly eighty percent of Muslim Americans
supported Republican candidate George W. Bush over Democratic candidate Al Gore. However, due to
the invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq which took place under the Bush Administration, as well as
increased anti-Muslim rhetoric from the Republican Party after the September 11 attacks, support for
the Republican Party among American Muslims has declined sharply. By 2004, Bush's Muslim support
had been reduced by at least half, who would vote for Democratic candidate John Kerry or a third party
candidate.[82] By 2008, Democratic candidate Barack Obama got 67% to 90% of the Muslim vote
depending by region.[83]
On July 31, 2000, Talat Othman opened the Republican National Convention with a Muslim benediction,
marking the first time a Muslim had addressed a major U.S. political gathering.[citation needed]
[edit] Integration
40
Frocking ceremony for U.S. Navy's first Muslim chaplain, when Navy (rabbi) Chaplain Arnold Resnicoff
attaches new shoulder boards with Muslim Chaplain crescent insignia to uniform of Imam Monje Malak
Abd al-Muta Noel Jr, 1996
According to a 2004 telephone survey of a sample of 1846 Muslims conducted by the polling
organization Zogby, the respondents were more educated and affluent than the national average, with
59% of them holding at least an undergraduate college degree.[84] Citing the Zogby survey, a 2005 Wall
Street Journal editorial by Bret Stephens and Joseph Rago expressed the tendency of American Muslims
to report employment in professional fields, with one in three having an income over $75,000 a
year.[85] The editorial also characterized American Muslims as "role models both as Americans and as
Muslims".
Unlike many Muslims in Europe, American Muslims do not tend to feel marginalized or isolated from
political participation. Several organizations were formed by the American Muslim community to serve
as 'critical consultants' on U.S. policy regarding Iraq and Afghanistan. Other groups have worked with
law enforcement agencies to point out Muslims within the United States that they suspect of fostering
'intolerant attitudes'. Still others have worked to invite interfaith dialogue and improved relations
between Muslim and non-Muslim Americans.[86]
Growing Muslim populations have caused public agencies to adapt to their religious practices. Airports
such as the Indianapolis International Airport, Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport[87][not in
citation given], Kansas City International Airport have installed foot-baths to allow Muslims, particularly
taxicab drivers who service the airports, to perform their religious ablutions in a safe and sanitary
manner.[88][dead link] and Denver International Airport included a masjid as part of its Interfaith Chapel
when opened in 1996[89][dead link] although such developments have not been without criticism.[90]
As of May 30, 2005, over 15,000 Muslims were serving in the United States Armed Forces.[91]
A Pew report released in 2009 noted that nearly six-in-ten American adults see Muslims as being subject
to discrimination, more than Mormons, Atheists, or Jews.[92] While Muslims comprise less than two
percent of the American population, they accounted for approximately one quarter of the religious
discrimination claims filed with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission during 2009.[93]
41
[edit] Organizations
Islamic Center of Washington D.C.
One of the largest Islamic organizations is the Islamic Society of North America (ISNA) which says that
27% of mosques in U.S. are associated with it.[94] ISNA is an association of immigrant Muslim
organizations and individuals that provides a common platform for presenting Islam. It is composed
mostly of immigrants. Its membership may have recently exceeded ASM, as many independent mosques
throughout the United States are choosing to affiliate with it. ISNA's annual convention is the largest
gathering of Muslims in the United States.[95]
The second largest is the community under the leadership of W.Deen Mohammed or the American
Society of Muslims with 19% of mosques, mostly African-Americans having an affiliation with it.[94] It
was the successor organization to the Nation of Islam, once better-known as the Black Muslims. The
association recognizes the leadership of Warith Deen Mohammed. This group evolved from the Black
separatist Nation of Islam (1930–1975). The majority of its members are African Americans. This has
been a 23-year process of religious reorientation and organizational decentralization, in the course of
which the group was known by other names, such as the American Muslim Mission, W.Deen
Mohammed guided its members to the practice of mainstream Islam such as salah or fasting, and
teaching the basic creed of Islam the shahadah.
The third largest group is the Islamic Circle of North America (ICNA). ICNA describes itself as a non-
ethnic, open to all, independent, North America-wide, grass-roots organization. It is composed mostly of
immigrants and the children of immigrants. It is growing as various independent mosques throughout
the United States join and also may be larger than ASM at the present moment. Its youth division is
Young Muslims.[96]
The Islamic Supreme Council of America (ISCA) is a small organization representing Sufi teachings,
which, according to adherents, is the inner, mystical dimension of Islam. The ISCA's stated aims include
providing practical solutions for American Muslims, based on the traditional Islamic legal rulings of an
42
international advisory board, many of whom are recognized as the highest ranking Islamic scholars in
the world. ISCA strives to integrate traditional scholarship in resolving contemporary issues affecting the
maintenance of Islamic beliefs in a modern, secular society.[97] It has been linked to neoconservative
thought.
The central Ahmadi mosque, near Washington
The Islamic Assembly of North America (IANA) is a leading Muslim organization in the United States.
According to its website, among the goals of IANA is to "unify and coordinate the efforts of the different
dawah oriented organizations in North America and guide or direct the Muslims of this land to adhere to
the proper Islamic methodology." In order to achieve its goals, IANA uses a number of means and
methods including conventions, general meetings, dawah-oriented institutions and academies, etc.[98]
IANA folded in the aftermath of the attack of September 11, 2001 and they have reorganized under
various banners such as Texas Dawah and the Almaghrib Institute.
The Muslim Students' Association (MSA) is a group dedicated, by its own description, to Islamic societies
on college campuses in Canada and the United States for the good of Muslim students. The MSA is
involved in providing Muslims on various campuses the opportunity to practice their religion and to ease
and facilitate such activities. MSA is also involved in social activities, such as fund raisers for the
homeless during Ramadan. The founders of MSA would later establish the Islamic Society of North
America and Islamic Circle of North America.[99]
The Islamic Information Center (IIC) (IIC) is a "grass-roots" organization that has been formed for the
purpose of informing the public, mainly through the media, about the real image of Islam and Muslims.
The IIC is run by chairman (Hojatul-Islam) Imam Syed Rafiq Naqvi, various committees, and supported by
volunteers.[100]
The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community was established in the U.S. in 1921, before the existence of Nation
of Islam, according to its members.[101][102] This sect, however, is considered heretical by mainstream
Muslims and not considered a part of the Ummah, or worldwide community of Muslims.
43
Muslim Congress is another National Muslim Organization. It is primarily a Social Welfare organization
and runs many social projects, including Food Distribution to the homeless in their "No More Hunger"
project and also provides Scholarship. It is under the leadership of Islamic Scholars.
[edit] Political
Islamic Center of America, Dearborn, Michigan
Muslim political organizations lobby on behalf of various Muslim political interests. Organizations such
as the American Muslim Council are actively engaged in upholding human and civil rights for all
Americans.
The Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR) is the United States largest Muslim civil rights and
advocacy group, originally established to promote a positive image of Islam and Muslims in America.
CAIR is the voice of mainstream, moderate Islam on Capitol Hill and in political arenas throughout the
United States. It has repeatedly condemned acts of terrorism and has been working in collaboration
with the White House on "issues of safety and foreign policy."[86] The group has been criticized for
alleged but unfounded links to Islamic terrorism by conservative media, and its leadership strenuously
denies any involvement with such activities.
The Muslim Public Affairs Council (MPAC) is an American Muslim public service & policy organization
headquartered in Los Angeles and with offices in Washington, D.C. MPAC was founded in 1988. The
mission of MPAC "encompasses promoting an American Muslim identity, fostering an effective
grassroots organization, and training a future generation of men and women to share our vision. MPAC
also works to promote an accurate portrayal of Islam and Muslims in mass media and popular culture,
educating the American public (both Muslim and non-Muslim) about Islam, building alliances with
diverse communities and cultivating relationships with opinion- and decision-makers."[103]
The American Islamic Congress is a small but growing moderate Muslim organization that promotes
religious pluralism. Their official Statement of Principles states that "Muslims have been profoundly
influenced by their encounter with America. American Muslims are a minority group, largely comprising
immigrants and children of immigrants, who have prospered in America's climate of religious tolerance
44
and civil rights. The lessons of our unprecedented experience of acceptance and success must be
carefully considered by our community."[104] The AIC holds an annual essay writing competition, the
Dream Deferred Essay Contest, focusing on civil rights in the Middle East.
The Free Muslims Coalition states it was created to "eliminate broad base support for Islamic extremism
and terrorism" and to strengthen secular democratic institutions in the Middle East and the Muslim
World by supporting Islamic reformation efforts.[105]
Muslims for Bush was an advocacy group aiming to drum up support from Muslims for President
George W. Bush. It was co-founded by Muhammad Ali Hasan and his mother Seeme, who were
prominent donors to the Republican Party. In 2010, co-founder Muhammad Ali Hasan left the
Republican Party. Muslims for Bush has since been reformed into the bipartisan Muslims for America.
Charity
Islamic Society of Boston mosque in Roxbury
In addition to the organizations listed above, other Muslim organizations in the United States serve
more specific needs. For example, some organizations focus almost exclusively on charity work. As a
response to a crackdown on Muslim charity organizations working overseas such as the Holy Land
Foundation, more Muslims have begun to focus their charity efforts within the United States.
Inner-City Muslim Action Network (IMAN) is one of the leading Muslim charity organizations in the
United States. According to the Inner-City Muslim Action Network, IMAN seeks "to utilize the
tremendous possibilities and opportunities that are present in the community to build a dynamic and
vibrant alternative to the difficult conditions of inner city life." IMAN sees understanding Islam as part of
a larger process to empower individuals and communities to work for the betterment of humanity.[106]
Islamic Relief USA is the American branch of Islamic Relief Worldwide, an international relief and
development organization. Their stated goal is "to alleviate the suffering, hunger, illiteracy and diseases
worldwide without regard to color, race or creed." They focus of development projects; emergency
relief projects, such as providing aid to victims of Hurricane Katrina; orphans projects; and seasonal
projects, such as food distributions during the month of Ramadan. They provide aid internationally and
in the United States.[107]
Museums
There are two museums dedicated to the history of Islamic culture in the U.S. and abroad. The
International Museum of Muslim Cultures in Jackson, Mississippi opened in early 2001.[108] America's
Islamic Heritage Museum in Washington, DC opened on April 30, 2011.[109]
45
Views
A nationwide survey conducted in 2003 by the Pew Research Center and the Pew Forum on Religion and
Public Life reported that the percentage of Americans with an unfavorable view of Islam increased by
one percentage point between 2002 and 2003 to 34%, and then by another two percentage points in
2005 to 36%. At the same time the percentage responding that Islam was more likely than other religion
to encourage violence fell from 44% in July 2003 to 36% in July 2005.[110]
July 2007 Newsweek survey of non-Muslim Americans[111]
Statement
Agree
Disagree
Muslims in the United States are as
loyal to the U.S. as they are to Islam
40%
46
32%
Muslims do not condone violence
63%
Qur'an does not condone violence
40%
28%
Muslim culture does not glorify
suicide
41%
47
Concern about Islamic radicals
54%
Support wiretapping by FBI
52%
American Muslims more "peaceable"
than non-American ones
52%
7%
48
Muslims are unfairly targeted by
law enforcement
38%
52%
Oppose mass detentions of Muslims
60%
25%
Believe most are immigrants
52%
Would allow son or daughter to date
49
a Muslim
64%
Muslim students should be allowed
to wear headscarves
69%
23%
Would vote for a qualified Muslim
for political office
45%
45%
The July 2005 Pew survey also showed that 59% of American adults view Islam as "very different from
their religion," down one percentage point from 2003. In the same survey 55% had a favorable opinion
50
of Muslim Americans, up four percentage points from 51% in July 2003.[110] A December 2004 Cornell
University survey shows that 47% of Americans believe that the Islamic religion is more likely than
others to encourage violence among its believers.[112]
A CBS April 2006 poll showed that, in terms of faiths[113]
58% of Americans have favorable attitudes toward Protestantism/Other Christians
48% favorable toward Catholicism
47% favorable toward Judaism
31% favorable toward Christian fundamentalism
20% favorable toward Mormonism
19% favorable toward Islam
8% favorable toward Scientology
The Pew survey shows that, in terms of adherents[110]
77% of Americans have favorable opinions of Jews
73% favorable of Catholics
57% favorable of "evangelical Christians"
55% favorable of Muslims
35% favorable of Atheists
A 2011 Gallup poll found that 56% of Protestants, 63% of Catholics, and 70% of Jews believed that
American Muslims had no sympathy for Al Qaeda.[114]
[edit] American Muslims' views of the United States
51
PEW's poll of views on American Society[115]
Statement
U.S.
Muslim
General
public
Agree that one can get
ahead with hard work
71%
64%
Rate their community as
"excellent" or "good"
52
72%
82%
Excellent or good
personal financial situation
42%
49%
Satisfied with the
state of the U.S.
38%
32%
53
In a 2007 survey titled Muslim Americans: Middle Class and Mostly Mainstream, the Pew Research
Center found Muslim Americans to be "largely integrated, happy with their lives, and moderate with
respect to many of the issues that have divided Muslims and Westerners around the world."[115]
47% of respondents said they considered themselves Muslims first and Americans second. However, this
was compared to 81% of British Muslims and 69% of German Muslims, when asked the equivalent
question. A similar disparity exists in income, the percentage of American Muslims living in poverty is 2%
higher than the general population, compared to an 18% disparity for French Muslims and 29%
difference for Spanish Muslims.[115]
Politically, American Muslims were both pro-larger government and socially conservative. For example,
70% of respondents preferred a bigger government providing more services, while 61% stated that
homosexuality should be discouraged by society. Despite their social conservatism, 71% of American
Muslims expressed a preference for the Democratic Party.[115] The Pew Research survey also showed
that nearly three quarters of respondents believed that American society rewards them for hard work
regardless of their religious background.[116]
The same poll also reported that 40% of U.S. Muslims believe that Arab Muslims carried out the 9/11
attacks. Another 28% don't believe it and 32% said they had no opinion. Among 28% who doubted that
Arab Muslims were behind the conspiracy, one-fourth of those claim the U.S. government or President
George W. Bush was responsible. Only 26% of American Muslims believe the U.S.-led war on terror is a
sincere effort to root out international terrorism. Only 5% of those surveyed had a "very favorable" or
"somewhat favorable" view of the terrorist group Al-Qaeda. Only 35% of American Muslims stated that
the decision for military action in Afghanistan was the right one and just 12% supported the use of
military force in Iraq.[115]
In 2011, a Gallup poll found that 93% of Muslim Americans considered themselves loyal to the United
States.[117]
[edit] American Muslim life after the September 11, 2001 attacks
54
President George W. Bush inside the Islamic Center of Washington, D.C.
Muslim children in New York City supporting Park51.
After the September 11, 2001 attacks, America saw an increase in the number of hate crimes committed
against people who were perceived to be Muslim, particularly those of Middle Eastern and South Asian
descent. A publication in Journal of Applied Social Psychology found evidence that the number of anti-
Muslim attacks in America in 2001 increased from 354 to 1,501 following 9/11.[118] The same year, the
Arab American Institute reported an increase in anti-Muslim hate crimes ranging from discrimination
and destruction of private property to violent threats and assaults, some of which resulted in
deaths.[119][120][121]
In a 2007 survey, 53% of American Muslims reported that it was more difficult to be a Muslim after the
9/11 attacks. Asked to name the most important problem facing them, the options named by more than
ten percent of American Muslims were discrimination (19%), being viewed as a terrorist (15%), public's
ignorance about Islam (13%), and stereotyping (12%). 54% believe that the U.S. government's anti-
terrorism activities single out Muslims. 76% of surveyed Muslim Americans stated that they are very or
somewhat concerned about the rise of Islamic extremism around the world, while 61% express a similar
concern about the possibility of Islamic extremism in the United States.[115]
On a small number of occasions Muslim women who wore distinctive hijab were harassed, causing some
Muslim women to stay at home, while others temporarily abandoned the practice. In November 2009
Amal Abusumayah, a mother of four young girls, had her hijab pulled following derogatory comments
while grocery shopping.[122] In 2006, one California woman was shot dead as she walked her child to
school; she was wearing a headscarf and relatives and Muslim leaders believe that the killing was
religiously motivated.[123][124] While 51% of American Muslims express worry that women wearing
hijab will be treated poorly, 44% of American Muslim women who always wear hijab express a similar
concern.[115]
55
In 2011, The Learning Channel (TLC) broadcast a television series, All-American Muslim, depicting the
lives of different American Muslims in Dearborn, Michigan.[125]
Criticism
Daniel Pipes, Steven Emerson and Robert Spencer believe that a segment of the U.S. Muslim population
hate America and a wish for violence towards the United States.[126][127][128] Journalist Stephen
Schwartz, American Jewish Committee terrorism pundit Yehudit Barsky, and U.S. Senator Chuck
Schumer have all separately stated that there is growing "radical Wahhabi" influence in American
mosques, financed by extremists. Barsky claims that 80% of U.S. mosques are radicalized.[129][130]
Peter Bergen responds, by stating that Islamism is adopted only by a minority of U.S. Muslims, and that
a "vast majority of American Muslims have totally rejected the Islamist ideology of Osama bin
Laden".[131] International Institute of Islamic Thought Director of Research Louay M. Safi has
questioned the motives of several noted critics, stating that members of the "extreme right" are
exploiting security concerns to further various Islamophobic objectives.[132] A 1998 United Nations
report on "Civil and Political Rights, including Freedom of Expression" in the United States sharply
condemned the attitude of the American media, noting "very harmful activity by the media in general
and the popular press in particular, which consists of putting out a distorted and indeed hate-filled
message treating Muslims as extremists and terrorists", adding that "efforts to combat the ignorance
and intolerance purveyed by the media, above all through preventive measures in the field of education,
should be given priority."[133]
Nevertheless, Muslim groups such as the ISNA have taken steps to counter any extremist influence, and
implemented assorted programs and guidelines in order to help mosques identify and counter any such
individuals.[134]
The Texas Board of Education passed a resolution accusing textbooks of taking a "pro-Islamic" bias and
devoting more lines to explaining Islam than Christianity.[135]
Controversy
Some Muslim Americans have been criticized because of perceived conflicts between their religious
beliefs and mainstream American value systems. Muslim cab drivers in Minneapolis, Minnesota have
been criticized for refusing passengers for carrying alcoholic beverages or dogs. The Minneapolis-Saint
Paul International Airport authority has threatened to revoke the operating authority of any driver
caught discriminating in this manner.[136] There are reported incidents in which Muslim cashiers have
refused to sell pork products to their clientele.[137]
Public institutions in the U.S. have also drawn fire for accommodating Islam at the expense of taxpayers.
The University of Michigan–Dearborn and a public college in Minnesota have been criticized for
56
accommodating Islamic prayer rituals by constructing footbaths for Muslim students using tax-payers'
money. Critics claim this special accommodation, which is made only to satisfy Muslims' needs, is a
violation of Constitutional provisions separating church and state.[138] Along the same constitutional
lines, a San Diego public elementary school is being criticized for making special accommodations
specifically for American Muslims by adding Arabic to its curriculum and giving breaks for Muslim
prayers. Since these exceptions have not been made for any religious group in the past, some critics see
this as an endorsement of Islam.[139]
The first American Muslim Congressman, Keith Ellison, created controversy when he compared
President George W. Bush's actions after the September 11, 2001 attacks to Adolf Hitler's actions after
the Nazi-sparked Reichstag fire, saying that Bush was exploiting the aftermath of 9/11 for political gain,
as Hitler had exploited the Reichstag fire to suspend constitutional liberties.[140] The United States
Holocaust Memorial Museum and the Anti-Defamation League condemned Ellison's remarks. The
congressman later retracted the statement, saying that it was "inappropriate" for him to have made the
comparison.[141]
At Columbus Manor School, a suburban Chicago elementary school with a student body nearly half
Muslim Arab American, school board officials have considered eliminating holiday celebrations after
Muslim parents complained that their culture's holidays were not included. Local parent Elizabeth
Zahdan said broader inclusion, not elimination, was the group's goal. "I only wanted them modified to
represent everyone," the Chicago Sun-Times quoted her as saying. "Now the kids are not being
educated about other people."[142] However, the district's superintendent, Tom Smyth, said too much
school time was being taken to celebrate holidays already, and he sent a directive to his principals
requesting that they "tone down" activities unrelated to the curriculum, such as holiday parties.
Terrorism
Mug shot of Faisal Shahzad, the Pakistani-American who is currently serving life in US federal prison for
the failed 2010 Times Square car bombing.
After the September 11, 2001 terror attacks by al-Qaeda, there was concern about the potential
radicalization of American Muslims. A 2007 Pew poll reported that 15% of American Muslims under the
age of 30 supported suicide bombings against civilian targets in at least some circumstances, while a
further 11% said it could be "rarely justified." Among those over the age of 30, just 6% expressed their
support for the same. (9% of Muslims over 30 and 5% under 30 chose not to answer).[115] A March
2010 Bipartisan Policy Center paper points out an increasing number of American Muslims are playing
high-level operational roles in al-Qaeda and aligned groups, as well as a larger numbers of American
Muslims who are attaching themselves to these groups.[143][not in citation given][irrelevant citation]
57
More than 80% of all convictions tied to international terrorist groups and homegrown terrorism since
9/11 involve defendants driven by a radical Islamist agenda, a review of Department of Justice statistics
shows. [144] Between 2001 and the end of 2009, there were 46 publicly reported incidents of "domestic
radicalization and recruitment to jihadist terrorism" that involved at least 125 people between 2001 and
the end of 2009. There had been an average of six cases per year since 2001, but that rose to 13 in
2009.[145]
While the seeming increase in cases may be alarming, half "involve single individuals, while the rest
represent ‘tiny conspiracies,’ " according to Congressional testimony.[146] Furthermore, a 2012 study by
the University of North Carolina indicated that the yearly number of cases of alleged plots by Muslim-
Americans appears to be declining. The total of 20 indictments for terrorism in 2011 is down from 26 in
2010 and 47 in 2009 (the total since 9/11 is 193). The number of Muslim-Americans indicted for support
of terrorism also fell, from 27 individuals in 2010 to just eight in 2011 (the total since 9/11 stands at
462).[147][148] Also in apparent decline is the number of actual attacks: Of the 20 suspects indicted for
terrorism, only one was charged with carrying out a terrorist act. This number is down from the six
individuals charged with attacks in 2010. The study’s author concludes that the "limited scale of Muslim-
American terrorism in 2011 runs counter to the fears that many Americans shared in the days and
months after 9/11, that domestic Muslim-American terrorism would escalate."[148]
Concern could also be expressed because of the number of Muslim-Americans among terrorism
suspects: Though Muslims represent about 1% of the American population, they constitute defendants
in 186 of the 228 cases DOJ lists.[144] However, they also are significantly represented among those
who tip authorities off to alleged plots: Muslim-Americans have given 52 of the 140 documented tips
regarding individuals involved in violent terrorist plots since 9/11.[147][148]
[edit] Disaffected Muslims in the U.S.
See also: Islamic Extremism in the United States
There is an openly anti-American Muslim group in the U.S. The Islamic Thinkers Society,[149] found only
in New York City, engages in leafleting and picketing to spread their viewpoint.
At least one American not of recent immigrant background, John Walker Lindh, has also been
imprisoned, convicted on charges of serving in the Taliban army and carrying weapons against U.S.
58
soldiers. He had converted to Islam in the U.S., moved to Yemen to study Arabic, and then went to
Pakistan where he was recruited by the Taliban.
Other notable cases include:
The Buffalo Six: Shafal Mosed, Yahya Goba, Sahim Alwan, Mukhtar Al-Bakri, Yasein Taher, Elbaneh
Jaber. Six Muslims from the Lackawanna, N.Y. area were charged and convicted for providing material
support to al Qaeda.[150]
Iyman Faris In October 2003 Iyman Faris was sentenced to 20 years in prison for providing material
support and resources to al Qaeda and conspiracy for providing the terrorist organization with
information about possible U.S. targets for attack.[150]
Ahmed Omar Abu Ali In November 2005 he was convicted and sentenced to 30 years in prison for
providing material support and resources to al Qaeda, conspiracy to assassinate the President of the
United States, conspiracy to commit air piracy and conspiracy to destroy aircraft.[150]
Ali al-Tamimi was convicted and sentenced in April 2005 to life in prison for recruiting Muslims in the
U.S. to fight U.S. troops in Afghanistan.[150]
59
60
Chapter Three
Jewish faith in America
American Jews, also known as Jewish Americans,[3] are American citizens of the Jewish faith or Jewish
ethnicity.[4] The Jewish community in the United States is composed predominantly of Ashkenazi Jews
who emigrated from Central and Eastern Europe, and their U.S.-born descendants. Minorities from all
Jewish ethnic divisions are also represented, including Sephardi Jews, Mizrahi Jews, and a number of
converts. The American Jewish community manifests a wide range of Jewish cultural traditions, as well
as encompassing the full spectrum of Jewish religious observance.
Depending on religious definitions and varying population data, the United States is home to the largest
or second largest (after Israel) Jewish community in the world. The population of American religious
adherents of Judaism was estimated to be approximately 5,128,000 or 1.7%[5] of the total population in
2007 (301,621,000);[6] including those who identify themselves culturally as Jewish (but not necessarily
religiously), this population was estimated at 6,489,000 (2.2%) as of 2008.[7] As a contrast, Israel's
Central Bureau of Statistics estimated the Israeli Jewish population was 5,664,000 in 2009 (75.4% of the
total population).[8]
Jews have been present in what is today the United States of America as early as the 17th
century.[9][10] However, they were small in numbers and almost exclusively Sephardic Jewish
immigrants of Spanish and Portuguese ancestry.[11] While denied the vote or ability to hold office in
some areas, Sephardic Jews became active in community affairs in the 1790s, after achieving political
equality in the five states where they were most numerous.[12] Until about 1830, Charleston, South
Carolina had more Jews than anywhere else in North America. Large scale Jewish immigration, however,
did not commence until the nineteenth century, when, by mid-century, many secular Ashkenazi Jews
61
from Germany arrived in the United States, primarily becoming merchants and shop-owners. There
were approximately 250,000 Jews in the United States by 1880, many of them being the educated, and
largely secular, German Jews, although a minority population of the older Sephardic Jewish families
remained influential.
Jewish immigration to the United States increased dramatically in the early 1880s, as a result of
persecution and economic difficulties in parts of Eastern Europe. Most of these new immigrants also
were Yiddish-speaking Ashkenazi Jews, though most came from the poor rural populations of the
Russian Empire and the Pale of Settlement, located in modern-day Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine
and Moldova. During the same period, a great number of Ashkenazi Jews arrived also from Galicia, at
that time the most impoverished region of Austro-Hungarian empire with heavy Jewish urban
population, driven out mainly by economic reasons. Over 2,000,000 Jews arrived between the late
nineteenth century and 1924, when the Immigration Act of 1924 and the National Origins Quota of 1924
restricted immigration. Most settled in the New York metropolitan area, establishing what became one
of the world's major concentrations of Jewish population.
At the beginning of the twentieth century, these newly arrived Jews built support networks consisting of
many small synagogues and Ashkenazi Jewish Landsmannschaften (German for "Territorial
Associations") for Jews from the same town or village. American Jewish writers of the time urged
assimilation and integration into the wider American culture, and Jews quickly became part of American
life. 500,000 American Jews (or half of all Jewish males between 18 and 50) fought in World War II, and
after the war younger families joined the new trend of suburbanization. There, Jews became
increasingly assimilated and demonstrated rising intermarriage. The suburbs facilitated the formation of
new centers, as Jewish school enrollment more than doubled between the end of World War II and the
mid-1950s, while synagogue affiliation jumped from 20% in 1930 to 60% in 1960; the fastest growth
came in Reform and, especially, Conservative congregations.[13] More recent waves of Jewish
immigration from Russia and other regions have largely joined the mainstream American Jewish
community.
[edit] Self identity
Korelitz (1996) shows how American Jews during the late 19th and early 20th centuries abandoned a
racial definition of Jewishness in favor of one that embraced ethnicity. The key to understanding this
transition from a racial self-definition to a cultural or ethnic one can be found in the ‘’Menorah Journal’’
between 1915 and 1925. During this time contributors to the Menorah promoted a cultural, rather than
a racial, religious, or other view of Jewishness as a means to define Jews in a world that threatened to
62
overwhelm and absorb Jewish uniqueness. The journal represented the ideals of the menorah
movement established by Horace M. Kallen and others to promote a revival in Jewish cultural identity
and combat the idea of race as a means to define or identify peoples.[14]
Siporin (1990) uses the family folklore of ethnic Jews to their collective history and its transformation
into an historical art form. They tell us how Jews have survived being uprooted and transformed. Many
immigrant narratives bear a theme of the arbitrary nature of fate and the reduced state of immigrants in
a new culture. By contrast, ethnic family narratives tend to show the ethnic more in charge of his life,
and perhaps in danger of losing his Jewishness altogether. Some stories show how a family member
successfully negotiated the conflict between ethnic and American identities.[15]
After 1960 memories of the Holocaust, together with the Six Day War in 1967 that resulted in the
survival of Israel had major impacts on fashioning Jewish ethnic identity. The Shoah provided Jews with
a rationale for their ethnic distinction at a time when other minorities were asserting their own.[16]
[edit] Politics
Main article: History of the Jews in the United States#Liberal politics
Jewish Vote in Presidential Elections 1916–2008[17]
Election
year
Democratic candidate
% of
63
Jewish
vote
Result
1916
Woodrow Wilson
55
Won
1920
James M. Cox
19
Lost
64
1924
John W. Davis
51
Lost
1928
Al Smith
72
Lost
1932
65
Franklin D. Roosevelt
82
Won
1936
85
Won
1940
90
Won
66
1944
90
Won
1948
Harry Truman
75
Won
1952
67
Adlai Stevenson
64
Lost
1956
Adlai Stevenson
60
Lost
1960
John F. Kennedy
82
Won
68
1964
Lyndon B. Johnson
90
Won
1968
Hubert Humphrey
81
Lost
1972
69
George McGovern
65
Lost
1976
Jimmy Carter
71
Won
1980
Jimmy Carter
45
Lost
70
1984
Walter Mondale
67
Lost
1988
Michael Dukakis
64
Lost
1992
71
Bill Clinton
80
Won
1996
Bill Clinton
78
Won
2000
Al Gore
79
Lost
72
2004
John Kerry
76
Lost
2008
Barack Obama
78
Won
In New York City, while the German Jewish community was well established 'uptown', the more
numerous East European Jews faced tension 'downtown' with Irish and German Catholic neighbors,
especially the Irish Catholics who controlled Democratic Party Politics[18] at the time. Jews successfully
established themselves in the garment trades and in the needle unions in New York. By the 1930s they
73
were a major political factor in New York, with strong support for the most liberal programs of the New
Deal. They continued as a major element of the New Deal Coalition, giving special support to the Civil
Rights Movement. By the mid-1960s, however, the Black Power movement caused a growing separation
between blacks and Jews, though both groups remained solidly in the Democratic camp.[19]
While earlier Jewish immigrants from Germany tended to be politically conservative, the wave of
Eastern European Jews starting in the early 1880s, were generally more liberal or left wing and became
the political majority.[20] Many came to America with experience in the socialist, anarchist and
communist movements as well as the Labor Bund, emanating from Eastern Europe. Many Jews rose to
leadership positions in the early 20th century American labor movement and helped to found unions
that played a major role in left wing politics and, after 1936, in Democratic Party politics.[20]
Although American Jews generally leaned Republican in the second half of the 19th century, the
majority has voted Democratic or leftist since at least 1916, when they voted 55% for Woodrow
Wilson.[21] American Jews voted 90% for Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt in the elections of 1940, and
1944, representing the highest of support, only equaled once since. In the election of 1948, Jewish
support for Democrat Harry S. Truman dropped to 75%, with 15% supporting the new Progressive
Party.[21] As a result of lobbying, and hoping to better compete for the Jewish vote, both major party
platforms had included a pro-Zionist plank since 1944, and supported the creation of a Jewish state;[22]
it had little apparent effect however, with 90% still voting other-than Republican. In every election since,
no Democratic presidential candidate has won with less than 71% of the Jewish vote.
During the 1952 and 1956 elections, they voted 60% or more for Democrat Adlai Stevenson, while
General Eisenhower garnered 40% for his reelection; the best showing to date for the Republicans since
Harding's 43% in 1920.[21] In 1960, 83% voted for Democrat John F. Kennedy against Richard Nixon, and
in 1964, 90% of American Jews voted for Lyndon Johnson, over his Republican opponent, arch-
conservative Barry Goldwater. Hubert Humphrey garnered 81% of the Jewish vote in the 1968 elections,
in his losing bid for president against Richard Nixon.[21]
During the Nixon re-election campaign of 1972, Jewish voters were apprehensive about George
McGovern and only favored the Democrat by 65%, while Nixon more than doubled Republican Jewish
support to 35%. In the election of 1976, Jewish voters supported Democrat Jimmy Carter by 71% over
incumbent president Gerald Ford’s 27%, but during the Carter re-election campaign of 1980, Jewish
voters greatly abandoned the Democrat, with only 45% support, while Republican winner, Ronald
Reagan, garnered 39%, and 14% went to independent John Anderson.[21][23]
74
During the Reagan re-election campaign of 1984, the Republican retained 31% of the Jewish vote, while
67% voted for Democrat Walter Mondale. The 1988 election saw Jewish voters favor Democrat Michael
Dukakis by 64%, while George H W Bush polled a respectable 35%, but during his re-election in 1992,
Jewish support dropped to just 11%, with 80%, voting for Bill Clinton and 9% going to independent Ross
Perot. Clinton’s re-election campaign in 1996 maintained high Jewish support at 78%, with 16%
supporting Robert Dole and 3% for Perot.[21][23]
In the 2000 presidential election, Joe Lieberman was the first American Jew to run for national office on
a major party ticket when he was chosen as Democratic presidential candidate Al Gore's vice-
presidential nominee. The elections of 2000 and 2004 saw continued Jewish support for Democrats Al
Gore and John Kerry, a Catholic, remain in the high- to mid-70% range, while Republican George W.
Bush’s re-election in 2004 saw Jewish support rise from 19% to 24%.[23][24]
In the 2008 presidential election, 78% of Jews voted for Barack Obama, who became the first African-
American to be elected president.[25] Additionally, 83% of white Jews voted for Obama compared to
just 34% of white Protestants and 47% of white Catholics, though 67% of those identifying with another
religion and 71% identifying with no religion also voted Obama.[26]
As American Jews have progressed economically over time, some commentators have wondered why
Jews remain so firmly Democratic and have not shifted political allegiances to the center or right in the
way other groups who have advanced economically, such as Hispanics and Arab-Americans, have.[27]
For congressional and senate races, since 1968, American Jews have voted about 70–80% for
Democrats;[citation needed] this support increased to 87% for Democratic House candidates during the
2006 elections.[28]
The first American Jew to serve in the Senate was David Levy Yulee, who was Florida's first Senator,
serving 1845–1851 and again 1855–1861. Today, there are 13 Jews among 100 U.S. Senators: 11
Democrats (Michael Bennet, Richard Blumenthal, Barbara Boxer, Benjamin Cardin, Dianne Feinstein, Al
Franken, Herb Kohl, Frank Lautenberg, Carl Levin, Charles Schumer, Ron Wyden), and both of the
Senate's independents (Joe Lieberman and Bernie Sanders; both caucus with the Democrats). This is
down one from the last Congress (Arlen Specter was defeated in his primary; Russ Feingold in his
general; and Richard Blumenthal was newly elected). In two states, both Senators are Jewish:
Connecticut (Lieberman and Blumenthal) and California (Feinstein and Boxer).[29] Prior to the defeat of
Russ Feingold in the 2010 elections, Wisconsin also had two Jewish Senators (Kohl and Feingold).
75
There were 27 Jews among the 435 U.S. Representatives at the start of the 112th Congress;[30] 26
Democrats and one (Eric Cantor) Republican. While many of these Members represented coastal cities
and suburbs with significant Jewish populations, others did not (for instance, Gabrielle Giffords of
Tucson, Arizona; John Yarmuth of Louisville, Kentucky; Jared Polis of Boulder, Colorado; and Steve Cohen
of Memphis, Tennessee). The total number of Jews serving in the House of Representatives declined
from 31 in the 111th Congress.[31] John Adler of New Jersey, Steve Kagan of Wisconsin, Alan Grayson of
Florida, and Ron Klein of Florida all lost their re-election bids, Rahm Emanuel resigned to become the
President's Chief of Staff; and Paul Hodes of New Hampshire did not run for re-election but instead
(unsuccessfully) sought his state's open Senate seat. David Cicilline of Rhode Island was the only Jewish-
American who was newly elected to the 112th Congress; he had been the Mayor of Providence. The
number declined when Jane Harman, Anthony Weiner, and Gabrielle Giffords resigned during the 112th
Congress.
The only three openly gay men serving in Congress are all Jewish: Barney Frank of Massachusetts; Jared
Polis of Colorado; and David Cicilline of Rhode Island.
In November 2008, Cantor was elected as the House Minority Whip, the first Jewish Republican to be
selected for the position.[32]
Participation in civil rights movements
As a group, American Jews have been very active in fighting prejudice and discrimination, and have
historically been active participants in civil rights movements. In the mid-twentieth century, American
Jews were among the most active participants and supporters of the black civil rights movement.
Contemporaneously, Betty Friedan wrote her 1963 book The Feminine Mystique, which is sometimes
credited with sparking the second wave of feminism, and was the first of many prominent American
Jewish feminists which extended into the feminist third wave. American Jews have also since its
founding been largely supportive of and active figures in the struggle for gay rights in America.
Seymour Siegel suggests that the historic struggle against prejudice faced by Jews led to a natural
sympathy for any people confronting discrimination. Joachim Prinz, president of the American Jewish
Congress, stated the following when he spoke from the podium at the Lincoln Memorial during the
famous March on Washington on August 28, 1963: "As Jews we bring to this great demonstration, in
which thousands of us proudly participate, a twofold experience—one of the spirit and one of our
history... From our Jewish historic experience of three and a half thousand years we say: Our ancient
history began with slavery and the yearning for freedom. During the Middle Ages my people lived for a
thousand years in the ghettos of Europe... It is for these reasons that it is not merely sympathy and
compassion for the black people of America that motivates us. It is, above all and beyond all such
sympathies and emotions, a sense of complete identification and solidarity born of our own painful
historic experience. "[33][34]
The Holocaust
76
During the World War II period, the American Jewish community was bitterly and deeply divided and
was unable to form a common front. Most Eastern Europeans favored Zionism, which saw a homeland
as the only solution; this had the effect of diverting attention from the horrors in Nazi Germany. German
Jews were alarmed at the Nazis but were disdainful of Zionism. Proponents of a Jewish state and Jewish
army agitated, but many leaders were so fearful of an antisemitic backlash inside the U.S. that they
demanded that all Jews keep a low public profile. One important development was the sudden
conversion of most (but not all) Jewish leaders to Zionism late in the war.[35] The Holocaust was largely
ignored by American media as it was happening.[citation needed]
The Holocaust had a profound impact on the community in the United States, especially after 1960, as
Jews tried to comprehend what had happened, and especially to commemorate and grapple with it
when looking to the future. Abraham Joshua Heschel summarized this dilemma when he attempted to
understand Auschwitz: "To try to answer is to commit a supreme blasphemy. Israel enables us to bear
the agony of Auschwitz without radical despair, to sense a ray [of] God's radiance in the jungles of
history."[36]
International affairs
Jews began taking a special interest in international affairs in the early twentieth century, especially
regarding pogroms in Imperial Russia, and restrictions on immigration in the 1920s. Political Zionism
became a well-organized movement in the U.S. with the involvement of Louis Brandeis and the British
promise of a homeland in the Balfour Declaration of 1917.[37] Jewish Americans organized large-scale
boycotts of German merchandise during the 1930s, to protest the Nazi rule in Germany. Franklin D.
Roosevelt's leftist domestic policies received strong Jewish support in the 1930s and 1940s, as did his
anti-Nazi foreign policy and his promotion of the United Nations. Support for political Zionism in this
period, although growing in influence, remained a distinctly minority opinion among German Jews until
about 1944–45, when the early rumors and reports of the systematic mass murder of the Jews in
German-occupied Europe became publically known with the liberation of the Nazi concentration camps
and extermination camps. The founding of Israel in 1948 made the Middle East a center of attention; the
immediate recognition of Israel by the American government was an indication of both its intrinsic
support and the influence of political Zionism.
This attention initially was based on a natural and religious affinity toward and support for Israel and
world Jewry. The attention is also because of the ensuing and unresolved conflicts regarding the
founding Israel and Zionism itself. A lively internal debate commenced, following the Six-Day War. The
77
American Jewish community was divided over whether or not they agreed with the Israeli response; the
great majority came to accept the war as necessary. A tension existed especially for some Jews on the
left who saw Israel as too anti-Soviet and anti-Palestinian.[38] Similar tensions were aroused by the
1977 election of Begin and the rise of revisionist policies, the 1982 Lebanon War and the continuing
occupation of the West Bank and Gaza.[39] Disagreement over Israel’s 1993 acceptance of the Oslo
Accords caused a further split among American Jews;[40] this mirrored a similar split among Israelis and
led to a parallel rift within the pro-Israel lobby.[41] Abandoning any pretense of unity, both segments
began to develop separate advocacy and lobbying organizations. The liberal supporters of the Oslo
Accord worked through Americans for Peace Now (APN), Israel Policy Forum (IPF) and other groups
friendly to the Labour government in Israel. They tried to assure Congress that American Jewry was
behind the Accord and defended the efforts of the administration to help the fledgling Palestinian
authority (PA) including promises of financial aid. In a battle for public opinion, IPF commissioned a
number of polls showing widespread support for Oslo among the community.
In opposition to Oslo, an alliance of Orthodox groups, such as ZOA, Americans For a Safe Israel (AFSI),
and the Jewish Institute for National Security Affairs (JINSA) launched a major public opinion campaign.
On October 10, 1993, the opponents of the Palestinian-Israeli accord, organized at the American
Leadership Conference for a Safe Israel, where they warned that Israel was prostrating itself before a
“an armed thug”, and predicted and that the “thirteenth of September is a date that will live in infamy”.
Hard-core Zionists also criticized, often in harsh language, Prime Minister Rabin and Shimon Perez, his
foreign minister and chief architect of the peace accord. With the community so strongly divided, AIPAC
and the Presidents Conference, which was tasked with representing the national Jewish consensus,
struggled to keep the increasingly shrill discourse civil. Reflecting these tensions, Abraham Foxman from
the Jewish Anti-defamation League was forced by the conference to apologize for bad mouthing ZOA’s
Klein. The Conference, which under its organizational guidelines was in charge of moderating communal
discourse, reluctantly censured some Orthodox spokespeople for attacking Colette Avital, the labor-
appointed Israel Council General in New York and an ardent supporter of the peace process.[42]
A 2004 poll indicated that a majority of Jewish Americans favor the creation of an independent
Palestinian state and believe that Israel should remove some or all of its settlements from the West
Bank.[43]
78
Demographics
Percentage of Jewish population in the United States, 2000.
The Jewish population of the United States is either the largest in the world, or second to that of Israel,
depending on the sources and methods used to measure it.
Precise population figures vary depending on whether Jews are accounted for based on halakhic
considerations, or secular, political and ancestral identification factors. There were about 4 million
adherents of Judaism in the U.S. as of 2001, approximately 1.4% of the US population.[44] The
community self-identifying as Jewish by birth, irrespective of halakhic (unbroken maternal line of Jewish
descent or formal Jewish conversion) status, numbers about 7 million, or 2.5% of the US population.
According to the Jewish Agency, for the year 2007 Israel is home to 5.4 million Jews (40.9% of the
world's Jewish population), while the United States contained 5.3 million (40.2%).[45]
The most recent large scale population survey, released in the 2006 American Jewish Yearbook
population survey estimates place the number of American Jews at 6.4 million, or approximately 2.1% of
the total population. This figure is significantly higher than the previous large scale survey estimate,
conducted by the 2000–2001 National Jewish Population estimates, which estimated 5.2 million Jews. A
2007 study released by the Steinhardt Social Research Institute (SSRI) at Brandeis University presents
evidence to suggest that both of these figures may be underestimations with a potential 7.0–7.4 million
Americans of Jewish descent.[46][47][48] Jews in the U.S. settled largely in and near the major cities.
The Ashkenazi Jews, who are now the vast majority of American Jews, settled first in the Northeast and
Midwest cities, but in recent decades increasingly in the South and West. Within the metropolitan areas
of New York City, Los Angeles, and Miami lives nearly one quarter of the world's Jews.[49]
Assimilation and population changes
These parallel themes have facilitated the extraordinary economic, political, and social success of the
American Jewish community, but also have contributed to widespread cultural assimilation.[58] More
recently however, the propriety and degree of assimilation has also become a significant and
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controversial issue within the modern American Jewish community, with both political and religious
skeptics.[59]
While not all Jews disapprove of intermarriage, many members of the Jewish community have become
concerned that the high rate of interfaith marriage will result in the eventual disappearance of the
American Jewish community. Intermarriage rates have risen from roughly 6% in 1950 to approximately
40–50% in the year 2000.[60][61] This, in combination with the comparatively low birthrate in the
Jewish community, has led to a 5% decline in the Jewish population of the United States in the
1990s.[61] In addition to this, when compared with the general American population, the American
Jewish community is slightly older.[61]
Despite the fact that only 33% of intermarried couples provide their children with a Jewish upbringing,
doing so is more common among intermarried families raising their children in areas with high Jewish
populations.[62] The Boston area, for example, is exceptional in that an estimated 60% percent of
children of intermarriages are being raised Jewish, meaning that intermarriage would actually be
contributing to a net increase in the number of Jews.[63] As well, some children raised through
intermarriage rediscover and embrace their Jewish roots when they themselves marry and have
children.
In contrast to the ongoing trends of assimilation, some communities within American Jewry, such as
Orthodox Jews, have significantly higher birth rates and lower intermarriage rates, and are growing
rapidly. The proportion of Jewish synagogue members who were Orthodox rose from 11% in 1971 to
21% in 2000, while the overall Jewish community declined in number. [64] In 2000, there were 360,000
so-called "ultra-orthodox" (Haredi) Jews in USA (7.2%).[65] The figure for 2006 is estimated at 468,000
(9.4%).[65]
About half of the American Jews are considered to be religious. Out of this 2,831,000 religious Jewish
population, 92% are non-Hispanic white, 5% Hispanic (of any race) (Most commonly from Argentina,
Venezuela, or Cuba; many are Hispanics who converted after finding out they are descendants of Jews
forced to convert to Roman Catholicism during the Spanish Inquisition. See Hispanic#Religious diversity),
1% Asian (Mostly Bukharian and Persian Jews), 1% Black and 1% Other (Mixed Race.etc.). Almost this
many non-religious Jews exist in United States, the proportion of Whites being higher than that among
the religious population.[66]
[edit] American Jews and race
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Approximately 7.5% to 10% of American Jews are nonwhite, a result of interracial parents, adoption, or
conversion to Judaism.[67]
[edit] African American Jews and other American Jews of African descent
Main articles: Jews and Judaism in the African diaspora, Ethiopian Jews, and Black Hebrew Israelites
The American Jewish community includes African American Jews and other American Jews of African
descent (such as American Beta Israel), excluding North African Jewish Americans, who are considered
Mizrahi or Sephardi. Estimates of the number of American Jews of African descent in the United States
range from 20,000[68] to 200,000.[69] Jews of African descent belong to all of American Jewish
denominations. Like their white Jewish counterparts, some black Jews are Jewish atheists or ethnic
Jews.
Relations between American Jews of African descent and other Jewish Americans are generally cordial.
There are, however, some tensions with a specific minority among African-Americans who consider
themselves (but not Ashkenazi Jews) to be the true descendants of the Israelites of the Torah. They are
generally not considered to be members of the mainstream Jewish community, since they have not
formally converted to Judaism, nor are they ethnically related to other Jews. One such group, the
African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem, emigrated to Israel and was granted permanent residency status
there.
Notable African-American Jews include Lisa Bonet, Sammy Davis, Jr., Yaphet Kotto, Jordan Farmar, and
rabbis Capers Funnye and Alysa Stanton.
[edit] Socioeconomics
As a group, American Jews tend to be better educated and earn more than Americans as a
whole.[70][71] Forty-six percent (55% of Reform Jews) report family incomes of over $100,000
compared to 19% of all Americans, with the next highest group being Hindus at 43%.[72] And while 27%
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of Americans have had college or postgraduate education, fifty-nine percent (66% of Reform Jews) of
American Jews have, the second highest of any religious group after American Hindus.[73][74]
Either of these two statistics may be confounded by the fact that the Jewish population is on average
older than other religious groups in the country, with 51% of polled adults over the age of 50 compared
to 41% nationally.[73] Older people tend to both have higher income and be more highly educated.
According to analysis by Gallup, American Jews have the highest well-being of any ethnic or religious
group in America.[75][76]
The great majority of school-age Jewish students attend public schools, although Jewish day schools and
yeshivas are to be found throughout the country. Jewish cultural studies and Hebrew language
instruction is also commonly offered at synagogues in the form of supplementary Hebrew schools or
Sunday schools.
Until the 1950s, a quota system at elite colleges and universities limited the number of Jewish students.
Before 1945, only a few Jewish professors were permitted as instructors at elite universities. In 1941, for
example, antisemitism drove Milton Friedman from a non-tenured assistant professorship at the
University of Wisconsin–Madison.[77] Harry Levin became the first Jewish full professor in the Harvard
English department in 1943, but the Economics department decided not to hire Paul Samuelson in 1948.
Harvard hired its first Jewish biochemists in 1954.[78]
Today, American Jews no longer face the discrimination in higher education that they did in the past,
particularly in the Ivy League. For example, by 1986, a third of the presidents of the elite undergraduate
final clubs at Harvard were Jewish.[77] Rick Levin has been president of Yale University since 1993,
Judith Rodin was president of the University of Pennsylvania from 1994 to 2004 (and is currently
president of the Rockefeller Foundation), Paul Samuelson's nephew, Lawrence Summers, was president
of Harvard University from 2001 until 2006, and Harold Shapiro was president of Princeton University
from 1992 until 2000.
Jewish religious practice in America is quite varied. Among the 4.3 million American Jews described as
"strongly connected" to Judaism, over 80% report some sort of active engagement with
Judaism,[citation needed] ranging from attendance at daily prayer services on one end of the spectrum
to as little as attendance Passover Seders or lighting Hanukkah candles on the other.
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A 2003 Harris Poll found that 16% of American Jews go to the synagogue at least once a month, 42% go
less frequently but at least once a year, and 42% go less frequently than once a year.[85]
The survey found that of the 4.3 million strongly connected Jews, 46% belong to a synagogue. Among
those households who belong to a synagogue, 38% are members of Reform synagogues, 33%
Conservative, 22% Orthodox, 2% Reconstructionist, and 5% other types. Traditionally, Sephardic and
Mizrahis do not have different branches (Orthodox, Conservative, Reform, etc.) but usually remain
observant and religious. The survey discovered that Jews in the Northeast and Midwest are generally
more observant than Jews in the South or West. Reflecting a trend also observed among other religious
groups, Jews in the Northwestern United States are typically the least observant.
In recent years, there has been a noticeable trend of secular American Jews returning to a more
observant, in most cases, Orthodox, lifestyle. Such Jews are called baalei teshuva ("returners", see also
Repentance in Judaism). It is uncertain how widespread or demographically important this movement is
at present.[citation needed][original research?]
The 2008 American Religious Identification Survey found that around 3.4 million American Jews call
themselves religious – out of a general Jewish population of about 5.4 million. The number of Jews who
identify themselves as only culturally Jewish has risen from 20% in 1990 to 37% in 2008, according to the
study. In the same period, the number of all US adults who said they had no religion rose from 8% to
15%. Jews are more likely to be secular than Americans in general, the researchers said. About half of all
US Jews – including those who consider themselves religiously observant – claim in the survey that they
have a secular worldview and see no contradiction between that outlook and their faith, according to
the study's authors. Researchers attribute the trends among American Jews to the high rate of
intermarriage and "disaffection from Judaism" in the United States.[86]
About one-sixth of American Jews maintain kosher dietary standards.[87]
[edit] Religious beliefs
American Jews are more likely to be atheist or agnostic than most Americans, especially so compared
with Protestants or Catholics. A 2003 poll found that while 79% of Americans believe in God, only 48% of
American Jews do, compared with 79% and 90% for Catholics and Protestants respectively. While 66% of
Americans said they were "absolutely certain" of God's existence, 24% of American Jews said the same.
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And though 9 percent of Americans believe there is no God (8% Catholic and 4% Protestant), 19 percent
of American Jews believe God does not exist.[85]
Though Jewish views on evolution are varied, most schools of Jewish thought have reconciled Judaism
with evolution. A 2009 Harris Poll showed American Jews as the religious group most accepting of
evolution, with 80% believing in evolution, compared to 51% for Catholics, 32% for Protestants, and 16%
of Born-again Christians.[88] They were also less likely to believe in supernatural phenomena such as
miracles, angels, or heaven.
[edit] Buddhism
Main article: Jewish Buddhist
Jews are overrepresented in American Buddhism, with between one fifth[89] and 30% of all American
Buddhists identifying as Jewish[90] though only 1.4% of Americans are Jewish. Nicknamed Jubus, an
increasing number of American Jews have begun adopting Buddhist spiritual practice. Notable American
Jewish Buddhists include: Robert Downey, Jr.[91] Allen Ginsberg,[92] Goldie Hawn[93] and daughter
Kate Hudson, Steven Seagal, and Garry Shandling.
[edit] Contemporary politics
Jews earn like Episcopalians, and vote like Puerto Ricans.
—Milton Himmelfarb[94]
Today, American Jews are a distinctive and influential group in the nation's politics. Jeffrey S. Helmreich
writes that the ability of American Jews to effect this through political or financial clout is
overestimated,[95] that the primary influence lies in the group's voting patterns.[23]
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"Jews have devoted themselves to politics with almost religious fervor," writes Mitchell Bard, who adds
that Jews have the highest percentage voter turnout of any ethnic group (84% reported being registered
to vote[96]). While 2–2.5% of the United States population is Jewish, 94% live in 13 key electoral college
states, which combined have enough electors to elect the president.[97][98] Though the majority (60–
70%) of the country's Jews identify as Democratic, Jews span the political spectrum, with those at higher
levels of observance being far more likely to vote Republican than their less observant and secular
counterparts.[99]
Owing to high Democratic identification in the 2008 United States Presidential Election, 78% of Jews
voted for Democrat Barack Obama versus 21% for Republican John McCain, despite Republican
attempts to connect Obama to Muslim and pro-Palestinian causes.[100] It has been suggested that
running mate Sarah Palin's conservative views on social issues may have nudged Jews away from the
McCain–Palin ticket.[23][100]
[edit] Foreign policy
Helmreich describes Jews as "a uniquely swayable bloc" as a result of Republican stances on
Israel.[23][98][101] A paper by Dr. Eric Uslaner of the University of Maryland disagrees, at least with
regard to the 2004 election: "Only 15% of Jews said that Israel was a key voting issue. Among those
voters, 55% voted for Kerry (compared to 83% of Jewish voters not concerned with Israel)." The paper
goes on point out that negative views of Evangelical Christians had a distinctly negative impact for
Republicans among Jewish voters, while Orthodox Jews, traditionally more conservative in outlook as to
social issues, favored the Republican Party.[102] A New York Times article suggests that the Jewish
movement to the Republican party is focused heavily on faith-based issues, similar to the Catholic vote,
which is credited for helping President Bush taking Florida in 2004.[103] However, Natan Guttman, The
Forward’s Washington bureau chief, dismisses this notion, writing in Moment that while "[i]t is true that
Republicans are making small and steady strides into the Jewish community…a look at the past three
decades of exit polls, which are more reliable than pre-election polls, and the numbers are clear: Jews
vote overwhelmingly Democratic,”[104] an assertion confirmed by the most recent presidential election
results.
Though critics have charged that Jewish interests were partially responsible for the push to war with
Iraq, Jewish Americans were actually more strongly opposed to the Iraq war from its onset than any
other major religious group or even most Americans. The greater opposition to the war was not simply a
result of high Democratic identification among U.S. Jews, as Jews of all political persuasions were more
likely to oppose the war than non-Jews who shared the same political leanings.[105][106]
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[edit] Domestic issues
American Jews are largely supportive of gay rights with 79% responding in a Pew poll that homosexuality
should be "accepted by society".[107] A split on homosexuality exists by level of observance. Reform
rabbis in America perform same-sex marriages as a matter of routine, and there are fifteen LGBT Jewish
congregations in North America.[108] Reform, Reconstructionist and, increasingly, Conservative, Jews
are far more supportive on issues like gay marriage than Orthodox Jews are.[109] A 2007 survey of
Conservative Jewish leaders and activists showed that an overwhelming majority supported gay
rabbinical ordination and same-sex marriage.[110] Accordingly, 78% percent of Jewish voters rejected
Proposition 8, the bill that banned gay marriage in California. No other ethnic or religious group voted as
strongly against it.[111]
In considering the trade-off between the economy and environmental protection, American Jews were
significantly more likely than other religious groups (excepting Buddhism) to favor stronger
environmental protection.[112]
Jews in America also overwhelmingly oppose current United States marijuana policy. Eighty-six percent
of Jewish Americans opposed arresting nonviolent marijuana smokers, compared to 61% for the
population at large and 68% of all Democrats. Additionally, 85% of Jews in the United States opposed
using federal law enforcement to close patient cooperatives for medical marijuana in states where
medical marijuana is legal, compared to 67% of the population at large and 73% of Democrats.[113]
[edit] Jewish American culture
See also: Secular Jewish culture
Since the time of the last major wave of Jewish immigration to America (over 2,000,000 Eastern
European Jews who arrived between 1890 and 1924), Jewish secular culture in the United States has
become integrated in almost every important way with the broader American culture. Many aspects of
Jewish American culture have, in turn, become part of the wider culture of the United States.
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[edit] Language
Jewish languages in the US
Year
Hebrew
Yiddish
1910a
87
1,051,767
1920a
1,091,820
1930a
1,222,658
88
1940a
924,440
1960a
38,346
503,605
1970a
36,112
89
438,116
1980[114]
315,953
1990[115]
144,292
213,064
2000[116]
90
195,374
178,945
^a Foreign-born population only[117]
Most American Jews today are native English-speakers. A variety of other languages are still spoken
within some American Jewish communities, communities that are representative of the various Jewish
ethnic divisions from around the world that have come together to make up America's Jewish
population.
Many of America's Hasidic Jews, being exclusively of Ashkenazi descent, are raised speaking Yiddish.
Yiddish was once spoken as the primary language by most of the several million European Jews who
immigrated to the United States. It was, in fact, the original language in which The Forward was
published. Yiddish has had an influence on American English, and words borrowed from it include
chutzpah ("effrontery", "gall"), nosh ("snack"), schlep ("drag"), schmuck ("an obnoxious, contemptible
person", euphemism for "penis"), and, depending on ideolect, hundreds of other terms. (See also
Yinglish.)
The Persian Jewish community in the United States, notably the large community in and around Los
Angeles and Beverly Hills, California, primarily speak Persian (see also Judeo-Persian) in the home and
synagogue. They also support their own Persian language newspapers. Persian Jews also reside in
eastern parts of New York such as Kew Gardens and Great Neck, Long Island.
Many recent Jewish immigrants from the Soviet Union speak primarily Russian at home, and there are
several notable communities where public life and business are carried out mainly in Russian, such as in
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Brighton Beach in New York City and Sunny Isles Beach in Miami. 2010 estimates of the number of
Jewish Russian-speaking households in the New York city area are around 92,000, and the number of
individuals are somewhere between 223,000–350,000.[118] Another high population of Russian Jews
can be found in the Richmond District of San Francisco where Russian markets stand alongside the
numerous Asian businesses.
A typical poster-hung wall in Jewish Brooklyn, New York
American Bukharan Jews speak Bukhori, a dialect of Persian, and Russian. They publish their own
newspapers such as the Bukharian Times and a large portion live in Queens, New York. Forest Hills in the
New York City borough of Queens is home to 108th Street, which is called by some "Bukharian
Broadway",[119] a reference to the many stores and restaurants found on and around the street that
have Bukharian influences. Many Bukharians are also represented in parts of Arizona, Miami, Florida,
and areas of Southern California such as San Diego.
Classical Hebrew is the language of most Jewish religious literature, such as the Tanakh (Bible) and
Siddur (prayerbook). Modern Hebrew is also the primary official language of the modern State of Israel,
which further encourages many to learn it as a second language. Some recent Israeli immigrants to
America speak Hebrew as their primary language.
Some Jews, particularly in Miami and Los Angeles, immigrated from Latin America. Many of these
Hispanic Jews, many of them of Sephardic origin dating back to the Spanish colonial era, but also some
from Ashkenazi descent from recent Central and Eastern European immigration to Latin America, speak
Spanish in the home, and some have intermarried with the non-Jewish Hispanic population. Recent Jews
from Spain speak Spanish, and Spanish may be spoken by other Jews with ancestry outside Spain and
Latin America, but who live in areas near predominantly Hispanic populations. There is a large number
of synagogues in the Miami area that give services in Spanish. Also in Miami and Los Angeles there are
many Luso-Jews with origin from Brazil and Portugal. Sephardic, Ashkenazi, and Mizrahi Jews from Brazil
often speak Portuguese at home. There are also a handful of older European immigrant communities
that still speak Ladino.
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[edit] Jewish American literature
Main article: Jewish American literature
Although American Jews have contributed greatly to American arts overall, there remains a distinctly
Jewish American literature. Jewish American literature often explores the experience of being a Jew in
America, and the conflicting pulls of secular society and history.
[edit] American Jews
[edit] Popular culture
Main articles: List of Jewish actors, List of Jewish American authors, List of Jewish American entertainers,
List of Jewish musicians, List of Jewish American sportspeople, List of Jewish American visual artists , and
List of Jewish American Photographers
Many individual Jews have made significant contributions to American popular culture. There have been
many Jewish American actors and performers, ranging from early 1900s actors, to classic Hollywood film
stars, and culminating in many currently known actors. Many of the early Hollywood moguls and
pioneers were Jewish.
The field of American comedy includes many Jews. The legacy also includes songwriters and authors.
Many Jews have been at the forefront of women's issues. Jews have also done well in the field of sport.
[edit] Government and military
Grave of Confederate Jewish soldier near Clinton, Louisiana
Main articles: List of Jewish American politicians and List of Jewish Americans in the military
93
See also: Military history of Jewish Americans
Since 1845, a total of 34 Jews have served in the Senate, including the 14 present-day senators noted
above. Judah P. Benjamin was the first practicing Jewish Senator, and would later serve as Confederate
Secretary of War and Secretary of State during the Civil War. Rahm Emanuel served as Chief of Staff to
President Barack Obama. The number of Jews elected to the House rose to an all-time high of 30. Seven
Jews have been appointed to the United States Supreme Court.
In April 1984, an unusual historic connection between American history and American Jewish history
was made when President Ronald Reagan read Jewish Navy chaplain Arnold Resnicoff's eyewitness
account of the 1983 Beirut barracks bombing as his keynote speech to the Rev. Jerry Falwell's Baptism
Fundamentalism '84 Washington, DC, convention.[120]
At least twenty eight American Jews have been awarded the Medal of Honor.
[edit] World War II
More than 550,000 Jews served in the U.S. military during World War II; about 11,000 were killed and
more than 40,000 were wounded. There were three recipients of the Medal of Honor, 157 recipients of
the Army Distinguished Service Medal, Navy Distinguished Service Medal, Distinguished Service Cross, or
Navy Cross, and about 1600 recipients of the Silver Star. About 50,000 other decorations. citations and
awards were given to Jewish military personnel, for a total of 52,000 decorations. During this period,
Jews were approximately 3.3 percent of the total U.S. population but constituted about 4.23 percent of
the U.S. armed forces. About 60 percent of all Jewish physicians in the United States under 45 years of
age were in service as military physicians and medics.[121]
Many Jewish physicists, including project lead J. Robert Oppenheimer, were involved in the Manhattan
Project, the secret World War II effort to develop the atomic bomb. Many of these were refugees from
Nazi Germany or from antisemitic persecution elsewhere in Europe.
[edit] American Folk Music
94
Jews have been involved in the American folk music scene since the late 19 Century;[122] these tended
to be refugees from Central and Eastern Europe, and significantly more economically disadvantaged
than their established Western European and Sephardic coreligionists.[123] Historians see it as a legacy
of the secular Yiddish theater, cantorial traditions and a desire to assimilate. By the 1940s Jews had
become established in the American folk music scene.
Examples of the major impact Jews have had in the American folk music arena include, but are not
limited to: Moe Asch the first to record and release much of the music of Woodie Guthrie, including
"This Land is Your Land" in response to Irving Berlin's "God Bless America", and Guthrie wrote Jewish
songs. Guthrie married a Jew and their son Arlo became influential in his own right. Asch's one man
corporation Folkway Records, also released much of the music of Leadbelly and Pete Seeger from the
40's and 50's. Asch's large music catalog was voluntarily donated to the Smithsonian.
Three of the four creators of the Newport Folk Festival, Wein, Bikell and Grossman (Seeger is not) were
Jewish. The Woodstock Festival is its successor. Albert Grossman put together Peter Paul and Mary, of
which Yarrow is Jewish. Oscar Brand, from a Canadian Jewish family, has the longest running radio
program "Oscar Brand's Folksong Festival" which has been on air consecutively since 1945 from
NYC.[124] And is the first American broadcast where the host himself will answer any personal
correspondence.
Influential group The Weavers, successor to the Almanac Singers, led by Pete Seeger, had a Jewish
manager, and 2 of the 4 members of the group were Jewish (Gilbert and Hellerman). The B-side of
"Good Night Irene" had the Hebrew folk song personally chosen for the record by Pete Seeger "Tzena,
Tzena, Tzena".
The influential folk music magazine 'Sing Out!' was co-founded and edited by Irwin Silber in 1951, and
edited by him until 1967, when the magazine stopped publication for decades. Rolling Stone magazine's
first music critic Jon Landau is of German Jewish descent.[125] Izzy Young who created the
legendary[126] Folklore Center in NY, and currently the Folklore Centrum near Mariatorget in
Södermalm, Sweden, which relates to American and Swedish folk music.[127]
Influential folk musician of the 1960s, Dave Van Ronk[128] observed in his text about the behind-the-
scenes 1950's folk music industry:
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"[The behind the scenes folk scene] Was at the very least 50 percent Jewish, and they adopted the music
as part of their assimilation into the Anglo-American tradition which itself was largely an artificial
construct but none the less provided us with some common ground".[129]
[edit] Finance
Jews have been involved in both financial thought from many diverting perspectives, and practical
investment in the U.S.. During the colonial era, before the establishment of the U.S.A. Jews were the
first non-Protestants to receive rights to trade fur, from the Dutch and Swedish controlled colonies. The
colonial United Kingdom honored after transitioning control of the colonies. During the Revolutionary
War, Haim Solomon gave up his fortune to help create America's first semi-central bank, and advised
Alexander Hamilton on the building of America's financial system.
American Jews in the 19th, 20th and 21st centuries played a major role in American finance, both at
investment banks and investment funds.[130] German Jewish bankers began to assume a major role in
American finance in the 1830s when government and private borrowing to pay for canals, railroads and
other internal improvements increased rapidly and significantly. Men such as August Belmont
(Rothschild's agent in New York and a leading Democrat), Philip Speyer, Jacob Schiff (at Kuhn, Loeb &
Company), Joseph Seligman, Philip Lehman (of Lehman Brothers), Jules Bache, and Marcus Goldman (of
Goldman Sachs) illustrate this financial elite.[131] As was true of their non-Jewish counterparts, family,
personal, and business connections, a reputation for honesty and integrity, ability, and a willingness to
take calculated risks were essential to recruit capital from widely scattered sources. The families and the
firms which they controlled were bound together by religious and social factors, and by the prevalence
of intermarriage. These personal ties fulfilled real business functions before the advent of institutional
organization in the 20th century.[132][133] Nevertheless, antisemitic elements often falsely targeted
them as key players in a supposed Jewish cabal conspiring to dominate the world.[134]
Since the late 20th century have Jews played a major role in the hedge fund industry, according to
Zuckerman (2009)[135] Thus SAC Capital Advisors,[136] Soros Fund Management,[137] Och-Ziff Capital
Management,[138] GLG Partners[139] and Renaissance Technologies[140] are large hedge funds
cofounded by Jews. They have also played a pivotal role in the private equity industry, co-founding some
of the largest firms, such as Blackstone,[141] Carlyle Group,[142] Warburg Pincus,[143] and
KKR.[144][145][146]
[edit] Federal Reserve
96
Paul Warburg, one of the leading advocates of the establishment of a central bank in the U.S. and one of
the first governors of the newly established Federal Reserve System, came from a prominent Jewish
family in Germany.[147] Several Jews have served as chairmen of the Fed, including Ben Bernanke, the
current Chairman, and Alan Greenspan, the prior chairman.
[edit] Science, business, and academia
Main articles: List of Jewish American scientists, List of Jewish American businesspeople, and List of
Jewish American academics
Jews have traditionally been drawn to business and academia (see Secular Jewish culture for some of
the causes), and have made major contributions in science, economics, and the humanities. Of American
Nobel Prize winners, 37 percent have been Jewish Americans (18 times the percentage of Jews in the
population), as have been 65 percent of the John Bates Clark Medal winners (thirty-one times the Jewish
percentage).[148] While Jewish Americans only constitute roughly 2.5 percent of the U.S. population,
they occupied 7.7 percent of board seats at U.S. corporations.[149]
Since many jobs/careers in science, business, and academia generally pay well, Jewish Americans also
tend to have a higher average income than most Americans. The 2000–2001 National Jewish Population
Survey shows that the median income of a Jewish family is $54,000 a year and 34% of Jewish households
report income over $75,000 a year.[150] The 2010 Inside Baltimore Jewish Lifestyle Magazine shows
that the median American Jewish household income stood at $80,000 prior to the economic
recession.[151]
97
98
Section Two the Dharmic lineages of faith
