TOPIC: DEPRESSION and SCHIZOPHRENIA

Depression is a mood disorder that causes a persistent feeling of sadness and loss of interest. Also called a
major depressive disorder or clinical Depression, it affects how you feel, thinks, and behave, leading to a
variety of emotional and physical problems.
Two Major Types of Affective or Mood Disorders that each involves Depression
1. Bipolar Disorders- some still refer to Bipolar Disorders as Manic/ depressive Disorders, but this term
is outdated. The disorder is referred to as bipolar because the patient's behavior vacillates between two
extremes- from mania to Depression. A manic episode in this patient is sometimes followed by
Depression; the person becomes moody, sad, lacks energy, and feels hopeless.
2. Depressive Disorders are disorders that show no vacillation. Its essential characteristics are depressed,
sad, hopeless mood, and a loss of interest in all or almost all usual activities and past times.
QUESTION: What is Schizophrenia?
Schizophrenia

➢ It is a group of disorders characterized by thought disturbance that may be accompanied by delusions,

hallucinations, attention deficits, and unusual motor activity. It is a psychotic disorder, one that is
characterized by a generalized failure of functioning in all areas of a person's life.
Symptoms that are common to all forms of Schizophrenia
1. Thought Disorders- one of the first signs that a person may have Schizophrenia is the difficulty of
maintaining logical thought and coherent conversation. Disordered thinking and their memory are
impaired, random changes in topic and lack both meaning and order. Delusion occurs (false beliefs),
concepts, ideas, and symbols to people with schizophrenia are sometimes thrown together merely because
they rhyme.
2. Perceptual Disorders- in addition to experiencing a delusion, people with schizophrenia perceive the
externalworld abnormally. They consistently report hallucinations or distortions of sensory perception-
most commonly auditory (hearing voices originating outside his or her head), somatic (sensation of
snakes crawling under the abdomen), and tactile hallucinations (felt of tingling and burning sensations).
• Disorder of Affect (Emotional Disorders) - display of inappropriate emotional responses, or affect.
For example, a patient with Schizophrenia may become depressed or cry when her favorite food falls on
the floor, yet the death of a close friend or relative may be hysterically funny.
4 Distinct Division of Schizophrenia
1. Disorganized Schizophrenia- severely disturbed thought processes. Patients have hallucinations and
delusions are frequently incoherent. They may exhibit bizarre effects and experience periods of giggling,
crying, and irritability for no apparent reasons.
2. Paranoid Schizophrenia- false beliefs or delusions that distort reality. Most often, these are beliefs in
the exceptional importance of oneself, So-called Delusion of Grandeur- such as being Jesus Christ, CIA
agent, the inventor of war. These accompanied by delusions that, because one is so important, others are
“out to get me” in attempts to thwart the individual's critical mission, known as Delusion of Persecution.
Paranoid trust no one and always watchful convinced that others are plotting against them.
3. Catatonic Schizophrenia- this is quite different in appearance from the other forms of Schizophrenia.
They sometimes experience delusions and hallucinations; their most obvious abnormalities are social
interaction, posture, and body movement. Catatonic Schizophrenics spend long periods in an inactive,
statue- like state in which they seem locked into posture. They are often said to exhibit waxy flexibility
during stupors- they will passively let themselves be placed into any position and maintain it. Often they
cease to talk, appear not to hear what is spoken to them, and may no longer eat without being fed.
4. Undifferentiated Schizophrenia- this is the catchall category, to which all persons who do fit neatly
under the other headings are assigned. It includes people with schizophrenia who demonstrate
disturbances of thought, perception, and emotion, but not the features peculiar to the different types.

