APPENDIX A 575 4-4 Suppose the constant terms 16, =9, 21, and —5 of the four equations of Prob. A-3 represent seasurements having relative weights of 2, 3, 1, and 4, respectively. Using weighted least squares, calculate gost probable values for x,, x;, and x, and determine standard deviations of these values. 45 Repeat Prob. A-3, except that the four equations are as follows: Sx, + 3x, — 2y = -15 2 - + Gy = 25 xy t3y¢ y= 13 41 + 3n-3y= 1 4.6 If the constant terms — 15, 25, 13, and 1 of Prob. A-5 represent measurements having relative weights of 4, 2, 1, and 2, respectively, calculate the least squares solution for the unknowns and determine their standard deviations.APPENDIX B COORDINATE TRANSFORMATIONS B-1 INTRODUCTION A problem frequently encountered in photogrammetric work is conversion from one rectangular coordinate system to another. This is because photogrammetrists com- monly determine coordinates of unknown points in convenient arbitrary rectangular coordinate systems. These arbitrary coordinates may be read from comparators or stereoscopic plotters, or they may result from analytical computation. The arbitrary coordinates must then be converted into a final system such as the camera photo coordinate system in the case of comparator measurements, or a ground coordinate system such as the state plane coordinate system in the case of stereoplotter or ana- lytically derived arbitrary model coordinates. The procedure for converting from one coordinate system to another is known as coordinate transformation, The procedure requires that some points have their coordinates known in both the arbitrary and the final coordinate systems. Such points are called control points. B-2 TWO-DIMENSIONAL CONFORMAL COORDINATE TRANSFORMATION The term **two-dimensional"” means that the coordinate systems lie on plane surfaces. A conformal transformation is one in which true shape is preserved after transfor- mation. To perform a two-dimensional conformal coordinate transformation, it is necessary that coordinates of at least two points be known in both the arbitrary final coordinate systems. Accuracy in the transformation is improved by choosing the two points as far apart as possible. If more than two control points are available, 2° improved solution may be obtained by applying the method of least squares- A two-dimensional conformal coordinate transformation consists of three basic steps: (1) scale change, (2) rotation, and (3) translation, The example illustrated i Fig. B-1 will be used to demonstrate the procedure. This example uses the minim of two control points. Section B-4 describes the procedure when more than two cont” 516APPENDIX B 577 0) Figure Bel (a) Arbitrary X¥ two-dimensional coordinate system. (b) Ground EN two-dimensional coor- dante system. points are available. Figure B-la shows the positions of points a through c, whose coordinates are known in an arbitrary XY system. Figure B-1b illustrates the positions of the same points, labeled A through C in a (ground) EN system. The coordinates of | And B are known in the ground system and itis required to determine the coordinates | of C in the ground system. Step 1: Scale Change Comparing Fig. B-la and 6, it is evident that the lengths of lines ab and AB are unequal, hence the scales of the two coordinate systems are unequal. The scale of the XY system is made equal to the scale of the EN system by multiplying each X and ¥ coordinate by a scale factor s. The scaled coordinates are labeled X’ and Y’, By use of the two control points, the scale factor is calculated in relation to the two lengths AB and ab as _ AB _ (Ep — Ey)? + (Ny — NAN? @e-1) 5 Gb XX. +, — YP? Step 2: Rotation If the scaled X'Y’ coordinate system is superimposed over the EN system of Fig. B-1 so that line AB in both systems coincides, the result is as shown in Fig. B-2, An auxiliary axis system ’N’ is constructed through the origin of the X'Y" axis system Parallel to the EN axes. It is necessary to rotate from the X’Y’ system to the E'N’ System, or in other words, to calculate E'N' coordinates for the unknown points from their X'Y" coordinates. The E'N’ coordinates of point C may be calculated in terms578 APPENDIX B Figure B-2 Scaled X'Y' coordinate system superimposed onto the ENV ground coordinate system, of the clockwise rotation angle @ by using the following equations: E'g = Xi.cos 8 — ¥.sin 8 e N'¢ = Xi sin 8 + ¥. cos 0 Rotation angle @, shown in Fig. B-2, is the sum of angles « and B which are indicated on Fig. B-la and 6. From the coordinates of the two control points, these angles are calculated as o = tan7! (s — x) ¥. — Ys, (B-3) on (& Ey Na — Na, Step 3: Translation The final step in the coordinate transformation is a translation of the origin of the EIN’ system to the origin of the EN system. The translation factors required are Tr and Ty, which are illustrated in Fig, B-2, Final E and N ground coordinates for pois! C then areAPPENDIX B 579 Ec = Eg + Tr 34 No = NE + Ty Translation factors T'; and Ty are calculated as Te = Ey - E, = Ey - Eb es Ty = Na — MA = Ny — Nb Note from Eqs. (B-S) that these translation factors may be