Chapter One
The Buddhist Faith
Buddhism is one of the largest religions in the United States behind Christianity, Judaism and
nonreligious, and approximately equal with Islam and Hinduism. American Buddhists include many Asian
Americans, as well as a large number of converts of other ethnicities, and now their children and even
grandchildren. [1][2] In 2012, U-T San Diego estimated U.S. practitioners at 1.2 million people, of whom
40% are living in Southern California.
Buddhist American scholar Charles Prebish states there are three broad types of American Buddhism:
1.The oldest and largest of these is "immigrant" or "ethnic Buddhism", those Buddhist traditions that
arrived in America along with immigrants who were already believers and that largely remained with
those immigrants and their descendants.
2.The next oldest and arguably the most visible group Prebish refers to as "import Buddhists", because
they came to America largely in response to interested American converts who sought them out, either
by going abroad or by supporting foreign teachers; this is sometimes also called "elite Buddhism"
because its practitioners, especially early ones, tended to come from social elites.
3.A trend in Buddhism is "export" or "evangelical Buddhist" groups based in another country who
actively recruit members in the US from various backgrounds. Modern Buddhism is not just an American
phenomenon.
99
Buddhism was introduced into the USA by Asian immigrants in the 19th century, when significant
numbers of immigrants from East Asia began to arrive in the New World. In the United States,
immigrants from China entered around 1820, but began to arrive in large numbers following the 1849
California Gold Rush.
Immigrant Buddhist congregations in North America are as diverse as the different peoples of Asian
Buddhist extraction who settled there. The US is home to Chinese Buddhists, Textual Buddhists Japanese
Buddhists, Korean Buddhists, Sri Lankan Buddhists, Vietnamese Buddhists, Thai Buddhists, and
Buddhists with family backgrounds in most Buddhist countries and regions. The Immigration Act of 1965
increased the number of immigrants arriving from China, Vietnam, and the Theravada-practicing
countries of southeast Asia.
[edit] Huishen
Fanciful accounts of a visit to North America at the end of the 5th century written by a Chinese monk
named Huishen or Hushen can be found in the Great Chinese Encyclopedia by Ma Tuan-Lin. This account
is often challenged but it is "at least plausible" in the words of James Ishmael Ford.[3]
[edit] Chinese immigration
The first Buddhist temple in America was built in 1853 in San Francisco by the Sze Yap Company, a
Chinese American fraternal society. Another society, the Ning Yeong Company, built a second in 1854;
by 1875, there were eight temples, and by 1900 approximately 400 Chinese temples on the west coast
of the United States, most of them containing some Buddhist elements. Unfortunately a casualty of
racism,[3] these temples were often the subject of suspicion and ignorance by the rest of the
population, and were dismissively called joss houses.
[edit] Japanese and Korean immigration
The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 curtailed growth of the Chinese American population, but large-scale
immigration from Japan began in the late 1880s and from Korea around 1903. In both cases,
immigration was at first primarily to Hawaii. Populations from other Asian Buddhist countries followed,
and in each case, the new communities established Buddhist temples and organizations. For instance,
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the first Japanese temple in Hawaii was built in 1896 near Paauhau by the Honpa Hongwanji branch of
Jodo Shinshu. In 1898, Japanese missionaries and immigrants established a Young Men's Buddhist
Association, and the Rev. Sōryū Kagahi was dispatched from Japan to be the first Buddhist missionary in
Hawaii.[4] The first Japanese Buddhist temple in the continental U.S. was built in San Francisco in 1899,
and the first in Canada was built at the Ishikawa Hotel in Vancouver in 1905.[5] The first Buddhist clergy
to take up residence in the continental U.S. were Shuye Sonoda and Kakuryo Nishimjima, missionaries
from Japan who arrived in 1899.
[edit] Contemporary Immigrant Buddhism
[edit] Japanese Buddhism
[edit] Buddhist Churches of America
The Buddhist Churches of America and the Honpa Hongwanji Mission of Hawaii are immigrant Buddhist
organizations in the United States. The BCA is an affiliate of Japan's Nishi Hongwanji, a sect of Jōdo
Shinshū, which is in turn a form of Pure Land Buddhism. Tracing its roots to the Young Men's Buddhist
Association founded in San Francisco at the end of the 19th century and the Buddhist Mission of North
America founded in 1899,[6] it took its current form in 1944. All of the Buddhist Mission's leadership,
along with almost the entire Japanese American population, had been interned during World War II. The
name Buddhist Churches of America was adopted at Topaz War Relocation Center in Utah; the word
"church" was used similar to a Christian house of worship. After internment ended, some members
returned to the West Coast and revitalized churches there, while a number of others moved to the
Midwest and built new churches. During the 1960s and 1970s, the BCA was in a growth phase and was
very successful at fund-raising. It also published two periodicals, one in Japanese and one in English.
However, since 1980, BCA membership declined. The 36 temples in the state of Hawaii of the Honpa
Hongwanji Mission have a similar history.
While a majority of the Buddhist Churches of America's membership are ethnically Japanese, some
members have non-Asian backgrounds. Thus, it has limited aspects of export Buddhism. As involvement
by its ethnic community declined, internal discussions advocated attracting the broader public.
[edit] Nichiren: Sōka Gakkai
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Nichiren Daishōnin thought the Lotus Sutra is the purest expression of Buddhism and thirty sects
developed in Japan from his branch of Mahayana.[7]
Sōka Gakkai, which means "Value Creation Society", was perhaps the most successful of Japan's new
religious movements which grew after the end of the World War II.[8] It is one of three sects of Nichiren
Buddhism that came to the United States during the 20th century.[9] Sōka Gakkai expanded rapidly in
the US, attracting non-Asian minority converts,[10] chiefly African American and Latino, as well as the
support of celebrities, such as Tina Turner, Herbie Hancock, and Orlando Bloom.[11] Because of a rift
with Nichiren Shōshū, Sōka Gakkai has no priests of its own.[12] Its main religious practice is chanting
the mantra Nam Myōhō Renge Kyō and sections of the Lotus Sutra. Unlike trends such as Zen,
Vipassana, and Tibetan Buddhism, Sōka Gakkai does not teach meditative techniques other than
chanting.[citation needed]
[edit] Taiwanese Buddhism
Another US Buddhist institution is Hsi Lai Temple in Hacienda Heights, California. Hsi Lai is the American
headquarters of Fo Guang Shan, a modern Buddhist group in Taiwan. Hsi Lai was built in 1988 at a cost
of $10 million and is often described as the largest Buddhist temple in the Western hemisphere.
Although it caters primarily to Chinese Americans, it also has regular services and outreach programs in
English. Hsi Lai was at the center of a campaign finance controversy by Vice President Al Gore.
[edit] Import Buddhism
While Asian immigrants were arriving, some American intellectuals examined Buddhism, based primarily
on information from British colonies in India and East Asia.
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In the last century, numbers of Asian Buddhist masters and teachers have immigrated to the U.S. in
order to propagate their beliefs and practices. Most have belonged to three major Buddhist traditions or
cultures: Zen, Tibetan, and Theravadan.
[edit] Early translations
Elizabeth Palmer Peabody
The Englishmen William Jones and Charles Wilkins translated Sanskrit texts into English. The American
Transcendentalists and associated persons, in particular Henry David Thoreau took an interest in Hindu
and Buddhist philosophy. In 1844, The Dial, a small literary publication edited by Thoreau and Ralph
Waldo Emerson, published an English version of a portion of the Lotus Sutra; it had been translated by
Dial business manager Elizabeth Palmer Peabody from a French version recently completed by Eugène
Burnouf. His Indian readings may have influenced his later experiments in simple living: at one point in
Walden Thoreau wrote: "I realized what the Orientals meant by contemplation and the forsaking of
works." The poet Walt Whitman also admitted to an influence of Indian religion on his writings.
[edit] Theosophical Society
Henry Steel Olcott cofounder of the Theosophical Society was probably the first American Buddhist
An early American to publicly convert to Buddhism was Henry Steel Olcott. Olcott, a former U.S. army
colonel during the Civil War, had grown interested in reports of supernatural phenomena that were
popular in the late 19th century. In 1875, he, Helena Blavatsky, and William Quan Judge founded the
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Theosophical Society, dedicated to the study of the occult and influenced by Hindu and Buddhist
scriptures. The leaders claimed to believe that they were in contact, via visions and messages, with a
secret order of adepts called the "Himalayan Brotherhood" or "the Masters". In 1879, Olcott and
Blavatsky travelled to India and in 1880, to Sri Lanka, where they were met enthusiastically by local
Buddhists, who saw them as allies against an aggressive Christian missionary movement. On May 25,
Olcott and Blavatsky took the pancasila vows of a lay Buddhist before a monk and a large crowd.
Although most of the Theosophists appear to have counted themselves as Buddhists, they held
idiosyncratic beliefs that separated them from known Buddhist traditions; only Olcott was enthusiastic
about following mainstream Buddhism. He returned twice to Sri Lanka, where he promoted Buddhist
education, and visited Japan and Burma. Olcott authored a Buddhist Catechism, stating his view of the
basic tenets of the religion.
[edit] Paul Carus
Paul Carus was an editor and collaborator with D. T. Suzuki
Several publications increased knowledge of Buddhism in 19th-century America. In 1879, Edwin Arnold,
an English aristocrat, published The Light of Asia,[13] an epic poem he had written about the life and
teachings of the Buddha, expounded with much wealth of local color and not a little felicity of
versification. The book became immensely popular in the United States, going through eighty editions
and selling more than 500,000 copies. Paul Carus, a German American philosopher and theologian, was
at work on a more scholarly prose treatment of the same subject. Carus was the director of Open Court
Publishing Company, an academic publisher specializing in philosophy, science, and religion, and editor
of The Monist, a journal with a similar focus, both based in La Salle, Illinois. In 1894, Carus published The
Gospel of the Buddha, compiled from a variety of Asian texts which, true to its name, presented the
Buddha's story in a form resembling the Christian Gospels.
[edit] Early converts
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In a brief ceremony conducted by Dharmapala, Charles T. Strauss, a New York businessman of Jewish
descent, became, one of the first to formally convert to Buddhism on American soil.[citation needed] A
few fledgling attempts at establishing a Buddhism for Americans followed. Appearing with little fanfare
in 1887: The Buddhist Ray, a Santa Cruz, California-based magazine published and edited by Phillangi
Dasa, born Herman Carl (or Carl Herman) Veetering (or Vettering), a recluse about whom little is known.
The Ray's tone was "ironic, light, saucy, self-assured ... one-hundred-percent American Buddhist".[14] It
ceased publication in 1894. In 1900 six white San Franciscans, working with Japanese Jodo Shinshu
missionaries, established the Dharma Sangha of Buddha and published a bimonthly magazine, The Light
of Dharma. In Illinois, Paul Carus wrote more books about Buddhism and set portions of Buddhist
scripture to Western classical music.
[edit] Dwight Goddard
One American who attempted to establish an American Buddhist movement was Dwight Goddard
(1861–1939). Goddard was a Christian missionary to China when he first came in contact with
Buddhism. In 1928, he spent a year living at a Zen monastery in Japan. In 1934, he founded "The
Followers of Buddha, an American Brotherhood", with the goal of applying the traditional monastic
structure of Buddhism more strictly than Senzaki and Sokei-an. The group was largely unsuccessful: no
Americans were recruited to join as monks and attempts failed to attract a Chinese Chan (Zen) master to
come to the United States. However, Goddard's efforts as an author and publisher bore considerable
fruit. In 1930, he began publishing ZEN: A Buddhist Magazine. In 1932, he collaborated with D. T. Suzuki,
on a translation of the Lankavatara Sutra. That same year, he published the first edition of A Buddhist
Bible, an anthology of Buddhist scriptures focusing on those used in Chinese and Japanese Zen.[15]
[edit] Zen
The Western and Buddhist worlds have occasionally intersected since the distant past. It was possible
that the earliest encounter was in 334 BCE, early in the history of Buddhism, when Alexander the Great
conquered most of Central Asia. The Seleucids and successive kingdoms established Hellenistic influence
in the area, interacting with Buddhism introduced from India, producing Greco-Buddhism.
The Mauryan Emperor Aśoka (273–232 BCE) converted to Buddhism after his bloody conquest of the
territory of Kalinga (modern Orissa) in eastern India during the Kalinga War. Regretting the horrors
brought about by the conflict, the Emperor decided to renounce violence. He propagated the faith by
building stupas and pillars urging, amongst other things, respect of all animal life and enjoining people
to follow the Dharma.
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Perhaps the finest example of these is the Great Stupa of Sanchi in India. This stupa was constructed in
the 3rd century BCE and later enlarged. Its carved gates, called Toran, are considered among the finest
examples of Buddhist art in India. He also built roads, hospitals, universities and irrigation systems
around the country. He treated his subjects as equals regardless of their religion, politics or caste.
The Maurya Empire under Emperor Aśoka was the world's first major Buddhist state. It established free
hospitals and free education and promoted human rights.
This period marks the first spread of Buddhism beyond India to other countries. According to the plates
and pillars left by Aśoka (the edicts of Aśoka), emissaries were sent to various countries in order to
spread Buddhism, as far south as Sri Lanka and as far west as the Greek kingdoms, in particular the
neighboring Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, and possibly even farther to the Mediterranean.[1]
In the Christian era, Buddhist ideas periodically filtered into Europe via the Middle East. Stories of the
Christian saints Barlaam and Josaphat were "baptized" renditions of the life of Siddhartha Gautama, as
translated from Indian sources into Persian to Arabic to Greek versions, the religious language being
only cosmetically altered along the way. The first direct recorded encounter between European
Christians and Buddhists was in 1253 when the king of France sent William of Rubruck as an ambassador
to the court of the Mongol Empire. Later, in the 17th century, Mongols practicing Tibetan Buddhism
established Kalmykia, the only Buddhist nation in Europe, at the eastern edge of the continent.
[edit] Greco-Buddhism
Main article: Greco-Buddhism
106
The Indo-Greek king Menander (155-130 BCE) is the first Western historical figure documented to have
converted to Buddhism.
The Hellenistic influence in the area, furthered by Seleucids and the successive Greco-Bactrian and Indo-
Greek kingdoms, interacted with Buddhism, as exemplified by the emergence of Greco-Buddhist art.
Greco-Buddhism is the cultural merging between the cultures of Hellenism and Buddhism, which
developed over a period of close to eight centuries in Central Asia between the 4th century BCE and the
5th century CE.
[edit] Buddhism and the Roman world
Main article: Buddhism and the Roman world
Several instances of interaction between Buddhism and the Roman Empire are documented by Classical
and early Christian writers. Roman historical accounts describe an embassy sent by the Indian king
Pandion (Pandya?), also named Porus, to Augustus around 13 CE. The embassy was travelling with a
diplomatic letter in Greek, and one of its members was an Indian religious man (sramana) who burned
himself alive in Athens to demonstrate his faith. The event created a sensation and was described by
Nicolaus of Damascus, who met the embassy at Antioch, and related by Strabo (XV,1,73) and Dio
Cassius. A tomb was made for the sramana, still visible in the time of Plutarch, which bore the following
inscription, "ΖΑΡΜΑΝΟΧΗΓΑΣ ΙΝΔΟΣ ΑΠΟ ΒΑΡΓΟΣΗΣ" ("The sramana master from Barygaza in India").
These accounts at least indicate that Indian religious men (Sramanas, to which the Buddhists belonged,
as opposed to Hindu Brahmanas) were visiting Mediterranean countries. However, the term sramana is
a general term for Indian religious man in Jainism, Buddhism, and Ājīvika. It is not clear which religious
tradition the man belongs to in this case.
[edit] 19th century
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During the 19th century, Buddhism (along with many other religions and philosophies) came to the
attention of Western intellectuals.
[edit] Philosophical interest
These included the German philosopher Schopenhauer, who first read about Buddhism and other Asian
religions at an early stage before he devised his philosophical system.[2] The American philosopher
Henry David Thoreau translated a Buddhist sutra from French into English.
There are frequent comparisons between Buddhism and the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche,
who praised Buddhism in his 1895 work The Anti-Christ, calling it "a hundred times more realistic than
Christianity". Robert Morrison believes that there is "a deep resonance between them" as "both
emphasise the centrality of humans in a godless cosmos and neither looks to any external being or
power for their respective solutions to the problem of existence".[3]
[edit] Popular interest
In the latter half of the 19th century, Buddhism came to the attention of a wider Western public, such as
through the writings of Lafcadio Hearn.
The late nineteenth century also saw the first western conversions to Buddhism, including leading
Theosophists Henry Steel Olcott and Helena Blavatsky in 1880, "beachcombers" such as the Irish ex-
hobo U Dhammaloka around 1884 and intellectuals such as Bhikkhu Asoka (H. Gordon Douglas), Ananda
Metteyya and Nyanatiloka at the turn of the century.
[edit] 20th century
Further information: Buddhism in the United States
108
A hallway in California's Hsi Lai Temple.
[edit] Immigrant Buddhists and teachers
Immigrant monks soon began teaching to western audiences, as well. The first Buddhists to arrive in the
United States were Chinese. Hired as cheap labor for the railroads and other expanding industries, they
established temples in their settlements along the rail lines. At about the same time, immigrants from
Japan began to arrive as laborers on Hawaiian plantations and central-California farms. In 1899, they
established the Buddhist Missions of North America, later renamed the Buddhist Churches of America.
In 1893 Soyen Shaku was one of four priests and two laymen, representing Rinzai Zen, Jodo Shinshu,
Nichirin, Tendai, and Esoteric schools[4], composing the Japanese delegation that participated in the
World Parliament of Religions in Chicago organized by John Henry Barrows and Paul Carus.
In 1897, D.T. Suzuki came to the USA to work and study with Paul Carus, professor of philosophy. D.T.
Suzuki was the single-most important person in popularizing Zen in the west.[5] His thoughts and works
were influenced by western occultism, such as Theosophy and Swedenborgianism.[5][6] By his works
Suzuki contributed to the emergence of buddhist modernism, a syncretistic form of Buddhism which
blends Asian Buddhism with western transcendentalism.[5]
[edit] Pre-war popular interest
The first English translation of the Tibetan Book of the Dead was published in 1927 and the reprint of
1935 carried a commentary from none other than C.G. Jung. The book is said to have attracted many
westerners to Tibetan Buddhism.[7]
Western spiritual seekers were attracted to what they saw as the exotic and mystical tone of the Asian
traditions, and created esoteric societies such as the Theosophical Society of H.P. Blavatsky. The
Buddhist Society, London was founded by Theosophist Christmas Humphreys in 1924.[citation needed]
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At first Western Buddhology was hampered by poor translations (often translations of translations), but
soon Western scholars such as Max Müller began to learn Asian languages and translate Asian texts.
During the 20th century the German writer Hermann Hesse showed great interest in Eastern religions,
writing a book entitled Siddhartha.
[edit] 1950s
American beat generation writer Jack Kerouac became a well-known literary Buddhist, for his roman à
clef The Dharma Bums and other works. Also influential was Alan Watts, who wrote several books on
Zen and Buddhism. The cultural re-evaluations of the hippie generation in the late 1960s and early
1970s led to a re-discovery of Buddhism, which seemed to promise a more methodical path to
happiness than Christianity and a way out of the perceived spiritual bankruptcy and complexity of
Western life.[7]
[edit] Emerging mainstream western Buddhism
After the Second World War a mainstream western Buddhism emerged.
In 1959 a Japanese teacher, Shunryu Suzuki, arrived in San Francisco. At the time of Suzuki's arrival, Zen
had become a hot topic amongst some groups in the United States, especially beatniks. Suzuki-roshi's
classes were filled with those wanting to learn more about Buddhism, and the presence of a Zen master
inspired the students.
In 1965 Philip Kapleau traveled to Rochester, New York with the permission of his teacher, Haku'un
Yasutani to form the Rochester Zen Center. At this time there were few if any American citizens that had
trained in Japan with ordained Buddhist teachers. Kapleau had spent 13 years (1952–1965) and over 20
sesshin before being allowed to come back and open his own center. During his time in Japan after
World War II, Kapleau wrote his seminal work The Three Pillars of Zen.
In 1965, monks from Sri Lanka established the Washington Buddhist Vihara in Washington, D.C., the first
Theravada monastic community in the United States. The Vihara was quite accessible to English-
speakers, and Vipassana meditation was part of its activities. However, the direct influence of the
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Vipassana movement would not reach the U.S. until a group of Americans returned there in the early
1970s after studying with Vipassana masters in Asia.
In the 1970s, interest in Tibetan Buddhism grew dramatically. This was fuelled in part by the 'shangri-la'
view of this country and also because Western media agencies are largely sympathetic with the 'Tibetan
Cause'. All four of the main Tibetan Buddhist schools became well known. Tibetan lamas such as the
Karmapa (Rangjung Rigpe Dorje), Chögyam Trungpa Rinpoche, Geshe Wangyal, Geshe Lhundub Sopa,
Dezhung Rinpoche, Sermey Khensur Lobsang Tharchin, Tarthang Tulku, Lama Yeshe and Thubten Zopa
Rinpoche all established teaching centers in the West from the 1970s. In 1976, Geshe Kelsang Gyatso
was invited by Lama Thubten Yeshe via their spiritual guide, Trijang Rinpoche, to become the resident
teacher at the main FPMT center in England.
Perhaps the most widely visible Buddhist teacher in the west is the much-travelled Tenzin Gyatso, the
current Dalai Lama, who first visited the United States in 1979. As the exiled political leader of Tibet, he
is now a popular cause célèbre in the west. His early life was depicted in glowing terms in Hollywood
films such as Kundun and Seven Years in Tibet. He has attracted celebrity religious followers such as
Richard Gere and Adam Yauch.
In addition to this a number of Americans who had served in the Korean or Vietnam Wars stayed out in
Asia for a period, seeking to understand both the horror they had witnessed and its context. A few of
these were eventually ordained as monks in both the Mahayana and Theravadan tradition, and upon
returning home became influential meditation teachers establishing such centres as the Insight
Meditation Society in America, such as Bill Porter. Another contributing factor in the flowering of
Buddhist thought in the West was the popularity of Zen amongst the counter-culture poets and activists
of the 1960s, due to the writings of Alan Watts, D.T. Suzuki and Philip Kapleau.
[edit] Western Buddhism today
Today, Buddhism is practiced by increasing numbers of people in the Americas, Europe and Oceania.
Buddhism has become the fastest growing philosophical religion in Australia[8][9] and some other
Western nations.[10][11]
There is a general distinction between Buddhism brought to the West by Asian immigrants, which may
be Mahayana or a traditional East Asian mix, and Buddhism as practiced by converts, which is often Zen,
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Pure Land, Indian Vipassana or Tibetan Buddhism. Some Western Buddhists are actually non-
denominational and accept teachings from a variety of different sects, which is far less frequent in Asia.
[edit] Tibetan Buddhism
Tibetan Buddhism in the West has remained largely traditional, keeping all the doctrine, ritual, faith,
devotion, etc. An example of a large Buddhist group established in the West is the Foundation for the
Preservation of the Mahayana Tradition (FPMT) is a network of Buddhist centers focusing on what it
claims to be traditional Tibetan Buddhism. Founded in 1975 by Lamas Thubten Yeshe and Thubten Zopa
Rinpoche, who began teaching Buddhism to Western students in Nepal, the FPMT has grown to
encompass more than 142 teaching centers in 32 countries. Like many Tibetan Buddhist groups, the
FPMT does not have "members" per se, or elections, but is managed by a self-perpetuating board of
trustees chosen by its "spiritual director" (head lama).
Another example is the New Kadampa Tradition which was established in 1991 by Geshe Kelsang Gyatso
following a three-year retreat in Tharpaland, Dumfried. Today it has over 1100 centers in 40 countries
and maintains the International Temples Project which aims to build a Kadampa Buddhist Temple in
every major city in the world.
[edit] Buddhist modernism
See also: Buddhist modernism
A feature of Buddhism in the West today is the emergence of other groups which, even though they
draw on traditional Buddhism, are in fact an attempt at creating a new style of Buddhist practice.
Controversial lama Chögyam Trungpa, the founder of the Shambhala meditation movement, claimed in
his teachings that his intention was to strip the ethnic baggage away from traditional methods of
working with the mind and to deliver the essence of those teachings to his western students. Chögyam
Trungpa also founded Naropa University in Boulder, Colorado in 1974. Trungpa's movement has also
found particular success in the Canadian province of Nova Scotia, Shambhala International being based
out of Halifax. An associated monastery Gampo Abbey was also built near the community of Pleasant
Bay.
112
The Juniper Foundation was founded in 2003. To benefit from the methods of a Buddhist lineage,
Juniper Foundation holds that they must become integrated into modern culture just as they were in
other cultures.[12] Juniper Foundation calls its approach "Buddhist training for modern life"[13] and it
emphasizes meditation, balancing emotions, cultivating compassion and developing insight as four
building blocks of Buddhist training.[14]
The Triratna Buddhist Community (formerly the Friends of the Western Buddhist Order), was founded
by Sangharakshita in 1967, and the Diamond Way Organisation founded by Ole Nydahl, who has
founded more than 600 buddhist centers across the world.[15]
HÜMÜH: Transcendental Buddhism, or HÜMÜH: Jeweled Path of Living Wisdom, is a modern Western
tradition of Buddhism founded in 1992 by Maticintin, Wisdom Master. Wisdom Master Maticintin culled
the wealth of historical Buddhist Teachings to create a vehicle for the primordial truth which is
accessible to the modern Western culture. HUMUH offers both an Inititate program and home-study
course, as well as, classes at its monastery and retreat center in British Columbia and Teaching Centers
throughout the United States, and is in the process of opening another monastery retreat center near
Kingman, Arizona.[16]
[edit] Charismatic authority
A number of groups and individuals have been implicated in scandals. Sandra Bell has analysed the
scandals at Vajradhatu and the San Francisco Zen Center and concluded that these kinds of scandals are
... most likely to occur in organisations that are in transition between the pure forms of charismatic
authority that brought them into being and more rational, corporate forms of organization".[17]
Robert Sharf also mentions charisma from which institutional power is derived, and the need to balance
charismatic authority with institutional authority.[18] Elaborate analyses of these scandals are made by
Stuart Lachs, who mentions the uncritical acceptance of religious narratives, such as lineages and
dharma transmission, which aid in giving uncritical charismatic powers to teachers and
leaders.[19][20][21][22][23]
113
[edit] Popular culture
Buddhist imagery is increasingly appropriated by modern pop culture and also for commercial use. For
example, the Dalai Lama's image was used in a campaign celebrating leadership by Apple Computer.
Similarly, Tibetan monasteries have been used as backdrops to perfume advertisements in
magazines.[7] Hollywood movies such as Kundun, Little Buddha and Seven Years in Tibet have had
considerable commercial success.[24]
Buddhist practitioners in the West are catered for by a minor industry providing such items as charm
boxes, meditation cushions, and ritual implements. This is akin to the various industries providing ritual
items and publishing scripture historically, however T. Shakya has criticized this industry as the
publication of Buddhist books uproots small forests and consequently kills thousands of insects.[7]
Temples
The largest Buddhist temple in the Southern Hemisphere is the Nan Tien Temple (translated as
"Southern Paradise Temple"), situated at Wollongong, Australia, while the largest Buddhist temple in
the Western Hemisphere is the Hsi Lai Temple (translated as "Coming West Temple"), in California, USA.
Both are operated by the Fo Guang Shan Order, founded in Taiwan, and around 2003 the Grand Master,
Venerable Hsing Yun, asked for Nan Tien Temple and Buddhist practice there to be operated by native
Australians citizens within about thirty years.[25]
The largest monastery in the USA is the City of 10,000 Buddhas in Ukaiah, California.[26] This monastery
was founded by Ven. Hsuan Hua who purchased the property. "Dharma Realm Buddhist Association
purchased the City of Ten Thousand Buddhas in 1974 and established its headquarters there. The City
currently comprises approximately 700 acres of land."[27]
114
115
Chapter Two
Hinduism in America
Hinduism is a minority religion in the United States, American Hindus accounting for an estimated 0.4%
of total US population.[1]The vast majority of American Hindus are Indian Americans, immigrants from
India and Nepal and their descendants, besides a much smaller number of converts.
While there were isolated sojourns by Hindus in the United States during the 19th century, Hindu
presence in the United States was virtually non-existent before the passage of the Immigration and
Nationality Services (INS) Act of 1965.
Hinduism is the predominant religion[3][4] of the Indian subcontinent, and one of its indigenous
religions. Hinduism includes Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Śrauta among numerous other traditions. It also
includes historical groups, for example the Kapalikas. Among other practices and philosophies, Hinduism
includes a wide spectrum of laws and prescriptions of "daily morality" based on karma, dharma, and
societal norms. Hinduism is a conglomeration of distinct intellectual or philosophical points of view,
rather than a rigid common set of beliefs.[5]
Hinduism is formed of diverse traditions and has no single founder.[6] Among its direct roots is the
historical Vedic religion of Iron Age India and, as such, Hinduism is often called the "oldest living
religion"[7] or the "oldest living major religion" in the world.[3][8][9][10]
One orthodox classification of Hindu texts is to divide into Śruti ("revealed") and Smriti ("remembered")
texts. These texts discuss theology, philosophy, mythology, rituals and temple building among other
topics. Major scriptures include the Vedas, Upanishads, Purāṇas, Mahābhārata, Rāmāyaṇa, Bhagavad
Gītā and Āgamas.
116
Hinduism, with about one billion followers, is the world's third largest religion, after Christianity and
Islam.
The word Hindu is derived (through Persian) from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, the historic local
appellation for the Indus River in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent, which is first
mentioned in the Rig Veda.[11][12][13]
The word Hindu was borrowed into European languages from the Arabic term al-Hind, referring to the
land of the people who live across the River Indus,[14] itself from the Persian term Hindū, which refers
to all Indians. By the 13th century, Hindustān emerged as a popular alternative name of India, meaning
the "land of Hindus".[15]
The term Hinduism also occurs sporadically in Sanskrit texts such as the later Rajataranginis of Kashmir
(Hinduka, c. 1450), some 16th-18th century Bengali Gaudiya Vaishnava texts, including Chaitanya
Charitamrita and Chaitanya Bhagavata, usually to contrast Hindus with Yavanas or Mlecchas.[16] It was
only towards the end of the 18th century that the European merchants and colonists referred
collectively to the followers of Indian religions as Hindus. The term Hinduism was introduced into the
English language in the 19th century to denote the religious, philosophical, and cultural traditions native
to India.
History
Main article: History of Hinduism
Sacred Mount Kailash in Tibet is regarded as the spiritual abode of Lord Shiva.
117
The so-called Shiva Pashupati seal
Navy shoulderboard for Hindu military chaplain, South African military
The earliest evidence for prehistoric religion in India date back to the late Neolithic in the early
Harappan period (5500–2600 BCE).[17][18] The beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era (1500–500
BCE) are called the "historical Vedic religion". The Vedic religion shows influence from Proto-Indo-
European religion.[19][20][21][22] The oldest Veda is the Rigveda, dated to 1700–1100 BCE.[23] The
Vedas center on worship of deities such as Indra, Varuna and Agni, and on the Soma ritual. Fire-
sacrifices, called yajña were performed, and Vedic mantras chanted but no temples or idols are
known.[24]
The 9th and 8th centuries BCE witnessed the composition of the earliest Upanishads.[25]:183
Upanishads form the theoretical basis of classical Hinduism and are known as Vedanta (conclusion of the
Veda).[26] The older Upanishads launched attacks of increasing intensity on the rituals.[27] The diverse
monistic speculations of the Upanishads were synthesized into a theistic framework by the sacred Hindu
scripture Bhagavad Gita.[28]
The major Sanskrit epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, were compiled over a protracted period during
the late centuries BCE and the early centuries CE.[29] They contain mythological stories about the rulers
and wars of ancient India, and are interspersed with religious and philosophical treatises. The later
Puranas recount tales about devas and devis, their interactions with humans and their battles against
rakshasa.
Increasing urbanization of India in 7th and 6th centuries BCE led to the rise of new ascetic or shramana
movements which challenged the orthodoxy of rituals.[30] Mahavira (c. 549–477 BCE), proponent of
Jainism, and Buddha (c. 563-483), founder of Buddhism were the most prominent icons of this
118
movement.[25]:184 Shramana gave rise to the concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept of
samsara, and the concept of liberation.[31] Radhakrishnan, Oldenberg and Neumann believed that the
Buddhist canon had been influenced by Upanishads.[32]
In early centuries CE several schools of Hindu philosophy were formally codified, including Samkhya,
Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Purva-Mimamsa and Vedanta.[33] The period between 5th and 9th century
CE was a brilliant era in the development of Indian philosophy as Hindu and Buddhist philosophies
flourished side by side.[34] Of these various schools of thought the non-dualistic Advaita Vedanta
emerged as the most influential and most dominant school of philosophy.[35][36] Charvaka, the
atheistic materialist school, came to the fore in North India before the eighth century CE.[37]
Sanskritic culture went into decline after the end of the Gupta period. The early medieval Puranas
helped establish a religious mainstream among the pre-literate tribal societies undergoing acculturation.
The tenets of Brahmanic Hinduism and of the Dharmashastras underwent a radical transformation at
the hands of the Purana composers, resulting in the rise of a mainstream "Hinduism" that
overshadowed all earlier traditions.[38] In eighth century royal circles, the Buddha started to be
replaced by Hindu gods in pujas.[39] This also was the same period of time the Buddha was made into
an avatar of Vishnu.[40]
Though Islam came to India in the early 7th century with the advent of Arab traders and the conquest of
Sindh, it started to become a major religion during the later Muslim conquest in the Indian
subcontinent.[41] During this period Buddhism declined rapidly and many Hindus were forcibly
converted to Islam.[42][43][44] Numerous Muslim rulers or their army generals such as Aurangzeb and
Malik Kafur destroyed Hindu temples[45][46][47] and persecuted non-Muslims; however some, such as
Akbar, were more tolerant. Hinduism underwent profound changes, in large part due to the influence of
the prominent teachers Ramanuja, Madhva, and Chaitanya.[41] Followers of the Bhakti movement
moved away from the abstract concept of Brahman, which the philosopher Adi Shankara consolidated a
few centuries before, with emotional, passionate devotion towards the more accessible Avatars,
especially Krishna and Rama.[48]
Indology as an academic discipline of studying Indian culture from a European perspective was
established in the 19th century, led by scholars such as Max Müller and John Woodroffe. They brought
Vedic, Puranic and Tantric literature and philosophy to Europe and the United States. At the same time,
societies such as the Brahmo Samaj and the Theosophical Society attempted to reconcile and fuse
Abrahamic and Dharmic philosophies, endeavouring to institute societal reform. This period saw the
emergence of movements which, while highly innovative, were rooted in indigenous tradition. They
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were based on the personalities and teachings of individuals, as with Ramakrishna and Ramana
Maharshi. Prominent Hindu philosophers, including Aurobindo and Prabhupada (founder of ISKCON),
translated, reformulated and presented Hinduism's foundational texts for contemporary audiences in
new iterations, attracting followers and attention in India and abroad. Others such as Vivekananda,
Paramahansa Yogananda, B.K.S. Iyengar and Swami Rama have also been instrumental in raising the
profiles of Yoga and Vedanta in the West.
Typology
Main article: Hindu denominations
The Swaminarayan Akshardham Temple in Delhi, according the Guinness World Records is the World’s
Largest Comprehensive Hindu Temple[49]
Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents. Of the historical
division into six darsanas, only two schools, Vedanta and Yoga, survive. The main divisions of Hinduism
today are Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Smartism and Shaktism.[50] Hinduism also recognizes numerous
divine beings subordinate to the Supreme Being or regards them as lower manifestations of it.[51] Other
notable characteristics include a belief in reincarnation and karma, as well as in personal duty, or
dharma.
McDaniel (2007) distinguishes six generic "types" of Hinduism, in an attempt to accommodate a variety
of views on a rather complex subject:[52]
Folk Hinduism, as based on local traditions and cults of local deities at a communal level and spanning
back to prehistoric times or at least prior to written Vedas.
Śrauta or "Vedic" Hinduism as practiced by traditionalist brahmins (Śrautins).
Vedantic Hinduism, for example Advaita Vedanta (Smartism), as based on the philosophical approach of
the Upanishads.
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Yogic Hinduism, especially that based on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.
