Science and Technology for UPSC

Prelims 2022

Topics:

● Biotechnology
● Nanotechnology
● IT and Computer
● Space Technology
● Health
● Defence
● Alternative Energy
By Suhel Yasir
● Basic Science (Experience of 3 UPSC CSE
Interviews)

Types of Solid

Solids have two states namely amorphous and crystalline

form.
● Crystalline:
○ In crystalline solids the particles are arranged in
a 3 dimensional order.
○ The particles have equal intermolecular forces.
○ They have sharp melting point and are
anisotropic.
○ They are called true solids. Eg. Diamond
● Amorphous:
○ Amorphous means shapeless
○ It has irregular arrangement of solid particles.
○ The intermolecular forces are not equal.
○ Also, the distance between particles varies.
○ They are also called supercooled liquids.They
are isotropic. Example: Naphthalene, glass
Space Technology

Kepler’s Laws

Kepler First law – The Law of Orbits

According to Kepler’s first law,” All the planets revolve around the sun in
elliptical orbits having the sun at one of the foci”.

The point at which the planet is close to the sun is known as perihelion
and the point at which the planet is farther from the sun is known as
aphelion.

It is the characteristics of an ellipse that the sum of the distances of any

planet from two foci is constant. The elliptical orbit of a planet is
responsible for the occurrence of seasons.

Kepler’s Second Law – The Law of Equal Areas

Kepler’s second law states ” The radius vector drawn from the sun to the
planet sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time”.

It has more kinetic energy near perihelion and less kinetic energy near
aphelion implies more speed at perihelion and less speed (vmin) at
aphelion.

Space Technology

Kepler’s Laws Contd

Kepler’s Third Law – The Law of Periods

According to Kepler’s law of periods,” The square of the time period of

revolution of a planet around the sun in an elliptical orbit is directly
proportional to the cube of its semi-major axis”.

T2 ∝ a3

Shorter the orbit of the planet around the sun, shorter the time taken to
complete one revolution.
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Perigee and Apogee

● When a satellite is at its farthest point from the earth, it is at the apogee of the orbit.
● When a satellite is at its closest point to the earth, it is at the perigee of the orbit.
● In accordance with Kepler’s second law, the satellites are fastest at the perigee and
slowest at the apogee.

Satellite Motion

The satellite uses the energy it picked up from the rocket to stay in motion. That motion is
called momentum.

● When a satellite is thousands of miles away, Earth’s gravity is still tugging on it.
● That tug toward Earth--combined with the momentum from the rocket - causes the
satellite to follow a circular path around Earth: an orbit.
● When a satellite is in orbit, it has a perfect balance between its momentum and
Earth’s gravity.
● Gravity is stronger the closer you are to Earth. And satellites that orbit close to Earth
must travel at very high speeds to stay in orbit.
○ NOAA-20 orbits just a few hundred miles above Earth. It has to travel at
17,000 miles per hour to stay in orbit.
○ NOAA’s GOES-East satellite orbits 22,000 miles above Earth. It only has to
travel about 6,700 miles per hour to overcome gravity and stay in orbit.

Space Technology
Types of Satellite Orbits: Low Earth Orbit (200-2000 kms)

International Space Station (400 km) is rotating the earth in Low Earth
Orbit.
● LEO is high enough to significantly reduce the atmospheric drag
yet close enough to observe the earth.
● In LEO, the satellite’s orbital period is much smaller than the
earth’s rotational period.
● That is, the satellites in LEO complete multiple revolutions in 24
hours.
● At an altitude of 200 km, the required orbital velocity is a little more
than 27,400 kmph. The period for motion is around 86-127
minutes.
Advantages
● Low Earth Orbit is used for things that we want to visit often, like
the International Space Station.
● It is also important for earth observation satellites to have better
images.
Issue:
● Atmospheric drag will lead to more fuel consumption and constant
speed adjustments.
● A satellite traveling in LEO do not spend very long over any one
part of the Earth at a given time. Hence, it is not suitable for
communication and weather forecasting.
Space Technology

Medium Earth Orbit (2000-35786 km)

● It includes part of the lower and all of the upper Van Allen radiation
belts.
○ Giant donut-shaped swaths of magnetically trapped,
highly energetic charged particles surround Earth.
● It is very commonly used by navigation satellites, like the
European Galileo system.
○ Galileo uses a constellation of multiple satellites to provide
coverage across large parts of the world all at once.

Geosynchronous Orbit

● Orbit is an inclined circle or an inclined ellipse.

● The orbital tilt is non-zero
● A person on a point on Earth, will see a satellite in this orbit in the
same place in the sky at the same time of the day, every day.
● Since the orbit has some inclination and/or eccentricity, the
satellite would appear to describe a more or less distorted figure-
eight in the sky and would rest above the same spots of the
Earth’s surface once per day.
● It may sometimes require steering the antenna to achieve line of
sight

Space Technology

Geostationary Orbit

● Orbital path is circular. The International Telecommunication Union

● Orbital tilt is zero.
● An observer on the ground would not perceive the satellite as Founded in 1865 to facilitate international connectivity
moving and would see it as a fixed point in the sky in communications networks, they allocate global radio
● There are a limited number of positions available (traffic jam, spectrum and satellite orbits.
interference of signals due to more satellites in the same orbit and
risk of damage due to space debris) in this orbit due to safety and There is no cost for an orbital slot, but allocation is on
manoeuvring limits. a first-come, first-served basis.
● Can receive signals with a simple antenna as the satellite is in
relatively same position
Space Technology

Polar Orbits

● Satellites in these orbits fly over the Earth from pole to pole in an
orbit perpendicular to the equatorial plane.
● This orbit is used in surface mapping and observation satellites
since it allows the orbiting satellite to take advantage of the earth’s
rotation below to observe the entire surface of the Earth as it
passes below.
● Pictures of the Earth’s surface in applications such as Google
Earth come from satellites in polar orbits.

Sun-synchronous orbits

● Sun-synchronous orbit is a near polar orbit in which the satellite

passes over any given point of the planet’s surface at the same
local mean solar time.
● When a satellite has a sun-synchronous orbit, it means that the
satellite has a constant sun illumination.
● Because of the consistent lighting, the satellites in sun-
synchronous orbit are used for remote sensing applications.

Space Technology
J2 Perturbation

Actually, the Earth really isn't a sphere - it is an oblate spheroid.

● Because of the rotation of the Earth on its axis, centrifugal force

bulges the equator.
● In fact, the radius at the Earth's equator is about 21 km larger than
the radius at the poles.
● There is a perturbing force based on this oblate Earth called "J2
Perturbations."
● The two main orbital elements affected by J2 Perturbations are the
Right Ascension of the Ascending Node (Ω) and the Argument of
Perigee (ω).
● If we were to model the Earth as a perfect sphere with a uniform
gravitational field, the RAAN and argument of perigee would not
change.
● J2 perturbations will move the RAAN over time at a constant rate
depending on the orbit's size, shape, and inclination.
● Using this property of J2 perturbations, we can manipulate our
orbit so that the RAAN changes at a rate of 360 degrees per year,
keeping the orbit in the same orientation with respect to the Sun.
● This is called a "Sun-Synchronous Orbit".
● However, if we did not account for J2, would have the red orbit in
the picture below:
Space Technology

Geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO)

A geosynchronous transfer orbit is an elliptical orbit used to transfer

between two orbits in the same plane — used to reach geosynchronous or
geostationary orbit.

Space Technology

Evolution of Satellite Launch Vehicles India

Satellite Launch Vehicle-3 (SLV-3)

It was India's first experimental satellite launch vehicle.

● It was an all solid, four stage vehicle.

● It is capable of placing 40 kg class payloads in Low Earth Orbit
(LEO).
● SLV-3 was successfully launched on July 18, 1980 from
Sriharikota Range (SHAR).
○ Rohini satellite, RS-1, was placed in orbit.
○ It made India the sixth member of an exclusive club of
space-faring nations.

Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV)

● It was designed to augment the payload capacity to 150 kg.

● It was a five-stage solid-fuel rocket developed by the Indian Space
Research Organisation (ISRO).
Space Technology
Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

● It is the third generation launch vehicle of India.

● It is the first Indian launch vehicle to be equipped with liquid
stages.
● PSLV earned its title 'the Workhorse of ISRO' through consistently
delivering various satellites to Low Earth Orbits.
● It can take up to 1,750 kg of payload to Sun-Synchronous Polar
Orbits of 600 km altitude.
● PSLV has also been used to launch various satellites into
Geosynchronous and Geostationary orbits, like satellites from the
IRNSS constellation. It can take 1425 kgs to sub-GTO.
● It is a 4 stage launch vehicle.
○ It is an Earth storable liquid engine powered by
Monomethyl hydrazine and Mixed Oxides of Nitrogen.
○ The third stage of PSLV is a solid rocket motor.
○ The second stage is a liquid fuel stage known as Vikas
Engine.
○ The first stage is solid fuel fired.
● PSLV uses 6 solid rocket strap-on motors to augment the thrust
provided by the first stage in its PSLV-G and PSLV-XL variants.
However, strap-ons are not used in the core alone version (PSLV-
CA).
● Chandrayaan-1 – 2008 and Mars Orbiter Mission or Mangalyaan –
2014 were launched using PSLV.

Space Technology

Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV)

It is the largest launch vehicle developed by India.

● The fourth generation launch vehicle is a three stage vehicle with

four liquid strap-ons.
● The indigenously developed cryogenic Upper Stage (CUS), which
is flight proven, forms the third stage of GSLV Mk II.
● GSLV's primary payloads are INSAT class of communication
satellites that operate from Geostationary orbits and hence are
placed in Geosynchronous Transfer Orbits by GSLV.
○ It can carry 2500 kg to GTO.
○ It can place 5000 kg to LEO.
● Stages:
○ CE-7.5 is India's first cryogenic engine, developed by the
Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre.
○ One Vikas engine is used in the second stage of GSLV.
○ The first stage is solid fuel fired.
Space Technology

Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) Contd

● GSLV Mk-III, chosen to launch Chandrayaan-2 spacecraft, is a

three-stage heavy lift launch vehicle developed by ISRO.
● GSLV Mk III is designed to carry 4 ton class of satellites into
Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO) or about 10 tons to Low
Earth Orbit (LEO), which is about twice the capability of the GSLV
Mk II.
● The C25 is powered by CE-20, India's largest cryogenic engine,
designed and developed by the Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre.

Space Technology

Gaganyaan

As part of this programme, two unmanned missions and one manned

mission will be carried out.

● ISRO is planning to launch the first uncrewed mission under

Gaganyaan in 2022.
● It will be followed by a second unmanned mission “Vyommitra” will
carry a robot.
● This will be followed by the manned mission.
● The following technologies are required:
○ Human rated launch vehicle
○ Crew escape systems
○ Habitable orbital module
○ Life support system
○ Crew selection and training and associated crew
management activities
● It aims to send a three-member crew to space for five to seven
days, including a woman.
Space Technology

Related News

Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV)

It aims to cater to the market for the launch of small satellites into Earth’s
low orbits.

● It can carry satellites weighing up to 500 kg to a low earth orbit.

● SSLV is a three-stage all solid vehicle.
● The key features of SSLV are low cost, with low turnaround time,
flexibility in accommodating multiple satellites, launch on demand
feasibility, minimal launch infrastructure requirements etc.
● One of the mandates of the newly-created ISRO commercial arm,
New Space India Limited (NSIL) is to mass-produce and
manufacture the SSLV and the more powerful PSLV in partnership
with the private sector in India through technology transfers.

