Ch 4

Objectives of Series and

Shunt Compensation

Siddarameshwara HN
 OBJECTIVES OF SHUNT COMPENSATION
• Under steady-state conditions transmittable power can
be increased and the voltage profile along the line
controlled by appropriate reactive shunt
compensation.
• The purpose of this reactive compensation is to
change the natural electrical characteristics of the
transmission line to make it more compatible with the
prevailing load demand.
• Thus, shunt connected, fixed or mechanically switched
reactors are applied to minimize line overvoltage
under light load conditions, and shunt connected,
fixed or mechanically switched capacitors are applied
to maintain voltage levels under heavy load
conditions.
• basic consideration is to increase the transmittable
power by ideal shunt-connected VAR compensation
for power electronics-based compensation and
control techniques to meet specific compensation
objectives.
• The ultimate objective of applying reactive shunt
compensation in a transmission system is to increase
the transmittable power.
• This may be required to improve the steady-state
transmission characteristics as well as the stability of
the system.
• VAR compensation is thus used for voltage regulation
at the midpoint (or some intermediate) to segment the
transmission line and at the end of the (radial) line to
prevent voltage instability, as well as for dynamic
voltage control to increase transient stability and
damp power oscillations
 Midpoint Voltage Regulation for Line Segmentation
Consider the simple two-machine (two-bus) transmission
model in which an ideal VAR compensator is shunt connected
at the midpoint of the transmission line and represented by
the series line inductance.
The compensator is represented by a sinusoidal AC voltage,
in-phase with the midpoint voltage, Vm, and with an
amplitude identical to that of the sending- and receiving-end
voltages (Vm= Vs=Vr= V). The midpoint compensator in effect
segments the transmission line into two independent parts:
• The first segment, with an impedance of X/2, carries power from
the sending end to the midpoint, and the second segment, also
with an impedance of X/2, carries power from the midpoint to the
receiving end.
• The relationship between voltages, Vs, Vr, Vm,, (together with
Vsm, Vrm,) and line segment currents Ism and Irm," is shown by
the phasor diagram
• Note that the midpoint VAR compensator exchanges only
reactive power with the transmission line in this process.
• For the lossless system assumed, the real power is the same at
each terminal (sending end, midpoint, and receiving end) of the
line, and it can be derived readily from the phasor diagram
• It is also evident that for the single-line system the midpoint of the
transmission line is the best location for the compensator.
• This is because the voltage sag along the uncompensated
transmission line is the largest at the midpoint. Also, the
compensation at the midpoint breaks the transmission line into
two equal segments for each of which the maximum transmittable
power is the same.
• For unequal segments, the transmittable power of the longer
segment would clearly determine the overall transmission limit.
• The concept of transmission line segmentation can be
expanded to the use of multiple compensators,
located at equal segments of the transmission line,
• Theoretically, the transmittable power would double
with each doubling of the segments for the same
overall line length.
• Furthermore, with the increase of the number of
segments, the voltage variation along the line would
rapidly decrease, approaching the ideal case of
constant voltage proflle.
• Such a system, however, would tend to be too
complex and probably too expensive, to be practical,
particularly if stability and reliability requirements under
appropriate contingency conditions are also
considered.
• However, the practicability of limited line
segmentation, using thyristor-controlled static VAR
compensators has been demonstrated successfully.
End of Line Voltage Support to Prevent Voltage
Instability
• A simple radial system with feeder line reactance of X and load
impedance Z, together with the normalized terminal voltage V,
versus power P plot at various load power factors, ranging from 0.8
lag and 0.9 lead.
• The "nose-point" at each plot given for a specific power factor
represents the voltage instability corresponding to that system
condition.
• It should be noted that the voltage stability limit decreases with
inductive loads and increases with capacitive loads.
• The inherent circuit characteristics of the simple radial structure,
and the V, versus P plots shown, clearly indicate that shunt
reactive compensation can effectively increase the voltage
stability limit by supplying the reactive load and regulating the
terminal voltage (V-Vr=0)
• It is evident that for a radial line, the end of the line, where the