calculated in two different ways by using either control point A or B. It is advisable to calculate them ysing both points to obtain'a computation check. Working sketches are recommended in computing coordinate transformations to sid in reducing the likelihood of mistakes. Caution should be exercised to ensure that correct algebraic signs arc applied to the coordinates used in the transformation equa- tions. Example B-1 Assume that in Fig. B-la and b the arbitrary and ground coordi- nates of points A through C are as follows: Arbitrary coordinates Ground coordinates Point x ¥ 5 N A 632.17 121.45 1,100.64 1,431.09 B 355.20 642.07 1,678.39 254.15 c 1,304.81 396.37 It is required to compute the coordinates of point C in the ground EN system. SOLUTION (a) The scale factor is calculated from Eq. (B-1) as [(1,678.39 — 1,100.64)? + (254.15 — 1,431.09)2)1/2 (55.20 — 632.17)? + (— 642.07 — 121.45)" _ 1311.10 _ = 220° 1.61426 “The arbitrary coordinates are then expanded to the X'Y' system, which is equal in scale to the ground coordinate system, by multiplying each ofthe arbitrary coordinates by the scale factor. After multiplication, the X'Y" coordinates are Scaled coordinates Point xe ¥ A 1,020.49 196.05 B 573,39 ~ 1,036.47 e 2,106.30 962.70 —$80 APPENDIX B (b) The rotation angle, calculated by Eqs. (B-3), is _ 632.17 — 355.20 121.45 + 642.07 tia = 0.362753 a = 19°56'18” 5 > 1 = 0.490892 = 26°08'46" 7 954.15 B °08'46" 8 = 19°56'18" + 26°08'46" = 46°05'04" Rotation Eqs. (B-2) are then solved to obtain £’ and N" coordinates, The solution in tabular form is as follows (with sin = 0.720363, cos 8 = 0.603557) Point X'cos@ Y'sin@ =X’ sin@ = Y'cos@ aE u A 707.81 M4123 73512 135.98 $66.58 871.10 B 397.70 -746.63 «413.05. 718.89 1,144.33 308.84 oi 1,460.92 693.49 1,517. 667.73 767.43 85.03, (©) The translation factors T; and Ty are calculated next, using Egs. (B-5) as follows: Te = Ex ~ Ej = 1,100.64 ~ 566,58 = 534,06 also Te = Ex — Ey = 1,678.39 — 1,144.33 = 534.06 Check! Ty = Na — NA = 1,431.09 ~ 871.10 = 559.99 also ‘ Ty = Na — Ng = 254.15 + 305.84 = 559.99 Check! By adding the translation factors to E’ and N', the following final transformed E and N coordinates are obtained for point C: Ec = 767.43 + 534,06 = 1301.49 Ne = 2185.03 + 559.99 = 2745.02 In the above example, although only one unknown point (point C) was formed, any number of points could have been transformed using just the two CO" points,APPENDIX B 581 B-3 ALTERNATE METHOD OF TWO.1 CONFORMAL TRANSFORMATIONS anor # ps discussed in Sec. B-2. The Procedure consists first of multiplying each of the original coordinates of poi of point: following four equations result: eae Cea tes (B-6) Xp = SX, Y, = s¥, * Equations (B-6) are now substituted into Eqs. (B-2), except that subscripts of Eqs. (B-2) are changed to be applicable for points A and B. This substitution yields E4 = sX, cos 0 ~ s¥, sin@ Nj = sX, sin @ + s¥, cos © en | Ej, = sX, cos @ — s¥, sin @ : | Nj = sX, sin @ + s¥, cos Finally, translation factors J; and Ty, as described previously, are added to Eqs. | (B-7) to yield the following equations: | E, = sX, cos @ — s¥, sin 0 + Te Ng = 3X, sin @ + s¥, cos @ + Ty (B-8) Ey = sX, cos 0 — s¥, sin + Ty Ng = SX, sin @ + s¥, cos @ + Ty Let a = scos 0 and & = s sin 8. Making the substitution of a and b into Eqs. | (B-8) and rearranging, there results | Ey = aX, — bY, + Te | Ny = aY, + bX, + Tw . (6-9) Ey = aX, — bY, + Te Np = aY, + Xp + Tw382, APPENDIX B coordinates for points A and B are known i formation factors a, b, T, Egg, -9) contain only four unknowns, the tare o Te, and fe . as ay be solved simultaneously (0 obtain the unknowns. When, N The : the 0 an E and an N equation four transformation factors have been computed, an & an of the §; Tye (B-9) may be solved to obtain the fil coordinates of each point whose gy vieses were known only in the XY coordinate system. Because both the XY and EN Example B-2 Solve Example B-1 using the alternate method. (a) Formulate Eqs. (B-9) for the points whose coordinates are known jn both systems: 1,100.64 = 632.17a — 121.45 + Te 1,431.09 = 121.45@ + 632.17b + Ty 1,678.39 = 355.20a + 642.07b + Te 254.14 = —642.07a + 355.20b + Ty (b) The simultancous solution of the above four equations yields the following a = 1.11965 b = 1.16285 Te = 534.06 Ty = 559.99 (©) Using the four transformation factors, th » the final it point C are calculated as follows: el Ec = (1,11965)(1,304.81) — (1.16285)(596.37) + 534.06 = 1,301.49 Ne = (1,11965)(596.37) + (1.16285)(1,304.81) + 559,99 = 2,745.02 B-4 COORDINATE TRANSFORMATIONS WITH REDUNDANCY In some instances mor wi ‘i e than two control poi in both the arbit ro! points are available with coordinates know? iirary and final systems. In that case rediates) sees and te va formation can be com it iputed using a k . Appendix A, the sum of ee least squares solution. In this method, as discussed transformations if possible In the least squares pr j ‘quares procedure, it is convenient to use the alternate method diAPPENDIX B 583 cussed in Sec, B-3. Two o bservation equations similar . i to those of Eqs. (B- a as = Point whose coordinates are known