"Dharmic" Hinduism or "daily morality", based on Karma, and upon societal norms such as Vivāha
(Hindu marriage customs).
Bhakti or devotionalist practices
Definitions
The Triveni Sangam, or the intersection of Yamuna River, Ganges River and mythical Saraswati river.
Hinduism does not have a "unified system of belief encoded in declaration of faith or a creed",[53] but is
rather an umbrella term comprising the plurality of religious phenomena originating and based on the
Vedic traditions.[54][55][56][57]
The characteristic of comprehensive tolerance to differences in belief, and Hinduism's openness, makes
it difficult to define as a religion according to traditional Western conceptions.[58] To its adherents,
Hinduism is the traditional way of life,[59] and because of the wide range of traditions and ideas
incorporated within or covered by it, arriving at a comprehensive definition of the term is
problematic.[53] While sometimes referred to as a religion, Hinduism is more often defined as a
religious tradition.[4] It is therefore described as both the oldest of the world's religions, and the most
diverse.[3][60][61][62] Most Hindu traditions revere a body of religious or sacred literature, the Vedas,
although there are exceptions. Some Hindu religious traditions regard particular rituals as essential for
salvation, but a variety of views on this co-exist. Some Hindu philosophies postulate a theistic ontology
of creation, of sustenance, and of destruction of the universe, yet some Hindus are atheists. Hinduism is
sometimes characterized by the belief in reincarnation (samsara), determined by the law of karma, and
the idea that salvation is freedom from this cycle of repeated birth and death. However, other religions
of the region, such as Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism, also believe in karma, outside the scope of
Hinduism.[53] Hinduism is therefore viewed as the most complex of all of the living, historical world
religions.[63] Despite its complexity, Hinduism is not only one of the numerically largest faiths, but is
also the oldest living major tradition on earth, with roots reaching back into prehistory.[64]
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A definition of Hinduism, given by the first Vice President of India, who was also a prominent theologian,
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, states that Hinduism is not "just a faith", but in itself is related to the union of
reason and intuition. Radhakrishnan explicitly states that Hinduism cannot be defined, but is only to be
experienced.[65] Similarly some academics suggest that Hinduism can be seen as a category with "fuzzy
edges", rather than as a well-defined and rigid entity. Some forms of religious expression are central to
Hinduism, while others are not as central but still remain within the category. Based on this, Ferro-Luzzi
has developed a 'Prototype Theory approach' to the definition of Hinduism.[66]
Problems with the single definition of what is actually meant by the term 'Hinduism' are often attributed
to the fact that Hinduism does not have a single or common historical founder. Hinduism, or as some say
'Hinduisms,' does not have a single system of salvation and has different goals according to each sect or
denomination. The forms of Vedic religion are seen not as an alternative to Hinduism, but as its earliest
form, and there is little justification for the divisions found in much western scholarly writing between
Vedism, Brahmanism, and Hinduism. According to Supreme court of India "unlike other religions in the
World, the Hindu religion does not claim any one Prophet, it does not worship any one God, it does not
believe in any one philosophic concept, it does not follow any one act of religious rites or performances,
in fact, it does not satisfy the traditional features of a religion or creed. It is a way of life and nothing
more".[10][67]
A definition of Hinduism is further complicated by the frequent use of the term "faith" as a synonym for
"religion".[53] Some academics[68] and many practitioners refer to Hinduism using a native definition,
as Sanātana Dharma, a Sanskrit phrase meaning "the eternal law", or the "eternal way".[69][70]
Beliefs
Temple carving at Hoysaleswara temple representing the Trimurti: Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu.
Hinduism refers to a religious mainstream which evolved organically and spread over a large territory
marked by significant ethnic and cultural diversity. This mainstream evolved both by innovation from
within, and by assimilation of external traditions or cults into the Hindu fold. The result is an enormous
122
variety of religious traditions, ranging from innumerable small, unsophisticated cults to major religious
movements with millions of adherents spread over the entire subcontinent. The identification of
Hinduism as an independent religion separate from Buddhism or Jainism consequently hinges on the
affirmation of its adherents that it is such.[71]
Hinduism grants absolute and complete freedom of belief and worship.[72][73][74] Hinduism conceives
the whole world as a single family that deifies the one truth, and therefore it accepts all forms of beliefs
and dismisses labels of distinct religions which would imply a division of identity.[75] Hence, Hinduism is
devoid of the concepts of apostasy, heresy and blasphemy.[76][77][78][79]
Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include (but are not restricted to), Dharma (ethics/duties), Samsāra
(the continuing cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth), Karma (action and subsequent reaction), Moksha
(liberation from samsara), and the various Yogas (paths or practices).[80]
Concept of God
Main article: God in Hinduism
Krishna displays his Vishvarupa (Universal Form) to Arjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra.
Hinduism is a diverse system of thought with beliefs spanning monotheism, polytheism, panentheism,
pantheism, monism, and atheism among others;[81][82][83][84] and its concept of God is complex and
depends upon each individual and the tradition and philosophy followed. It is sometimes referred to as
henotheistic (i.e., involving devotion to a single god while accepting the existence of others), but any
such term is an overgeneralization.[85]
123
The Rig Veda, the oldest scripture and the mainstay of Hindu philosophy does not take a restrictive view
on the fundamental question of God and the creation of universe. It rather lets the individual seek and
discover answers in the quest of life. Nasadiya Sukta (Creation Hymn) of the Rig Veda thus says:[86][87]
Who really knows?
Who will here proclaim it?
Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation?
The gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe.
Who then knows whence it has arisen?
Most Hindus believe that the spirit or soul — the true "self" of every person, called the ātman — is
eternal.[88] According to the monistic/pantheistic theologies of Hinduism (such as Advaita Vedanta
school), this Atman is ultimately indistinct from Brahman, the supreme spirit. Hence, these schools are
called non-dualist.[89] The goal of life, according to the Advaita school, is to realize that one's ātman is
identical to Brahman, the supreme soul.[90] The Upanishads state that whoever becomes fully aware of
the ātman as the innermost core of one's own self realizes an identity with Brahman and thereby
reaches moksha (liberation or freedom).[88][91]
The schools of Vedanta and Nyaya states that karma itself proves the existence of God .[92][93] Nyaya
being the school of logic, makes the "logical" inference that the universe is an effect and it ought to have
a creator.[94]
Dualistic schools (see Dvaita and Bhakti) understand Brahman as a Supreme Being who possesses
personality, and they worship him or her thus, as Vishnu, Brahma, Shiva, or Shakti, depending upon the
sect. The ātman is dependent on God, while moksha depends on love towards God and on God's
grace.[95] When God is viewed as the supreme personal being (rather than as the infinite principle), God
is called Ishvara ("The Lord"),[96] Bhagavan ("The Auspicious One"[96]) or Parameshwara ("The
Supreme Lord"[96]).[89] However interpretations of Ishvara vary, ranging from non-belief in Ishvara by
followers of Mimamsakas, to identifying Brahman and Ishvara as one, as in Advaita.[89] In the majority
of traditions of Vaishnavism he is Vishnu, God, and the text of Vaishnava scriptures identify this Being as
Krishna, sometimes referred to as svayam bhagavan. However, under Shaktism, Devi or Adi parashakti is
considered as the Supreme Being and in Shaivism Shiva is considered Supreme.
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The multitude of devas are viewed as avatars of the Brahman.[97][98][99][100] In discussing the
Trimurti, Sir William Jones states that Hindus "worship the Supreme Being under three forms — Vishnu,
Siva, Brahma...The fundamental idea of the Hindu religion, that of metamorphoses, or transformations,
is exemplified in the Avatars."[101]
In Bhagavad Gita, for example, God is the sole repository of Gunas (attributes) also, as[102]
His hands and feet are everywhere, He looks everywhere and all around, His eyes, ears and face point to
all directions, and all the three worlds are surrounded by these.
Atheistic doctrines dominate Hindu schools like Samkhya and Mimamsa.[103] The Sāṁkhyapravacana
Sūtra of Samkhya argues that the existence of God (Ishvara) cannot be proved and hence cannot be
admitted to exist.[104] Samkhya argue that an unchanging God cannot be the source of an ever
changing world. It says God was a necessary metaphysical assumption demanded by
circumstances.[105] Proponents of the school of Mimamsa, which is based on rituals and orthopraxy
states that the evidence allegedly proving the existence of God was insufficient. They argue that there is
no need to postulate a maker for the world, just as there is no need for an author to compose the Vedas
or a God to validate the rituals.[106] Mimamsa considers the Gods named in the Vedas have no
existence apart from the mantras that speak their names. To that regard, the power of the mantras is
what is seen as the power of Gods.[107]
Devas and avatars
Detail of the Phra Prang, the central tower of the Wat Arun ("Temple of Dawn") in Bangkok, Thailand -
showing Indra on his three-headed elephant Erawan (Airavata)
125
Krishna, the eighth incarnation (Avatar) of Vishnu or svayam bhagavan, worshiped across a number of
traditions
The Hindu scriptures refer to celestial entities called Devas (or devī in feminine form; devatā used
synonymously for Deva in Hindi), "the shining ones", which may be translated into English as "gods" or
"heavenly beings".[108] The devas are an integral part of Hindu culture and are depicted in art,
architecture and through icons, and mythological stories about them are related in the scriptures,
particularly in Indian epic poetry and the Puranas. They are, however, often distinguished from Ishvara,
a supreme personal god, with many Hindus worshiping Ishvara in one of its particular manifestations
(ostensibly separate deities) as their iṣṭa devatā, or chosen ideal.[109][110] The choice is a matter of
individual preference,[111] and of regional and family traditions.[111]
Hindu epics and the Puranas relate several episodes of the descent of God to Earth in corporeal form to
restore dharma to society and to guide humans to moksha. Such an incarnation is called an Avatar. The
most prominent avatars are of Vishnu and include Rama (the protagonist in Ramayana) and Krishna (a
central figure in the epic Mahabharata).
Karma and samsara
Main article: Karma in Hinduism
Karma translates literally as action, work, or deed,[112] and can be described as the "moral law of cause
and effect".[113] According to the Upanishads an individual, known as the jiva-atma, develops sanskaras
(impressions) from actions, whether physical or mental. The linga sharira, a body more subtle than the
physical one but less subtle than the soul, retains impressions, carrying them over into the next life,
establishing a unique trajectory for the individual.[114] Thus, the concept of a universal, neutral, and
never-failing karma intrinsically relates to reincarnation as well as to one's personality, characteristics,
and family. Karma binds together the notions of free will and destiny.
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This cycle of action, reaction, birth, death and rebirth is a continuum called samsara. The notion of
reincarnation and karma is a strong premise in Hindu thought. The Bhagavad Gita states:
As a person puts on new clothes and discards old and torn clothes,
similarly an embodied soul enters new material bodies, leaving the old bodies.(B.G. 2:22)[115]
Samsara provides ephemeral pleasures, which lead people to desire rebirth so as to enjoy the pleasures
of a perishable body. However, escaping the world of samsara through moksha is believed to ensure
lasting happiness and peace.[116][117] It is thought that after several reincarnations, an atman
eventually seeks unity with the cosmic spirit (Brahman/Paramatman).
The ultimate goal of life, referred to as moksha, nirvana or samadhi, is understood in several different
ways: as the realization of one's union with God; as the realization of one's eternal relationship with
God; realization of the unity of all existence; perfect unselfishness and knowledge of the Self; as the
attainment of perfect mental peace; and as detachment from worldly desires. Such realization liberates
one from samsara and ends the cycle of rebirth.[118][119] Due to belief in the indestructibility of the
soul,[120] death is deemed insignificant with respect to the cosmic self.[121] Thence, a person who has
no desire or ambition left and no responsibilities remaining in life or one affected by a terminal disease
may embrace death by Prayopavesa.[122]
The exact conceptualization of moksha differs among the various Hindu schools of thought. For
example, Advaita Vedanta holds that after attaining moksha an atman no longer identifies itself with an
individual but as identical with Brahman in all respects. The followers of Dvaita (dualistic) schools
identify themselves as part of Brahman, and after attaining moksha expect to spend eternity in a loka
(heaven),[123] in the company of their chosen form of Ishvara. Thus, it is said that the followers of
dvaita wish to "taste sugar", while the followers of Advaita wish to "become sugar".[124]
Objectives of human life
127
From Ramayana
Main article: Purusharthas
See also: Initiation, Dharma, Artha, Kāma, and Mokṣa
Classical Hindu thought accepts the following objectives of human life, that which is sought as human
purpose, aim, or end, is known as the puruṣārthas:[125][126]
Dharma (righteousness, ethikos)
The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad views dharma as the universal principle of law, order, harmony, all in all
truth, that sprang first from Brahman. It acts as the regulatory moral principle of the Universe. It is sat
(truth), a major tenet of Hinduism. This hearkens back to the conception of the Rig Veda that "Ekam
Sat," (Truth Is One), of the idea that Brahman is "Sacchidananda" (Truth-Consciousness-Bliss). Dharma is
not just law, or harmony, it is pure Reality. In the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad's own words:
Verily, that which is Dharma is truth, Therefore they say of a man who speaks truth, "He speaks the
Dharma,"
or of a man who speaks the Dharma, "He speaks the Truth.", Verily, both these things are the same.
—(Brh. Upanishad, 1.4.14) (2)
In the Mahabharata, Krishna defines dharma as upholding both this-worldly and other-worldly affairs.
(Mbh 12.110.11). The word Sanātana means 'eternal', 'perennial', or 'forever'; thus, 'Sanātana Dharma'
signifies that it is the dharma that has neither beginning nor end.[127]
128
Artha (livelihood, wealth)
Artha is objective & virtuous pursuit of wealth for livelihood, obligations and economic prosperity. It is
inclusive of political life, diplomacy and material well-being. The doctrine of Artha is called Arthashastra,
amongst the most famous of which is Kautilya Arthashastra.[128][129][130]
Kāma (sensual pleasure)
Kāma (Sanskrit, Pali; Devanagari: ) means desire, wish, passion, longing, pleasure of the senses, the
aesthetic enjoyment of life, affection, or love.[131][132]
Mokṣa (liberation, freedom from samsara)
Moksha (Sanskrit: ष mokṣa) or mukti (Sanskrit: ), literally "release" (both from a root muc "to
let loose, let go"), is the last goal of life. It is liberation from samsara and the concomitant suffering
involved in being subject to the cycle of repeated death and reincarnation.[133]
Yoga
Main article: Yoga
A statue of Shiva in yogic meditation.
129
In whatever way a Hindu defines the goal of life, there are several methods (yogas) that sages have
taught for reaching that goal. Texts dedicated to Yoga include the Bhagavad Gita, the Yoga Sutras, the
Hatha Yoga Pradipika, and, as their philosophical and historical basis, the Upanishads. Paths that one can
follow to achieve the spiritual goal of life (moksha, samadhi or nirvana) include:
Bhakti Yoga (the path of love and devotion)
Karma Yoga (the path of right action)
Rāja Yoga (the path of meditation)
Jñāna Yoga (the path of wisdom)[134]
An individual may prefer one or some yogas over others, according to his or her inclination and
understanding. Some devotional schools teach that bhakti is the only practical path to achieve spiritual
perfection for most people, based on their belief that the world is currently in the Kali Yuga (one of four
epochs which are part of the Yuga cycle).[135] Practice of one yoga does not exclude others. Many
schools believe that the different yogas naturally blend into and aid other yogas. For example, the
practice of jnana yoga, is thought to inevitably lead to pure love (the goal of bhakti yoga), and vice
versa.[136] Someone practicing deep meditation (such as in raja yoga) must embody the core principles
of karma yoga, jnana yoga and bhakti yoga, whether directly or indirectly.[134][137]
Practices
Main articles: Puja (Hinduism), Yajna, Murti, Mandir, Hindu iconography, Japa, and Mantra
See also: Initiation
The sacred Tulsi plant in front of the house.
130
Hindu practices generally involve seeking awareness of God and sometimes also seeking blessings from
Devas. Therefore, Hinduism has developed numerous practices meant to help one think of divinity in the
midst of everyday life. Hindus can engage in pūjā (worship or veneration),[96] either at home or at a
temple. At home, Hindus often create a shrine with icons dedicated to their chosen form(s) of God.
Temples are usually dedicated to a primary deity along with associated subordinate deities though some
commemorate multiple deities. Visiting temples is not obligatory,[138] and many visit temples only
during religious festivals. Hindus perform their worship through icons (murtis). The icon serves as a
tangible link between the worshiper and God.[139] The image is often considered a manifestation of
God, since God is immanent. The Padma Purana states that the mūrti is not to be thought of as mere
stone or wood but as a manifest form of the Divinity.[140] A few Hindu sects, such as the Ārya Samāj, do
not believe in worshiping God through icons.
Hinduism has a developed system of symbolism and iconography to represent the sacred in art,
architecture, literature and worship. These symbols gain their meaning from the scriptures, mythology,
or cultural traditions. The syllable Om (which represents the Parabrahman) and the Swastika sign (which
symbolizes auspiciousness) have grown to represent Hinduism itself, while other markings such as tilaka
identify a follower of the faith. Hinduism associates many symbols, which include the lotus, chakra and
veena, with particular deities.
Mantras are invocations, praise and prayers that through their meaning, sound, and chanting style help
a devotee focus the mind on holy thoughts or express devotion to God/the deities. Many devotees
perform morning ablutions at the bank of a sacred river while chanting the Gayatri Mantra or
Mahamrityunjaya mantras.[141] The epic Mahabharata extols Japa (ritualistic chanting) as the greatest
duty in the Kali Yuga (what Hindus believe to be the current age).[142] Many adopt Japa as their primary
spiritual practice.[142]
Rituals
Offerings to Agni during Vivah-homa in a Hindu wedding
131
The vast majority of Hindus engage in religious rituals on a daily basis.[143][144] Most Hindus observe
religious rituals at home.[145] but observation of rituals greatly vary among regions, villages, and
individuals. Devout Hindus perform daily chores such as worshiping at dawn after bathing (usually at a
family shrine, and typically includes lighting a lamp and offering foodstuffs before the images of deities),
recitation from religious scripts, singing devotional hymns, meditation, chanting mantras, reciting
scriptures etc.[145] A notable feature in religious ritual is the division between purity and pollution.
Religious acts presuppose some degree of impurity or defilement for the practitioner, which must be
overcome or neutralised before or during ritual procedures. Purification, usually with water, is thus a
typical feature of most religious action.[145] Other characteristics include a belief in the efficacy of
sacrifice and concept of merit, gained through the performance of charity or good works, that will
accumulate over time and reduce sufferings in the next world.[145] Vedic rites of fire-oblation (yajna)
are now only occasional practices, although they are highly revered in theory. In Hindu wedding and
burial ceremonies, however, the yajña and chanting of Vedic mantras are still the norm.[146] The rituals,
upacharas, change with time. For instance, in the past few hundred years some rituals, such as sacred
dance and music offerings in the standard Sodasa Upacharas set prescribed by the Agama Shastra, were
replaced by the offerings of rice and sweets.
Occasions like birth, marriage, and death involve what are often elaborate sets of religious customs. In
Hinduism, life-cycle rituals include Annaprashan (a baby's first intake of solid food), Upanayanam
("sacred thread ceremony" undergone by upper-caste children at their initiation into formal education)
and Śrāddha (ritual of treating people to a meal in return for prayers to 'God' to give peace to the soul of
the deceased).[147][148] For most people in India, the betrothal of the young couple and the exact date
and time of the wedding are matters decided by the parents in consultation with astrologers.[147] On
death, cremation is considered obligatory for all except sanyasis, hijra, and children under five.[149]
Cremation is typically performed by wrapping the corpse in cloth and burning it on a pyre.
Pilgrimage
See also: Hindu Pilgrimage sites, Pilgrimage in Hinduism, Yatra, and Tirtha and Kshetra
132
Pilgrimage to Kedarnath
Following pilgrimage sites are most famous amongst Hindu devotees:
Char Dham (Famous Four Pilgrimage sites): The four holy sites Puri, Rameswaram, Dwarka, and
Badrinath (or alternatively the Himalayan towns of Badrinath, Kedarnath, Gangotri, and Yamunotri)
compose the Char Dham (four abodes) pilgrimage circuit.
Kumbh Mela: The Kumbh Mela (the "pitcher festival") is one of the holiest of Hindu pilgrimages that is
held afetr every 12 years; the location is rotated among Allahabad, Haridwar, Nashik, and Ujjain.
Old Holy cities as per Puranic Texts: Varanasi formerly known as Kashi, Allahabad formerly known as
Prayag, Haridwar-Rishikesh, Mathura-Vrindavan, and Ayodhya.
Major Temple cities: Puri, which hosts a major Vaishnava Jagannath temple and Rath Yatra celebration;
Katra, home to the Vaishno Devi temple; Three comparatively recent temples of fame and huge
pilgrimage are Shirdi, home to Sai Baba of Shirdi, Tirumala - Tirupati, home to the Tirumala
Venkateswara Temple; and Sabarimala,where Swami Ayyappan is worshipped.
Shakti Peethas: Another important set of pilgrimages are the Shakti Peethas, where the Mother Goddess
is worshipped, the two principal ones being Kalighat and Kamakhya.
While there are different yet similar pilgrimage routes in different parts of India, all are respected
equally well, according to the universality of Hinduism.
Pilgrimage is not mandatory in Hinduism, though many adherents undertake them.[150]
Festivals
Main article: Hindu festivals
133
The festival of lights- Diwali, is celebrated by Hindus all over the world.
Hindu festivals (Sanskrit: Utsava; literally: "to lift higher") are considered as symbolic rituals that
beautifully weave individual and social life to dharma.[151] Hinduism has many festivals throughout the
year. The Hindu calendar usually prescribe their dates.
The festivals typically celebrate events from Hindu mythology, often coinciding with seasonal changes.
There are festivals which are primarily celebrated by specific sects or in certain regions of the Indian
subcontinent.
Some widely observed Hindu festivals are :
Maha Shivaratri
Pongal
Holi
Vasant Panchami
Thaipusam
Ram Navami
Krishna Janmastami
134
Ganesh Chaturthi
Shigmo
Dussera
Durga Puja
Diwali
Hinduism is based on "the accumulated treasury of spiritual laws discovered by different persons in
different times".[152][153] The scriptures were transmitted orally in verse form to aid memorization, for
many centuries before they were written down.[154] Over many centuries, sages refined the teachings
and expanded the canon. In post-Vedic and current Hindu belief, most Hindu scriptures are not typically
interpreted literally. More importance is attached to the ethics and metaphorical meanings derived
from them.[17] Most sacred texts are in Sanskrit. The texts are classified into two classes: Shruti and
Smriti.
Shruti
The Rig Veda is one of the oldest religious texts. This Rig Veda manuscript is in Devanagari
Shruti (lit: that which is heard)[155] primarily refers to the Vedas, which form the earliest record of the
Hindu scriptures. While many Hindus revere the Vedas as eternal truths revealed to ancient sages
(Ṛṣis),[153] some devotees do not associate the creation of the Vedas with a god or person. They are
thought of as the laws of the spiritual world, which would still exist even if they were not revealed to the
sages.[152][156][157] Hindus believe that because the spiritual truths of the Vedas are eternal, they
continue to be expressed in new ways.[158]
There are four Vedas (called Ṛg-, Sāma-, Yajus- and Atharva-). The Rigveda is the first and most
important Veda.[159] Each Veda is divided into four parts: the primary one, the Veda proper, being the
Saṃhitā, which contains sacred mantras. The other three parts form a three-tier ensemble of
commentaries, usually in prose and are believed to be slightly later in age than the Saṃhitā. These are:
the Brāhmaṇas, Āraṇyakas, and the Upanishads. The first two parts were subsequently called the
Karmakāṇḍa (ritualistic portion), while the last two form the Jñānakāṇḍa (knowledge portion).[160]
While the Vedas focus on rituals, the Upanishads focus on spiritual insight and philosophical teachings,
and discuss Brahman and reincarnation.[17][161][162]
135
A well known shloka from Brihadaranyaka Upanishad is:
ॐ । ।।
।ॐ ।।
– ष 1.3.28.
IAST:
om asato mā sadgamaya | tamaso mā jyotirgamaya ||
mṛtyor mā amṛtaṁ gamaya | om śānti śānti śānti ||
– bṛhadāraṇyaka upaniṣada 1.3.28
Translation:
Lead Us From the Unreal To the Real |
Lead Us From Darkness To Light ||
Lead Us From Death To Immortality |
OM Let There Be Peace Peace Peace.||
– Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.3.28.
Smritis
136
Bhagavad Gita, a 19th-century manuscript
Hindu texts other than the Shrutis are collectively called the Smritis (memory). The most notable of the
smritis are the epics, which consist of the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa. The Bhagavad Gītā is an
integral part of the Mahabharata and one of the most popular sacred texts of Hinduism. It contains
philosophical teachings from Krishna, an incarnation of Vishnu, told to the prince Arjuna on the eve of a
great war. The Bhagavad Gītā, spoken by Krishna, is described as the essence of the Vedas.[163]
However Gita, sometimes called Gitopanishad, is more often placed in the Shruti, category, being
Upanishadic in content.[164] Purāṇas, which illustrate Hindu ideas through vivid narratives come under
smritis. Other texts include Devī Mahātmya, the Tantras, the Yoga Sutras, Tirumantiram, Shiva Sutras
and the Hindu Āgamas. A more controversial text, the Manusmriti, is a prescriptive lawbook which lays
the societal codes of social stratification which later evolved into the Indian caste system.[165]
A well known verse from Bhagavad Gita describing a concept in Karma Yoga is explained as
follows[166][167]
To action alone hast thou a right and never at all to its fruits;
let not the fruits of action be thy motive;
neither let there be in thee any attachment to inaction. (2.47)
Order of precedence of authority
The order of precedence regarding authority of Vedic Scriptures is as follows,
Śruti, literally "hearing, listening", are the sacred texts comprising the central canon of Hinduism and is
one of the three main sources of dharma and therefore is also influential within Hindu Law.[168]
Smṛti, literally "that which is remembered (or recollected)", refers to a specific body of Hindu religious
scripture, and is a codified component of Hindu customary law. Post Vedic scriptures such as Ramayana,
Mahabharata and traditions of the rules on dharma such as Manu Smriti and Yaagnyavalkya Smriti. Smrti
also denotes tradition in the sense that it portrays the traditions of the rules on dharma, especially those
of lawful virtuous persons.)
Purāṇa, literally "of ancient times", are post-vedic scriptures notably consisting of narratives of the
history of the universe from creation to destruction, genealogies of kings, heroes, sages, and demigods,
and descriptions of Hindu cosmology, philosophy, and geography.[169]
137
Śiṣṭāchāra, literally "that which is followed by good (in recent times)".
Atmatuṣṭi, literally "that which satisfies oneself (or self validation)", according to which one has to
decide whether or not to do with bona fide. Initially this was not considered in the order of precedence
but Manu and Yājñavalkya considered it as last one.
That means, if anyone of them contradicts the preceding one then it disqualified as an authority. There
is a well known Indian saying that Smṛti follows Śruti. So it was considered that in order to establish any
theistic philosophical theory (Astika Siddhanta) one ought not contradict Śruti (Vedas).
Adi Sankara has chosen three standards and named as Prasthānatrayī, literally, three points of departure
(three standards). Later these were referred to as the three canonical texts of reference of Hindu
philosophy by other Vedanta schools.
They are:
1.The Upanishads, known as Upadesha prasthāna (injunctive texts), (part of Śruti)
2.The Bhagavad Gita, known as Sādhana prasthāna (practical text), (part of Smṛti)
3.The Brahma Sutras, known as Nyāya prasthāna or Yukti prasthana (part of darśana of Uttarā
Mīmāṃsā)
The Upanishads consist of twelve or thirteen major texts, with many minor texts. The Bhagavad Gītā is
part of the Mahabhārata.The Brahma Sūtras (also known as the Vedānta Sūtras), systematise the
doctrines taught in the Upanishads and the Gītā.
Demographics
138
Hinduism - Percentage by country
Part of a series on
Hinduism
Hinduism is a major religion in India and, according to a 2001 census, Hinduism was followed by around
80.5% of the country's population of 1.21 billion (2012 estimate) (960 million adherents).[170] Other
significant populations are found in Nepal (23 million), Bangladesh (15 million) and the Indonesian island
of Bali (3.3 million).
Countries with the greatest proportion of Hindus from Hinduism by country (as of 2008):
1. Nepal 86.5%[171]
2. India 80.5%
3. Mauritius 54%[172]
4. Guyana 28%[173]
5. Fiji 27.9%[174]
6. Bhutan 25%[175]
7. Trinidad and Tobago 22.5%
8. Suriname 20%[176]
9. Sri Lanka 15%[177]
10. Bangladesh 9.6%[178]
11. Qatar 7.2%
12. Réunion 6.7%
13. Malaysia 6.3%[179]
14. Bahrain 6.25%
139
15. Kuwait 6%
16. United Arab Emirates 5%
17. Singapore 4%
18. Oman 3%
19. Belize 2.3%
20. Seychelles 2.1%[180]
Demographically, Hinduism is the world's third largest religion, after Christianity and Islam.
Society
Denominations
Main article: Hindu denominations
Padmanabhaswamy Temple, the richest temple in India and the world[181]
Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and many practising Hindus do not claim to belong to any
particular denomination.[182] However, academics categorize contemporary Hinduism into four major
denominations: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism and Smartism. The denominations differ primarily in
the god worshipped as the Supreme One and in the traditions that accompany worship of that god.
Vaishnavas worship Vishnu as the supreme God; Shaivites worship Shiva as the supreme; Shaktas
worship Shakti (power) personified through a female divinity or Mother Goddess, Devi; while Smartas
140
believe in the essential oneness of five (panchadeva) or six (Shanmata, as Tamil Hindus add
Skanda)[183] deities as personifications of the Supreme.
The Western conception of what Hinduism is has been defined by the Smarta view; many Hindus, who
may not understand or follow Advaita philosophy, in contemporary Hinduism, invariably follow the
Shanmata belief worshiping many forms of God. One commentator, noting the influence of the Smarta
tradition, remarked that although many Hindus may not strictly identify themselves as Smartas but, by
adhering to Advaita Vedanta as a foundation for non-sectarianism, are indirect followers.[184]
The Mother Temple of Besakih in Bali, Indonesia.
Other denominations like Ganapatya (the cult of Ganesha) and Saura (Sun worship) are not so
widespread.
There are movements that are not easily placed in any of the above categories, such as Swami
Dayananda Saraswati's Arya Samaj, which rejects image worship and veneration of multiple deities. It
focuses on the Vedas and the Vedic fire sacrifices (yajña).
The Tantric traditions have various sects, as Banerji observes:
Tantras are ... also divided as āstika or Vedic and nāstika or non-Vedic. In accordance with the
predominance of the deity the āstika works are again divided as Śākta (Shakta), Śaiva (Shaiva), Saura,
Gāṇapatya and Vaiṣṇava (Vaishnava).[185]
Ashramas
Main article: Ashrama
141
A Balmiki Ashram
Traditionally the life of a Hindu is divided into four Āshramas (phases or stages; unrelated meanings
include monastery). The first part of one's life, Brahmacharya, the stage as a student, is spent in celibate,
controlled, sober and pure contemplation under the guidance of a Guru, building up the mind for
spiritual knowledge. Grihastha is the householder's stage, in which one marries and satisfies kāma and
artha in one's married and professional life respectively (see the goals of life). The moral obligations of a
Hindu householder include supporting one's parents, children, guests and holy figures. Vānaprastha, the
retirement stage, is gradual detachment from the material world. This may involve giving over duties to
one's children, spending more time in religious practices and embarking on holy pilgrimages. Finally, in
Sannyāsa, the stage of asceticism, one renounces all worldly attachments to secludedly find the Divine
through detachment from worldly life and peacefully shed the body for Moksha.[186]
Monasticism
Main article: Sannyasa
A sadhu in Madurai, India.
Some Hindus choose to live a monastic life (Sannyāsa) in pursuit of liberation or another form of
spiritual perfection. Monastics commit themselves to a life of simplicity, celibacy, detachment from
worldly pursuits, and the contemplation of God.[187] A Hindu monk is called a sanyāsī, sādhu, or swāmi.
A female renunciate is called a sanyāsini. Renunciates receive high respect in Hindu society because
their outward renunciation of selfishness and worldliness serves as an inspiration to householders who
strive for mental renunciation. Some monastics live in monasteries, while others wander from place to
place, trusting in God alone to provide for their needs.[188] It is considered a highly meritorious act for a
householder to provide sādhus with food or other necessaries. Sādhus strive to treat all with respect
and compassion, whether a person may be poor or rich, good or wicked, and to be indifferent to praise,
blame, pleasure, and pain.[187]
Varnas
Main article: Varna in Hinduism
142
Hindu society has traditionally been categorized into four classes, called Varnas (Sanskrit: "colour, form,
appearance"):[96]
the Brahmins: teachers and priests;
the Kshatriyas: warriors, nobles, and kings;
the Vaishyas: farmers, merchants, and businessmen; and
the Shudras: servants and labourers.
Hindus and scholars debate whether the so-called caste system is an integral part of Hinduism
sanctioned by the scriptures or an outdated social custom.[189] Among the scriptures, the Varna system
is mentioned sparingly and descriptively (i.e., not prescriptive); apart from a single mention in the late
Rigvedic Purusha sukta, the rigid division into varnas appears to be post-Vedic, appearing in classical
texts from the Maurya period. The Bhagavad Gītā (4.13) states that the four varṇa divisions are created
by God, and the Manusmṛiti categorizes the different castes.[190] However, at the same time, the Gītā
says that one's varṇa is to be understood from one's personal qualities and one's work, not one's
birth.[191] Some mobility and flexibility within the varnas challenge allegations of social discrimination
in the caste system, as has been pointed out by several sociologists,[192][193] although some other
scholars disagree.[194]
Many social reformers, including Mahatma Gandhi and B. R. Ambedkar, criticized caste
discrimination.[195] The religious teacher Sri Ramakrishna (1836–1886) taught that
Lovers of God do not belong to any caste . . . . A brahmin without this love is no longer a brahmin. And a
pariah with the love of God is no longer a pariah. Through bhakti (devotion to God) an untouchable
becomes pure and elevated.[196]
Ahimsa, vegetarianism and other food customs
Main articles: Ahimsa, Vegetarianism and religion, and Cattle in Religion
143
Hindus advocate the practice of ahiṃsā (non-violence) and respect for all life because divinity is believed
to permeate all beings, including plants and non-human animals.[197] The term ahiṃsā appears in the
Upanishads,[198] the epic Mahabharata[199] and Ahiṃsā is the first of the five Yamas (vows of self-
restraint) in Patanjali's Yoga Sutras.[200] and the first principle for all member of Varnashrama Dharma
(brahmin, kshatriya, vaishya and shudra) in Law of Manu (book 10, sutra 63 : Ahimsa, satya, asteya,
shaucam and indrayanigraha, almost similar to main principles of jainism).[201][202]
A goshala or cow shelter at Guntur
In accordance with ahiṃsā, many Hindus embrace vegetarianism to respect higher forms of life.
Estimates of the number of lacto vegetarians in India (includes adherents of all religions) vary between
20% and 42%.[203] The food habits vary with the community and region, for example some castes
having fewer vegetarians and coastal populations relying on seafood.[204][205] Some avoid meat only
on specific holy days. Observant Hindus who do eat meat almost always abstain from beef. The cow in
Hindu society is traditionally identified as a caretaker and a maternal figure,[206] and Hindu society
honours the cow as a symbol of unselfish giving.[207] Cow-slaughter is legally banned in almost all
states of India.[208]
There are many Hindu groups that have continued to abide by a strict vegetarian diet in modern times.
One example is the movement known as ISKCON (International Society for Krishna Consciousness),
whose followers “not only abstain from meat, fish, and fowl, but also avoid certain vegetables that are
thought to have negative properties, such as onion and garlic.”[209] A second example is the
Swaminarayan Movement. The followers of this Hindu group also staunchly adhere to a diet that is
devoid of meat, eggs, and seafood.[210]
Rajasthani thali.
Vegetarianism is propagated by the Yajur Veda and it is recommended for a satvic (purifying)
lifestyle.[211] Thus, another reason that dietary purity is so eminent within Hinduism is because “the
idea that food reflects the general qualities of nature: purity, energy, inertia” It follows, then, that a
healthy diet should be one that promotes purity within an individual.[209]
Based on this reasoning, Hindus should avoid or minimize the intake of foods that do not promote
purity. These foods include onion and garlic, which are regarded as rajasic (a state which is characterized
by “tension and overbearing demeanor”) foods, and meat, which is regarded as tamasic (a state which is
characterized by “anger, greed, and jealousy”).[212]
Some Hindus from certain sects - generally Shakta,[213] certain Shudra and Kshatriya castes[214][215]
and certain Eastern Indian[216] and East Asian regions;[217] practise animal sacrifice (bali).[218]
Although most Hindus, including the majority of Vaishnava and Shaivite Hindus abhor it.[219]
144
Conversion
See also: Conversion to Hinduism and Religious_conversion#Hinduism
Clear concepts of conversion, evangelization, and proselytization are absent from Hindu texts, playing a
marginal role in practice. Early in their history, in the absence of other competing religions, Hindus
considered everyone they came across as Hindus and expected everyone they met to be
Hindus.[220][221]
Hindus today continue to be influenced by historical ideas of acceptability of conversion.[222] Hence,