largest voltage variation is experienced, is the best location for
the compensator. (Recall: the midpoint is the most effective
location for the line interconnecting two AC system buses.)
• Variation of voltage stability limit of a radial line with load and
load power factor (a), and extension of this limit by reactive shunt
compensation (b).
 Summary of Compensator Requirements
The functional requirements of reactive shunt compensators
used for increased Power transmission, improved voltage and
transient stability, and power oscillation damping can be
summarized as follows:
• The compensator must stay in synchronous operation with
the AC system at the compensated bus under all operating
conditions including major disturbances. Should the bus
voltage be lost temporarily due to nearby faults, the
compensator must be able to recapture synchronism
immediately at fault clearing.
• The compensator must be able to regulate the bus voltage
for voltage support and improved transient stability, or
control it for power oscillation damping and transient
stability enhancement, on a priority basis
• For a transmission line connecting two systems, the best
location for VAR compensation is in the middle, whereas for
a radial feed to a load the best location is at the load end.
 METHODS OF CONTROLLABLE VAR GENERATION
• By definition, capacitors generate and reactors
(inductors) absorb reactive power when connected to
an AC power source.
• They have been used with mechanical switches for
controlled VAR generation and absorption
• Continuously variable VAR generation or absorption for
dynamic system compensation was originally provided
by over-or-under-excited rotating synchronous
machines and, later, by saturating reactors in
conjunction with fixed capacitors.
• Thus, a static VAR compensator (SVC) is, by the IEEE
CIGRE co-definition, a static VAR generator whose
output is varied so as to maintain or control specific
parameters (e.g., voltage, frequency) of the electric
power system
• Modern static VAR generators are based on high-
power semiconductor switching circuits.
1. Variable lmpedance Type Static VAR Generators
Impedance type VAR generators are determined by their
major thyristor -controlled constituents:
i. Thyristor controlled reactor (TCR) and thyristor-
switched capacitor (TSR)
ii. The Thyristor-Switched Capacitor (TSC)
iii. Fixed Capacitor, Thyristor-Controlled Reactor Type
VAR Ganerator (FCTCR)
iv. Thyristor-Switched Capacitor, Thyristor-Controlled
Reactor Type VAR Generator
i. Thyristor controlled reactor (TCR) &Thyristor-switched capacitor(TSR)
• It consists of a fixed (usually air-core) reactor of inductance L, and
a bidirectional thyristor valve (or switch) sw.
• Currently available large thyristors can block voltage up to 4000
to 9000 volts and conduct current up to 3000 to 6000 amperes.
• Thus, in a practical valve many thyristors (typically 10 to 20) are
connected in series to meet the required blocking voltage levels
at a given power rating.
• A thyristor valve can be brought into conduction by simultaneous
application of a gate pulse to all thyristors of the same polarity.
• The valve will automatically block immediately after the AC
current crosses zero, unless the gate signal is reapplied‘
• The current in the reactor can be
controlled from maximum
(thyristor valve closed) to zero
(thyristor valve open) by the method
of firing delay angle control.
 ii. The Thyristor-Switched Capacitor (TSC)
• It consists of a capacitor, a bidirectional thyristor valve, and a
relatively small surge current limiting reactor.
• This reactor is needed primarily to limit the surge current in the
thyristor valve under abnormal operating conditions (e.g., control
malfunction causing capacitor switching at a "wrong time," when
transient free switching conditions are not satisfied);
• It may also be used to avoid resonances with the AC system
impedance at particular frequencies.
• The capacitor is used for voltage compensation
iii. Fixed Capacitor, Thyristor-Controlled Reactor Type VAR
Ganerator (FCTCR)
• A basic VAR generator arrangement using a fixed (permanently
connected) capacitor with a thyristor-controlled reactor (FC-TCR)
• The current in the reactor is varied by the method of firing delay
angle control.
• The fixed capacitor in practice is usually substituted, fully or
partially, by a filter network that has the necessary capacitive
impedance at the fundamental frequency to generate the
reactive power required, but it provides a low impedance at
selected frequencies to shunt the dominant harmonics produced
by the TCR.
TCR/ TSR TSC FCTCR
 2. Switching Converter Type VAR Generators
• Static VAR generators discussed in the previous section
generate or absorb controllable reactive power (VAR) by
synchronously switching capacitor and reactor banks "in"