in both systems. mee 7 = incl in the equations to make them Consistent, as follows: aX - bY +7, = et E + up (B-10) OX + a + Ty =N + wy If n points are available,whose coordinates are known in both syst tions may be formed Containing the four unknown jeutanae Boone ca tions are solved by the method of least ‘Squares to obtain the most probable transformation factors. Transformed coordinates of all required points may then be found by using the transformation factors as illustrated in (c) of Example B-2, Itis theoretically correct i b in least squares to associate residuals with actual obser- vations. In Eqs. (B-10), however, the X and ¥ coordinates are observed, yet the residuals have been associated with the E and N control coordinates. This is an easier spproach and one that has been commonly used and found to yield entirely satisfactory results. B-S MATRIX METHODS IN COORDINATE TRANSFORMATIONS Coordinate transformations involve rather lengthy calculations and are therefore best handled on a computer. Matrix algebra is ideal for computer calculations and is therefore convenient for performing transformations. To illustrate the application of matrix algebra in coordinate transformations, as- sume that coordinates of three control points, A through C, are known in both the X¥ system and the EN system. Let their coordinates be of equal reliability so that their weights are equal. Assume also that transformation into the ENV system is required for points D through N, whose coordinates are known only in the XY system. First of all, six observation equations of the form of Eqs. (B-10) are developed, two for each control point A, B, and C, as follows: Xya — Yqb + Te = Ea + Vey Yya + Xjb + Ty = Nat Ym Xpa — Yqb + Te = Ex + Yt i Ypa + Xgb + Ty = No + Ying Xca — Yob + Te = Ec + Yee Yea + Xcb + Ty = Ne + Ye the above six equations are ole aX = ola + Mi In matrix representation, B-12)584 APrexvix p In matrix Eq. (B-12), A is the matrix of coefficients of the unknown trang factors, X is the matrix of unknown transformation factors, L is the matrix of, Consteny terms which is made up of contol point coordinates, and V is the!’ mati of rein discrepancies in those coordinates brought about by measurement errors, Mote Spe. cifically these matrices are ‘formay, 4 Xo -%y 1 1 Ye cn, AOiiial ¢ Aime Saies 2pm doy tee Y 5 ct Aeris we oiuasl Te Keg te; boilisnn im (te % 9 1 Ey]! Cm N, Yn = | = |" ESN Se ae Ec Yec Ne Ye ’ ‘ AAs discussed in Appendix A, matrix Eq. (A-12) is used to solve this eqully weighted system for the transformation factors. The final transformation of all points D through W into the EN system is performed as discussed in (c) of Example B-2, This phase of the computation is also readily adapted to matrix methods. B-6 TWO-DIMENSIONAL AFFINE COORDINATE TRANSFORMATION ‘The two-dimensional affine coordinate transformation is only a slight modification of the two-dimensional conformal transformation to include different scale factors in the % and y directions. A photogrammetry problem commonly solved using the two- dimensional affine transformation is conversion of measured photocoordinates from an arbitrary comparator axis system to the conventional xy fiducial axis system. AS sume for example that comparator measurements have been taken with a diapositive Oriented on the comparator, as illustrated in Fig. B-3. Besides correcting for shrinkage by means of scale factors, the affine coordinate transformation also applies translations of X, and Y, to shift the origin from the XY comparator axis system to the origin @ Of the xy photo system, and it applies a rotation through angle 0 (plus a small angulst correction for nonorthogonality) to orient the axes in the xy photo system. It is entirely logical to use an affine transformation for this particular problem because it accouts for different magnitudes of film shrinkage or expansion that generally exist in the = and y directions. Following are the affine equations which transform from theAPPENDIX B 585, Figure B-3 Affine coordinate transformation from arbitrary comparator XY axis system £0 fiducial xy axis system. Origin of arbitrary comparator system comparator axes of Fig. B-3 to the xy photo system: x= a, + aX + a¥ 6-13) y= by + bX + bY ‘As with the two-dimensional conformal transformation, the application of the affine transformation is a two-step procedure of (1) determining the a and b coefficients using points whose coordinates are known in both the XY and ay systems and (2) applying these coefficients to calculate transformed xy coordinates for all other points from their XY coordinates. In correcting photocoordinates, the fiducial marks are used to perform step 1, since their calibrated xy coordinates are known from camera cali- bration, and their XY coordinates are available from comparator measurements. For a given photographic plate, a pair of equations of the form of Eq. (B-13) can be written. for each fiducial mark. If there are four fiducials, four x and four y equations are obtained. Any three of the x equations will yield a solution for the three unknown a céefficients, and any three of the y equations will yield a solution for the three un- known b's, An improved solution may be obtained, however, if each set of four equations is solved simiiltancously using least squares. Example B-3 Calibrated coordinates and comparator measured coordinates of the four fiducial marks for a certain photographic plate are given in the following table. The comparator-measured coordinates of other points 1, 2, and 3 are also given. It is required to compute the corrected coordinates of points 1, 2, and 3 using the affine transformation. .586 APPENDIX B ‘alibrated i ‘Comparator coordinates Calibrated coordinates X, mm y, mm x, mm ¥ mm Point i Fiducial A 55.149 1 = eee oe e Fiducial B 167.716 7 ee 3.0 Fiducial C 281.150 oS 0,000 - 113,000 Fiducial D 168.580 41. 