Causes of Schizophrenia
1. Biological Factors - disorder runs in families; that is, blood relatives of people with schizophrenia are
more likely to develop the condition than those from families free of Schizophrenia.
2. Environmental Factors - some psychologists believe that a person's interactions with the environment
determine whether Schizophrenia will develop. It is also possible that children and adults develop
Schizophrenia because their home environment is not conducive to healthy emotional growth.
TOPIC: PERSONALITY DISORDERS
Personality Disorders are disorders in which one's personality results in personal distress or significantly
impair social or work functioning. Every person has a character that is a unique way of thinking, feeling,
behaving, and relating to others.
Most people experience at least some difficulties and problems that result from their personality.
Kinds Of Personality Disorders
1. Anti-social Personality Disorder
> Anti-social personalities usually fail to understand that their behavior is dysfunctional because their
ability to feel guilty, remorseful, and anxious is impaired. Guilt, remorse, shame, and anxiety are
unpleasant feelings, but they are also necessary for social functioning and even physical survival.
For example, people who cannot feel anxious will often fail to anticipate actual dangers and risks. They
may take chances that other people would not accept.
2. Borderline Personality Disorder
> People with borderline personality disorder experience intense emotional instability, particularly in
relationships with others. They may make frantic efforts to avoid real or imagined abandonment by
others.
They may experience minor problems as significant crises.
> They may also express their anger, frustration, and dismay through suicidal gestures, self-mutilation,
and other self-destructive acts. They tend to have an unstable self-image or sense of self.
3. Avoidant Personality Disorder
>An avoidant personality disorder is a social withdrawal due to intense, anxious shyness. People with
avoidant personalities are reluctant to interact with others unless they feel confident in being liked. They
fear being criticized and rejected. Often, they view themselves as socially inept and inferior to others.
4. Dependent Personality Disorder
>Dependent personality disorder involves severe and disabling emotional dependency on others. People
with the disorder have difficulty making decisions without a great deal of advice and reassurance from
others. They urgently seek out another relationship when a close relationship ends. They feel
uncomfortable by themselves.
5. Histrionic Personality Disorder
>People with historical personality disorder continually strive to be the center of attention. They may act
overly flirtatious or dress in ways that draw attention. They may also talk in dramatic or theatrical style
and display exaggerated emotional reactions.
6. Narcissistic Personality Disorder
>People with narcissistic personality disorder have a grandiose sense of self-importance. They seek
excessive admiration from others and fantasize about unlimited success or power. They believe they are
special, unique, or superior to others. However, they often have very fragile self-esteem.
7. Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder
>An obsessive-compulsive personality disorder is characterized by a preoccupation with details,
orderliness, perfection, and control. People with this disorder often devote excessive amounts of time to
work and productivity and fail to take time for leisure activities and friendships. They tend to be rigid,
formal, stubborn, and dangerous. This disorder differs from obsessive-compulsive disorder, which often
includes more bizarre behavior and rituals.
10. Paranoid Personality Disorder
>People with paranoid personality disorder feel constant suspicion and distrust toward other people. They
believe that others are against them and always look for evidence to support their suspicions. They are
hostile toward others and react angrily to perceived insults.
9. Schizoid Personality Disorder
>Schizoid personality disorder involves social isolation and a lack of desire for close personal
relationships. People with this disorder prefer to be alone and seem withdrawn and emotionally detached.
They seem indifferent to praise or criticism from other people.
10. Schizotypal Personality Disorder
>People with schizotypal personality disorder engage in odd thinking, speech, and behavior. They may
ramble or use words and phrases in unusual ways, and they may believe they have magical control over
others. They feel very uncomfortable with close personal relationships and tend to be suspicious of others.
Some research suggests this disorder is less severe from schizophrenia.
TOPIC: Theories of Criminal Behavior
Crime is a complicated thing. For us to understand crime, we should know; first, it causes. Crime is due to
several factors. Sociological and psychological principles of criminality are intertwined and technically
not independent. As with psychological theories, there are numerous sociological formulations of the
cause and control of crime.
QUESTION: What is meant by breeding grounds of crime?

➢ It refers to a situation or places where something develops quickly, such as crime.

2 Elements in the Environment that Impinge on Crime
1. Exogenous variables – these are beyond the control of man like calamities
2. Indigenous variables are factors or elements in the environment that can be changed or influenced by
man (this serves as the breeding ground of crime).

Definitions of Criminal Behavior

➢ Legal Definition: Criminal Behavior refers to actions prohibited by the state and punishment under the
law.