and "out" of the network
• The aim of Switching Converter Type VAR Generator
approach is to produce a variable reactive shunt
impedance that can be adjusted (continuously or in a step-
like manner) to meet the compensation requirements of the
transmission network directly without the use of AC
capacitors or reactors, by various switching power
converters
• These (dc to ac or ac to ac) converters are operated as
voltage and current sources and they produce reactive
power essentially without reactive energy storage
components by circulating alternating current among the
phases of the AC system
• Functionally, their operation is similar to that of an ideal
synchronous machine whose reactive power output is
varied by excitation control.
• Like the mechanically powered machine, they can
also exchange real power with the AC system if
supplied from an appropriate, usually DC energy
source.
• Because of these similarities with a rotating
synchronous generator, they are termed Static
Synchronous Generators (SSG).
• when an SSG is operated without an energy source,
and with appropriate controls to function as a shunt-
connected reactive compensator, it is termed, as
rotating synchronous compensator (condenser), a
Static Synchronous Compensator (Condenser) or
STATCOM
3. Hybrid VAR Generators: Switching Converter with TSC and TCR
• The converter-based VAR generator can generate or absorb the
same amount of maximum reactive power; it has the same
control range for capacitive and inductive VAR output.
• However, many applications may call for a different VAR
generation and absorption range.
• This can simply be achieved by combining the converter with
either fixed and/or thyristor-switched capacitors and/or reactors.
STATIC VAR COMPENSATORS: SVC AND STATCOM
• Static VAR Compensator (SVC) and Static Synchronous
Compensator (STATCOM) are basically static VAR
generators, whose output is varied so as to maintain or
control specific parameters of the electric power system.
• Static (VAR) generator may be of a controlled reactive
impedance type, employing thyristor-controlled and
switched reactors and capacitors, or synchronous voltage
source type, employing a switching power converter, or a
hybrid type, which employs a combination of these
elements.
• Although the operating principles of these VAR generators
are disparate and their V-I and loss versus VAR output
characteristics, as well as their speed of response and
attainable frequency bandwidth, are quite different
• they all can provide the controllable reactive shunt
compensation, exhibiting similar overall functional
capabilities within their linear operating range.
• This means that the basic external control structure that
defines the functional operation of the compensator
 Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM)
• This shunt connected static compensator was developed as an
advanced static VAR compensator where a voltage source
convertor (VSC) is used instead of the controllable reactors and
switched capacitors.
• Although VSCs require self-commutated power semiconductor
devices such as GTO, IGBT, IGCT, MCT, etc (with higher costs and
losses) unlike in the case of variable impedance type SVC which
use thyristor devices
• The STATCOM was originally called as advanced SVC and then
labelled as STATCON (STATic CONdenser).
there are many technical advantages of a STATCOM over a SVC.
These are primarily:
(a) Faster response
(b) Requires less space as bulky passive components (such as
reactors) are eliminated
(c) Inherently modular and relocatable
(d) It can be interfaced with power sources such as battery, fuel cell
or SMES (superconducting magnetic energy storage)
(e) A STATCOM has superior performance during low voltage
condition as the reactive current can be maintained constant
 Principle of Operation of STATCOM
• A STATCOM is comparable to a Synchronous
Condenser (or Compensator) which can supply
variable reactive power and regulate the voltage of
the bus where it is connected.
• The equivalent circuit of a Synchronous Condenser
(SC) is shows a variable AC voltage source (E) whose
magnitude is controlled by adjusting the field current.
Neglecting losses, the phase angle (δ) difference
between the generated voltage (E) and the bus
voltage (V ) can be assumed to be zero.
• By varying the magnitude of E, the reactive current
supplied by SC can be varied.
• When E=V, the reactive current output is zero.
• When E >V, the SC acts as a capacitor whereas
• when E<V, the SC acts as an inductor.
• When δ=0, the reactive current drawn (Ir) is given by
• A STATCOM has a similar equivalent circuit as that of a Synchronous
Condenser. The AC voltage is directly proportional to the DC voltage
(Vdc) across the capacitor.
• If an energy source (a battery or a rectifier) is present on the DC side, the
voltage Vdc can be held constant. The self-commutated switches T1 and