1 228.498 105.029 2 270,307 199.949 3 259.080 231.064 cic i : ith residuals added for consist ti f the form Eq. (B-13), with resic d st. rae, ean a for the x coordinates of the four fiducial marks as IL Oy xX + 4gY—113.000 + vy = a, + ( 55.149)ay + (159.893)a, = BA Xe (Alay AL. \ 0.000 + vp = a + (167.716)a, + (273.302)ay 113.000 + vy = a, + (281.150)a, + (160.706)a, x 0,000 + v4 = a + (168.580)a, + ( 47.299)a, Any three of the above four equations could be solved to obtain the three unknown a's. In this example, however, the v's were included and least squares Eq. (A-12) of Appendix A was used to obtain the three coefficients with the following results: 4% = ~ 168.759 a; = 0.999982 a, = 0,00382289 Now the corrected coordinates of unknown Points 1 through 3 are calculated using these a's in Eq. (B-13) as follows: x = — 168.759 + (0.999982)(228.498) + (0.00382289)(105.029) = 60.137 — 168.759 + (0.999982)(270,307) + (0.00382289)(199,949) = = 102.307 ~ 168.759 + (0.999982)(259,080) * (0.00382289)(231.064) = 91.199 In a similar manner, equations are w, r ave written for the y coordinates of each of ite om ee tps equations are solved to ome the b's whereapon M4 a is teal comected y coosdinaes ns POiMts | through 3 are caleulaned. shone we ond by = -159.691 by = ~0.00359723 b= "= > $5487, = 39.28) : = 0.999973 70.435 1 ysAPPENDIX B 587 If the fiducial marks are in the 38 four corners, as is th ith Wil sina ees aa be followed. Of course, it is sone ite ni alibated monies as coordinacs be known foreach rar. If ett Ruta » all of them may be used and an improved selition hui ined. B-7 THREE-DIMENSIONAL CO! COQRDINATE TRANSF ERATION ea ‘As implied by its name, a three-dimensi : * olves converting from one aa eae coord transformation mation, truc shape is retained. This type of coordinate eee o ae analytical or computational photogrammetry for two basic problems: Nao a coordinates of points from a tilted photographic coordinate system to an vival yertical photographic system which is parallel to a ground or arbitrary ect = system, and (2) to form continuous three-dimensional “‘strip models" from tx pendent stereomodels. Three-dimensional conformal coordinate transformation equa- ions are developed here in general, while their application ‘o specific photogrammetry problems is described elsewhere in the text where appropriate. in Fig, B-4 it is required to transform coordinates of points from an xyz system to an XYZ system. AS illustrated in the figure, the two coordinate systems are not parallel. The necessary transformation equations can be expressed in terms of seven independent transformation factors: three rotation angles, omega (@), phi ($), and kappa (k); a scale factor s+ and three translation factors T,, Ty» and T,. Before pro- ceeding with the development of the transformation equations, itis important 10 define sign conventions. All coordinate systert® Shall be defined as right-handed, i.e.» SYS- tems in which positive X, ¥, and 2 are defined as shown in Fig. B-4, Rotation angles ©, , and x are defined as posit Jockwise when viewed from ive if they are counterc the positive end of their respective axe ation about the x’ axis, for 1s. Positive w rote example, is shown in Fig. B-4. asional coordinate systems. aye rightanded three dime Figure BA XYZ and588 APPENDIX B ‘The transformation equations shall be developed in the following two basic stp (1) rotation and (2) scaling and translation. Step 1: Rotation In Fig. B-4 an x'y’z’ coordinate system parallel to the XYZ object system is constructed with its origin at the origin of the xyz system. In the development of rotation formulas, it is customary to consider the three rotations as taking place so as to convert from the.x'y’z' system to the xyz system. The rotation equations are developed in a sequence of three independent two-dimensional rotations. These rotations, illustrated in Fig, B-5, are first, « rotation about the x’ axis which converts coordinates from the x'y';' system into an x,y,z, system; second, ¢ rotation about the once rotated y, axis which converts coordinates from the x,y,z; system into an x,y222 system; and third, x rotation about the twice rotated z, axis which converts coordinates from the x2y22_ system into the xyz system of Fig. B-4. The exact amount and direction of the rotations for any three-dimensional coordinate transformation will