Space Technology
Related News

Chandrayaan-3

● The Chandrayaan-3 mission is a follow-up of Chandrayaan-2 of

July 2019, which aimed to land a rover on the lunar South Pole.
● The lander Vikram, instead of a controlled landing, ended up
crash-landing on September 7, 2019, and prevented rover
Pragyaan from successfully travelling on the surface of the moon.

NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR)

● It is a joint mission of NASA and ISRO.

● It will measure Earth’s changing ecosystems, dynamic surfaces,
and ice masses.
● It will provide information to scientists to better understand the
effects and pace of climate change.

Shukrayaan

● The Shukrayaan orbiter will be the first mission to Venus by ISRO.

● The flagship instrument will be a synthetic aperture radar to
examine the Venusian surface. The Venus is shrouded by thick
clouds that make it impossible to glimpse the surface in visible
light.
Space Technology

Private Participation in Space

The current global space economy is estimated at US$ 360 billion.

● India accounts for only 2% of the space.

● In terms of sectoral share, rocket and satellite launch services, an
area in which ISRO specialises, amount to only 5% share.
○ Satellite-based services and ground-based systems
account for the remaining 95%.
○ Space tourism is also a potential area for development.
■ Virgin Galactic- Richard Branson
■ Blue Origin- Jeff Bezos
■ SpaceX- Elon Musk using Falcon rocket
○ Space travel is referred to as any flight operation that
takes one or more passengers beyond the altitude of 100
km and thus into space. (Karman Line)

Space Technology

James Webb Telescope

The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is NASA’s infrared flagship

observatory.

It is an international collaboration between NASA, the European Space

Agency (ESA), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA).

● Search for first galaxies that have been formed after Big Bang.
● Evolution of Galaxies.
● Measure physical and chemical properties of planetary systems.

Features

● JWST is headed for Sun-Earth Lagrange Point 2 (L2).

● The JWST is being considered as the successor of the Hubble
Space Telescope (HST).
○ The instruments on Hubble see mainly in the ultraviolet
and visible part of the spectrum.
Space Technology

Lagrange Points

Lagrange Points are positions in space where the gravitational forces of a

two body system like the Sun and the Earth produce enhanced regions of
attraction and repulsion.

● The Lagrange Points are places where the forces acting on the
object are perfectly balanced.
● Of the five Lagrange points, three are unstable and two are stable.
○ The unstable Lagrange points - labeled L1, L2 and L3 - lie
along the line connecting the two large masses.
○ The stable Lagrange points - labeled L4 and L5 - form the
apex of two equilateral triangles that have the large
masses at their vertices. L4 leads the orbit of earth and L5
follows.
● The L1 point of the Earth-Sun system affords an uninterrupted
view of the sun and is currently home to the Solar and
Heliospheric Observatory Satellite SOHO.
● The L2 is home to JWST.

Space Technology
Perseverance Rover

Missions in News
New Missions to Venus
● DAVINCI+ (Deep Atmosphere Venus Investigation of
Noble Gases Chemistry and Imaging) mission.
○ It will try to understand the composition of Venus.
● VERITAS ((Venus Emissivity, Radio Science, InSAR,
Topography, and Spectroscopy)
○ It will map the planet‘s surface to determine its
geologic history and understand the reasons why it
developed so differently from Earth.
Venus is the hottest planet in the solar system because of the heat
that is trapped by its thick cloud cover.
● Venus spins on its axis from east to west.
● Venus also does not have a moon and no rings.
The Mars 2020 Perseverance Rover will search for signs of ancient
microbial life.
The rover has a drill to collect core samples of Martian rock and soil,
then store them in sealed tubes for pickup by a future mission that
would ferry them back to Earth for detailed analysis.
Ingenuity, a small robotic helicopter sent with perseverance,
completed the first powered controlled flight by an aircraft outside
earth.
Martian Atmosphere
● According to ESA, Mars' atmosphere is composed of 95.32%
carbon dioxide, 2.7% nitrogen, 1.6% argon and 0.13%
oxygen.
● The atmospheric pressure at the surface is 6.35 mbar which
is over 100 times less Earth's.
● Early in its history Mars had a thick enough atmosphere for
water to run on its surface.
● According to NASA, some surface features suggest that Mars
experienced huge floods about 3.5 billion years ago.
● The average temperature on Mars is about minus 80 degrees
Fahrenheit.
Space Technology
Lucy Mission
It is NASA’s first mission to study Jupiter's Trojan asteroids to gain
new insights into the solar system's formation 4.5 billion years ago.
● Trojans orbit the Sun in two loose groups, with one group
leading ahead of Jupiter in its path, the other trailing
behind.
Asteroids and Comets:
● Asteroids, sometimes called minor planets, are rocky,
airless remnants left over from the early formation of our
solar system about 4.6 billion years ago.
● Comets are cosmic snowballs of frozen gases, rock, and
dust that orbit the Sun.
● Comets show a perceptible glowing tail, while asteroids
don’t.
Most of the asteroids can be found orbiting the Sun between Mars
and Jupiter within the main asteroid belt.
● There are likely billions of comets orbiting our Sun in the
Kuiper Belt.
Space Technology
Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite
TESS is a Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) led NASA
mission designed to discover thousands of exoplanets around
nearby bright stars.
● An exoplanet is any planet beyond our solar system.
● Most orbit other stars, but free-floating exoplanets, called
rogue planets, orbit the galactic center and are untethered
to any star.
HOPE
United Arab Emirates' (UAE) Hope Mars mission is designed to
study Mars' atmosphere across all its layers and at a global scale
throughout the course of the year.
Asteroids can be divided into following categories:
● Those found in the main asteroid belt, between Mars and
Jupiter.
● Trojans asteroids that share an orbit with a larger planet.
● Near-Earth Asteroids, which has orbits that pass close to the
Earth.
Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resource Identification,
Security, Regolith Explorer (OSIRIS-REx)
● NASA’s OSIRIS-Rex, first mission to visit a near-Earth
asteroid, begin journey back to earth.
● In October 2020 OSIRIS-REx spacecraft collected samples of
dust and pebbles from the asteroid Bennu.
Double Asteroid Redirection Test Mission (DART)
● It is NASA’s first planetary defense test mission to be
launched.
● It would allow a spacecraft to crash into an asteroid and
change its course.
The Sun
The Sun is a 4.5 billion-year-old yellow dwarf star – a hot glowing ball
of hydrogen and helium – at the center of our solar system.
Features:
● The Sun is the largest object in our solar system. Its diameter
is about 865,000 miles (1.4 million kilometers).
○ It ranks among the top 10% of the stars in terms of
size.
● The hottest part of the Sun is its core, where temperatures top
27 million °F (15 million °C).
● The part of the Sun we call its surface – the photosphere – is
a relatively cool 10,000 °F (5,500 °C).
● In one of the Sun’s biggest mysteries, the Sun’s outer
atmosphere, the corona, gets hotter the farther it stretches
from the surface.
○ The corona reaches up to 3.5 million °F (2 million °C)
– much, much hotter than the photosphere.
Space Technology

Parker Mission

NASA’s Parker Solar Probe (PSP) has now flown through the
Sun’s upper atmosphere – the corona – and sampled particles and
magnetic fields there.

● PSP is part of NASA's Living with a Star program

● It will help:
○ Predicting extreme weather events by helping in
forecasting solar storms.
○ Unravelling secrets in Corona:
■ The temperature of the Sun at its
photosphere is roughly 6,000 degree C
but within the corona it can reach a
staggering million degrees or more.
■ It's also within this region that the outward
flow of charged particles - electrons,
protons and heavy ions - suddenly gets
accelerated into a supersonic wind.

Space Technology

Aditya L1 Mission

ISRO plans to launch it by the middle of 2022.

● This is the first mission designated by ISRO to study the

Sun’s atmosphere.
● ISRO has selected L1, or Lagrangian point 1, between the
Earth and the Sun to place the Aditya satellite.
● It will conduct comprehensive research on the processes
that occur in the Sun’s atmosphere

ISRO categorises Aditya L1 as a 400 kg-class satellite that will be

launched using the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) in XL
configuration.

The space-based observatory will have seven payloads

(instruments) on board to study the Sun’s corona, solar emissions,
solar winds and flares, and Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs), and
will carry out round-the-clock imaging of the Sun.
Space Technology
Dwarf Stars
The term “dwarf star” was created by Ejnar Hertzsprung in 1906.
He used it to distinguish prominent K and M-type stars that are
either brighter or dimmer than the Sun. Those that are bigger and
much brighter are called “giant stars.” The smaller and fainter ones
are called “dwarf stars.”
The words “dwarf stars” are often used interchangeably with the
distinct band of stars called the main sequence.
● Our Sun is in the main sequence. It is a yellow dwarf star.
● Aside from stars in the main sequence, the word “dwarf” is
also used for stars in the later stages of the stellar
evolution, outside the main sequence.
● A very low-mass star that is leaving the main sequence will
become a blue dwarf.
● Another star nearing the end of stellar life is a white dwarf.
It will, later on, become a black dwarf.
● There is also a low-mass substellar object called a brown
dwarf.
Bio-technology
Cell Biology:
A cell is a functional unit of all known forms of life
Types:
● Unicellular organisms contain only one cell and that single
cell performs all the life processes. eg. Bacteria, and
cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), Amoeba, Paramecium,
Euglena, etc.
● Multicellular organisms = consist of more than one cell.
The different cells can become specialized for different
functions all of which coordinate to make life possible in an
organism. eg. Plants, Animals
An organelle (think of it as a cell’s internal organ) is a membrane
bound structure found within a cell.
There are two main types of cells, prokaryotic and eukaryotic.
Prokaryotes are cells that do not have membrane bound nuclei,
whereas eukaryotes do.
Wolf Rayet Stars
Massive stars which are at an advanced stage of stellar evolution
and losing mass at a very high rate are known as Wolf-Rayet stars.
White Dwarf
A white dwarf is a star that has burnt up all of its fuel and shed its
outer layers, now undergoing a process of shrinking and cooling
over millions of years.
Ganymede
● Using datasets from NASA's Hubble Space Telescope
(Collaboration of NASA and European Space Agency),
scientists for the first time have discovered evidence of
water vapour in the atmosphere of Jupiter's moon
Ganymede
● Ganymede, the largest moon in the solar system, contains
more water than all of Earth's oceans.
● Right now, NASA's Juno mission is taking a close look at
Ganymede and Jupiter.
At its most basic, a factory needs a building, a product, and a way
to make that product. All cells have membranes (the building),
DNA (the various blueprints), and ribosomes (the production line),
and so are able to make proteins (the product - let’s say we’re
making toys).
An organelle (think of it as a cell’s internal organ) is a membrane
bound structure found within a cell. Just like cells have membranes
to hold everything in, these mini-organs are also bound in a double
layer of phospholipids to insulate their little compartments within
the larger cells.
● You can think of organelles as smaller rooms within the
factory, with specialized conditions to help these rooms
carry out their specific task.
Nucleus
Our DNA has the blueprints for every protein in our body, all
packaged into a neat double helix.
● The processes to transform DNA into proteins are known
as transcription and translation, and happen in different
compartments within the cell.
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Within the nucleus is a small subspace known as the nucleolus.

This space forms near the part of DNA with instructions for making
ribosomes, the molecules responsible for making proteins.

Transcription and Translation:

While transcription (making a complementary strand of RNA from

DNA) is completed within the nucleus, translation (making protein
from RNA instructions) takes place in the cytoplasm.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Endoplasmic means inside (endo) the cytoplasm (plasm).