T2 (based on say GTOs) are switched on and off once in a cycle.
• The conduction period of each switch is 180± and care has to be taken to
see that T1 is off when T2 is on and vice versa.
• The diodes D1 and D2 enable the conduction of the current in the reverse
direction. The charge on the capacitors ensure that the diodes are
reverse biased.
• The voltage waveform across PN is shown in Fig. The voltage VPN = Vdc/2
when T1 is conducting (T2 is off) and VPN = -Vdc/2 when T2 is conducting
(and T1 is off).
• The switches are synchronized with the supply voltage (V ) which is
assumed to be sinusoidal of frequency ω The fundamental component,
rms value (E1) is obtained as
• When E1>V the STATCOM draws a capacitive reactive current,
• Whereas it is inductive if E1<V
The advantages of a STATCOM over a SC are:
(a) The response is much faster to changing system conditions.
(b) It does not contribute to short circuit current.
(c) It has a symmetric lead-lag capability.
(d) It has no moving parts and hence the maintenance is easier.
(e)It has no problems of loss of synchronism under a major
disturbance.
A Simplified Analysis of a Three Phase Six Pulse STATCOM
The basic building block of a high power GTO based STATCOM is a
six pulse circuit shown in Fig. The circuit consists of six switches,
made up of six GTO thyristors with antiparallel diodes connected as a
six pulse Graetz bridge. The analysis of the circuit assumes that each
switch is turned on only once in a cycle of supply voltage and
conducts for 180± each.
• switches (or valves) are numbered in the sequence in which they
are turned on (fired).
• Also, the two switches connected in series in each leg operate in
a complementary fashion.
• Only one of the switches is conducting at any given time to
prevent short circuit of the capacitor.
• Thus, before switch 4 is turned on, the switch 1 must be turned off
and vice versa.
• To simplify the analysis, to derive the equations describing the
steady-state performance, we assume (initially) that
(i) the capacitor size is infinite (very large) and therefore the DC side
voltage is constant
(ii) the losses in the circuit are neglected.
 OBJECTIVES OF SERIES COMPENSATION
• Reactive shunt compensation is highly effective in
maintaining the desired voltage profile along the
transmission line interconnecting two busses of the AC
system and providing support to the end voltage of radial
lines.
• Thus from reactive shunt compensation, it is possible to
transmit power up to thermal limit of the line, if a large
enough angle between the two end voltages could be
established.
• However, shunt compensation is ineffective in controlling
the actual transmitted power which, at a defined
transmission voltage, is ultimately determined by the series
line impedance and the angle between the end voltages of
line
• It was always recognized that AC power transmission over
long lines was primarily limited by the series reactive
impedance of the line.
• Series capacitive compensation was introduced decades
ago to cancel a portion of the reactive line impedance and
thereby increase the transmittable power.
• Subsequently, within the FACTS initiative, it has been
demonstrated that variable series compensation is
highly effective in both controlling power flow in the
line and in improving stability.
• Controllable series line compensation is a cornerstone
of FACTS technology.
• It can be applied to achieve full utilization of
transmission assets by controlling the power flow in the
lines
• In this section the basic approach of reactive series
compensation will be reviewed to provide the
necessary foundation for the treatment of power
electronics based compensators.
• The effect of series compensation on the basic factors,
determining attainable maximal power transmission,
steady-state power transmission limit, transient stability,
voltage stability and power oscillation damping
 Concept of Series Capacitive Compensation
• The basic idea behind series capacitive compensation is to
decrease the overall effective series transmission
impedance from the sending end to the receiving end, i.e.,
X in the P= (V2/x) sin δ relationship characterizing the power
transmission over a single line.
• Consider the simple two-machine model with a series
capacitor compensated line, which, for convenience, is
assumed to be composed of two identical segments, as
illustrated in Figure (a)
• The corresponding voltage and current phasors are shown
in Figure (b). Note that for the same end voltages the
magnitude of the total voltage across the series line
inductance, Vx=2Vx/2 is increased by the magnitude of the
opposite voltage, Vc, developed across the series
capacitor; this results from an increase in the line current.
The effective transmission impedance Xeff with the series capacitive
compensation is given by