depend upon the orientation rela- tionship between the xyz and XYZ coordinate systems. The development of the rotation formulas :is as follows: First, rotation through the angle @ about the x’ axis, as illustrated in Fig. B-6, ‘The coordinates of any point A in the once rotated x,),2, system, as shown graphically in Fig. B-6, are ay andz ‘Third rotation (x) Second rotation (@) i and»; Origin First rotation (19) andxy x x Figure B-S The three sequential angular rotations,APPENDIX B S89 Figure B-6 Omega rotation about the x’ axis, x =x yi = y' cosw + 2! sinw (B-14) 2, = —y' sin + 2’ cos Since this rotation was about x’, the x’ and x, axes are coincident and therefore the x coordinate of A is unchanged. Second, rotation through @ about the y, axis, as illustrated in Fig. B-7. The coordinates of A in the twice rotated x,y,z, coordinate system, as shown graphically in Fig. B-7, are xy = —21 sin + 2, cos & wen (8-15) my = cosh + x sind the y, and y, axes are coincident and therefore the y In this rotation about y, Substituting Eqs. (B-14) into (B-15): coordinate of A is unchanged. x, = —(—y' sin @ + 2" cos w) sin + x’ cos y2 = y cosw + 2! sinw (B-16) 2 = (—y" sin w + 2' cos w) cos + 2" sin d as illustrated in Fig. B-8. The coor- ‘Third, rotation through x about the 22 axis, which has now become the dinates of A in the three times rotated coordinate system, ayz system as shown graphically in Fig. B-8, are x = x,cosk + yp sink y = mp sin «+ y2 608 (B-17)590 APPENDIX B Figure B-7 Phi rotation about the y, axis, In this rotation about z,, the 2 and z axes are coincident and therefore the z coordinate of A is unchanged. Substituting Eqs. (B-16) into (B-17): X = [Q! sin@ — 2! cos w) sind + x' cos] cos K + (y' cos @ + 2’ sin w) sink » = [(-y' sin @ + 2’ cos @) sin — x' cos o] sin x (B-18) + (y' cos w + 2’ sin w) cos k z= (—y' sin w + 2’ cos @) cos + x’ sin & Figure B-8 Kappa rotation about the #2 2sAPPENDIX B 591 Factoring Eqs. (B-18), X = x'(Cos cos «) + ¥(sin © sin bcos k + COS w sin K) + 2'(~cos w sin cos k + sine sin «) » = x'(—c0s & sin x) + »'(=sin © sin 6 sin « + COs w cos x) + 2'(os w sin $ sink + sin © cos K) x'(sin h) + Y'(sin w cos ©) + z'(cos w cos o) Substituting m’s for the coefficients (B-19) of a’, y', and 2 in Eqs. (B-19), these equa- tions are peas FIO ES A aT a es FS myx + may! + mz! Y= myx" + myy! + M2! (B-20) 2= myx! + myy! + mye!) s f where Leer, my = cos@cosk my = sin w sin @ cos x + cos wsin k > m3 = —cos w sin cos k + sin w sin k \ | my = —cos b sink | Maz = —sin w sin d sin k + cos w cos kK (B21) Mz = Cos w sin sin k + sin w cos K m3, = sind mz = —sin @ cos > my = 0s w cosh Equations (B-20) may be expressed in matrix form as X = Mx’ (B-22) where * my Mm. M3 i X=l/y M=|my my my; and X= 7 z ms, My Mss 2 The matrix M is commonly called the roration matrix. The individual elements Of the rotation matrix are direction cosines which relate the two axis systems. These Matrix elements, expressed in terms of direction cosines are592 APPENDIX B cos yx’ cos yy’ C08 2! ‘cos xx’ cos xy’ C08 22" ae y' cos a" Bay cos zx’ COs «the direction cosine relating the x and x’ i "jg the direction cosine relat a i es ees ais om etc. Direction cosines are 5 aoe the cosines of ot angles in space between the respective axes, the angles oe . eh Dettoen 180°. It is an important property that the sum of tie OE ne Gira cosines of any straight line is unity. This property a e hte fe compiy elements of the rotation matrix for correctness. The checl ae ed if the sum g the squares of the elements of any row or of any column of Matix is equal % 5 fic ‘The rotation matrix is an orthogonal matrix, which has the property that its invene is equal to its transpose, or ag M7! =M" Bay Using this property, Eq. (B-22) may be rewritten expressing x'y'z’ coordinty, in terms of xyz coordinates as follows: X= MK (B29 In expanded form, this equation is: X= myx + my + myz Y= myx + mpy + myz (02) z mx + may + mye Step 2: Scaling and Translation To arrive at the final three-dimensional coordinate transformation equations, i.c. equations which yield coordinates in the XYZ system of Fig. B-4, it is necessary 0 multiply each of Eqs, (B-26) by a scale factor s and add the translation factors Ty T,, and T,, [Recall that the x'y'z' coordinates given by Eqs, (B-26) are in a systt™ that is parallel to the XYZ system.) This makes the lengths of any lines equal in Coordinate systems and translates from the origin of x'y'z' to the origin of the system. Performing this step, X= sx + Ty = slmax + may + my) + Ty P= o! +1, = smax + may + myz) + T, em Zs +T,= S(my3x + may + myz) + Ty In matrix form, Eqs. (B-27) are X=Mx+7 oe)) | Jn Bq. (B-28) matrixes M and X are as previously defined, s is the scale factor, APPENDIX B 593 ond In Eqs. (B-27), the nine m’s are not independent of each other, but rather, as seen in Egs. (B-21), they are functions of the three rotation angles e , and k. In sauition to these three unknown angles, there are also three unknown translations and one scale factor in Eqs. (B-27), which makes a total of seven unknowns. A unique solution is obtained for the unknowns if the x and y coordinates of two horizontal points and the Z coordinates of three vertical points are known in both coordinate If more than the minimum of seven coordinates are known in both systems, systems. redundant equations may be written which make possible an improved solution through Jeast squares techniques. 