many Hindus continue to believe that Hinduism is an identity that can only be had from birth,[223] while
many others continue to believe that anyone who follows Hindu beliefs and practices is a Hindu,[224]
and many believe in some form of both theories. However, as a reaction to perceived and actual threat
of evangelization, prozelyzation, and conversion activities of other major religions many modern Hindus
are opposed to the idea of conversion from (any) one religion to (any) other per se.[225]
In Southeast Asia the merchant, sailor, and priestly class accounted for much of the spread of the
religion.[226] Many foreign groups including Gujjars, Ahoms, and Hunas converted to Hinduism after
generations of Sanskritization.[227] In India and Indonesia today many groups still convert to
Hinduism.[228]
With the rise of Hindu revivalist movements, conversions to Hinduism have risen.[229] Reconversion of
former adherents of Hinduism are well accepted since conversion out of Hinduism is not
recognized.[230]
There is no formal process for converting to Hinduism, although in many traditions a ritual called dīkshā
("initiation") marks the beginning of spiritual life.[231] A ritual called shuddhi ("purification") sometimes
marks the return to spiritual life after reconversion.[232] Most Hindu sects do not actively seek
converts,[233][234][235][236] as they believe that the goals of spiritual life can be attained through any
religion, as long as it is practiced sincerely.[233][237] However, some Hindu sects and affiliates such as
Arya Samaj, Saiva Siddhanta Church, BAPS, and the International Society for Krishna Consciousness
accept those who have a desire to follow Hinduism.
145
146
147
Chapter Three
Jainism faith in America
The Jain symbol that was agreed upon by all Jain sects in 1974.
Adherents of Jainism first arrived in the United States in the 20th century. The most significant time of
Jain immigration was in the early 1970s. The United States has since become a center of the Jain
Diaspora
In 1893, Virachand Gandhi was officially first jain delegate to visit USA and represent Jainism in first ever
Parliament of World Religions [3]. Virchand Gandhi is considered a key figure in the history of American
Jainism as the first practicing Jain to speak publicly in the United States about Jainism.[1] The first Jain
temple in the United States was built for the St. Louis World's Fair in 1904. After the fair, the temple was
moved to Las Vegas and later to Los Angeles. It is now owned by the Jain Society of Los Angeles.
Adherents of Jainism first arrived in the United States in the 20th century. The most significant time of
Jain immigration was in the early 1970s. The United States has since become a center of the Jain
Diaspora.
148
From left to right: Virchand Gandhi, Hewivitarne Dharmapala, Swami Vivekananda, and (possibly) G.
Bonet Maury
The first Jain monk to travel to the United States, known as Chitrabhanu, arrived in 1971. He gave
several lectures about Jainism at Harvard University and established a Jain center in New York. In 1975 a
second Jain monk, Acharya Sushil Kumarji, arrived in the United States. He established multiple Jain
centers.[4] In the 1980s the Federation of Jain Associations in North America was founded to support
the Jain community in the United States and Canada.[4]
As of 2010 the United States contained the most Jain temples of any country in the Jain diaspora.[1] At
least one third of the Jains living outside of India live in the United States, numbering close to
100,000.[1][2] Jain temples in the United States, which numbered 26 as of 2006, frequently incorporate
marble and arches in a style reminiscent of Rajasthan architecture.[1] There are almost 100 distinct Jain
congregations in the United States.[4]
Many Jains in the United States are often employed in white-collar occupations. They also frequently
volunteer at animal welfare organizations.[1]
[edit] Analysis
Vinod Kapasi has argued that the differences between the Svetambara and Digambara communities are
not seen as significant to most Jains in the United States. He also notes that Jain temples in North
America are rarely associated with a specific sect, as they often are in India or the United Kingdom.[5]
[edit] Federation of Jain Associations in North America (JAINA)
The Federation of Jain Associations in North America is an umbrella organization of local American and
Canadian Jain congregations to preserve, practice, and promote Jainism and the Jain Way of Life.[6]
149
Jainism ( /ˈdʒeɪnɪzəm/; Sanskrit: Jainadharma, Tamil: Samaṇam, Bengali:

Jainadharma, Telugu: Jainamataṁ, Malayalam: Jainmat, Kannada:
Jaina dharma), is an Indian religion that prescribes a path of non-violence towards all living beings. Its
philosophy and practice emphasize the necessity of self-effort to move the soul toward divine
consciousness and liberation. Any soul that has conquered its own inner enemies and achieved the state
of supreme being is called a jina ("conqueror" or "victor"). The ultimate status of these perfect souls is
called siddha. Ancient texts also refer to Jainism as shramana dharma (self-reliant) or the "path of the
nirganthas" (those without attachments or aversions).
Jain doctrine teaches that Jainism has always existed and will always exist,[2][3][4] although historians
date the foundation of the organized or present form of Jainism to sometime between the 9th and the
6th century BCE.[5][6] “There is some evidence that Jain traditions may be even older than the Buddhist
traditions, and that Vardhamana rather than being a “founder” per se was, rather, simply a primary
spokesman for much older tradition. [7][8] Other scholars suggested the shramana traditions were
separate and contemporaneous with Indo-Aryan religious practices of the historical Vedic religion.[9]
Contemporary Jainism is a small but influential religious minority with as many as 6 million followers in
India[10][11] and growing immigrant communities in North America, Western Europe, the Far East,
Australia and elsewhere.[12] Jains have significantly influenced and contributed to ethical, political and
economic spheres in India. Jains have an ancient tradition of scholarship and have the highest degree of
literacy for a religious community in India.[13][14] Jain libraries are the oldest in the country.[15]
Jainism encourages spiritual development through cultivation of one's own personal wisdom and
reliance on self control through vows (Sanskrit: , vrata).[16] The triple gems of Jainism—right vision
or view (Samyak Darshana), right knowledge (Samyak Gyana), and right conduct (Samyak Charitra)—
provide the path for attaining liberation from the cycles of birth and death. When the soul sheds its
karmic bonds completely, it attains divine consciousness. Those who have attained moksha are called
siddhas, while those attached to the world through their karma are called samsarin. Every soul has to
follow the path, as explained by the Jinas and revived by the tirthankaras, to attain complete liberation
or nirvana.
The commonly accepted definition of the term "God" is of a being who rules and created the universe.
Jains do not believe in a creator deity that could be responsible for the manifestation, creation, or
maintenance of this universe. The universe is self regulated by the laws of nature. Jains believe that life
exists in various forms in different parts of the universe including earth. Jainism has extensive
classification of various living organisms including micro-organisms that live in mud, air and water. All
150
living organisms have soul and have ability to perceive pain therefore, need to be interacted without
causing much harm (Ahimsa/Non-violence).
Jainism offers an elaborate cosmology, including heavenly beings (demi-gods) with super natural
powers. These demi-gods are subject to suffering and change like all other living beings, and have
limited life of enjoyment at their heavenly abodes. Jainism does not encourage dependency on any
supreme being for enlightenment. The Tirthankara is a guide and teacher who points the way to
enlightenment/Nirvana, but the struggle for enlightenment is one's own. Karmic rewards and sufferings
are not the work of any divine being, but as result of an innate self-regulating mechanism whereby the
individual reaps the fruits of his own thoughs, speech and actions.
Jains believe that to attain enlightenment and ultimately liberation from all karmic bonding, one must
practice the following ethical principles not only in thought, but also in words (speech) and action. Such
a practice through lifelong work towards oneself is called as observing the Mahavrata ("Great Vows").
These vows are:
Ahimsa (Non-violence) To cause "no harm" to living beings (on the lines of "live" and "let live"). The
vow involves "minimizing" intentional as well as unintentional harm to another living creature. There
should even be no room for any thought conjuring injury to others, let alone talking about it or
performing of such an act.[17] Besides, it also includes respecting the views of others (non-absolutism
and acceptance of multiple views). Satya (Truthfulness) To always speak of truth such that no harm is
caused to others. A person who speaks truth becomes trustworthy like a mother, venerable like a
preceptor and dear to everyone like a kinsman. Given that non-violence has priority, all other principles
yield to it whenever there is a conflict. For example, in a situation where speaking truth would lead to
violence, it would be perfectly moral to remain silent (for you are neither being untrue, nor causing
violence by way of truth) Asteya (Non-stealing) Not to take into possession, anything that is not willingly
offered. It is the strict adherence to one's own possessions without desiring for the ones that belong to
others. One should remain satisfied by whatever is earned through honest labour. Any attempt to
squeeze material wealth from others and/or exploit the weak is considered theft. Some of the guidelines
for this principle follow as under: Always give people fair value for their labor or product.
Not to take into possession materials that are not earned or offered by others.
Not to take materials into personal possession that have been dropped off or forgotten by others.
Not to purchase materials as a result of being cheaper in value, if the resultant price reduction is a
result of improper method of preparation. For instance, products made out of raw materials obtained by
way of pyramid schemes, illegal businesses, stolen goods, etc., should be strictly prohibited
Brahmacharya (Celibacy) To exercise control over senses (including mind) from indulgence. The basic
intent of this vow is to conquer passion, thus preventing wastage of energy in the direction of
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pleasurable desires. During observance of this vow, the householder must not have a sensual
relationship with anybody other than one's own spouse. Jain monks and nuns practice complete
abstinence from any sexual activity.[18] Aparigraha (Non-possession, Non-materialism) To observe
detachment from people, places and material things. Ownership of an object itself is not possessiveness;
however, attachment to the owned object is possessiveness. For householders, non-possession is
owning without attachment, because the notion of possession is illusory. The basic principle behind
observance of this vow lies in the fact that life changes. What you own today may not be rightfully yours
tomorrow. Hence the householder is encouraged to discharge his or her duties to related people and
objects as a trustee, without excessive attachment or aversion. For monks and nuns, non-possession
involves complete renunciation of property and human relations.[19]
Jains hold that the universe and its natural laws are eternal, and have always existed in time, however,
the world constantly undergoes cyclical changes as per governing universal laws. The universe is
occupied by both living beings (jīva) and non-living objects (Ajīva). The samsarin soul incarnates in
various life forms during its journey over time. Human, sub-human (category catering to inclusion of
animals, birds, insects and other forms of living creatures), super-human (heavenly beings) and hellish-
beings are the four forms of samsarin soul incarnations. A living being's thoughts, expressions and
actions, executed with intent of attachment and aversion, give rise to the accumulation of karma. These
influxes of karma in turn contribute to determination of circumstances that would hold up in our future
in the form of rewards or punishment. Jain scholars have explained in-depth methods and techniques
that are said to result in clearance of past accumulated karmas as well as stopping the inflow of fresh
karmas. This is the path to salvation in Jainism.
A major characteristic of Jain belief is the emphasis on the consequences of not only physical but also
mental behaviours.[20] One's unconquered mind tainted with anger, pride (ego), deceit, and greed
joined with uncontrolled sense organs are powerful enemies of humans. Anger comes in the way of
good human relations, pride destroys humility, deceit destroys peace, and greed destroys good
judgement. Jainism recommends conquering anger by forgiveness, pride (ego) by humility, deceit by
straight-forwardness, and greed by contentment.[21]
The principle of non-violence seeks to minimize karmas that limit the capabilities of one's own soul.
Jainism views every soul as worthy of respect because it has the potential to become siddha
(paramatma "highest soul"). Because all living beings possess a soul, great care and awareness is
essential in one's actions. Jainism emphasizes the equality of all life, advocating harmlessness towards
all, whether great or small. This policy extends even to microscopic organisms.
Jainism acknowledges that every person has different capabilities and capacities to practice and
therefore accepts different levels of compliance for ascetics and householders. The Great Vows are
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prescribed for Jain monastics while limited vows (anuvrata) are prescribed for householders.
Householders are encouraged to practice five cardinal principles of non-violence, truthfulness, non-
stealing, celibacy, and non-possessiveness with their current practical limitations, while monks and nuns
have to observe them very strictly. With consistent practice, it is possible to overcome the limitations
gradually, accelerating spiritual progress. [22]
[edit] Core beliefs
Every living being is a soul.[23]
Every soul is potentially divine, with innate qualities of infinite knowledge, perception, power, and bliss
(masked by its karmas).
Therefore regard every living being as you do yourself, harming no one and being kind to all living
beings.
Every soul is born as a heavenly being, human, sub-human (animal) or hellish being according to its own
karma.
Every soul is the architect of its own life, here or hereafter.[24]
When a soul is freed from karmas, it becomes free and attains divine consciousness, experiencing
infinite knowledge, perception, power, and bliss (Moksha).[25]
The triple gems of Jainism ("Right View, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct") provide the way to this
realisation.[26] There is no supreme divine creator, owner, preserver, or destroyer. The universe is self-
regulated, and every soul has the potential to achieve divine consciousness (siddha) through its own
efforts.
Non-violence (to be in soul consciousness rather than body consciousness) is the foundation of right
view, the condition of right knowledge and the kernel of right conduct. It leads to a state of being
unattached to worldly things and being non-judgmental and non-violent; this includes compassion and
forgiveness in thoughts, words and actions toward all living beings and respecting views of others (non-
absolutism).
Jainism stresses the importance of controlling the senses including the mind, as they can drag one far
away from true nature of the soul.
Limit possessions and lead a life that is useful to yourself and others. Owning an object by itself is not
possessiveness; however, attachment to an object is possessiveness.[27] Non-possessiveness is the
balancing of needs and desires while staying detached from our possessions.
Enjoy the company of the holy and better-qualified, be merciful to afflicted souls, and tolerate the
perversely inclined.[28]
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Four things are difficult for a soul to attain: 1. human birth, 2. knowledge of the laws governing the
souls, 3. absolute conviction in the philosophy of non-violence, and 4. practicing this knowledge with
conviction in everyday life activities.
It is, therefore, important not to waste human life in evil ways. Rather, strive to rise on the ladder of
spiritual evolution.
The goal of Jainism is liberation of the soul from the negative effects of unenlightened thoughts,
speech, and action. This goal is achieved through clearance of karmic obstructions by following the triple
gems of Jainism.
Navkar Mantra also known as Namaskar Mantra is the fundamental prayer in Jainism and can be recited
at any time. Praying by reciting this mantra, the devotee bows in respect to liberated souls still in human
form (arihants), fully liberated souls forever free from rebirth (siddhas), spiritual leaders (Acharyas),
teachers, and all the monks and nuns.[29] By saluting them saying "namo namaha", Jains receive
inspiration from them to follow their path to achieve true bliss and total freedom from the karmas
binding their souls. In this main prayer, Jains do not ask for any favours or material benefits. This mantra
serves as a simple gesture of deep respect toward beings that are more spiritually advanced. The mantra
also reminds followers of the ultimate goal of reaching nirvana or moksha.[30]
Jains worship the icons of jinas, arihants and Tirthankaras, who have conquered their inner passions
and attained divine consciousness, and study the Scriptures of these liberated beings.
Jainism acknowledges the existence of powerful heavenly souls that look after well-being of
Tirthankarars. Usually they are found in pairs around the icons of Thirthankara, as male (yaksha) and
female (yakshini) guardian deities. Even though they have supernatural powers, these deities are also
souls wandering through the cycles of births and deaths just like most other souls. Over time, people
began worshiping these deities as well.[31]
[edit] Non-violence in thought and practice
Main articles: Ahimsa in Jainism and Anekantavada
154
Aspects of Violence (Himsa)
Jains hold the above five major vows at the center of their lives. These vows cannot be fully
implemented without the acceptance of a philosophy of non-absolutism. Anēkāntavāda ("multiple
points of view") is a foundation of Jain philosophy. This philosophy allows the Jains to accept the truth in
other philosophies from their perspective and thus inculcating a tolerance for other viewpoints. Jain
scholars have devised methods to view both physical objects and abstract ideas from different
perspectives systematically. This is the application of non-violence in the sphere of thought. It is a Jain
philosophical standpoint just as there is the Advaitic standpoint of Sankara and the standpoint of the
"middle way" of the Buddhists.[32] This search to view things from different angles leads to
understanding and toleration of different and even conflicting views. When this happens prejudices
subside and a tendency to accommodate increases. The doctrine of Anēkānta is therefore a unique
experiment of non-violence at the root.[23]
A derivation of this principle is the doctrine of Syādvāda that highlights every model relative to its view
point. It is a matter of our daily experience that the same object that gives pleasure to us under certain
circumstances becomes boring under different situations. Nonetheless, relative truth is useful, as it is a
stepping-stone to the ultimate realization and understanding of reality. The doctrine of Syādvāda is
based on the premise that every proposition is only relatively true. It all depends on the particular
aspect from which we approach that proposition. Jains, therefore, developed logic that encompasses
seven-fold predication so as to assist in the construction of proper judgment about any proposition.
Syādvāda provides Jains with a systematic methodology to explore the real nature of reality and
consider the problem in a non-violent way from different perspectives. This process ensures that each
statement is expressed from seven different conditional and relative viewpoints or propositions, and
thus it is known as theory of conditioned predication. These seven propositions are described as follows:
1.Syād-asti — "in some ways it is"
2.Syād-nāsti — "in some ways it is not"
3.Syād-asti-nāsti — "in some ways it is and it is not"
4.Syād-asti-avaktavya — "in some ways it is and it is indescribable"
5.Syād-nāsti-avaktavya — "in some ways it is not and it is indescribable"
6.Syād-asti-nāsti-avaktavya — "in some ways it is, it is not and it is indescribable"
7.Syād-avaktavya — "in some ways it is indescribable"
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For example, a tree could be stationary with respect to an observer on earth, however it will be viewed
as moving along with planet Earth for an observer in space.
Jains are very welcoming and friendly toward other faiths and often help with interfaith functions.
Several non-Jain temples in India are administered by Jains. A palpable presence in Indian culture, Jains
have contributed to Indian philosophy, art, architecture, and science.
[edit] Concept of karma
Main article: Karma in Jainism
Karma in Jainism conveys a totally different meaning than commonly understood in the Hindu
philosophy and western civilization.[33] It is not the so called inaccessible force that controls the fate of
living beings in inexplicable ways. It does not simply mean "deed", "work", nor mystical force (adrsta),
but a complex of very fine matter, imperceptible to the senses, which interacts with the soul in intensity
and quantity proportional to the thoughts, speech and physical actions carried out with attachments
and aversions, causing further bondages. Karma in Jainism is something material (karmapaudgalam),
which produces certain conditions, like a medical pill has many effects.[34] The effects of karma in
Jainism is therefore a system of natural laws rather than moral laws. When one holds an apple in one's
hand and then lets go of the apple, the apple will fall due to gravitational force. In this example, there is
no moral judgment involved, since this is a mechanical consequence of a physical action.[35] The
concept of Karma in Jainism is basically a reaction due to the attachment or aversion with which an
activity (both positive and negative) is executed in thought, verbal, and physical sense. Extending on the
example outlined, the same apple dropped within a zero gravity environment such as a spacecraft
circling around earth, will float in its place. Similarly, when one acts without attachment and aversion
there will be no further karmic bonding to the soul.
Karmas are grouped as Destructive Karmas, that obstruct the true nature of the soul and Non-
Destructive Karmas that only affect the body in which the soul resides. As long as there are Destructive
Karmas, the soul is caged in a body and will have to experience pain and suffering in many different
forms. Jainism has extensive sub-classifications and detailed explanations of each of these major
categories. Jain liturgy and scriptures explains ways to stop the influx as well as get rid of the
accumulated karmas.
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[edit] Shedding of past karmas (Nirjara)
Main article: Nirjara
Jainism prescribes mainly two methods for shedding karmas (Nirjara), accumulated by the soul.
Passive Method – By allowing past karmas to ripen in due course of time and experiencing the results,
both good and bad with equanimity. If the fruits of the past karmas are received with attachment or
with agitation then the soul earns fresh karmic bondages. It is also not possible for the soul to know
before-hand when and which karma will start to produce results. Therefore, a person should practice
equanimity under all circumstances.
Active Method – By practicing internal and external austerities (penances or tapas) so as to accelerate
the ripening process as well as reducing the effects produced. This is the recommended approach as it
prepares and conditions the soul and reminds one to be vigilant.
The internal austerities are
1.Atonement of sinful acts
2.Practice politeness and humility - in spite of having comparatively more wealth, wisdom, social status,
power, etc.
3.Service to others, especially monks, nuns, elders and the weaker souls without any expectations in
return
4.Scriptural study, questioning and expanding the spiritual knowledge
5.Abandonment of passions – especially anger, ego, deceit and greed
6.Meditation
The external austerities are meant to discipline the sensual cravings. They are
1.Fasting
2.Eating less than one's normal diet
3.Abstention from tasty and stimulating food
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4.Practising humility and thankfulness – by seeking help and offering assistance without egoistic
tendencies
5.Practising solitude and introspection
6.Mastering demands of the body
[edit] Tirthankaras
Main article: Tirthankara
See also: Parshva and Mahavira
Sculpture representing two founders of Jainism: left, Rishabha first of the 24 tirthankaras; right
Mahavira, the last of those 24, who consolidated and reformed the religious and philosophical system.
The purpose of life is to undo the negative effects of karma through mental and physical purification.
This process leads to liberation accompanied by a great natural inner peace. A soul is called a 'victor' (in
Sanskrit/Pali language, Jina) because one has achieved liberation by one's own efforts. A Jain is a
follower of Jinas ("conquerors").[36][37] Jinas are spiritually advanced human beings who rediscovered
the dharma, became fully liberated from the bondages of karma by conquering attachments and
aversions, and taught the spiritual path to benefit all living beings.
Jains believe that dharma and true living declines and revives cyclically through time. The special Jinas
who not only rediscover dharma but also preach it for the Jain community are called Tirthankara. The
literal meaning of Tirthankara is "ford-builder". Jains compare the process of becoming a pure soul to
crossing a swift river, an endeavour requiring patience and care. A ford-builder has already crossed the
river and can therefore guide others. Only a few souls that reach Arihant status become Thirthankars
who take a leadership role in assisting the other souls to move up on the spiritual path.
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Jaina tradition identifies Rishabha (also known as Adinath) as the first tirthankar of this declining
(avasarpini) time cycle (kalachakra).[38] The 24th, and last Tirthankar is Mahavira, who lived from 599 to
527 BCE. The 23rd Tirthankar, Parsva, lived from 877 to 777 BCE.[23][39] The last two Tirthankaras,
Parshva and Mahavira, are historical figures whose existence is recorded.[39] The 24 Tirthankaras in
chronological order are: Rishabha, Ajitnath, Sambhavanath, Abhinandannath, Sumatinath,
Padmaprabha, Suparshvanath, Chandraprabha, Pushpadanta (Suvidhinath), Sheetalnath, Shreyansanath,
Vasupujya, Vimalnath, Anantnath, Dharmanath, Shantinath, Kunthunath, Aranath, Mallinath,
Munisuvrata, Naminatha, Neminath, Parshva and Mahavira (Vardhamana).
These special Jinas are also referred to in different languages as Bhagvān and Iṟaivaṉ (Kannada:
Tīrthaṅkara, Tamil: Iṟaivaṉ and Hindi: Bhagvān). Tirthankaras are not
regarded as deities in the pantheistic or polytheistic sense, but rather as pure souls that have awakened
the divine spiritual qualities that lie dormant within each of us. Apart from the Tirthankaras, Jains
worship special Arihants such as Bahubali. According to the scriptures, Bahubali, also known as
Gommateshvara, was the second of the one hundred sons of Rishabha and king of Podanpur. A statue of
Bahubali is located at Shravana Belagola in the Hassan district of Karnataka State. It is a sacred place of
pilgrimage for Jains. When standing at the statue's feet looking up, one sees the saint against the
vastness of the sky. This statue of Bahubali is carved from a single large stone that is fifty-seven feet
high. The giant image was carved in 981 AD., by order of Chavundaraya, the minister of the Ganga King
Rachamalla, and is considered the largest stone sculpture in the world.
[edit] Cosmology
Main article: Jain cosmology
Structure of Universe as per the Jain Scriptures.
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Depiction of Siddha Shila as per Jain cosmology, which is abode of infinite Siddhas.
According to Jain beliefs, the universe was never created, nor will it ever cease to exist. Therefore, it is
shaswat (eternal) from that point of view. It has no beginning or end, but time is cyclical with
progressive and regressive spirituality phases. In other words, within the universe itself there will be
constant changes, movements and modifications in line with the macro phases of the time cycles.
Jain text claims that the universe consists of infinite amount of Jiva (life force or souls), and infinite
amount of Ajiva (lifeless objects). The shape of the Universe as described in Jainism is shown alongside.
At the very top end of the universe is the residence of the liberated souls that reached the siddha status.
This supreme abode is above a crescent like boundary. Below this arch is the Deva Loka (Heaven), where
all devas, powerful souls enjoying the positive karmic effects, reside. According to Jainism, there are 39
[40] heavenly abodes. The enjoyment in heaven is time limited and eventually the soul has to be reborn
after its positive karmic effect is exhausted. Similarly, beneath the "waist" like area are the Narka Loka
(Hells). There are seven hells, each for a varying degree of suffering a soul has to go through as
consequences of its negative karmic effects. From the first to the seventh hell, the degree of suffering
increases and light reaching it decreases (with no light in the seventh hell). The ray of hope is that the
suffering in hell is also time limited and the soul will be reborn somewhere else in the universe after its
negative karmic effects are exhausted. Human, animal, insect, plant and microscopic life forms reside on
the middle part of the universe. Ultimate liberation is possible only from this region of the universe.
In Jainism, time is divided into Utsarpinis (Progressive Time Cycle) and Avasarpinis (Regressive Time
Cycle). An Utsarpini and an Avasarpini constitute one Time Cycle (Kalachakra). Every Utsarpini and
Avasarpini is divided into six unequal periods known as Aras. During the Utsarpini half cycle, humanity
develops from its worst to its best: ethics, progress, happiness, strength, health, and religion each start
the cycle at their worst, before eventually completing the cycle at their best and starting the process
again. During the Avasarpini half-cycle, these human experiences deteriorate from the best to the worst.
Jains believe we are currently in the fifth Ara of the Avasarpini phase.
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During the first and last two Aras, the knowledge and practice of dharma lapse among humanity and
then reappear through the teachings of enlightened humans, those who have reached liberation from
their karma, during the third and fourth Aras. Traditionally, in our universe and in this time cycle,
Rishabha is regarded as the first to realize the truth. Mahavira (Vardhamana) was the last (24th)
Tirthankara to attain enlightenment. For further reading on this aspect of Jainism refer to 'The Jaina
Path of Purification' by P.S. Jaini.[41]
[edit] Customs and practices
Jains are vegetarians. They avoid eating root vegetables in general, as cutting root from a plant kills it
unlike other parts of the plant (leaf, fruit, seed, etc.). Furthermore, according to Jain texts, root
vegetables contain infinite microorganisms called nigodas. Followers of Jain dharma eat before the night
falls. They filter water regularly so as to remove any small insects that may be present and boil water
prior to consumption.
Jain monks and nuns practice strict asceticism and strive to make their current birth their last, thus
ending their cycle of transmigration.[42] The lay men and women also pursue the same five major vows
to the limited extent depending on their capability and circumstances. Following the primary non-
violence vow, the laity usually choose professions that revere and protect life and totally avoid violent
livelihoods.
Jain monks and nuns walk barefoot and sweep the ground in front of them to avoid killing insects or
other tiny beings. Even though all life is considered sacred by the Jains, human life is deemed the highest
form of life. For this reason, it is considered vital never to harm or upset any person. Along with the Five
Vows, Jains avoid harboring ill will and practice forgiveness. They believe that atma (soul) can lead one
to becoming parmatma (liberated soul) and this must come from one's inner self. Jains refrain from all
violence (ahimsa) and recommend that sinful activities be avoided.
Pratikraman (turning back from transgression) is a practice of confession and repentance. This is a
process of looking back at the bad thoughts and actions carried out during daily activities and learn from
this process so as to resolve not to commit those mistakes again. Forgiving others for their faults,
extending friendship and asking forgiveness for their own wrongful acts without reservation is part of
this process. This enables Jains to get away from the tendency of finding fault in others, criticizing others
and to develop habit of self-analysis, self-improvement and introspection.
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Jains practice Samayika, which is a Sanskrit word meaning equanimity. During this practice, they remain
calm and undisturbed. This helps in recollecting the teachings of Thirthankars and discarding sinful
activities for a minimum of 48 minutes.
Sadhvis meditating
Mahatma Gandhi was deeply influenced (particularly through the guidance of Shrimad Rajchandra) by
Jain tenets such as peaceful, protective living and honesty, and made them an integral part of his own
philosophy.[43]
Jainism has several different traditions. Historically, this has led to traditions refusing to recognize each
other's religious texts as authoritative. For example, the Digamabaras reject the Svetambara canon.[44]
Even though there are some differences in customs and practices among them, the core belief systems
are the same. Each tradition brings a unique perspective and completes the picture in the true sense of
Non-Absolutism (Anekantvad). For this reason Jains are encouraged to keep their tradition, and at the
same time respect other practices so as to complete the Jain view. All traditions unanimously accept and
believe in the core Jain philosophies including the major vows of Non-violence, Truthfulness, Non-
stealing, Celibacy and Non-possession.
Jainism is mainly divided into two major sects, namely Svetambara and Digambara. Jainism has a distinct
idea underlying Tirthankara worship. The physical form is not worshipped, but the characteristics of the
Tirthankara (virtues, qualities) are praised and emulated. Tirthankaras remain role-models, and sects
such as the Sthanakavasi and Terapanth stringently reject idol worship. However, Murtipujak and
Digambara sects allow praying before idols so as to assist in stimulating and focusing thoughts while
praying.
[edit] Pacifism
162
Compassion for all life, human and non-human, is central to Jainism. Human life is valued as a unique,
rare opportunity to reach enlightenment; to kill any person, no matter what crime he may have
committed, is considered unimaginably abhorrent. It is a religion that requires monks and laity, from all
its sects and traditions, to be vegetarian. Some Indian regions, such as Rajasthan, Gujarat and Karnataka,
have been strongly influenced by Jains and often the majority of the local Hindus of every denomination
have also become vegetarian.[45]
[edit] Meditation
Main article: Jain meditation
Jain scriptures offer extensive guidance on meditation techniques to achieve full knowledge and
awareness. It offers tremendous physical and mental benefits.[citation needed] Jain meditation
techniques are designed to assist the practitioner to remain apart from clinging and hatred thereby
liberating from karmic bondages through the Ratnatraya: right perception, right knowledge and right
conduct.[46] Meditation in Jainism aims at taking the soul to status of complete freedom from
bondages.[47]
Meditation assists greatly in managing and balancing one's passion. Great emphasis is placed on the
control of internal thoughts, as they influence the behavior, actions and goals. It prescribes twelve
mindful reflections or contemplations to help in this process. They are called Bhavanas or Anuprekshas
that assist one to remain on the right course of life, and not stray away. Jains apply the sevenfold
predicate methodology of Syadvada, which includes the consideration of different views on each of
these topics including the opposite view. The twelve contemplations for meditation are:
1.Impermanence - Everything in this world is subject to change and transformation. Spiritual values are
therefore worth striving for as they alone offer the soul, its ultimate freedom and stability.
2.Protection - Under this reflection, one thinks about how helpless one is against old age, disease and
death. The soul is its own saviour and to achieve total freedom one needs to follow the non-violent path
of Arihants, Siddhas and practicing saints. Leaders with their powerful armies, scientists with their latest
advances in technology cannot provide the protection from the eventual decay and death. The refuge to
things other than the non-violent path are due to delusion, is unfortunate, and must be avoided.
3.Worldly Existence - The soul transmigrates from one life form to another and is full of pain and
miseries. There are no permanent relationships as the soul moves from one body form to another and
can only exit this illusion through liberation from the cycles of birth, growth, decay and death.
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4.Solitude of the Soul - The soul has to bear the consequences of the positive and negative karmas
alone. Such thoughts will stimulate to get rid of the existing karmas by one's own efforts and lead a
peaceful life of co-existence.
5.Separateness of Soul - Under this reflection, one thinks that the soul is separate from other objects or
living beings. One should think even the current body is not owned by the soul. It is however an
important vehicle to lead a useful life to progress the soul further. The soul therefore should not
develop attachment or aversion to any worldly objects.
6.Impureness of the body - Under this section of thought, one is urged to think about constituent
elements of one's body so as to compare and contrast it with the purity of soul. This kind of
concentration assists in detaching emotionally from one's body.
7.Influx of Karma - Every time the soul enjoys or suffers through the five senses (touch, taste, smell,
sight and hearing) with attachment, aversion or ignorance, it attracts new karma. Practising this
reflection, reminds the soul to be more careful.
8.Stoppage of influx of Karma - In this reflection, one thinks about stopping evil thoughts and cultivates
development of right knowledge that assists to control the wandering mind.
9.Karma shedding - Under this reflection, one thinks about practising external and internal austerities to
shed the previously accumulated karma. This assists in development of right discipline as a matter of
routine habit.
10.Universe - Universe consists of Souls, Matter, Medium of motion, Medium of Rest, Space and Time.
To think of the nature and structure of universe helps one understand the complex dynamics of eternal
modifications and work towards the goal of freeing the soul from the seemingly never ending changes.
11.Difficulties in developing triple gems of Jainism - It is very difficult for the transmigrating soul in this
world to develop the Right View, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct. Just like one cannot aspire to
become a doctor or lawyer or engineer without going through the development process starting from
the very basic skill set developments in primary and secondary schooling, spiritual development also
needs to go through several stages or steps. Depending on one's current spiritual progress and situation,
the challenges faced will differ. Working through the difficulties and applying practical solutions will
assist one to continuously make improvements, thereby moving the soul to its goal of ultimate
liberation.
12.Difficulties in practising Jain Dharma - Jain Dharma is characterised by the following;
Forbearance and Forgiveness Humility Straightforwardness Purity Truth Self-restraint, control of senses
and mind External Penance Renunciation Neither attachment nor aversion Celibacy In this reflection, the
practitioner thinks about the difficulties to practice all of these in the practical world and work through
the challenges depending on one's current capabilities and circumstances.
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Jains are encouraged to reflect on these thoughts with the following four virtues or value systems clearly
in force. They are:
1.Peace, love and friendship to all.
2.Appreciation, respect and delight for the achievements of others.
3.Compassion to souls who are suffering.
4.Equanimity and tolerance in dealing with other's thoughts, words and actions.
[edit] Monasticism
Main article: Jain monasticism
Palitana Tirtha
Mulnayak Shri Adinath Bhagwan, Bibrod Jain Temple, Ratlam, Madhya Pradesh, India
In India there are several Jain Monks, in categories like Acharya, Upadhyaya and Muni. Trainee ascetics
are known as Ailaka and Ksullaka in the Digambara tradition. There are two categories of ascetics, Sadhu
(monk) and Sadhvi (nun). They practice the five Mahavratas, three Guptis and five Samitis:
Five major vows (Mahavrata)
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Non-violence (Ahinsa): Non-violence in thought, word and deed so as not to cause harm to any living
beings
Truthfulness (Satya): Truth, which is (hita) beneficial, (mita) succinct, and (priya) pleasing. In other
words, to speak the harmless truth
Non-stealing (Astey): Not to take anything that has not been given to them willingly by the owner
Chastity (Brahmacharya): Absolute purity of mind and body without indulging in sensual pleasure
Non-possession (Aparigraha): Exercise no attachment or aversion to all people, places, and material
objects around.
Three Restraints (Gupti)
Control of the mind (Mangupti)
Control of speech (Vachangupti)
Control of body (Kayagupti)
Five Carefulness (Samiti)
Carefulness while walking (Irya Samiti)
Carefulness while communicating (Bhasha Samiti)
Carefulness while eating (Eshana Samiti)
Carefulness while handling their fly-whisks, water gourds, etc. (Adan Nikshepan Samiti)
Carefulness while disposing of bodily waste matter (Pratishthapan Samiti)
Digambara monks do not wear any clothes and are nude. They practice non-attachment to the body and
hence, wear no clothes. Svetambara monks and nuns wear white clothes. Svetambaras believe that
monks and nuns may wear simple, unstitched white clothes as long as they are not attached to them.
Jain monks and nuns travel on foot. They do not use mechanical transport.
Digambaras take up to eleven oaths. Digambara monks eat standing in one place in their palms without
using any utensils. They eat only once a day.
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[edit] Vegetarianism
See also: Jain vegetarianism
Jains practice strict vegetarianism. The practice of vegetarianism is instrumental for the practice of non-
violence and peaceful co-operative co-existence. Basic non-violence principles can be performed
depending on one's capability and specific situation in terms of meeting one's life's demands and
expectations. Jainism acknowledges that it is impossible to discharge one's duties without some degree
of himsa/violence, but encourages to minimise as much as possible. Jains are strictly forbidden to use
any leather or silk products since they are derived by killing of animals. Jains are prohibited from
consuming root vegetables such as potatoes, garlic, onions, carrots, radishes, cassava, sweet potatoes,
turnips, etc., as the plant needed to be killed in the process of accessing these prior to their end of life
cycle. In addition, the root vegetables interact with soil and therefore contain far more micro-organisms
than other vegetables. Also, the root vegetables themselves are composed of infinite smaller organisms,
hence, consuming these vegetables would mean killing all those organisms as well. However, they
consume rhizomes such as dried turmeric and dried ginger. Eggplants, pumpkins, etc. are also not
consumed by some Jains owing to the large number of seeds in the vegetable, as a seed is a form of life.
However, tomatoes are consumed normally as its seeds are difficult to be killed (even at high
temperatures/pressures). Mushrooms, fungus and yeasts are forbidden because they are parasites,
grow in non-hygienic environments and may harbor other life forms. Jains are also not supposed to
consume food left overnight because of contamination by microbes. Most Jain recipes substitute potato
with plantain.[48]
Apart from all these, Jains also follow strict diets on "teethees" - eleven days (six days in Shukla Paksha -
New Moon Fortnight and five days in Krishna Paksha - Full Moon Fortnight). They do not eat greens on
these days, also termed as not to touch / use any sharp cutting object in the kitchen. These days and are
enlisted below: 1. All Bij - Second day of both the fortnights for aaradhna of "Samyag Darshan" 2.
Pacham - Fifth day of Shukla Paksha & Agyiras - Eleventh day of both the fortnights for aaradhna of 14
Purva Gyan 3. Aatham - Eight day of both the fortnights, Chaudas - Fourteenth day of both the
fortnights, Punam - Full Moon Day & Amavas - New Moon Day for aaradhna of Charitra. The reason for
stricter dietary observance on these eleven days is that the probability of the finalisation of the next
birth is much more on these days compared to the other days.
[edit] Fasting
167
Main article: Fasting in Jainism
Fasting is one of the main tools for practicing external austerity. It helps to keep the demands of the
body under check and assists in the focus on the upliftment of the soul. Spiritually, it helps in melting
away the bad karmas accumulated by an individual. Depending on the capacity of an individual, there
are several types of fasting:
Complete fasting: giving up food and/or water completely for a period
Partial fasting: eating less than you need to avoid hunger
Vruti Sankshepa: limiting the number of items of food eaten
Rasa Parityaga: giving up favourite foods
During fasting one immerses oneself in religious activities such as worshipping, serving the saints (monks
and nuns & to be in their proximity), reading scriptures, meditating, and donating to the right recipients.
However, before starting the fast Jains take a small vow known as pachhchhakhan. A person taking the
vow is bound to it and breaking it is considered to be a bad practice.
Most Jains fast at special times, such as during festivals (known as Parva. Paryushana and Ashthanhika
are the main Parvas, which occurs 3 times in a year) and on holy days (eighth & fourteenth days of the
moon cycle). Paryushana is the most prominent festival (lasting eight days for Svetambara Jains and ten
days for Digambaras) during the monsoon. Most people fast during Paryushana because even the
trouble-causing planets Rahu and Ketu become calm and instead help the penancing devotees.
However, a Jain may fast at any time of the year. Fasting is also one of the ways of absolving one's
Spashta, Baddha, or Nidhatta karmas. Variations in fasts encourage Jains to do whatever they can to
maintain self-control over their abdominal desires.
A unique ritual in this religion involves a holy fasting until death called sallekhana. Through this one
achieves a death with dignity and dispassion as well as a reduction of negative karma to a great
extent.[49] When a person is aware of approaching death, and feels that s/he has completed all duties,
s/he willingly ceases to eat or drink gradually. This form of dying is also called Santhara. It can be as long
as 12 years with gradual reduction in food intake. Considered extremely spiritual and creditable, with all
awareness of the transitory nature of human experience, it has recently led to a controversy. In
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Rajasthan, a lawyer petitioned the High Court of Rajasthan to declare santhara illegal. Jains see santhara
as spiritual detachment, a declaration that a person has finished with this world and now chooses to
leave. This choice however requires a great deal of spiritual accomplishment and maturity as a pre-
requisite.
[edit] Rules of complete fast
A person undergoing a complete fast can eat nothing and drink only boiled water during his fasting
period. The water has to be boiled for at least twenty minutes to ensure that all the living organisms in it
die, and new ones don't form, thereby reducing the amount of himsa that a fasting person does. The
unboiled water called sachet (meaning, full of life) is turned achet (meaning devoid of life) on boiling for
this long. The boiled water remains achet for only five hours. So after five hours, it should be boiled
again for at least another twenty minutes to ensure that it remains achet—fit for use by a fasting
person.
All the different types of complete fasts mandate an individual to do the following steps stringently:
Initiation of the fast: The person desiring to observe a fast on a particular day has to take the vow of
Chauvihar (meaning not eat or drink anything till at least 48 minutes after sunrise the next day) at least
48 minutes before sunset the previous day.
Ingestion during the fast: On the day of fast, he has to take the pachhchhakhan of fast. He cannot eat
anything on the day of fast. However, he may drink boiled water after at least 48 minutes after sunrise
till at most 48 minutes before sunset on that day. At least 48 minutes before the sunset, he should take
the vow of Chauvihar.
Termination of the fast: He can break his fast only on the day after the day of fast after at least 48
minutes after sunrise, after taking the vow of Naukaarsi, Porsi, Saadh Porsi, Parimuddhi, etc. Optionally,
he may continue his fast for that day also by taking the necessary vows and following them.
Chauvihar Upvas, Chauvihar Chhath, Chauvihaar Attham, Chauvihaar Atthai, etc. are those types of
complete fasts in which the person can't drink even boiled water during his fasting period. He can eat
nothing and drink nothing. The process of initiation and termination of the fast is the same as
mentioned above.
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[edit] Types of fasting
Maasakshaman: A person practising this form of fasting will not eat anything for thirty days.
Atthai: A person practising this form of fasting will not eat anything for eight days. Normally on 8th day
of fasting, the success is celebrated by the community by organising a procession to the temple. On the
9th day, the person will stop fasting. The relatives and friends will come and help the person to break
the fast.
Tela/Athham: A person practising this form of fasting will not eat anything for three days.
Chhathh: A person practising this form of fasting will not eat anything for two days.
Upvas: A person practising this form of fasting will not eat anything for one whole day.
Chauvihar Upvas: A person practising this form of fasting will not eat or drink anything for one whole
day.
Varshitap: This is a difficult form of fasting and demands a high level of skill and discipline; it is based on
the story of Lord Rishabh not eating or drinking for 400 days. It is possible for people to try a variation of
Varshitap by eating every alternate day, in general. They can eat only twice in every alternate day, but in
between during some special calendar events, they may have to fast longer periods.
Ayambil: A person eats only one kind of food per day, In Ayambil green vegetables, milk and milk
products (including ghee),oil and/or salt (optional) are not to be used at all. Generally this kind of fast is
done during a 9 day religious days called Ayambil Olee which come twice in a year i.e. in March/April
and October/November.
Ekashana: A person eats only once a day and generally they have lunch. For eating his meal, the person
has to sit on the floor with his legs folded and the plate on an elevated position (maybe on another
inverted plate, or on a patla). Once he starts his meal, he can't get up or even move till he finishes
eating. Also, during the entire meal, his plate must not be moved at all, although the spoons and utensils
on the plate can be moved. As in every type of fast they can only have food as well as water only till
sunset which varies from day to day but in a yearly bases it's the same.
Beyashana: A person eats only twice a day and generally they have lunch & dinner. All the rules of
Ekashana apply to Beashana as well.
Uunodri Tap: In this type of fast a person is allowed to have food 3 times a day but as soon as the food
is served he/she has to remove one item which is his/her favorite, and also eat a morsel less than
required to fill his/her stomach.
Updhyan Tap: A person has to reside out of home for certain days (usually 51 days) and perform various
rituals. He has to do upwas (single day fasting) followed by one ayambil, thereafter upwas and two
ayambil and so on. It is the biggest tap as defined by Jain Monks.
170
Navkarsi : One must take food or water forty-eight minutes after sunrise. Even the brushing of one’s
teeth and rinsing of once mouth must be done after sunrise after the vow of Navkarsi.
Porsi : Taking food or water three hours after sunrise.
Sadh-porsi : Taking food or water four hours and thirty minutes after sunrise.
Purimuddh: :Taking food or water six hours after sunrise.
Navapad oli : During every year for 9 days starting from the 6/7th day of the bright fortnight until the
full moon day in Ashwin and Chaitra months, one does Ayambil. This is repeated for the next four and
half years. These ayambils can also be restricted to only one kind of food grain per day.
[edit] Worship and rituals
Main article: Jain rituals and festivals
Jains praying at the feet of a statue of Lord Bahubali.
Om Hrim Siddhi Chakra used by Jains in dravya puja
Every day most Jains bow and say their universal prayer, the Navakar Mantra which is also known
variously as Panch Parmesthi Sutra, Panch Namaskar Sutra. Navakar Mantra is the fundamental prayer
in Jainism and can be recited at any time of the day. Praying by reciting this mantra, the devotee bows in
respect to liberated souls still in human form (Arihantas), fully liberated souls forever free from rebirth
(Siddhas), spiritual leaders (Acharyas), teachers (Upadyayas) and all the monks (sarva sadhus) and nuns
(sadhvis). By saluting them saying "namo namaha", Jains receive inspiration from them to follow their
171
path to achieve true bliss and total freedom from the karmas binding their souls. In this main prayer,
Jains do not ask for any favours or material benefits. This mantra serves as a simple gesture of deep
respect toward beings that are more spiritually advanced. The mantra also reminds followers of the
ultimate goal of reaching nirvana or moksha. Jains worship the icons of Jinas, Arihants, and Tirthankars,
who have conquered their inner passions and attained divine consciousness, and study the scriptures of
these liberated beings.
Jainism acknowledges the existence of powerful heavenly souls (Yaksha and Yakshini) that look after
well-being of Tirthankarars. Usually, they are found in pair around the icons of Thirthankaras as male
(yaksha) and female (yakshini) guardian deities. Even though they have supernatural powers, these
deities are also souls wandering through the cycles of births and deaths just like most other souls. Over
time, people started worshiping these deities as well.
The purpose of Jain worship or prayer is to break the barriers of the worldly attachments and desires, so
as to assist in the liberation of the soul. Jain prayers and ritual in general include:
Panch-kalyanak Pratishtha, Celebration of five auspicious events or milestones in the life of