where k is the degree of series compensation

Assuming Vs=Vr=V in Figure 6.1(b), the current in the compensated
line, and the corresponding real power transmitted, can be derived
in the following forms:

The reactive power supplied by the series capacitor can be given by

Qc
• The relationship between the real power P, series
capacitor reactive power Qc, and angle δ is plotted at
various values of the degree of series compensation k
in Figure(c)
• It can be observed that, the transmittable power
rapidly increases with the degree of series
compensation k
• Similarly, the reactive power supplied by the series
capacitor also increases sharply with k and varies with
angle δ in a similar manner as the line reactive power
• We can summarize that the impedance of the series
compensating capacitor cancels a portion of the
actual line reactance and thereby the effective
transmission impedance
• Series capacitive compensation be used to reduce the
series reactive impedance to minimize the receiving-
end voltage variation and the possibility of voltage
collapse.
• Clearly, both shunt and series capacitive
compensation can effectively increase the voltage
stability limit.
• Shunt compensation does it by supplying the reactive
power and regulating the terminal voltage.
• Series capacitive compensation does it by canceling a
portion of the line reactance
• Transient stability improvement by controlled in shunt
compensation by increasing the power transmission
via increasing the (midpoint) transmission line
• Series line compensation to control the transmitted
power can be utilized much more effectively to
increase the transient stability limit and to provide
power oscillation damping
• Series capacitive compensation can also be used to
minimize the end-voltage variation of radial lines
and prevent voltage collapse.
• Series compensation, controls machine swings and
can provide significant transient stability
improvement, and highly effective in power
oscillation damping
• Controlled series compensation can be applied
without the danger of sub synchronous resonance to
achieve full utilization of transmission lines.
• It will be seen that, analogously to shunt
compensation, controlled series compensation to
meet the above functional requirements can be
accomplished by both thyristor controlled
impedance type and converter-based, voltage-
source type compensators
 VARIABLE IMPEDANCE TYPE SERIES COMPENSATORS
variable impedance type series compensators are
composed of thyristor-switched/ controlled-capacitors or
thyristor-controlled reactors with fixed capacitors.
 GTO Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor (GCSC)
It consists of a fixed capacitor in parallel with a GTO
which has the capability to turn ON and OFF upon
command
• It is the perfect combination of the well-established
TCR, having the unique capability of directly varying
the capacitor voltage by delay angle control
• The objective of the GCSC is to control the AC voltage
Vc across the capacitor at a given line current i
• Evidently, when the GTO valve, switch is closed, the
voltage across the capacitor is zero and when the
valve is open it is maximum
• For controlling the capacitor voltage, the closing and
opening of the valve is carried out in each half-cycle
in synchronism with the AC system frequency.
• The GTO valve is closed automatically whenever the
capacitor voltage crosses zero
• The TCR is a switch in series with a reactor, the GCSC is
a switch in shunt with a capacitor.
• The TCR valve is stipulated to close at current zero, the
GCSC at voltage zero.
• The TCR controls the current in a fixed inductor from a
constant voltage source, thereby presenting a variable
reactive admittance as the load to this source.
• The GCSC controls the voltage developed by a
constant current source across a fixed capacitor,
thereby presenting a variable reactive impedance to
this source
 Thyristor-Switched Series Capacitor (TSSC)

• It consists of a number of capacitors, each shunted by

an appropriately rated bypass valve composed of a
string of reverse parallel connected thyristors, in series
• It is similar in structure of the sequentially operated
GCSC, but its operation is different due to the imposed
switching restrictions of the conventional thyristor
valve.
• The operating principle of the TSSC is straightforward,
the degree of series compensation is controlled in a
step-like manner by increasing or decreasing the
number of series capacitors inserted.
• A capacitor is inserted by turning off, and it is bypassed
by turning on the corresponding thyristor valve
• A thyristor valve commutates "naturally," that is, it turns
off when the current crosses zero.
• Thus a capacitor can be inserted into the line by the
thyristor valve only at the zero crossings of the line
current.
• Since the insertion takes place at line current zero, a
full half-cycle of the line current will charge the
capacitor from zero to maximum and the successive,
opposite polarity half-cycle of the line current will
discharge it from this maximum to zero,
• Sufficiently high degree of TSSC compensation could
cause subsynchronous resonance just as well as an
ordinary capacitor.
• Therefore, the pure TSSC scheme would not be used in
critical applications where a high degree of
compensation is required and the danger of
subsynchronous resonance is present.
• Nevertheless, the TSSC could be applied for power flow
control and for damping power oscillation where the
required speed of response is moderate.
 Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC)

• It consists of the series compensating capacitor shunted by

a Thyristor-Controlled Reactor.
• In a practical TCSC implementation, several such basic
compensators may be connected in series to obtain the
desired voltage rating and operating characteristics.
• This arrangement is similar in structure to the TSSC and, if the
impedance of the reactor, XL, is sufficiently smaller than that
of the capacitor, Xc it can be operated in an on/off manner
like the TSSC.
• However, the basic idea behind the TCSC scheme is to
provide a continuously variable capacitor by means of
partially canceling the effective compensating
capacitance by the TCR.
• The steady-state model of the TCSC is based on the
characteristics of the TCR established in an SVC
environment, where the TCR is supplied from a constant
voltage source.
• This model is useful to attain a basic understanding of
the functional behavior of the TCSC
• The dynamic interaction between the capacitor and
reactor changes the operating voltage from that of the
basic sine wave established by the constant line
current
• Generally, the XL/XC ratio for practical TCSCs would
likely be in 0.1 to 0.3 range, depending on the
application requirements and constraints. It
 The Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC)
• The voltage-sourced converter-based series
compensator, called Static Synchronous Series
Compensator (SSSC) within the concept of using
converter-based technology uniformly for shunt and
series compensation, as well as for transmission angle
control.
• The basic operating principles of the SSSC can be
explained with reference to the conventional series
capacitive compensation of Figure 6.1, shown
simplified in Figure 6.30 together with the related
voltage phasor diagram.
Thanking You