1e unknowns. One method ‘There are different approaches to the solution for th yy subtraction, and thus reduces the which climinates the three translation factors by number of equations that must be solved to four, was described in the first edition of this book. This method is advantageous when working with small computers. An improved solution, described herein, simultaneously solves all seven unknowns, al- though it requires a greater computational effort. Suppose there are three points, p, , g, and 7, whose coordinates are known in both systems. Then a total of nine equations of the type of Eqs. (B-27) may be written as follows: Xp = s(imyi%p + map + Marz) + Te a Q Yp = s(mia%p + Maatp + Matp) + ie @) Zp = slmsxp + aap + Maske) + Ts @ Xo = slriyty + mary + mney) + qT ©) Yo = srniaty + Maayy + mate) + Ty (B-29) © Zq = s(rmysty + Masyq + Maske) + fr q) Xg_ = sms, + Made + my 2) + Ts (8) Vg = slrygty + mane + Mat + Ty o Zp = stmisty + Mase + my3z,) + Te ems 29 eee ee ane TH 8, Ke Tey Ty and T,. To solve594 APPENDIX B th i dance with Taylor's theorem, the linearized form of ti leorem. In accor int P i of Eqs. (B-29) which relate to point P is Xp = Oph + (22) a + (22) f (4 + (elas Gh (a+ (8) Yr = py + (2) 5 3) a ie (=e) * (Sela Gallas (Gh a+ (a z= ars (Ze) a+ (3) a (Za OZ, az, (2) 2%.) SF) ak + ar, + (—*) ar, + (22 a ( ) ae (2), at,Jo.? ” Var.) | By simply changing subscripts, expressions similar to Eqs. (B-30) are waitin for | Points q and r, giving a total of nine linearized equations. In Eqs. (B-30), (X,)5, (,),, and @Zr)o ate the right-hand sides of the first three Eqs. (B-29) evaluated the inal *Pproximations; (BXp/é8)y, (Xp/ dup, etc, are partial derivatives with respect tothe indicated unknowns evaluated at the initial approximations; and ds, deo, dey, de, dT, ay and aT, are comections to the initial he firs, thee Gx) approximations. The units of de, dé, and dx are radians. Substituting leters for partial derivative coefficients, and adding residuals to make this redundant system of Equations consistent, all nine linear equations of the form of Eqs. (B-30) are given below: Qyds + ado + Add + ade + adT, Fadl, + and, = Xp ~ Xp) + vy, ands + azdw + Gxdh + and + Gx, + aul, + aydT, = [Y, — Wp)) + vy, ayds + ard + asd + adc + ascd7, + aydT, + ay dT, = Zp — Zp) + v2, ayds + saat + aud + aude + aiglT, * aul, + andr, = (x, Ql + vegasyds + aspdeo + asd + asydk + assdT, + asedTy + asl, = Yq — Yad + Vp dgds + agder + agdd + agde + agsdT, + dgeAT, + dg,dT, = [29 — (2g),] + Vz ands + andes + and + ande + arydT, + aygdTy + ar7dT, = [Xp - (Xe) + Voy gids + agadw + dgyd> + agydk + agsdT, + agedTy + agydT, = [Yx — (Ya)ol + Vrp Ao ds + ayndeo + agydb + aged + dggdT, + aggdTy + agdT, = [Zp - @)J + Vey Equations (B-31) may be expressed in matrix form as where Equation (B-32) may be solved using least squares Ea- ‘erated, due to the use of the Taylor series, until negligibly sm A X=L+V a A 43 M4 M5 M6 417 Gy Ax G93 Ayq ys 5 Oy Gy Ay Ax 34 Aas yg 57 Gy qq G3 444 as 46 47 45, G52 G3 M54 G55 O56 57 Ce a a a a ee 4 gn 3 eq gs 86 987 Gy, gg gy gy Ags 45 M57 Xp — Xo ds]! Yp — (Yp)y ae Lp ~ Ery a Xq — Xo dk L= |¥o-\Wde ve a, Zq - Zoo a, Xp — Ane dT. Yp —. (Yes Zn = Zabo ; ’ APPENDIX B 595 (B-31) (B-32) (A-12). The solution is ‘all values are obtained‘596 APPENDIX B for the corrections to the initial approximations of the orn transformation n eters, Once the transformation factors have been found, the transformed ¢, ti of all points whose coordinates are known aa the original system may be fou by applying equations of the type of Eqs. (B-29)- " To clan the coefficients of Eqs. (B-31), the partial derivatives for the fgg, thes equations are ayy = myy (x,) + may(yp) + Marl) a,=0 3 = [(—sin } cos x)(x,) + sin sin k (y,) + cos o(z,))s 444 = [may(%)) — (rm M(ypdI5, 5 = a5 = a3, = 1 Me = Ay7 = O25 = Ay = O35 = ay = 0 Gy = m2(%_) + mal y,) + msy(Zp) 22 = [—m3(x,) — mas(y,) — max(z,)]s 42s = [(sin w cos cos KIC) + (—sin w cos & sin «)(y,) + Gino sin $),))s 4 = [mnlx) — my(y,)Is 31 = my3(xp) + mas(yp) + ms(z,) 932 = [mi2lx,) + mz(y,) + ms2(zp)|s asa = [(—e05 w cos $ cos x)bx) + (60s w cos 6 sin ¥),) + (cos w sin $),))s 434 = [max(x,) — mya(yp)]s . am Coefficients for the other six equations from Eq. (B-31) are exactly the Sa 2s those forthe first three, with the exception thatthe subscripts p are replaced mbes @ and r. In general, if there are n points whose X.Y, and Z coorinales en 3(n) equations of the type of Eqs. (B-31) may be formed.APPENDIX B 597 B-8 TWO-DIMENSIONAL PROJECTIVE COORDINATE TRANSFORMATION \ Two-dimensional projective transformation equations enable the analytical computa- 2 | tion of the XY coordinates of points after they have been projected into a plane from snother nonparallel plane. The most common use of these equations is in analytical rectification, e.g., calculating