Thirthankars.
Pratikramana, Repentance of sins.
Samayika, Meditation for reducing attachments and aversions.
Guru Vandana, Chaitya Vandana, and other sutras to honor ascetics.
There are basically two types of prayers:
Dravya Puja (with symbolic offerings of material objects)
Bhav Puja (with deep feeling and meditation)
The material offerings made during the prayer are merely symbolic and are for the benefit of the
offeror. The action and ritual of offering keeps the mind in meditative state. The symbolism of prayer is
so strong it assists the devotee to concentrate on the virtues of Arihantas and Thirthankaras. Above all,
prayer is not performed with a desire for any material goal. Jains are clear that the Jinas reside in
moksha (Siddha-loka, the permanent abode of the siddhas) and are completely detached from the
world. Jains have built temples where idols of tirthankaras are revered. Rituals include offering of
symbolic objects and praising Tirthankaras in song. There are some traditions within Jainism that have
no prayer at all, and are focused on meditation through scripture reading and philosophical discussions.
172
[edit] Preparation for prayer
Body cleansing: A bath should be taken before the prayer. A clean body prepares and assists the mind
to be in spiritual mode. This is also symbolic of washing one's dirt or karmas. In order to assist in the
meditative process place saffron paste or sandal paste on ring finger and anoint the forehead. This may
be applied to earlobes, neck and other acupressure parts of the body.
Clothes: Simple, clean washed clothes are worn. White clothing is preferred. Traditionally, men wear
non-stitched cloths (dhotis and khes).
[edit] Ashta Prakari Puja (Eight Symbolic Offering Prayer)
These eight pujas are enlisted chronologically below
Jal Puja (Water)
Water Symbolizes the life's ocean of birth, struggle and death. Every living being continuously travels
through the cycles of birth, life, death and misery. This prayer reminds the devotee to live with honesty,
truth, love and compassion toward all living beings.
Chandan Puja (Sandal-wood)
Sandal wood paste symbolizes Right Knowledge. The devotee reflects on Right Knowledge with clear,
proper understanding of reality from different perspectives.
Pushpa Puja (Flower)
Flowers symbolize Right Conduct. The devotee remembers that conduct should be like a flower that
provides fragrance and beauty to all living beings without discrimination.
Deep Puja (Oil Lamp)
The flame of the oil lamp represents pure consciousness or a soul without any karmic bondage. The
devotee is reminded to follow the five major vows so as to attain liberation.
173
Dhup Puja (Incense)
The incense stick symbolizes renunciation. While burning itself, it provides fragrance to others. This
reminds the devotee to live life for the benefit of others, which ultimately leads to liberation.
Akshat Puja (Rice)
One cannot grow rice plants by seeding with household rice. Symbolically it means that rice is the last
birth. With this prayer, the devotee strives to make all effort in this life to get liberation.
Naivedya Puja (Homemade sweets, sugar, etc.)
With this prayer, the devotee strives to reduce or eliminate attachment.
Fal Puja (Fruit - Coconut preferred)
Fruit symbolizes moksha or liberation. The devotee is reminded to perform duties without any
expectation and have love and compassion for all living beings so as to attain the ultimate fruit -
Moksha.
[edit] Dev Shastra Guru Puja (Prayer for Arihants/Siddhas, Scriptures, and Teachers)
Invocation begins with Namokar Mantra and Chattari Mangalam. In this prayer the devotee bows to
Siddhas, scriptures and monks who are on the path of Right View, Knowledge and Conduct. This prayer
is done by taking three full cloves and holding one clove at a time between two ring fingers while
keeping the clove head pointed forward while offering and reciting. First Clove: The devotees think of
the Arihants/Siddhas/Thirthankaras, Scriptures and Teachers, so that they come into their thoughts.
Second Clove: The devotees take the next step of retaining the above three in their thoughts.
Third Clove: The devotees take the last step of physically requesting them to be near them so as to
guide them through on the right path.
The offerings here are similar to the Ashta Prakari Puja with flowers replaced with yellow rice, tasty
food with white coconut and fruit with almond in its shell.
174
Barah Bhavana (12 reflections of mind) is sung as a song. After that prayer of peace for all living beings
recited followed by Namokar Mantra.
At the conclusion, Visarjan (closing) prayer is recited, which means knowingly or unknowingly if any
mistakes are committed during the prayer please forgive.
[edit] Festivals
Jain festivals are characterized by both internal and external celebrations. The internal celebration is
through praying (expressing devotion to Jinas), practicing meditation, spiritual studies and renunciation.
Paryushana is the most important festival among the Jain festivals.It is also known as Dashlakshan
parva.It happens during late August/September commencing on the twelfth day of the fortnight of the
waning moon cycle and ending in the fourteenth of the fortnight of the waxing moon cycle. This is
generally a rainy season in Northern parts of India. During this 18 day period[50] Jain scholars and
monks visit temples and explain the Jain philosophy. Jains during this period practice external austerities
such as fasting, limiting their normal activities so as to reduce the harm to worms and insects that thrive
during this season. At the conclusion of the festivities, a reflection on the past is encouraged, and
Pratikraman is done for repentance of faults. Forgiveness is given to and asked for from all those
considered.
Mahavir Jayanti,[51] The birthday of Mahavir, the last Thirthankar is celebrated on the thirteenth day of
the fortnight of the waxing moon, in the month of Chaitra. This day occurs in late March or early April on
the Gregorian calendar. Lectures are held to preach the path of virtue. People meditate and offer
prayers.
Diwali is celebrated on the new moon day of Kartik, usually in late October or early November on the
Gregorian calendar. On the night of that day, Mahavira, the last Tirthankara, attained Nirvana or
deliverance and attained liberation from the bondage of all karmas. During the night of Diwali, holy
hymns are recited and meditation is done on Mahavira. On the very second day of Diwali they celebrate
their New Year.
Ashadh Chaturdashi, The sacred commencement of Chaturmas takes place on the 14th day of the
fortnight of the waxing moon of Ashad. The Jain monks and nuns remain where they happen to be for
four months until the 14th day of Kartik Shukla. During these four months the monks give daily
discourses, undertake religious ceremonies, etc.
Shrutha panchami or Gyan Panchami is on the fifth day of the fortnight of the waxing moon of Kartik
(the fifth day after Diwali). This day is devoted for pure knowledge. On this day books preserved in the
religious libraries are cleaned and studied.
175
Parshvanatha, the twenty-third Tirthankar, is the earliest Jain leader who can be reliably dated. As
noted, however, Jain mythology asserts that the line of Tirthankars in the present era began with
Rishabhdeva; moreover, Jains themselves believe that Jainism has no single founder, and that it has
always existed and will always exist, although it is occasionally forgotten by humans. Emperor
Chandragupta Maurya embraced Jainism after retiring. At an older age, Chandragupta renounced his
throne and material possessions to join a wandering group of Jain monks. Chandragupta was a disciple
of Acharya Bhadrabahu. It is said that in his last days, he observed the rigorous but self purifying Jain
ritual of santhara i.e. fast unto death, at Shravana Belagola in Karnataka.
However, his successor, Emperor Bindusara, was a follower of a Hindu ascetic movement, Ajivika and
distanced himself from Jain and Buddhist movements. Samprati, the grandson of Ashoka also embraced
Jainism. Samrat Samprati was influenced by the teachings of Jain monk Arya Suhasti Suri and he is
known[citation needed] to have built 125,000 Jain Temples across India. Some of them are still found in
towns of Ahmedabad, Viramgam, Ujjain and Palitana. It is also said that just like Ashoka, Samprati sent
messengers & preachers to Greece, Persia & the Middle East to facilitate the spread of Jainism. But to
date no research has been done in this area. Thus, Jainism became a vital force under the Mauryan Rule.
Chandragupta & Samprati are credited for the spread of Jainism in Southern India. Hundreds of
thousands of Jain Temples and Jain Stupas were erected during their reign. But due to lack of royal
patronage and its strict principles, along with the rise of Shankaracharya & Ramanujacharya, Jainism,
once the major religion of southern India, began to decline.[2][3]
According to scholars, Parshvanath was a historical figure and lived in the 9th century BC.[52][53] In the
6th century BC, Vardhamana Mahavira became one of the most influential Jainism teachers. He built up
a large group of disciples that learned from his teachings and followed him as he taught an ascetic
doctrine in order to achieve enlightenment. The disciples referred to him as Jina, which means "the
conqueror" and later his followers would use a derivation of this title to refer to themselves as Jains, a
follower of the Jina.[54]
Kharavela's empire at its greatest extent.
176
It is generally accepted that Jainism started spreading in south India from the 3rd century BC. i.e. since
the time when Badrabahu, a preacher of this religion and the head of the monks' community, came to
Karnataka from Bihar.[55]
Kalinga (modern Orissa/Osiaji) was home to many Jains in the past. Rishabhnath, the first Tirthankar,
was revered and worshipped in the ancient city Pithunda, capital of Kalinga. This was destroyed by
Mahapadma Nanda when he conquered Kalinga and brought the statue of Rushabhanatha to his capital
in Magadh. Rushabhanatha is revered as the Kalinga Jina. Ashoka's invasion and his Buddhist policy also
subjugated Jains greatly in Kalinga. However, in the first century BCE Emperor Kharvela conquered
Magadha and brought Rishabhnath's statue back and installed it in Udaygiri, near his capital,
Shishupalgadh. The Khandagiri and Udaygiri caves near Bhubaneswar are the only surviving stone Jain
monuments in Orissa. Earlier buildings were made of wood and were destroyed.
Deciphering of the Brahmi script by James Prinsep in 1788 enabled the reading of ancient inscriptions in
India and established the antiquity of Jainism. The discovery of Jain manuscripts has added significantly
to retracing Jain history. Archaeologists have encountered Jain remains and artifacts at Maurya, Sunga,
Kishan, Gupta, Kalachuries, Rashtrakut, Chalukya, Chandel and Rajput as well as later sites. Several
western and Indian scholars have contributed to the reconstruction of Jain history. Western historians
like Bühler, Jacobi, and Indian scholars like Iravatham Mahadevan, worked on Tamil Brahmi inscriptions.
[edit] Geographical spread and influence
Double-sided Leaf from a Chandana Malayaqiri Varta Series ascribed to the artists Karam and Mahata
Chandji - 1745. This painting was made for a practitioner of the Jain religion. The image illustrates a Jain
text and includes a small shrine with an icon of a Jain savior, known as a Jina or Tirthankara, on the right.
The icon sits cross-legged in a meditative posture, and the temple has two white towers of the classic
North Indian form. A small pool in front of the temple reflects the surrounding architecture.
177
Doorway detail of a Dilwara Temple.
Jain temple in Antwerp, Belgium
This pervasive influence of Jain culture and philosophy in ancient Bihar gave rise to Buddhism. The
Buddhists have always maintained that during the time of Buddha and Mahavira (who, according to the
Pali canon, were contemporaries), Jainism was already an ancient, deeply entrenched faith and culture
there. Over several thousand years, Jain influence on Hindu rituals has been observed and similarly the
concept of non-violence has been incorporated into Hinduism. Certain Vedic Hindu holy books contain
beautiful narrations about various Jain Tirthankaras (e.g. Lord Rushabdev). In the history of mankind,
there have been no wars fought in the name of Jainism.
With 5.5 million followers,[10] Jainism is among the smallest of the major world religions, but in India its
influence is much greater than these numbers would suggest. Jains live throughout India. Maharashtra,
Rajasthan and Gujarat have the largest Jain populations among Indian states. Karnataka, Tamil Nadu,
Bundelkhand and Madhya Pradesh have relatively large Jain populations. There is a large following in
Punjab, especially in Ludhiana and Patiala, and there used to be many Jains in Lahore (Punjab's historic
capital) and other cities before the Partition of 1947, after which many fled to India. There are many Jain
communities in different parts of India and around the world. They may speak local languages or follow
different rituals but essentially they follow the same principles.
Outside India, the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, and East Africa (Kenya, Tanzania, and
Uganda) have large Jain communities. The first Jain temple to be built outside India was constructed and
consecrated in the 1960s in Mombasa, Kenya by the local Gujarati Jain community, although Jainism in
the West mostly came about after the Oswal and Jain diaspora spread to the West in the late 1970s and
1980s. Jainism is presently a strong faith in the United States, and several dozen Jain temples have been
built there, primarily by the Gujarati community. American Jainism accommodates all the sects. Smaller
Jain communities exist in Nepal, Sri Lanka, South Africa, Japan, Singapore, Malaysia, Australia, Fiji, and
Suriname. In Belgium, the very successful Indian diamond community in Antwerp, almost all of whom
178
are Jain, opened the largest Jain temple outside India in 2010, to strengthen Jain values in and across
Western Europe.
[edit] Denominations
Main articles: Digambara and Svetambara
179
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in more than one state during a year.
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2010-02-16.
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National Mall] retrieved 25 July 2012
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55.^ Introduction to Pagan Studies - Page 151, Barbara Jane Davy - 2007
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57.^ Trinity ARIS 2008; Trinity ARIS 2001
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[edit] Bibliography
Buck, Christopher (2009). Religious myths and visions of America: how minority faiths redefined
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(2005)
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2009)
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A Concise History of The United States of America Vol III

