Electromagnetic waves

Introduction
Electromagnetic energy travels in waves and spans a broad spectrum
from very long radio waves to very short gamma rays.
Electromagnetic waves do not need a medium in order to propagate,
which means they can travel through air, solid materials, and also
through the vacuum of space.
 Displacement current

electromagnetism, a phenomenon analogous to an

ordinary electric current, posited to explain
magnetic fields that are produced by changing
electric fields. Ordinary electric currents, called
conduction currents, whether steady or varying,
produce an accompanying magnetic field in the
vicinity of the current.

Displacement current expression

For a charged capacitor, electric field between the
plates is given by:
E=Q/ oA
Q= o E
Displacement current is given by:
Id=dQ/dt
Ampere circuital Law :
∫ B.dl= o(ia+id)
∫ B.dl= o(ia+ od /dt)
 The British physicist James Clerk Maxwell in the 19th century
predicted that a magnetic field also must be associated with a
changing electric field even in the absence of a conduction current, a
theory that was subsequently verified experimentally. As magnetic
fields had long been associated with currents, the predicted magnetic
field also was thought of as stemming from another kind of current.
Maxwell gave it the name displacement current, which was
proportional to the rate of change of the electric field that kept
cropping up naturally in his theoretical formulations.present to
account for the continuity of the magnetic effects. In fact, the
calculated size of the displacement current between the plates of a
capacitor being charged and discharged in an alternating-current
circuit is equal to the size of the conduction As electric charges do not
flow through the insulation from one plate of a capacitor to the other,
there is no conduction current; instead, a displacement current is said
to be current in the wires leading to and from the capacitor.
Displacement currents play a central role in the propagation of
electromagnetic radiation, such as light and radio waves, through
empty space. A traveling, varying magnetic field is everywhere
associated with a periodically changing electric field that may be
conceived in terms of a displacement current. Maxwell’s insight on
displacement current, therefore, made it possible to understand
electromagnetic waves as being propagated through space completely
detached from electric currents in conductors.

Sources of Electromagnetic Waves

To begin with, one of the most important results of Maxwell’s theory
is that accelerated charges radiate electromagnetic waves.
Understanding the proof of it is beyond our scope of study but we will
approach it based on reasoning.
Let’s consider a charge oscillating at a particular frequency.
Remember, an oscillating charge is an example of an accelerating
charge. This charge produces an oscillating electric field which results
in an oscillating magnetic field which in turn is the source of an electric
field and so on.
In simple words, the oscillating electric and magnetic fields
regenerate each other propagating the wave through space. The
frequency of the electromagnetic wave equals that of the oscillation of
the charge. The energy required to propagate the wave through space
comes at the expense of the accelerated charge.
The first logical thought is that it will be easy to test the prediction
that light is an electromagnetic wave. Right? After all, we merely
need to set up an AC circuit in which the current oscillates at the
frequency of visible light, like the yellow light. However, that is
simply not possible. Here’s why:
● The frequency of yellow light is around 6 x 1014

● The frequency available with most modern electronic

circuits is around 1011

● Hence, the experimental demonstration of electromagnetic

waves can happen only in the low-frequency region.

Nature of the Electromagnetic Waves

From Maxwell’s equations you can observe that in an electromagnetic

wave, the electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to each other
and to the direction of propagation.

In the figure above, you can see that the direction of the electric field
inside the plates of the capacitor is perpendicular to the plates. This
causes a displacement current and gives rise to a magnetic field along
the perimeter of a circle parallel to the capacitor plates. So, B and E
are perpendicular to each other.

Now, let’s look at a typical example of a plane electromagnetic wave

propagating along the z-axis.

In the figure above,

● The electric field (Ex) is along the x-axis and varies

sinusoidally with z at a given time.
● The magnetic field (By) is along the y-axis and also varies
sinusoidally with z.
● Ex and By are perpendicular to each other and to the
direction of propagation (z).
Mathematically,

Ex = E0 sin (kz–ωt)

By = B0 sin (kz–ωt)

Where magnitude of the wave vector (or propagation vector) k =

2π/λ … (λ is the wavelength of the wave) and ω is the angular
frequency. The direction of k determines the direction of
propagation of the wave. Now, you have already learned last year
that

ω = ck, where, c = 1/ √μ0ε0

This relation is often written in terms of frequency, ν (=ω/2π) and

wavelength, λ (=2π/k) as

2πv = c(2π/λ)

Or, vλ = c

According to Maxwell’s equations, the magnitude of electric and

magnetic fields have the relation,

B0 = E0/cAs a transverse wave, EM radiation can be polarized.

Polarization is the distribution of the electric field in the plane normal
to propagation direction.
Poynting vector: gives the flow of radiant energy and the direction of
propagation as (in the cgs system of units)

= ∁²εE ∗ H

here c is the speed of light in vacuum (c = 2.9979x108 m/s ≅

3.00x108 m/s) and 0 ε is vacuum permittivity (or dielectric constant).
S G is in units of energy per unit time per unit area (e.g., W m-2)

• S G is often called instantaneous Poynting vector. Because it

oscillates at rapid rates, a detector measures its average value over
some tome interval that is a characteristic of the detector.
Waves are characterized by frequency, wavelength, speed and
phase.
 Micrometer (µm): 1 µm = 1x10-6
m;Frequency: is defined as the number of waves (cycles) per second
that pass a given point in space (symbolized by ν ~ ).
Wavelength: is the distance between two consecutive peaks or
troughs in a wave (symbolized by the λ).
Since all types of electromagnetic radiation travel at the speed of
light, shortwavelength radiation must have a high frequency. • Unlike
speed of light and wavelength, which change as electromagnetic
energy is propagated through media of different densities, frequency
remains constant and is therefore a more fundamental property.
Wavenumber is defined as a count of the number of wave crests (or
troughs) in a given unit of length (symbolized by ν)
Wavelength units:
length Angstrom (A) : 1 A = 1x10-10 m;
Nanometer (nm): 1 nm=1x10-9 m;
Wavenumber units: inverse length (often in cm-1)

Frequency units: unit cycles per second 1/s (or s-1) is called hertz
(abbreviated Hz)
 The ELECTROMAGNETIC
SPECTRUM

Figure 1.3 Schematic representation of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Spectrum of electromagnetic radiation: The electromagnetic

spectrum is the distribution of electromagnetic radiation according to
energy or, equivalently, according to the wavelength or frequency.
Figure 1.4 Visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum.

NOTE: In remote sensing, sensor’s spectral bands in the visible are

often called by their color (e.g., blue, green, and read channels)

Effects of atmospheric gases:

Figure 1.5 A generalized diagram showing relative atmospheric
radiation transmission at different wavelengths. Blue zones show low
passage of incoming and/or outgoing radiation and white areas show
atmospheric windows, in which the radiation doesn't interact much
with air molecules and hence, isn't absorbed.