➢ Moral Definition: Criminal Behavior refers to actions that may be rewarding to work, but that inflict
pain or one loss others. That is, Criminal Behavior is antisocial Behavior.

➢ Criminal Behavior refers to antisocial acts that place the actor at risk of becoming a focus of the
attention of criminal and juvenile justice professionals.

➢ Criminal Behavior Refers to acts that are injurious, prohibited under the law and that render the actor
subject to intervention by justice professionals

Overview of Theories on Criminal Behavior

1. Social location theories of crime suggest that criminal Behavior reflects where one is located in the
social system.

➢ Key theoretical idea: Criminal Behavior reflects personal distress (strain) t linked with socially
structured inequality in the distribution of wealth and power.

➢ Major risk factors: Lower class origins, low levels of success at school and work, feelings of alienation
(as opposed to feelings of and anger), perception of limited opportunity in combination with desire for
conventional success, being a gang member, adoption of lower-class values.
2. Differential Association theory, like psychodynamic theory, actually has powerful psychology of
human
Behavior at its base. That psychology is symbolic interactions wherein people think is very important, and
any particular situation may be defined as one in which it is "Okay" to violate the law. The attitudes,
values, beliefs, and rationalizations that may support such a definition are learned through differentials in
exposure to pro- criminal and anti-criminal patterns. The major part of the learning occurs in association
with others.

> Key theoretical idea: Criminal Behavior is an expression of differentials in the reinforcement
punishment of criminal and non-criminal alternative Behavior.
3. A general personality and Social psychology of human Behavior of broad applicability have
emerged in the late 1980s and 1990s. Criminal Behavior is one class behavior to whose analysis this
general model appears particularly valuable. The general model is perhaps best described as a social
learning or cognitive Behavior or social cognition theory.

➢ Key theoretical idea: The chance of Criminal act (a) increases with the density of rewards signaled for
criminal Behavior, and (b) decreases with the frequency of signaled costs of criminal behavior. These
signaled awards reflect personal control through antisocial attitudes, interpersonal control through
antisocial attitudes, interpersonal power through the social support for a crime no mediated control
established by a history of reinforcement of criminal Behavior and or personal predispositions.

➢ Major risk factors: Antisocial attitudes, antisocial associates, antisocial behavior history, antisocial
personality, problematic conditions are the domains of home, school, work, leisure.

7 Perspective of Psychology on Criminal and General Human Psychology

1. Biological perspective- it tends to emphasize relatively enduring some based predispositions (e.g., the
physiological of classical conditioning) and events with significant somatic implications (e.g., the effects
of alcohol on bodily functioning).
2. Trait perspectives- it tends to emphasize relatively enduring behavioral, cognitive and affective
predispositions (e.g., extraversion, intelligence, and emotionality) without necessarily requiring particular
assumptions regarding the biological, psychological, or social bases of these traits.
3. Psychodynamic perspectives- emphasize what people think of as the "truly psychological."
Psychodynamic perspectives search for understanding through an appreciation of the personal
psychological motivation and controls of overt Behavior. The widespread tendency to equate
psychodynamic perspectives with psychology reflects the pervasive influence of Freudian theory on
psychological and popular culture.
4. Sociocultural perspectives- within psychological emphasize the effects of the family, peers, and
community on individual Behavior. These theories tend to be socialization theories whereby individual
differences in personal Behavior, cognition, and emotion are linked to differences in the training provided
by different families, peer groups, and social institutions.
5. Radical behavioral perspectives concentrate on how the immediate behavior-environment
contingencies are responsible for the acquisitions, maintenance, and modification of individual Behavior.
The effects to the immediate environments depend very much upon how the settings reinforce, punishes
and ignores behavior.
6. Humanistic and existential perspective- It may be differentiated from the above according to three
concerns. The first is the emphasis placed upon 'free choice" and "personal responsibility " The second is
the emphasis placed upon a perception of the self and the world as perceived and interpreted by a person.
The third involves an attraction to the motion that experience of interpersonal warmth, openness, and
acceptance is associated with a personal growth pattern that is both and socially positive.
7. Social learning cognitive-behavioral social cognition perspectives - It may be differentiated from
the emphasis placed upon learning by observation, the role of cognition, and the importance of
considering the person in combination with particular situations. General social psychological
perspectives emphasize personal attitudes and beliefs, perceptions of others' expectations, and the
demands of particular circumstances.