Reticulum comes from the Latin word for net.

There are actually two different endoplasmic reticulum in a cell: the

smooth endoplasmic reticulum and the rough endoplasmic
reticulum.

The rough endoplasmic reticulum is the site of protein production

(where we make our major product - the toy) while the smooth
endoplasmic reticulum is where lipids (fats) are made (accessories
for the toy, but not the central product of the factory).

Bio-technology

The rough endoplasmic reticulum is so-called because its surface

is studded with ribosomes, the molecules in charge of protein
production.

The smooth endoplasmic reticulum makes lipids and steroids,

instead of being involved in protein synthesis. These are fat-based
molecules that are important in energy storage, membrane
structure, and communication (steroids can act as hormones).
● It is more tubular than the rough endoplasmic reticulum,
and is not necessarily continuous with the nuclear
envelope.

Golgi Apparatus

Golgi is the mailroom that sends our product to customers. It is

responsible for packing proteins from the rough endoplasmic
reticulum into membrane-bound vesicles which then translocate to
the cell membrane.
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Lysosomes:

● The lysosome is the cell’s recycling center.

● They are also known as suicide bags of the cell.

Mitochondria

● Just like a factory can’t run without electricity, a cell can’t

run without energy.
● ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the energy currency of
Different molecules actually have different fates upon entering the Golgi. the cell, and is produced in a process known as cellular
This determination is done by tagging the proteins with special sugar
respiration. They are thus called the powerhouse of the
molecules that act as a shipping label for the protein.
● Cytosol: The proteins that enter the Golgi by mistake are sent cell.
back into the cytosol ● It has its own DNA.
● Cell Membrane: Molecules in this pathway are often protein
channels which allow molecules into or out of the cell
● Secretion: Some proteins are meant to be secreted from the cell
to act on other parts of the body.
● Lysosome: Vesicles sent to this acidic organelle contain enzymes
that will hydrolyze the lysosome’s content.

Bio-technology

Cell Structure

● Cell-Membrane = Or plasma membrane is an outermost

covering of the cell made up of phospholipids that
separates the interior of all cells from the outside
environment.
● Cell Wall = it is the structural layer surrounding the cell
membrane in certain types of cells (plants have a cell wall
made up of cellulose, fungi = chitin, bacteria =
peptidoglycan). It provides support and protection to the
cell.
● Cytoplasm = it consists of all the components of the cell
enclosed within the cell membrane other than the nucleus
● Nucleus = it is the controlling center of all the activities of
the cell. It is generally spherical in shape and is located in
the center of the cell, it contains chromosomes.
● Protoplasm = cytoplasm + nucleus = it is the living part of
the cell.
● Ribosomes = are the sites of protein synthesis in the cell.
They can be present freely or attached to the endoplasmic
reticulum
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● Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) = it is a large network of

membrane-bound tubes and sheets which act as channels
of transport between different parts of the cell.
● Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum = They contain attached
ribosomes and are associated with protein synthesis
● Smooth ER = they do not have ribosomes and are
associated with the production of fats
● Golgi Bodies = They are membrane-bound structures ● Plastids = Are pigment-containing cell organelle found
arranged parallel to each other. They package and only in plants. they are of 3 types =
dispatch material to various targets inside and outside the ○ Chloroplast which contains chlorophyll found in the
cell. green parts of the plants
● Mitochondria = They have their own DNA, they perform ○ Chromoplast = found in the colored parts of the
cellular respiration for the production of energy and they plant
are thus called the powerhouse of the cell ○ Leucoplast = they are white, they contain starch,
● Lysosomes = can digest any foreign material as well as oil, or proteins
worn out cell organelle by the use of their powerful
digestive enzymes. It can digest the whole damaged cell
by releasing its enzymes into the cytoplasm hence acting
as a suicide bag of the cell.
● Vacuoles = it is the storage sack of the cell, It is present in
the form of a single large structure in the plant cell and
multiple small structures in the animal cell

Bio-technology
Classification of Animals

Notochord is a solid rod like tissue in the embryo which becomes

the vertebral column or backbone in vertebrates.

● Non-Chordata (Notochord is absent)

● Chordata (Notochord is present)
Kingdom of Organisms Classification:

Non-Chordata
● Monera = are prokaryotes, unicellular, eg. bacteria and
cyanobacteria
● Porifera:
● Protista = it is Eukaryotic but which are unicellular, eg.
○ Irregular body
Protozoa, (Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena).
○ With pores for entry of water containing oxygen
● Fungi = Eukaryotic, multicellular, or unicellular eg. Yeast,
and food.
Mushroom.
○ Even tiny pieces of sponge can regenerate into full
○ They are saprotrophic.
individual.
● Plants = Eukaryotic, multicellular
○ Eg. Sycon, Sponge
● Animals = Eukaryotic, multicellular
● Cnidaria:
○ Tentacles surrounding the mouth.
○ Stinging cells present.
○ Reproduction by budding or sexual
○ Eg. Hydra, Jellyfish, Corals, Anemones
Bio-technology

● Platyhelminthes:
○ Flat body
○ Mostly parasitic
Fig. Porifera ○ The sexes are not separate and they are thus
called hermaphrodites.
○ Eg. tapeworm, liver fluke, etc.
● Aschelminthes:
○ Their body is circular in cross-section and the
sexes are separate.
○ Hookworm, filarial worm, guinea worm, Ascaris,
etc.
○ Nematodes or Roundworms.
● Annelida:
○ Segmented body
○ Excrete by Nephridia
Fig. Cnidaria ○ Annelids are hermaphroditic organisms with either
males produced first (protandry) or both sexes
present simultaneously.
○ Earthworm, leech etc

Bio-technology

Fig. Platyhelminthes ● Arthropoda:

○ Jointed legs
○ Body covered with cuticle made of hard substance
called chitin.
○ It has three parts =Insects (bees, wasps,
butterflies, etc.), Arachnids- do not have antennae
(spiders, scorpions, ticks, and mites), and
Crustaceans (prawns, crabs, lobsters, etc.)
● Echinodermata:
○ Flat or globular deep sea animals.
○ Have 5 arms or division of body.
○ Spiny skin.
○ Eg. Star fish, Sea cucumber
● Mollusca:
○ Soft, unsegmented body enclosed in hard shell
made of calcium carbonate.
○ Eg. Oysters, Snails, Octopus

Fig. Annelida
Fig. Aschelminthes
Bio-technology

Chordata

● Fishes:
Fig. Arthropoda ○ Water habitat
○ Gills for breathing
● Amphibia:
○ Live in land but lay eggs in water, adapted to both
life in water and land.
○ Breathe with lungs
○ Eg. Salamanders, frogs
● Reptilia:
○ Land Animals
○ Lay eggs on land
○ Body covered with scales
○ Eg. Lazard, Snake
● Aves:
○ Aerial mode of life
Fig. Mollusca ○ Wings for flying
○ Eg. Birds
● Mammals:
○ Mammary glands for producing milk
○ Hairy skin
Fig. Echinodermata ○ Eg. Cow, mouse, man

Bio-technology

Fig. Algae
Kingdom Plantae

● Algae:
○ No special roots, stems or leaves
○ Eg, Algae
● Bryophyta:
○ Root like hyphae but no true roots
○ Mosses, liverworts
● Pteridophyta:
○ True roots, underground stems, spore bearing
leaves
Fig. Bryophyta ○ Eg. Ferns
● Spermatophyta:
○ Gymnosperms:
■ No flowers, seeds naked and not enclosed
in a fruit
■ Pine, juniper
Fig. Pteridophyta ○ Angiosperms:
■ Flowering plants, fruit bearing
■ All flowering plants

Fig. Spermatophyta
Bio-technology

Viruses

● They have their own genetic material DNA (hepatitis virus)

and RNA (coronavirus)
● They have their own set of proteins and lacks the enzymes
needed for the production of energy
● They can grow only by living inside the body of another
organism.
● They can infect plants, animals, and even microorganisms
like bacteria.

Health and Diseases

Disease

● Cause
● Mode of Transmission
● Spread
● Symptoms
● Management- National Programme/Schemes Vector Borne DIseases

Different Types of Diseases Vectors are organisms that do not cause the disease itself but
● Congenital Disease = Any abnormality in the structure or which spread the infection y taking pathogens from one organism
function of a person which is present right from the time of to another.
birth, eg. congenital heart defect, cleft lip, etc.
● Acquired Diseases = Any diseases which are not present ● Mechanical vectors carry the pathogens on the surface of
at the time of birth but develop at a later stage of the life of their bodies and transmit them via physical contact. Eg.
an organism. Cockroach
○ Communicable or Infectious Diseases = They are ● Biological vectors = carry the pathogens within their bodies
caused by disease-causing organisms called and transmit them through a bite. Eg. Mosquito
pathogens.
○ Non- Communicable or Non-Infectious Diseases =
Those diseases which are not caused by
pathogens but by lifestyle or environmental
factors.
○ Contagious (direct contact like chickenpox, etc.)
and Non-Contagious diseases (tetanus, polio, etc.)
Health and Diseases
Bacterial Diseases

● Tuberculosis
● Leprosy
● All health care providers (both public and private
● Typhoid
providers), laboratories and chemists have to notify the TB
● Tetanus
cases to local government health authorities. Notification of
● Cholera
cases is done with the case-based web-based TB
● Anthrax
surveillance system called “NIKSHAY”.
● Free TB drugs are provided under the programme in the
Tuberculosis
form of daily fixed dose combinations (FDCs) for all TB
cases on the strategy of directly observed therapy (DOT).
● Pathogen: Mycobacterium Tuberculosis
● Multidrug-resistant Tuberculosis:
● Spread = cough, sneezing, droplets, injection, etc.
○ It is a form of TB caused by bacteria that do not
● Types = lungs (Pulmonary TB) and Other organs ( extra
respond to isoniazid and rifampicin, the 2 most
Pulmonary TB)
powerful, first-line anti-TB drugs.
● Diagnosis = Sputum Test
● Extensively drug-resistant Tuberculosis:
● Antibiotics for bacterial infection
○ It is a more serious form of MDR-TB caused by
● India notified more than 2.4 million TB cases in 2019, it
bacteria that do not respond to the most effective
continues to have the largest share of the global TB
second-line anti-TB drugs, often leaving patients
burden.
without any further treatment options.
● India’s National TB Elimination Programme is
strengthened to meet the goal of ending the TB epidemic
by 2025 from the country, five years ahead of the
Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) for 2030.

Health and Diseases

Antimicrobial Resistance

it is the ability of a microorganism like bacteria, virus, etc. to stop

an antimicrobial drug (antibiotic, antiviral, etc.) from working
against it.
Protozoan Diseases

● Standard treatments become ineffective, infections persist

● Amoebiasis
and may spread to others
● Malaria
● It can occur naturally or by misuse of drug therapies
● Sleeping sickness

Fungal Diseases
Malaria

● Candidiasis
● Vector borne disease
● Ringworm
● Pathogen = plasmodium (vivax and falciparum)
● Athletes foot
● Vector = Female anopheles mosquito
● National Vector Borne Disease Control Programme
Helminthic Diseases

● Hookworm infection
● Lymphatic filariasis
Health and Diseases
Viral Disease

● Hepatitis
● Chickenpox
● Polio
● Dengue
● Zika Cancer
● Chikungunya
● COVID-19 A condition in which uncontrollable growth of a cell leads to
● SARS abnormal tissue growth.
● MERS ● Benign Tumor= localized in one particular part of the body
and does not infect any other organ
Hepatitis ● Malignant Cancer = it can spread to other parts and can
invade and destroy other surrounding healthy tissue.
Hepatitis is a term used to describe inflammation (swelling) of the ● Treatment = surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy,
liver. ● Causes = genetic defect, nuclear radiations, UV radiations,
● Pathogen: Virus. It can be caused by toxic substances lifestyle factors, etc.
also. (notably alcohol)
● Acute hepatitis occurs when it lasts for less than six
months and chronic if it persists for longer duration.
● Types - A( spread through food and water),B (through
body fluids),C (blood), D (only with Hep B), E (food and
water).
● There is currently no vaccination for Hepatitis C.