coordinates of points in a rectified-ratioed photo plane based upon thei B-9. In Fig. B-9, a tilted photo with its xyz fiducial coordinate axis system (shown dashed) is illustrated. The projection center is at L, and the projection of points a, b, ¢, and d from the tilted photo onto the plane of a rectified-ratioed photo occur at A, B,C, and D, respectively. Positions of projected points in the rectified-ratioed photo plane are expressed in the XYZ coordinate system shown in the figure. In the most simplified development of the equations for the two-dimensional coordinates in a tilted photo. This situation is illustrated in Fig. Plane of tilted photograph Plane of rectified ratioed photograph Figure B-9 Geometry of two-dimensional projective transformation.598 APPENDIX’ projective transformation, an x'y'2' coordinate ee ona tit is Pall 1 ‘its origin at L. Using Eqs. (B-20), wl Te deve in va en i = PH a and z coordinates of any point, such as p ofr, in the preceeding section, the x, y, an anioa oa Fallow i. B-9, can be expressed in terms of x’y'2’ coordin = myxp + Mi2¥p + Msép Yn = Marky + Manyy + Masép (833) myx, + Ms2Yp + Ma3%p In Eqs. (B-33) the m's are functions of rotation angles omega, phi, and ka which define the tilt relationships between the two planes. These are described ‘i the preceeding section. The other terms in Eqs. (B-33) are coordinates 8 previously described. Consider now Fig. B-10, which shows the parallel relationships between the x'y'z' and XYZ planes after rotation, From similar triangles of Fig. B-10, Plane parallel to X, ¥ (plane containing post») x Figure B-10 Parallel relationships that exist aft ‘ er rotetion between x'y'2" and XYZ planes in two-di"™ sional projective transformation.APPENDIX B 599 Xo from which % (Xp ~ Xo) 2p @ In Eq. (a), Zp is LO, or the orthogonal distance from L to the plane of the rectified- raticed photo. The other terms are as previously defined. Again from similar triangles of Fig. B-10, Jp from which , _ 2p ~ Yo) eA Also, intuitively the following equation can be written: % Zr) ea Substituting Eqs. (a), (b), and (c) into Eq. (B-33), + my Ze Zz? Factoring Eqs. (B-34), 2 By = F mule ~ Xo) + map ~ Yo) + mZo] , z Yo = 7, male — Xo) + mal¥p ~ Yo) + maxZpl 3 3p =F lm Xp ~ Xo) + mal ~ Yo) + marzo] ? @) © (B-34) @ (e)600 APPENDIX B Dividing Eqs. (d) and (e) by Eq. (fs zgm(Xp — Xo) + Zpitua(Yr — Yo) + zpMtysZp zptiiXp — Xo) + sitar ~ To F iptivtr 4 TayiXp = Xo) + Maar — Yo) + mszp & aptalXr ~ Xo) + tpttalle ~ Yo) + toast ye ~~ my(Xp — Xo) + ms%r — Yo) + mssZp If both the numerators and denominators of the right-hand sides of Eqs. Ou (t) are divided by m3,(Zp), the following equations result: zMmi2 23 - — > (Y¥p — Yo) + —=zZ, an (Xp — Xo) + maze pe — Yo) maby? yy 12; Or — Xo) + ME Uip — Yo) + MyZp myZp Ms 4 zy, Zyl Fins = 2 (tp - Yo) + Sz, y= mee Op ~ Xo) + Foz, Ue ~ Yo) + 0 es my MsZp — > Xp - + Yp — Yo) + = Made (Xp — Xo) ms az, ’? — Yo) m2, In projecting points from one plane to another, the m’s, zp (which is equa ~f), and Zp, Xo, and Yo are all constants. Therefore Eqs. (B-35) can be simplied into the following form: aXp + bYp +c) 9 asXp + bsp + 1 = ahp + bYp + @3Xp + bsYp + 1 Equations (i) are those applied in performing a two-dimensional projective tran formation. As developed, however, they yield x and Y tilted photo coordinates from X and ¥ rectified-ratioed coordinates. It is customary to perform rectification in the Opposite sense, i.e., to compute X and Y rectified-ratioed coordinates from x and y coordinates measured on a tilted photo. Since Eqs. (i) are general and simply expres the projectivity between any two nonparallel planes, after dropping subscript, they can be written in the following form to enable computing X and ¥ rectfed-rao! coordinates in terms of x and y tilted photo coordinates: 0 Ip xo t byte ax + by +1 630 ya tttby tes ‘ax + by 1s In using Eqs. ! . (B-36) for rectification, X and ¥ are ground coordinates of cont”? Points, and x and ¥ are coordinates of the same points in the fiducial system ofAPPENDIX B 601 ited photograph. A pair of Eqs. (B-36) can be written for each control point, and jdnce there are eight unknown parameters in Eqs. (B-36), four control points are 4 \geeded to obtain a unique solution for the unknowns, More than four control points enables a least squares solution to be performed, When equations of the type of Eqs. (B-36) have been written for all control | points, a solution is obtained for the unknown parameters. These parameters are then ssed in Eqs. (B-36) to compute the rectified and ratioed coordinates of all other points an the tilted photo whose xy coordinates have been measured. Besides using these tquations for rectification, they can be used to transform comparator coordinates into the photo coordinate system defined by the fiducial marks, and in this instance X and are calibrated coordinates of fiducial marks and x and y are their comparator coor- dinates. REFERENCES a Society of Photogrammetry: “"Manual of Photogrammetry," 3d ed., Falls Church, Va., 1966, ap. 2. - ‘Manual of Photogrammetry," 4th ed., Falls Church, Va., 1980, chap. 2, Bactsle, P. L.: Conformal Transformations in Three Dimensions, Photogrammetric Engineering, vol. 32, no. 5, p. 816, 1966, Blais, J. A. Ri Three-Dimensional Similarity, Canadian Surveyor, vol. 26, n0. 