Victimology is the study about victims of crime. It is a branch of criminology that deals purely with the
underlying factors of victimization and the contributory role of the victims in the commission of
crimes.Victimology is the study of “crime targets,” showed that a person becomes a victim of crime
consciously (knowingly) and unconsciously (unknowingly). A person could become a victim due to his
own action or fault. He somehow contributes to the commission of a crime because of his own making.
GOALS OF VICTIMOLOGY
The study of victimology focuses on five goals:
1. To understand and measure the extent and nature of the crime as victims perceive them
2. To assess the relative risk of victimization
3. To appreciate the nature and extent of losses, injuries, and damage experienced by victims of crime
4. To study the relationship between victims and offender
5. To investigate the social reaction of the family, community, and society toward the victim of crime.
CONCEPT OF VICTIMOLOGY
One of the most neglected subjects in the study of crime is its victim: the person, households, and
businesses that bear the brunt of crime.
The word victim was connected to the notion of sacrifice, especially in ancient cultures. Initially, the term
is referred to as a person or an animal put to death during a ceremony in order to appease some
supernatural power or deity.
Today the term commonly refers to individuals who experience injury, loss, or hardship for any reason.
People can be victims of accidents, diseases, natural disasters, or social problems like warfare,
discrimination, or other injuries. Crime victims are harmed because of illegal acts.
Victimization can happen either with or without the knowledge or consent of those who are victimized.
Victimization is an asymmetrical relationship that is abusive, destructive, unfair, and in many cases, in
violation of the law.
What Victimization Implies
The word victimization has a negative connotation. It conveys adverse effects or undesirable
consequences caused or brought by some external forces or by some individuals, groups, or organizations.
It implies the incurring of:
a. Injury, harm, loss, inconvenience, discomfort, pain and suffering
b. One party prey upon another (Fattah & Socco)
Contrary to popular conception, many forms of violent victimization are not punishable under criminal
law. The physical violence in sports, such as boxing, wrestling, and martial arts are an example of this
(Kalalang, 2018).

THE NATURE OF VICTIMIZATION

VICTIM CHARACTERISTICS
Social and demographic characteristics distinguish victims and non-victims. Among them are age,
gender, social status, marital status, race, and residence.
AGE – victim data reveal that young people face a much higher victimization risk than do an older
person.
GENDER – except for the crimes of rape and sexual assault, makes are more likely than females to suffer
violent crime. Men are twice as likely as a woman to experience aggravated assault and robbery. Women,
however, are six times more likely than men to be victims of rape or sexual assault.
When men are the victims of violent crime, the perpetrator is a stranger; women are much more likely to
be attacked by a relative than are men. About two-thirds of all attacks against women are committed by a
husband, boyfriend, family member, or acquaintance.

SOCIAL STATUS – people in the lowest income categories are much more likely to become crime
victims than those who are more affluent. Poor individuals are most likely the victims of crime because
they live in crime- prone areas, such as the slums and the urban regions. Although the poor are more
likely to suffer violent crimes, the wealthy are more likely to be targets of personal theft crimes, such as
pocket-picking and purse (bag) snatching.
MARITAL STATUS – discovered and never-married males and females are victimized more often than
married people. Widows and widowers have the lowest victimization risk.
RACE – in the U.S., African Americans (blacks) are more likely than whites to be victims of violent
crime.
RESIDENCE – urban residents are more likely than rural or suburban residents to become victims of
crime.
TYPE OF CHARACTERISTICS THAT INCREASE THE POTENTIAL FOR VICTIMIZATION
Three types of characteristics increase the potential for victimization: (Finkelhor and Asigan, 1996)
1. TARGET VULNERABILITY. Victim’s physical weakness or psychological distress renders them
incapable of resisting or deterring crime and makes them easy targets.