Health and Diseases

Immunity
Lymphocytes
Immunity is the balanced state of an individual having adequate
biological defenses to fight infection and also to avoid allergy.
Types = Innate immunity and Acquired / Adaptive immunity
● Innate Immunity = It is the non-specific response that is
activated immediately on exposure to an unwanted agent.
This forms the first line of defense of the body. Types =
Physical Barriers (skin, Organs having a mucous
membrane), Chemical Barriers (HCl, Saliva, and tears),
Cellular Responses (neutrophils, monocytes (types of
WBCs)).
● Acquired/Adaptive Immunity = it is the specific immune
response that is developed on exposure to the immune
system to an unwanted agent. It is slower than innate
immunity.
● B-cells:
○ They produce antibody immune response.
● T-cells:
○ They go to the thymus gland for maturity.
○ They produce cell-mediated immune response.
● Antigen = It is an agent which triggers an immune
response.
● Antibody = is the protein produced as a response to the
antigen.
● Phagocytosis = it is a process by which a cell uses its
plasma membrane to engulf a large particle and then
digest it.
Health and Diseases
1st Line of Defence

The body's most important nonspecific defense is the skin, which

acts as a physical barrier to keep pathogens out. Even openings in
the skin (such as the mouth and eyes) are protected by saliva,
mucus, and tears, which contain an enzyme that breaks down
bacterial cell walls.

2nd Line of Defence

If a pathogen does make it into the body, there are secondary

nonspecific defenses that take place.

● An inflammatory response begins when a pathogen

stimulates an increase in blood flow to the infected area.
● Blood vessels in that area expand, and white blood cells
leak from the vessels to invade the infected tissue.
● These white blood cells, called phagocytes engulf and
destroy bacteria.
● When a pathogen has invaded, the immune system may
also release chemicals that increase body temperature,
producing a fever. Increased body temperature may slow
or stop pathogens from growing and helps speed up the
immune response.

Health and Diseases

Specific Defence

Antigens are usually found on the surface of pathogens and are

unique to that particular pathogen. Vaccination

● The immune system responds to antigens by producing
cells that directly attack the pathogen, or by producing
special proteins called antibodies.
The main cells of the immune system are lymphocytes known as B
cells and T cells. B cells are produced and mature in bone marrow.
T cells are also produced in bone marrow, but they mature in the
thymus.
● T cells are responsible for cell-mediated immunity. Killer T
cells (cytotoxic T cells) assist with the elimination of
infected body cells by releasing toxins into them and
promoting apoptosis. Helper T cells act to activate other
immune cells.
● B-cells also create immunological memory.
● It is a process whereby a person is made immune or
resistant to an infectious disease typically by the
administration of a vaccine
● When a body encounters an antigen for the first time a
slow and low-intensity production of antibodies takes place
by the B-Lymphocytes
● Along with this immunological memory is also created and
the B-Cells remains sensitized and ready to respond to the
agent if it were to attack again.
● On a subsequent attack, fast and high-intensity production
of antibodies counters the antigen. This is the rationale for
vaccination.
Health and Diseases
Adaptive Immunity = Active Immunity and Passive Immunity

● Active immunity = This immunity is due to production of

Types of Vaccines
● Live attenuated = The pathogen is disabled so that it does
not cause the disease but still retains its capacity to grow,
eg. BCG, MMR, Oral Polio
● Inactivated or Killed = The pathogen is killed but the
protein present can still produce an immune response, eg.
IPV (injectable Polio Vaccine), influenza, Covaxin
● Subunit Vaccine = it uses specific parts of the pathogen as
an antigen, eg. whooping cough, tetanus, etc.
● Conjugate Vaccine = it is usually made up of two antigens
of the same pathogen (weak antigen and strong antigen) in
one vaccine, eg. Pneumococcal vaccine
● Nucleic Acid = DNA (Hepatitis), RNA (m-RNA, Pfizer), etc.
antibodies within the body. This immunity results from the
production of antibodies by the immune system in
response to an antigen and it can further be classified as:
○ Natural active immunity (infection) and
○ Artificial active immunity (vaccination)
● Passive Immunity = In this immunity the antibodies are
administered from outside the body to protect against a
particular antigen, eg. natural passive immunity = mother's
milk and artificial passive immunity = anti-snake venom.
Herd Immunity
When enough people in a population have immunity that disease
can't spread.
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS):

● Pathogen = Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)

● It attacks T-cell and the immunity is reduced and thus
there will be an increased risk of infections
● The kinds of infections that happened are called
opportunistic infections.

Biotechnology
Genetics

The main Genetic Materials are Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid (DNA)

and Ribose Nucleic Acid (RNA).

● Nucleic acids form the genetic material of all life forms and
are responsible for the transmission of characters from
one generation to the next generation.
● Nucleic Acids are made up of Pentose Sugar (a sugar that
has 5 carbon atoms), Phosphate group, and Nitrogenous
Base.
● Pentose Sugar is made of Deoxyribose and Ribose.
● The Nitrogenous base is further divided into Purines and
Pyrimidine.
○ Purines are further divided into two types Adenine
(A) and Guanine (G).
○ Pyrimidine is of three types: Thymine(T), Cytosine
(C), Uracil (U).
● In DNA we have Deoxyribose Sugar and In RNA we have
Ribose Sugar.
● In the structure of DNA, we have A, G, T and C
● In the structure of RNA, we have A, G, U, and C
● DNA is mostly double-stranded and RNA mostly is single-
stranded.
Health and Diseases
● It is the presence or absence of specific proteins that give
Complementary Base Pairing an organism a particular trait or a characteristic.
● Transcription of a particular segment of DNA to Messenger
A purine will join with Pyrimidine. Adenine (A) will join with RNA (mRNA) takes place in the Cell Nucleolus and
Thymine(T). Guanine (G) will join Cytosine (C). translation of this messenger RNA into proteins takes
place at the site of Ribosomes where specific proteins are
Structure of DNA synthesised.

● The basic strand is formed by Sugar and Phosphate. They
are also known as the backbone.
● The twist gives DNA a double helix structure.
● The nucleus holds the genetic material.
● The nucleus has chromosomes i.e. rod-like structures of
DNA.
● The segments of this DNA are called the Genes.
● Each gene is responsible for some
characteristics/properties.
Gene Expression
DNA and RNA Vaccines
● mRNA Vaccine: It works by introducing an mRNA
sequence that is coded for a disease-specific antigen.
○ Pfizer and Moderna vaccines are mRNA types of
vaccines.
● DNA vaccine: It is the introduction of a DNA sequence in
coding antigens against which an immune response is
needed.
○ Hepatitis B vaccine is an example of the DNA
Vaccine.

Segments of DNA tell the individual cells how to produce specific Phenotype: It is the observable characteristics such as height,
proteins. These segments are called genes. colour, etc.
Genotype: It is the genetic makeup or composition of an
organism.

Health and Diseases

Chromosomes

For a particular species, the number of the chromosome remains

fixed.
● Humans have 46 chromosomes.
● Eggs and Sperm fuse to make zygotes.
● The zygote is the first cell of life. Then it forms the Embryo.
● There are two types of the cell for the production that are
Somatic cells and Sex cells or Gametes.
● Haploid cells (n) have a single set of unpaired
chromosomes. The sex cell or Gametes are Haploid cells.
● Diploid cells (2n) have two sets of chromosomes one
coming from each parent. All somatic cells (All cells other
than Gametes) are Diploid cells.
● Somatic cells have 2x23 chromosomes.
● Homologous Pair of Chromosomes: They are the
chromosomes that are similar in length, gene position, and
structure, one coming from the mother and the other come
from the father.
Biotechnology

Recombinant DNA Technology

The technology used for producing artificial DNA through the

combination of different genetic materials (DNA) from different
sources is referred to as Recombinant DNA Technology.

Inserting the desired gene into the genome of the host is not as
easy as it sounds. It involves the selection of the desired gene for
administration into the host followed by a selection of the perfect
vector with which the gene has to be integrated and recombinant
DNA formed.

● The enzymes which include the restriction enzymes help

to cut, the polymerases- help to synthesize and the
ligases- help to bind.

Steps
● Isolation of Genetic Material.
● Cutting the gene at the recognition sites.
● Amplifying the gene copies through Polymerase chain
reaction (PCR).
● Ligation of DNA Molecules.
● Insertion of Recombinant DNA Into Host.

Biotechnology

Use of RDT

● DNA technology is also used to detect the presence of HIV

in a person.
● Gene Therapy – It is used as an attempt to correct the
gene defects which give rise to heredity diseases.
● Clinical diagnosis – ELISA is an example where the
application of recombinant
● Recombinant DNA technology is widely used in Agriculture
to produce genetically-modified organisms such as Flavr
Savr tomatoes, golden rice rich in proteins, Bt-cotton to
protect the plant against ball worms and lot more.
● In the field of medicines, Recombinant DNA technology is
used for the production of Insulin.
Biotechnology

DNA Editing- Gene Therapy

● Gene Therapy = In case of gene defects diagnosed in a

child or an embryo a normal corrective gene can be added
to take over the function to compensate for the non-
functional gene.
● Gene Editing = We can add, we can delete, or replace
genes by using genetic engineering.

CRISPR-CaS9

The guidance molecule is called single guided RNA.

● An enzyme called Cas9. This acts as a pair of ‘molecular

scissors’ that can cut the two strands of DNA at a specific
location in the genome so that bits of DNA can then be
added or removed.
● The guide RNA has RNA bases that are complementary to
those of the target DNA sequence in the genome.

Biotechnology

In-vitro fertilisation

In vitro fertilization is the most commonly used assisted

reproductive technologies (ART).

● This results in a zygote or famously known as a test-tube

baby.
● Zygote intrafallopian transfer (ZIFT)
● Gamete Intra-Fallopian Transfer (GIFT)
Biotechnology

Animal Cloning

● Single parent = Somatic cell from the parent

● The egg is taken from the donor
● E-nucleation (removing the nucleus from the above two
cells)
● The nucleus of somatic cell + Egg (without nucleus) and
now the somatic cell nucleus is transferred into it. Some
stimulating conditions are provided to form the embryo and
this can be transplanted in the uterus.
● Eg. Dolly the Sheep

Biotechnology

Three Parent Baby

Mitochondrial diseases are long-term, genetic, often inherited

disorders that occur when mitochondria fail to produce enough
energy for the body to function properly.

● mtDNA is inherited from mother only

● The technique used is called as ‘Maternal Spindle transfer’
in which maternal DNA is put into the egg of a donor
woman, which is then fertilized using the father’s sperm.
● This process is also known as pro-nuclear transfer.
Biotechnology

● Induced Pluripotent stem cells = are differentiated cells

Stem Cell that can be induced to divide and become undifferentiated
again.
A single cell that can replicate itself and differentiate into many cell
types.