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RELIGION IN THE UNITED STATES

A Concise History of the

Abrahamic lineage of Faith

3 Jewish faith in America

Dharmic (or Eastern) lineage of faiths

Section One the Abrahamic lineage of Faith

Main article: Protestantism in the United States

In typical usage, the term mainline is contrasted with evangelical.

Main article: Mainline (Protestant)

United Methodist Church 7,931,733 members (2008)[23]

Evangelical Lutheran Church in America 4,709,956 members (2008)[23]

Presbyterian Church (USA) 2,209,546 members (2007)[24]

Episcopal Church in the United States of America (2008) 2,116,749 members[23]

American Baptist Churches in the USA 1,358,351 members (2008)[23]

United Church of Christ 1,145,281 members (2008)[23]

Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) 691,160 (2008)

Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) 350,000 members

Reformed Church in America 269,815 members (2005)[25]

International Council of Community Churches 108,806 members (2005)[26]

National Association of Congregational Christian Churches 65,569 members (2000)[27]

North American Baptist Conference 64,565 members (2002)

Universal Fellowship of Metropolitan Community Churches 44,000 members (1998)[28]

Moravian Church in America, Northern Province 24,650 members (2003)[29]

Moravian Church in America, Southern Province 21,513 members (1991)[30]

Latvian Evangelical Lutheran Church in America 12,000 members (2007)

Congregational Christian Churches, (not part of any national CCC body)

Moravian Church in America, Alaska Province

African Methodist Episcopal Church

Christian Methodist Episcopal Church

Some other findings of the Barna Group:

25% Reported less than a $30,000 income per year.

21% Reported $30,000-$49,999 per year.

18% Reported $50,000-$74,999 per year.

15% Reported $75,000-$99,999 per year.

Original Latin form

Book of Common Prayer[22][23][24]

Unity of the Brethren

United Methodist Church

Ecumenical version of the English Language Liturgical Consultation

Liturgical use in Western Christianity

Roman Catholic Church

And all respond: Amen.

Profession of faith at Mass

Episcopal Church (United States)

1. The celebrant calls for the candidates for Baptism to be presented.

2. The catechumen or sponsors state their request for Baptism.

The Catholic Church in America

145 Latin Catholic dioceses

33 Latin Catholic archdioceses

15 Eastern Catholic dioceses

2 Eastern Catholic archdioceses

1 apostolic exarchate for Syro-Malankara Catholic Church

Passaic, New Jersey (Ruthenian)

Clergy, lay ministers and employees

See also: History of Catholic education in the United States

See: List of Roman Catholic seminaries in the United States

Universities and colleges

Roman Catholic universities and colleges in the United States

Main article: Catholic schools in the United States

Catholic Church and Labor

Main article: Catholic social activism in the United States

[edit] Earliest records