2. TARGET GRATIFIABILITY. Some victims have some quality, possession, kill, or attribute that an
offender wants to obtain, use, have access to, or manipulate. Having attractive properties, such as a
leather coat, may make one vulnerable to predatory crime.
3. TARGET ANTAGONISM – some characteristics increase risk because they arouse anger, jealousy,
or destructive impulses in potential offenders. Being gay or effeminate, for example, may bring on
underserved attacks in the street; being argumentative and alcoholic may provoke the assault.
Topic: Theories of Victimization
For many years criminological theories focused on the actions of the criminal offender; the role of the
victim was ignored. In contrast, modern victimization theories already acknowledge that the victims are
not a passive target in crime, but someone whose behavior can influence his or her fate.
1. VICTIM PRECIPITATION THEORY – according to this view, some people may initiate the
confrontation that eventually leads to their injury or death. Victim precipitation can be either active or
passive.

✓ Active precipitation occurs when victims act provocatively, use threats or fighting words, or even
attack first.
✓ Passive precipitation, on the other hand, occurs when the victim exhibits some personal characteristics
that unknowingly threaten or encourage the attacker. The crime can occur because of personal conflict –
for example, when two people compete over a job, promotion, love interest, or some other scarce and in-
demand commodity.
2. LIFESTYLE THEORY – according to this theory, people may become crime victims because their
lifestyle increases their exposure to criminal offenders.
- Developed by Michael Hindelang, Michael Gottfredson, and James Garofalo.
- Centers of specific propositions: Probability of suffering a personal victimization is related to the
amount of time a person spends in public places.
Victimization risk is increased by such behaviors when:

✓ associating with young men

✓ going out in public places late at night

✓ living in an urban area

One’s chances of victimization can be reduced by staying home at night, moving to a rural area, staying
out of public places, earning more money, and getting married.
People who have high-risk lifestyles like drinking, taking drugs, and getting involved in the crime thus
maintain a much higher chance of victimization.
During the investigation, victims are classified into three general categories that describe the level of risk
their lifestyle represents the violent crime that has been committed.
This information is essential to the investigation better to understand the sophistication or possible
pathology of the offender.
A. HIGH-RISK VICTIMS – victims in this group have a lifestyle that makes them a higher risk of being
a victim of a violent crime.
The most apparent high-risk victim is the prostitute. Prostitutes place themselves at risk every single time
they get into strangers, and for the most part, attempt to conceal their actions for legal reasons.
Offenders often rely on all of these factors and specifically target prostitutes because such conditions
lower their chances of becoming suspects in the crime. Therefore, in the example, the prostitute is a high-
risk victim creating a lower risk to the offender.
B. MODERATE RISK VICTIMS – victims that fall into this category are lower risk victims, but for
some reason is in the situation that placed them at a higher level of risk.
A person who is stranded in a dark and secluded area and accepts a ride from a stranger would be a good
example.
C. LOW-RISK VICTIMS – the lifestyle of these individuals would typically not place them in any
degree of risk for becoming a victim of a violent crime.
These individuals stay out of trouble, do not have peers that are criminal, are aware of their surroundings,
and attempt to take precautions so as not to be victimized. They lock the doors, do not use drugs, and do
not go into areas that are dark and secluded.
3. DEVIANT PLACE THEORY – according to this theory, victims do not encourage crime but are
victim-prone because they reside in socially disorganized high-crime areas where they have the greatest
risk of coming into contact with criminal offenders, the more exposure to dangerous places makes an
individual more likely to the victim of crime.
4. ROUTINE ACTIVITY THEORY – LAWRENCE COHEN and MARCUS FELSON first articulated
this theory.
They concluded that the volume and distribution of predatory crime (violent crimes against a person and
crimes in which an offender attempts to steal an object directly) are closely related to the interaction of
three variables that reflect the routine activities:
The availability of suitable targets, such as homes containing easily saleable goods.
The absence of capable guardians, such as police, homeowners, neighbors, friends, and relatives. The
presence of motivated offenders, such as a large number of unemployed teenagers
5. VICTIM FACILITATION
Victim facilitation is a more accepted theory than victim proneness, finds its roots in the writings of
Marvin Wolfgang. The interaction of the victim allows certain crimes committed against them or makes
them vulnerable to become a victim.