● They are unspecialized cells that can divide and grow into
different types of cells.
● Totipotency = it is the property of a cell where it can form
all the cells of the body including the ones in the
extraembryonic tissue, eg. placenta.
● Pluripotency = it is the property of a cell where it can form
any cells of the body except those needed to support and
develop the embryo.

Types of Stem Cell

● Embryonic stem cells = at the early stages of life they

are present and can change into any type of cell.
● Adult Stem cells or tissue-specific stem cells = are
present in the different parts of the body like bone marrow,
skin, blood, brain, and they form cells specific to the tissue.

Biotechnology

CAR-T Therapy

It is a way to get immune cells called T cells (a type of white blood

cell) to fight cancer by editing them in the lab so they can find and
destroy cancer cells.
● The development of CAR-T cell technology for diseases
including acute lymphocytic leukaemia, multiple myeloma,
glioblastoma, hepatocellular carcinoma, and type-2
diabetes is supported through DBT.

GM Crops

● India will import genetically modified (GM) soya meals for

the first time to be used as livestock feed.
● Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change
(MoEFCC) cleared the proposal, on the grounds that
material was non-living - Genetic Engineering
● Appraisal Committee (GEAC), a special committee under
MoEFCC entrusted to govern matters related to GM crops,
was bypassed, given the non-living nature of the material.
Biotechnology

Gene Editing in Mosquito

Precision-guided sterile insect technique (pgSIT) was used to alter

genes in Aedes aegypti, the species responsible for spreading
malaria, dengue, chikungunya and Zika.
● pgSIT uses CRISPR to sterilise male mosquitoes and
render female mosquitoes (which spread disease)
flightless.
Genome Sequencing Initiatives
● IndiGen Programme:
○ To undertake whole genome sequencing of a
thousand Indian individuals.
○ It is funded by CSIR.
● Genome India Project:
○ Aims to collect 10000 samples of citizens across
India to build a reference genome.
● Human Genome Project:
○ An international initiative to determine the DNA
sequence of entire human genome.
○ It began in 1990 and was completed in 2003.
RNAi Technology
Tobacco Plant: Meloidogyne incognita (Nematoda): The roots of
the plant had a disease known as root knot disease.
RNA interference regulates gene expression by a highly precise
mechanism called sequence directed gene silencing by degrading
specific messenger RNAs (mRNAs) or by blocking its translation
into protein.
● Under RNAi, special enzymes known as ‘Dicer’ are used
to cleave (split) ‘double stranded RNA’ (dsRNA) into small
fragments known as ‘small interfering RNA’ (siRNA).
● The siRNA is deployed to ‘interfere’ in gene expression
and manipulate function of genes.
● RNAi occurs naturally in almost all eukaryotes such as
animals, insects, fungi etc.

Biotechnology
COVID-19 variants-WHO

Variant of Concern

Antimicrobial Resistance
It is a variant that results in rise in transmissibility, increase in
fatality and a significant decrease in effectiveness of vaccines,
● AMR is the ability of a microorganism (like bacteria,
therapy and other health measures.
viruses, and some parasites) to stop an antimicrobial (such
The Alpha, Beta, Gamma and Delta variants fall under it
as antibiotics, antivirals and antimalarials) from working
against it.
Variant of Interest
● WHO launched the Global Antimicrobial Resistance
and Use Surveillance System (GLASS) in 2015 to
It is a variant with a genetic capability that affects characteristics of
continue filling knowledge gaps and to inform strategies at
virus such as disease severity, immune escape, transmissibility
all levels.
and diagnostic escape, and causes a consequential volume of
● Red Line campaign demands that prescription-only
community transmission.
antibiotics be marked with a red line, to discourage the
The Eta, Iota, Kappa and Lambda fall under it.
over the-counter sale of antibiotics.
● Go Blue for AMR been launched this year by the AMR
Variants under Monitoring
tripartite organisations(WHO, FAO and OIE)
● WHO AWaRe (Access, Watch, Reserve) campaign has
It is a variant with genetic changes that are suspected to affect
been initiated for AMR.
virus characteristics but evidence of phenotypic or epidemiological
impact is currently unclear.
It may pose a future risk.
Biotechnology

COVAX Alliance

COVAX, short for COVID-19 Vaccines Global Access, is a

worldwide initiative co-led by Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness
Innovations (CEPI), Gavi and the World Health Organization
Pressure Swing Adsorption
(WHO), alongside key delivery partner UNICEF.

PSA refers to an adsorption–desorption cycle that is driven by drop

● It coordinates international resources to enable equitable
in sorbent carrying capacity with decreasing pressure.
access to COVID-19 tests, treatments, and vaccines.

PSA oxygen generating plants are a source of medical-grade

Monoclonal Antibody
oxygen.

Monoclonal antibodies are artificially created in the lab and are

● In these plants. ambient air passes through an internal
similar to antibodies naturally created by immune system of
filtration system, which has a large enough total surface
humans.
area to separate nitrogen from air, concentrating the
remaining oxygen to a known purity.
● Casirivimab and Imdevimab are monoclonal antibodies
that are specifically directed against the spike protein of
SARS-CoV-2, designed to block the virus' attachment and
entry into human cells.

Biotechnology

Trans Fats

Trans fat, or trans-fatty acids, are unsaturated fatty acids that come
from either natural or industrial sources:
● Naturally occurring trans-fat come from ruminants (cows
and sheep)
● Industrially produced trans-fat are found in hardened
vegetable fats such as margarine and are often present in
snack foods, baked goods and fried foods

WHO

● REPLACE action framework: It provides a roadmap for

countries to eliminate industrially produced TFA from their
food supplies
Nuclear Technology
● The second, much larger, region of the atom is a “cloud” of
Matter
electrons, negatively charged particles that orbit around
the nucleus.
The term matter refers to anything that occupies space and has
mass—in other words, the “stuff” that the universe is made of.
Features

● There are 118 elements, but only 92 occur naturally. The

● Protons and neutrons do not have the same charge, but
remaining elements have only been made in laboratories
they do have approximately the same mass.
and are unstable.
● Electrons are much smaller in mass than protons.
● Each element is designated by its chemical symbol, which
● Protons, neutrons, and electrons are very small, and most
is a single capital letter or, when the first letter is already
of the volume of an atom—greater than 99 percent—is
“taken” by another element, a combination of two letters.
actually empty space.
○ Some elements follow the English term for the
element, such as C for carbon and Ca for calcium.
Radioactivity

Structure of Atom
● Radioactive atoms have unstable nuclei, and they will
eventually release subatomic particles to become more
An atom is the smallest unit of matter that retains all of the
stable, giving off energy—radiation—in the process.
chemical properties of an element.
● Often, elements come in both radioactive and
nonradioactive versions that differ in the number of
● An atom consists of two regions. The first is the tiny atomic
neutrons they contain.
nucleus, which is in the center of the atom and contains
○ These different versions of elements are called
positively charged particles called protons and neutral,
isotopes, and small quantities of radioactive
uncharged, particles called neutrons.
isotopes often occur in nature.

Nuclear Technology

Gravitational Force
Atomic Number, Mass Number
It is the weakest of the four. It is also the attractive force which
The number of protons in an atom is called the atomic number. arises from the gravitational interaction.

The number of protons and the number of neutrons determine an According to Newton’s law of gravity, it states that the gravitational
element’s mass number. force between two bodies is proportional to the product of their
masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
Fundamental Forces of Nature between them.

There are four universal or fundamental forces in nature. Without Electromagnetic Force
these forces, all matter in the world will fall apart.
By their nature, all particles are only attracted to particles that have
Following are the four fundamental forces in nature: an opposite charge and repel those with like charges.

● Gravitational force ● These have a long-range and the effect of their forces
● Electromagnetic force diminishes over distance due to the shielding effect.
● Strong nuclear force However, sub-atomically, they have short-range and are
● Weak nuclear force considered strong forces but still weaker than strong
nuclear forces.
Nuclear Technology
Energy Production using Nuclear Technology:
Strong Nuclear Force

It can be done by two processes: Nuclear Fission & Nuclear

If we consider only electromagnetism and gravity, then the nucleus
Fusion.
should actually fly off in different directions.

● These reactions produce immense energy in a very short

● But it doesn’t, implying that there exists another force
span of time.
within the nucleus which is stronger than the gravitational
force and electromagnetic force.
Nuclear fission:
● Strong nuclear forces are responsible for holding the nuclei
of atoms together.
In this, a heavy nucleus disintegrates into two or more lighter nuclei
● This is the most dominant force in reactions and is so
and in the process, a huge amount of energy is released.
strong that it binds protons with similar charges with the
nucleus. It is mostly attractive in nature but can be
For example: n + U 235= Kr+ Ba+3n+ Energy.
repulsive sometimes.
● It has a very short range of just 1 fm.
Nuclear Fusion:

Weak Nuclear Force

When two or more lighter nuclei combine to form a heavy nucleus.
It is the mechanism behind the energy production in the Stars.
● Weak force is the force existing between the elementary
particles which are responsible for certain processes to
For example: Inside stars : 4 H= He+ E.
take place at a low probability.
● Weak nuclear forces are responsible for the radioactive
A huge amount of energy is released in these two processes which
decay, specifically the beta decay neutrino interactions.
can be calculated using Einstein's formula E= MC2(square).

Nuclear Technology

Nuclear Fission

When the nucleus of an atom splits into lighter nuclei through a

nuclear reaction the process is termed as nuclear fission.

● This decay can be natural spontaneous splitting by

radioactive decay, or can actually be simulated in a lab by
achieving necessary conditions (bombarding with
neutrinos).
● The resulting fragments tend to have a combined mass
which is less than the original.
● The missing mass is what is converted into nuclear energy
in the above reaction.
● It can be an uncontrolled chain reaction as one reaction
produces about 3 neutrons which can further continue the
fission reaction.
● This is the mechanism behind the nuclear bombs.
● However, if we can absorb the excess of neutrons then the
fission reaction can be controlled.
● It is called controlled fission which is used in producing
power using nuclear reactors.
Nuclear Technology
Nuclear Reactor

Types of Nuclear Reactors

It uses a controlled fission process to produce energy.

● Pressurised heavy water reactor:

Fuel or fissile material:
○ Uses D20 as moderator and coolant.
Which can undergo fission easily.
○ Almost all reactors in India.
It should be good fissile material. Example U-235, U- 233,
● Boiling water reactors:
Plutonium-239.
○ Most of the USA.
○ H2O as coolant and moderator.
Moderator:
● Fast Breeder Reactors:
○ Liquid sodium as a coolant and no moderator is
To slow down the speed of neutrons.
used.
Slow neutrons are better at causing fission.
○ Very important for India's three-stage nuclear
Example: Water or Heavy water(D2O)
program.

Coolant:
Nuclear Fuel
To cool down the core of the reactor & transport heat energy.
Often moderators and coolants are the same.
Natural Uranium: is a mixture of U-238 (> 99%) + U-235(<1%).
Example: Water, Heavy water, Liquid Sodium(It is not a good
● Uranium-238 is not a good fissile material hence in the
moderator).
enrichment process.
● Uranium isotopes are separated to produce enriched
Control rods:
Uranium which has a 4 to 5 % concentration of U-235.
To absorb the excess neutrons.
They are made up of Cadmium, Boron, Graphite.

Nuclear Technology

India's Three Stage Nuclear Program:

Both natural Uranium(>99% U-238) & Thorium 232 are not good
fissile materials hence a three-stage nuclear program was
envisaged by Dr. Homi Jehangir Bhabha to generate sufficient
fissile material from Uranium & huge Thorium reserve found in the
Western Ghats, especially in Monazite sands of Kerala.

First Stage:
● For nuclear bombs, more than 50% of U-235 is required.
● Pressurized heavy water reactors will be used.
● Here natural uranium will be used in the core of the
reactor.
● Heavy water as moderator and Coolant
● Uranium 235 is the main fissile material in this stage while
U-238 can absorb a neutron and convert itself into
Plutonium-239.
● Natural Uranium(U-235 & U-238) it gives Plutonium -239
as byproduct.
Nuclear Technology

Second Stage

● Fast breeder reactor(FBR).

● Here Plutonium-239 from the first Stage will be used as
Third Stage
the main fissile material or fuel.
● Thorium 232 around the core of the reactor is also used to
● A breeder reactor.
capture a neutron and convert itself into U-233.
● U-233 obtained from the second stage is the main fissile
● It gives Uranium 233 as the product.
material & Thorium 232 will also be added in the fuel
● Liquid Sodium is used as a coolant.Moderator is not used
assembly which can be converted into U- 233 again and
here because even though the fast neutrons are not good
can be used in the 3rd stage itself.
in causing fission they readily convert Thorium 232 to U-
233.
● In fact, the production of U-233 is faster than the fission of
Plutonium 239 hence the name Fast Breeder reactor.

Nuclear Technology

Critical mass

● A critical mass is the smallest amount of fissile material

needed for a sustained nuclear chain reaction.
● When a nuclear chain reaction in a mass of fissile material
is self-sustaining, the mass is said to be in a critical state
in which there is no increase or decrease in power,
temperature, or neutron population.

● When the neutron population remains constant, this means

Criticality
there is a perfect balance between production rate and
loss rate, and the nuclear system is said to be “critical.”
● Criticality is a nuclear term that refers to the balance of
neutrons in the system.
● “Subcritical” refers to a system where the loss rate of
neutrons is greater than the production rate of neutrons
and therefore the neutron population decreases as time
goes on.
● “Supercritical” refers to a system where the production rate
of neutrons is greater than the loss rate of neutrons and
therefore the neutron population increases.
Nuclear Technology

Nuclear Fusion

It’s the process in which lighter nuclei combine to form a heavy

nucleus and, in the process, a huge amount of energy is released.
● Many experiments are going on which are trying to use
fusion-based energy for civilian use however none of the
experiments till now have been successful to produce
energy in a sustainable manner.
● The most famous experiment in this regard is the
International Thermo Experimental Reactor (ITER)
Situated in France.
● India is a member of this experiment.
● Such experiments use the TOKAMAK device where
plasma current flows at very high temperature and very
high magnetic field.
● The biggest challenge in attaining fusion is the high-
temperature requirement to overcome electromagnetic
repulsion between nuclei.
● Like fission, it is also a source of clean energy.
● Fusion produces much more energy than fission.
● There is no threat of long-lived radioactive waste.
● There is no enriched material produced for the fusion
reactor that could be exploited to make nuclear weapons.
● There is no risk of a meltdown in the Tokamak fusion
device.
● Burnt fuel in the Fusion reactor is helium which is an inert
gas.
● Raw material for fusion is deuterium which is available
easily in nature and Tritium which can easily be produced
in labs.

Nuclear Technology

Radioactivity

● There are certain nuclei that are not stable and to attain
stability they emit some particles this phenomenon is
called radioactivity.
● Processes like beta decay and alpha decay allow the
nucleus of the radioactive sample to get as close as
possible to the optimum neutron/ proton ratio.
● Mainly three particles are emitted by them:
● Alpha Particle: An atomic nucleus emits an alpha particle
(helium nucleus) and transforms into a different atomic
nucleus, with a mass number that is reduced by four and
an atomic number that is reduced by two.
● Beta particle: An electron is emitted.
○ Beta Decay is a type of radioactive decay in which
a proton is transformed into a neutron or vice
versa inside the nucleus of the radioactive sample.
○ While doing so, the nucleus emits a beta particle
which can either be an electron or positron. Positron Decay:
○ Beta-decay occurs via the weak interaction. If a proton is converted to neutron, it is known as β+ decay.
● Gamma Particle: High-frequency electromagnetic
Electron Decay:
radiations.
If a neutron is converted to a proton, it is known as β- decay.
Nuclear Technology

Nuclear Technology in Agriculture: Food Irradiation:

1. Plant Mutation Breeding:
Exposing seeds of a plant to Gamma rays cause mutations and
some of those mutations can have desirable properties such as
resistance to drought and salinity.
The Department of Atomic Energy has developed hundreds of
such varieties using nuclear radiation.
It is the process of exposing foodstuff to radiations such as gamma
or x rays.
Exposing perishable food items to high-energy radiation like
gamma or X rays kills microbial organisms that can cause food-
borne diseases and increase the shelf life.
Nuclear Technology in Medicine:

2. Fertilizer Efficiency: 1. Cancer Treatment:

Labelling fertilizers with a particular isotope provides means to
ascertain how much has been taken up by the plants.
This allows for better management of fertilizers.
3. Sterile insect’s techniques:
In this insects are exposed to gamma or X rays radiation which
makes them sterile.
These insects are released back and even though they are
sexually competitive they can’t reproduce.
Thus used in pest management to control their population.
A. External Beam Therapy:
For eliminating or controlling cancerous growth.
It has a lot of side effects
Cobalt 60 is used in radiation therapy to prevent cancer.
B. Brachy Therapy:
It is an advanced cancer treatment method wherein radioactive
seeds are implanted near the tumour so that a high radiation dose
occurs to the tumour while reducing radiation exposure in the
surrounding healthy tissue.

Nuclear Technology

2. Diagnosis:

A small amount of radioactive material is injected into the

bloodstream as a radiotracer.
Radiotracers emit gamma rays which are detected by the special
cameras on the computer screens.
It creates an image of the inside of the body which is not possible
by any other method.

3. Radiation sterilization of healthcare products:

The ability of gamma radiation to kill microorganisms is used in

radiation sterilization of various products such as disposable
syringes, cotton dressings and drugs, and related products.
Quantum Physics
Particle Physics

The Standard Model of Particle Physics is scientists’ current best

theory to describe the most basic building blocks of the universe.

● The Standard Model explains three of the four fundamental

forces that govern the universe: electromagnetism, the
strong force, and the weak force.
● Electromagnetism is carried by photons and involves the
interaction of electric fields and magnetic fields.
● The strong force, which is carried by gluons, binds
together atomic nuclei to make them stable.
● The weak force, carried by W and Z bosons, causes
nuclear reactions that have powered our Sun and other
stars for billions of years.
● The fourth fundamental force is gravity, which is not
adequately explained by the Standard Model.
Other Features

● It explains how particles called quarks (which make up

protons and neutrons) and leptons (which include
electrons) make up all known matter.
● It also explains how force carrying particles, which belong
to a broader group of bosons, influence the quarks and
leptons.

Quantum Physics

Issues with Standard Model

● We do not yet know whether the Higgs boson also gives

mass to neutrinos – ghostly particles that interact very
rarely with other matter in the universe.
● Physicists understand that about 95 percent of the
universe is not made of ordinary matter as we know it.
Instead, much of the universe consists of dark matter and
dark energy that do not fit into the Standard Model.
Information and Communication Technology

They are the diverse set of technological tools and resources are
used to transmit, store, create, share, or exchange information.

● They include computers, the internet, broadcasting

technologies(both live & recorded), and telephony.
● They use various electromagnetic waves.
● The ICT industry has revolutionized the way of life, the
way we communicate and had a tremendous impact on the
whole world.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

Maxwell said that light is an electromagnetic wave. It is a vibration

of electric and magnetic field.

Information and Communication Technology

Properties of a wave

Amplitude:

It is the maximum displacement of the wave is called Amplitude.

Wavelength:

● It is the distance between two maxima or two minima.

● It is represented by lambda(a Greek letter).

Time Period:

● It is a very important feature of the wave.

● The time taken to replicate a wave to repeat its behaviour
is called the time period(T).

Frequency:

● It is the number of vibrations per second or per unit time.

● Its unit is Hertz(Hz).

It can be calculated as Velocity/Speed = Frequency x Wavelength.

Information and Communication Technology

Frequency Bands

To prevent interference between different users the transmission of

radio waves is strictly regulated by national laws and coordinated
by an international body The International telecommunication
Union(ITU).

● The higher frequency bands generally give more access to

more bandwidths but are also more susceptible to signal
degradation for example the absorption, scattering,
affected by rainfall or snowfall(which is called Rainfade).
● Energy = Frequency x h(Planck's constant)

Information and Communication Technology

Modulation

Waves themselves do not carry any information we need to encode the information by varying one
or more properties of the wave and this needs to be decoded at the destination.

● This encoding of an input wave on a carrier wave is called modulation.

Ways of modulation:

1. Pulse Modulation
a. By simply switching on and off a wave Morse code can be sent to distant regions
using pulse modulation.
2. Analogue Modulation
a. These are time-varying signals.
b. There are three methods of Analog modulation:
i. Amplitude modulation:
1. The height of the signal carrier is varied to represent the data. Digital Modulation:
ii. Frequency modulation:
1. The frequency of the carrier signals varied to represent data. Digital signals are comprised of discrete values of
2. FM uses a higher frequency compared to AM hence it can travel 0s and 1s which can be modulated and such
less distance. modulation has many advantages compared to
iii. Phase modulation: analogue.
1. In phase modulation, the massive signal is encoded as
variations in the phase of carrier waves.
It allows the communication to be more clear and
accurate without losses.
Information and Communication Technology
5G Technology

The major standards is decided by ITU.

3GPP, 3rd Generation Partnership Project is an industry

collaboration that manages the standards for the on-going mobile
communications systems.

● 3GPP has a set of what are termed organisational

partners. These are essentially regional standards
institutions.
● Telecommunications Standards Development Society
India is the standard partner in India.

Latency:

Latency is the time it takes for data to be transferred between its

original source and its destination, measured in milliseconds.

● The unique feature of 5G is very low latency.

● Both connection density and latency will be helpful in IoT.

Spectrum:

It is the bandwidth which is used for communication.

Information and Communication Technology

Technologies

● It will use mm-waves.

○ Millimeter wave (MM wave), also known as
millimeter band, is the band of spectrum with
wavelengths between 10 millimeters (30 GHz) and
1 millimeter (300 GHz). It is also known as the
extremely high frequency (EHF) band by the
International Telecommunication Union (ITU).
● Small cell stations: It means cell stations will take less
physical space, thus more cell stations and more density
of connection can be supported.
● Massive MIMO (Multiple Inputs and Multiple Outputs): One
small cell station can process many input and output
signals
● Beamforming: More directed network.
● Edge Computing
● Network Slicing
Information and Communication Technology

Supercomputing

They are the physical super embodiment of high-performing

computing which allows organizations to solve problems that would
be impossible for regular computers.

● They work much more quickly by splitting problems into

many pieces and working on many pieces simultaneously,
which is called parallel processing.
● In contrast, an ordinary computer does one work at a time
in distinct series of operations through serial processing.
● The capacity of a supercomputer is measured in Flops
(Floating lines operation per second), generally, we use
the capacity in Petaflops.
● While the capacity of an ordinary computer is measured in
MIPS (million instructions per second).

Information and Communication Technology

Supercomputing

Supercomputing in India started in the late 1980s after the US

denied the import of supercomputers.

● India’s first Supercomputer was built by CDAC (works

under MEIty) Param 8000 in 1991.
● Pratyush and Mihir are two of the fastest supercomputers
in India.
● The government launched National Supercomputing
Mission which has the following salient features:
○ It envisages empowering our National academic
research and development institutions by installing
a vast supercomputing grid of more than 70 high-
performing supercomputing facilities.
○ These supercomputers will be networked over the
National Knowledge Network.
○ The mission also includes the development of
highly professional human resources.
○ It will be jointly implemented by Dopt of Science n
Tech and Dep Electronics and Information tech
through two organisations CDAC and IISc,
Bangalore.
Information and Communication Technology

Quantum Technologies

The govt. of India in Budget 2020 announced a National mission on

Quantum Technology and Application with a total budget outlay of
Quantum bits (Qubits)
Rs 8000 crores for a period of 5 years to be implemented by the
Department of Science & Technology.
A qubit is a quantum bit, the counterpart in quantum computing to
the binary digit or bit of classical computing.
Quantum technologies are based on the principles of quantum
mechanics developed in the early 20th century to describe nature
● A qubit, however, can represent a 0, a 1 or any proportion
at the scale of elementary particles.
of 0 and 1 in superposition of both states, with a certain
probability of being a 0 and a certain probability of being a
4 main domains:
1.
● Quantum Computing
● Quantum Communication
● Quantum Simulation
● Quantum metrology

Information and Communication Technology

Quantum Computers

In a classical computer, information is stored using binary digits or

bits, A quantum computer takes advantage of quantum mechanical
Challenges Associated with Quantum computers
property to process information using quantum bits or qubits.

● Qubits are highly sensitive to external interference so

● The qubits can be both 0 and 1 at the same time with
quantum computers have to be kept in isolated conditions
different probabilities. This is called the superposition of
at very low temperatures because even a minor fluctuation
states.
in the surrounding can cause the loss of entire quantum
● Qubits in superpositions can be correlated in a way that a
information. This is called quantum decoherence.
state of 1 qubit depends upon the state of another. This is
● As the number of qubits increases, their manipulation
called quantum entanglement.
becomes more difficult.
● Using qubits quantum computers can solve difficult
● New quantum computers also require ecosystems of
problems that can not be even solved by the world's most
supporting software, hardware, and algorithm. Current
powerful supercomputers.
cyber security measures need to be relooked at as
● The computing power of a quantum computer increases
quantum computing holds the potential to decode and
exponentially as qubits are increased.
crack encrypted data.
● Recently, Google's quantum computer Sycamore claimed
quantum supremacy as it was able to solve a single
calculation than the world's most powerful supercomputer.
Information and Communication Technology
Edge Computing
Quantum Communication

Edge computing enables data to be stored and analyzed locally to

The world is preparing for a post-quantum era where current cyber
reduce the latency in the network.
security measures such as Public key distribution will not be
● Thus, it is different from cloud computing.
enough,
● Cloud computing uses a centralized system for data
● New cryptographic techniques based on the postulates of
storage and processing.
quantum mechanics are required for secure
● Edge computing on the other hand manages a massive
communication.
amount of data generated by IoT devices by storing and
● One of the methods can be a quantum key distribution
processing data locally.
where entangled photons with random quantum states will
be transmitted that can be measured by the receiver. If a
Blockchain Technology & Crypto-Currency
3rd party tries to hack the communication channel will
change the state of Photons which can be detected by the
Blockchains are distributed ledgers that chronologically records
endpoints.
transactions between two parties without the requirement of 3rd
party validation.
Quantum Simulation
● Every data which is being recorded as part of the
blockchain is valid data and also once data has been
To understand the behavior of atoms and molecules we require
recorded, it is almost impossible to manipulate.
quantum mechanics.
● The former is ensured by the consensus mechanism while
● A Quantum simulator will help in designing new chemicals,
later is ensured by cryptographic hashing, proof of work,
high-temperature superconductors, future medicines, and
and the fact that blockchain is decentralized.
also new materials such as nanomaterials.
● There is no one location where the entire data of
blockchain is stored in fact the series is managed and
stored over several computer systems.

Information and Communication Technology

Miners

Working of a blockchain
Miners create new blocks on the chain through a process called
mining.
It is sometimes referred to as Distributed Ledger Technology
(DLT).
● In a blockchain every block has its own unique nonce and
hash, but also references the hash of the previous block in
Blockchain consists of three important concepts: blocks, nodes and
the chain, so mining a block isn't easy, especially on large
miners.
chains.
● Miners use special software to solve the incredibly
Blocks
complex math problem of finding a nonce that generates
an accepted hash. Because the nonce is only 32 bits and
Every chain consists of multiple blocks and each block has three
the hash is 256, there are roughly four billion possible
basic elements:
nonce-hash combinations that must be mined before the
● The data in the block.
right one is found. When that happens miners are said to
● A 32-bit whole number called a nonce. The nonce is
have found the "golden nonce" and their block is added to
randomly generated when a block is created, which then
the chain.
generates a block header hash.
● Making a change to any block earlier in the chain requires
● The hash is a 256-bit number wedded to the nonce. It must
re-mining not just the block with the change, but all of the
start with a huge number of zeroes (i.e., be extremely
blocks that come after. This is why it's extremely difficult to
small).
manipulate blockchain technology. Think of it as "safety in
When the first block of a chain is created, a nonce generates the
math" since finding golden nonces requires an enormous
cryptographic hash. The data in the block is considered signed and
amount of time and computing power.
forever tied to the nonce and hash unless it is mined.
When a block is successfully mined, the change is accepted by all
of the nodes on the network and the miner is rewarded financially.
Information and Communication Technology
Nodes

● One of the most important concepts in blockchain

technology is decentralization.
● Every node has its own copy of the blockchain and the
network must algorithmically approve any newly mined
Cryptocurrency
block for the chain to be updated.

It is a type of digital currency that uses cryptography for security

Benefits of Blockchain Technology
and anti-counterfeiting measures.
● It is not issued by any central authority thus making the
● It is transparent and incorruptible.
supply immune to government interference.
● It doesn't require a 3rd party and thereby transaction cost
is very less.
Cryptocurrency has many benefits such as it can not be
● It is not controlled by a single entity and has no single point
counterfeited.
of failure.
● There is no transaction fee
● It also eliminated a number of risks that come with data
● Privacy is protected due to anonymity.
being held centrally.
● Open source methodology and public participation ensure
● Blockchain technology has been the backbone of bitcoin
public participation and self-policing mechanisms.
and other cryptocurrencies.

However, there is a lot of debate surrounding the utility of

cryptocurrencies through almost the consensus on the utility of
blockchain in many areas such as :
a) Banking and Finance b) Global supply chains c) Maintenance of
land records d) Smart contracts etc.

Information and Communication Technology

Internet

Cyberdome
Dark Web

Since today’s cyber-crimes involve the use of most modern and

The deep and dark web are parts of the internet whose contents
sophisticated technologies, as well as anonymity over the internet,
can't be accessed by standard web search engines while the
it becomes extremely difficult for the police, to investigate these
surface web is the portion of the internet that is readily available to
kinds of crimes.
the general public and can be accessed with web search engines.

● Cyberdome is a motley crew of ethical hackers, expert

● TOR browser is used to access the dark web.
coders, youth prodigies skilled in software, law enforcers
● Special software is required to access the dark web
and civilian volunteers who huddle behind flickering
because it is heavily encrypted and many web pages are
computer terminals at the office, with most of them offering
hosted anonymously.
their services for free.
● It is one of the important channels for illegal activity such
as:
ICANN
○ Smuggling of drugs
○ Payment card frauds
ICANN is the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and
○ Terror financing etc.
Numbers.
○ There are also technical challenges to establishing
digital evidence in courts as most users are
● ICANN maintains the central repository for IP addresses
tracked in foreign countries.
and helps coordinate the supply of IP addresses.
○ With the help of cryptocurrencies, transaction on
● It also manages the domain name system and root
the dark web are completely anonymous and
servers.
enforcement agencies are unable to track darknet
criminals.
Information and Communication Technology
Space Based Internet

SpaceX, the world’s leading private company in space technology,

has launched 60 satellites into low earth orbit, under the Starlink
Metaverse
network project.

Metaverse is a combination of multiple elements of technology,

● The Starlink network is one of several ongoing efforts to
including virtual reality, augmented reality, and video where users
start beaming data signals from space.Under the project,
“live” within a digital universe.
the company intends to evolve into a constellation of
nearly 12,000 satellites.
● The concept is gradually gaining immense significance
● The aim is to provide low-cost and reliable space-based
with many tech giants have already set in motion the
Internet services to the world.
progress for this process, with Facebook and Epic leading
● A transmission from a satellite in geostationary orbit has a
the pack.
latency of about 600 milliseconds.
● It can be defined as a simulated digital environment that
○ data transfers cannot happen faster than the
uses Augmented Reality (AR), Virtual Reality (VR), and
speed of light.
blockchain, along with concepts from social media, to
● A satellite in the lower orbit, 200-2,000 km from the Earth’s
create spaces for rich user interaction mimicking the real
surface, can bring the lag down to 20-30 milliseconds,
world.
roughly the time it takes for terrestrial systems to transfer
○ One can sign into his virtual office as a virtual
data.
avatar of himself, meet a client, take a break or
● Other issues include: Increased space debris, increased
play a sport - virtually all in one place.
risk of collisions, and the concern of astronomers that
these constellations of space Internet satellites will make it
difficult to observe other space objects, and to detect their
signals.

Information and Communication Technology

Artificial Intelligence

It is a branch of computer science concerned with making

computers mimic human-like intelligence that can include
computer vision, Audio processing, natural language processing,
machine learning, and AI expert systems.
Virtual Reality vs Augmented Reality
● Machine learning is a branch of artificial intelligence (AI)
and computer science which focuses on the use of data
VR headsets completely take over your vision to give you the
and algorithms to imitate the way that humans learn,
impression that you're somewhere else. The HTC Vive Cosmos,
gradually improving its accuracy.
the PlayStation VR, the Oculus Quest, the Valve Index, and other
● Machine learning, deep learning, and neural networks are
headsets are opaque, blocking out your surroundings when you
all sub-fields of artificial intelligence.
wear them. If you put them on when they're turned off, you might
● Deep learning is actually a sub-field of machine learning,
think you're blindfolded.
and neural networks is a sub-field of deep learning.
● Deep learning and neural networks are primarily credited
Whereas virtual reality replaces your vision, augmented reality
with accelerating progress in areas, such as computer
adds to it. AR devices, such as the Microsoft HoloLens and various
vision, natural language processing, and speech
enterprise-level "smart glasses," are transparent, letting you see
recognition.
everything in front of you as if you are wearing a weak pair of
Robotics
sunglasses.

It is an interdisciplinary branch of engineering and science that

includes mechanical engineering, electronics, Computer science,
and others.
It is interested in the design, manufacture, and application of
Robots.
Information and Communication Technology
LiFi: Light Fidelity Technology (LIFI) Technology
LiFi is a wireless optical networking technology, which uses light-
emitting diodes (LEDs) to transmit data.
● It makes a LED light bulb emit pulses of light that are
undetectable to the human eye and within those emitted
pulses, data can travel to and from receivers.
● LiFi is not strictly a line-of-sight technology i.e. data rate is
not dependent on the line of sight but on the signal quality
at the device.
● Unlike Wi-Fi which uses radio waves for data
transmission, LiFi uses light.
Information and Communication Technology
RFID
To enable the tracking of real-time data of commercial movements
on highways, GST authorities have integrated the e-way bill (EWB)
system with FASTag and RFID.
● RFID is the use of radio waves to read and capture
information stored on a tag attached to an object.
● A tag can be read from up to several feet away and does
not need to be within a direct line of sight of the reader to
be tracked.
● Passive RFID can read up to around 100 ft distance.
Active RFID can do much beyond this.
IPv4 vs IPv6
An IP stands for internet protocol. An IP address is assigned to
each device connected to a network. Each device uses an IP
address for communication. It also behaves as an identifier as this
address is used to identify the device on a network.
● What is IPv4?
● IPv4 is a version 4 of IP. It is a current version and the
most commonly used IP address. It is a 32-bit address
written in four numbers separated by 'dot', i.e., periods.
This address is unique for each device.
○ For example, 66.94.29.13
○ The above example represents the IP address in
which each group of numbers separated by
periods is called an Octet. Each number in an
octet is in the range from 0-255.
○ This address can produce 4,294,967,296 possible
unique addresses.
● The IPv4 is a 32-bit address, whereas IPv6 is a 128-bit
hexadecimal address.
● IPv6 is an alphanumeric address that consists of 8 fields,
which are separated by colon.
Defence Technology

Defense Technology

● Missiles
● Submarines & Ships
● Fighter Aircrafts
● Modern Developments

Defence Technology

Classification ● Trajectory Contd.

○ Cruise:
● Based on launch platform and target: ■ Nirbhay, Brahmos
○ Surface to Surface: Prithvi
○ Surface to Air: Akash
○ Air to Air: Astra
○ Anti-tank: Nag
● Based on Speed:
○ Subsonic: Nirbhay
○ Supersonic ( 1-5 Mach): Brahmos, Akash
○ Hypersonic (> 5 Mach): Agni V
● Based on Range:
○ Short (<1000 km): Prithvi
○ Medium (1000-3000 km): Agni
○ Intermediate (3000-5000 km): Agni
○ Long Range: (>5000 km): Agni
● Trajectory:
○ Ballistic:
■ Parabolic Path, projectile
■ They are guided for a brief duration in
starting phase of trajectory.
■ Both exo and endo atmosphere, can be
intercepted by radars.
Defence Technology

Ramjet vs Scramjet Engine

Both are types of experimental engine designed for speeds greater

than that of sound, in the hypersonic realm. They are jet engines
with no moving parts, relying on the enormous pressures created
by supersonic airflow into the engine to ignite fuel without needing
the compressors and turbines used in the turbofan engines found
on conventional jet planes.

In a ramjet, the combustion chamber - where the air is mixed with

fuel and ignited - only works at subsonic speeds. So the intake
slows the air down, releasing some of its energy as a shock wave,
but this reduces fuel efficiency. The scramjet is an innovation on
the ramjet in which the combustion chamber is specially designed
to operate with supersonic airflow. Scramjet is simply an acronym
for 'supersonic combustion' ramjet.

Scramjet:
● Air-breathing engine
● It helps in reducing the lift-off mass of the vehicle.
● Oxygen from the atmospheric air.
● It helps in hypersonic missile development.

Defence Technology

Prithvi

The Prithvi-I: Short-range ballistic missile with a range of 150 km. It is the
first in a lineage of indigenous land and sea-based missiles which
Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme includes the Prithvi-II, the ship-launched Dhanush, and the Prithvi Air
Defense interceptor. The Indian Army has withdrawn the Prithvi-I from
service and replaced it with the Prahaar missile.
5 missiles
Prithvi II class: Single-stage liquid-fueled missile having a maximum
● Prithvi warhead mounting capability of 500 kg, but with an extended range of 250
● Agni km (160 mi). It was developed with the Indian Air Force being the primary
● Trishul user.
● Agni
● Nag: Anti Tank Missile. Prithvi III: Two-stage SURFACE-to-SURFACE missile. The first stage is
solid fueled with a 16 metric ton force (157 kN) thrust motor. The second
stage is liquid-fueled. The missile can carry a 1,000 kg warhead to a
The Helicopter version of Nag missile: Helina
distance of 350 km (220 mi) and a 500 kg warhead to a distance of 600
Israeli Barak NG replaced the Trishul.
km (370 mi) and a 250 kg warhead up to a distance of 750 km.

Dhanush: It is a variant of the surface-to-surface or ship-to-ship Prithvi III

missile, which has been developed for the Indian Navy. It is capable of
carrying both conventional as well as nuclear warheads with pay-load
capacity of 500 kg-1000 kg and can strike targets in the range of 350 km.
Defence Technology

Trishul:
Akash
It is the name of a short range surface-to-air missile developed by
India as a part of the Integrated Guided Missile Development It is a medium-range surface-to-air missile with an intercept range of 30
Program. It has a range of 12 km and is fitted with a 5.5 kg km.
warhead. Designed to be used against low-level (sea skimming)
targets at short range, the system has been developed to defend
naval vessels against missiles and also as a short-range surface-
to-air missile on land.

Defence Technology
Agni

Agni-I was developed under the Integrated Guided Missile Development Program (IGMDP) and tested in 1989. After its success, Agni missile
program was separated from the IGMDP upon realizing its strategic importance. It was designated as a special program in India’s defence
budget and provided adequate funds for subsequent development.

Missile Warhead Range (km) Stages Payload (kg)

Agni-I Conventional high 700-1200 Single Stage Solid 1000

explosive-unitary,
Strategic Nuclear

Agni-II Conventional high 2000-3500 Two and a half 820-2000

explosive-unitary, stage solid
Strategic Nuclear

Agni-III Conventional high 3000-5000 Two stage solid 2500

explosive-unitary,
Strategic Nuclear

Agni-IV Conventional high 3500-4000 Two stage solid 800-1000

explosive-unitary,
Strategic Nuclear
Defence Technology

Agni-V

● The nuclear-capable missile is India’s contender for the

Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) with a range of
5,000 km.
● This range puts almost the entire China within the missile’s
target range.
● It is a “canisterised” missile.
○ It means that the missile can be launched from
road and rail platforms, making it easier for it to be
deployed and launched at a quicker pace.
● While India is among the handful of nations with (arguably)
ICBM capability, the next generation of the missile, Agni
VI, under development, is expected to have a range of
around 8,000 km.

Defence Technology

Nag Missile

The NAG missile has been developed to strike and neutralise

highly-fortified enemy tanks. It also has night strike capabilities.

● It has a minimum range of 500 metres and maximum

range of 4 km.
● As a third-generation ‘fire and forget’ category system,
NAG uses an imaging infra-red seeker to lock on to the
target before launch.
● The NAG missile carrier (NAMICA) is a Russian-origin
BMP-II based system with amphibious capability.
● HELINA is being inducted into the Indian Army and its
variant called DHRUVASTRA is being inducted into the
Indian Air Force.
○ A minimum range of 500 m and a maximum
range of 7 km.
Defence Technology

Submarines:

Classification: Diesel-Electric powered and Nuclear-powered

Diesel Electric Powered Submarine:

Benefits of Scorpene-class submarine: Fast attack submarines,

1. Sindhughosh class submarine:
Can sustain high water pressure, Has very low acoustics thus
cannot be easily detected with sonars, Air independent: can remain
Built under a contract between Russia and India, Example:
underwater for a longer duration,
Sidhughosh, Sindhurashtra, Sindhuvijay
● It uses both GPS and GLONASS for navigation.

Drawbacks = Not very efficient, have a lot of noise signature, from

Nuclear Powered Submarines:
time to time it has to come to the surface to fulfill the requirement
of Oxygen.
Submarines are powered by small nuclear reactors
suitable for vessels that need to be at sea for long periods without
2. Scorpene-class submarine:
refueling, or for powerful submarine propulsion Example: INS
Arihant, INS Alright
MoU between French Direction des Constructions Navales
(DCNS) and Mazagon Dock Limited
Part of Project 75I, Part of Make in India program

Total 6 submarines: INS Kalvari, INS Khanderi, INS Karanj, INS

Vela, INS Vagir, INS Vagsheer

Defence Technology

Naval Warships:

Divided into 4 categories: Destroyers, Frigates, Corvettes, Aircraft

carriers

Destroyers:

Large warships equipped with missiles and torpedoes. They also

have Radars, Sonars, and Combat platforms, for example, INS
Kolkata, INS Cochin, INS Vishakhapatnam.

Stealth Feature = The goal of stealth technology is to make an

airplane or a ship invisible to radar.

It can be achieved by a) geometrically designed so that it reflects

the radar signals in other directions, b) by Radio jammer
(destructive interference), c) using those materials which absorbs
signals
Defence Technology

Frigates:

Smaller but faster than destroyers, used as escort vessels to

protect sea lines of communication or as an auxiliary component of
a strike group, Example: INS Shivalik, INS Talwar, INS
Brahmaputra

Corvettes:

These are battleship ranking below a frigate in size, a preparatory

vessel in crucial wartimes, especially as a stop-gap between the
larger naval combat vessels, offers required support to large fleets,
coastal patrolling, participating in minor wars, Example: INS
Kamorta, INS Kavaratti

Defence Technology

Aircraft carriers:

They are floating airbases in the sea. Mainly fighter aircraft operate
from their decks. It is accompanied by destroyers, frigates,
submarines, tanker ships, etc. They provide defense and support
to the carrier’s operations. Biggest warships. Example: INS
Vikramaditya
Defence Technology

S-400 Missile Defence System

● The S-400 Triumf is a mobile, surface-to-air missile

system (SAM) designed by Russia.
● It is the most dangerous operationally deployed modern
long-range SAM.
● The system can engage all types of aerial targets including
aircraft, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) and ballistic and
cruise missiles within the range of 400 km, at an altitude of
up to 30 km.
● The system can track 100 airborne targets and engage six
of them simultaneously.
● The S-400 can reportedly be assembled in 5 minutes
through a mobile command vehicle making it a deadly
force capable of being fired from any terrain.
● The maximum target speed is 4.8 Mach in S400 compared
to 2.8 Mach in THAAD.
● The operational range is almost double of THAAD.
● Israel uses the iron dome air defence system.

Defence Technology

Rafale

The Rafales are India's first major acquisition of fighter planes in

23 years after the Sukhoi jets were imported from Russia.

● Rafale is a French twin-engine and multirole fighter aircraft

designed and built by Dassault Aviation
● India has inked a Rs 59,000-crore deal in 2016 to procure
36 Rafale jets from French aerospace major Dassault
Aviation
● Meteor missile, Scalp cruise missile and MICA weapons
system will be the mainstay of the weapons package of the
Rafale jets.
○ It is the next generation of Beyond Visual Range
(BVR) air-to-air missile (BVRAAM) designed to
revolutionise air-to-air combat.
○ SCALP Cruise Missiles: It can hit targets 300 km
away.
○ MICA Missile System: It is a very versatile air-to-
air missile.
Defence Technology

Flex Fuel Vehicles

It is a modified version of vehicles that could run both on gasoline

and blended petrol with different levels of ethanol blends.

● Flex-fuel, or flexible fuel, is an alternative fuel made of a

combination of gasoline and methanol or ethanol.
● Provides option for using bio-fuels, which are better than
petrol.
● Flex-fuel engines are capable of running on 100 percent
petrol or ethanol.
● Target date for achieving 20% ethanol-blending with petrol
has been advanced by five years to 2025.
○ Ethanol can also cause corrosion and damage to
the engine
○ Ethanol is also not as economical as gasoline as it
does not provide the same level of fuel efficiency.