1, p. 71, 1972. Ero, G.: Taree-Dimensional Transformations for Independent Models, Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, vol. 41, no. 9, p. 1117, 1975. Light, D. L.: The Orientation Matrix, Photogrammetric Engineering, vol. 32, no. 3, p. 434, 1966, Mikhail, E. M.: Simultaneous Three Dimensional Transformation of Higher Degree, Phologrammetrié Engineering, vol. 30, no. 4, p. 588, 1964, | Diseussion Paper: Simultaneous Three Dimensional Transformation, Phologrammeiric Engincer- |_ ing, vol. 32, no. 2, p. 180, 1966. Schmidt, E.: "Transformation of Rectangular Space Coordinates," Technical Bulletin No. 15, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D.C., 1960, |Schut, G. H.: Conformal Transformations and Polynomials, Photogrammetric Engineering, vol. 32, n0. ___ 5, p. 826, 1962. Tewinkel, G. C.: A Trigonometric Derivation of the Formulas for the Three-Dimensional Rotation Matrix, Photogrammetric Engineering, vol. 30, no. 4, p. 635, 1964. Umbach, M. J.: ‘*Acrotriangulation: Tranformation of Surveying and Mapping Coordinate Systems,"* ‘Technical Report No. 34, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D.C., 1967. Vicek, J.: Discussion Paper: Simultaneous Three Dimensional Transformation, Photogrammetric Engi- neering, vol. 32, n0. 2, p. 178, 1962. 'Yassa, G.: Onhogonal Transformations, Photogrammetric Engineering, vol. 40, no. 8, p. 961, 1974. PROBLEMS B-1 The following table contains arbitrary X and ¥ coordinates ofa group of points determined from radial line triangulation. ‘The table also includes state plane coordinates for three of the points. Using a nwo- dimensional conformal coordinate transformation, calculate state plane coordinates for the other points.602 APPENDIX B Arbitrary coordinates from radial-line triangulation State plane coordinates Point X, ft y, ft xf wn A 171.922 47.078 2,101,067.0 104,400.6 B 181.725 204.970 2,101,050.1 101,540.8, c 199.012 178.975 2,100,712.1 101,922,1 1 198.185, 50.980 2 367.871 15.046 3 488.333 77.258 4 597,505 171.608 5 645.170 191.923 B-2 The following table contains X and Y comparator additional photo images. The table also contains ealbrat dimensional affine coordinate transformation, 1 coordinates for four side fiducial marks and six fed coordinates for the four fidu ‘determine corrected photocoordinates for the six image points. Using a nvo- Calibrated Coordinates Comparator coordinates Point Xx, mm ¥, mm Xx, mm ¥, mm 1000 66.280 182.115 = 113,000 0.000 2000 178.827 295.704 0.000 113.000 3000 292.111 182.928 113.000 0,000 4000 179.691 69.161 0.000 = 113.000 1 239.609 127.251 2 281.418 222.111 3 270.191 253.286 4 252.091 247.215 3 135.063 256.258 6 940 126.413 B-3 For the data of Prob. B-2, use the two-dimensional projective transformation equations to determine B-4 Coordinates X,, Ys, and Z, aerotriangulation are contained in the tabl tes for the six image points. for model I and X;, Ya, and Z, for model II of an independent mode! le below. Transform the mode! II coordinates into the model 1 coordinate system using a shree-dimensional conformat coordinate transformation. ‘Model I coordinates ‘Model I coordinates Point X,mm Ymm Zymm * Xymm mm, am R10 607.54 501.63 469.09 390.35 499.63 69-43 A 589.98 632.36 82.81 371.68 630.84 81.25 B 643.65 421,28 83.50 425.65 419.07 82.49 c 628.58 440.51 82.27 410,50 438.31 8113 D 666.27 298.16 98.29 448,22 295.83 979 E 632.59 710.62 103.01 414.60 709.39 101.77 Ril 611.37 498.98 - 470.45 F 637.49 323.67 85.67 G 573.32 401.51 me H 647.00 373.97 83.76 ' 285.01 37.13 et yao ne_— APPENDIX Cc DEVELOPMENT OF COLLINEARITY CONDITION EQUATIONS C-1 INTRODUCTION Collinearity, as illustrated in Fig, C-1, is the condition in which the exposure station of any photograph, an object point, and its photo image all lie on a straight line. The equations expressing this condition are called the collinearity condition equations. + They are perhaps the most useful of all equations to the photogrammetrist. In Fig. C-2 exposure station L of an aerial photo has coordinates X,, ¥,, and Z, with respect to the object (ground) coordinate system XYZ. Image a of object point 4, shown in a rotated image plane, has image space coordinates x, yf, and z!, where the rotated image space coordinate system x'y'z' is parallel to object-space coordinate system XYZ. “ F C-2 ROTATION IN TERMS OF OMEGA, PHI, AND KAPPA By means of the three-dimensional rotation formulas developed in Appendix B, an image point a having coordinates x,, y,, and z, in a tilted photo such as that of Fig. C-1 may have its coordinates rotated into the x'y'z’ coordinate system (parallel to XYZ), as shown in Fig. C-3, The rotated image coordinates x1, yi, and 2! may be | ¢xpressed in terms of the measured photocoordinates x, and y,, the camera focal length f, and the three rotation angles omega, phi, and kappa, The rotation formulas are Eqs. (B-20), which were developed in Appendix B. For convenience they are || repeated here: = myx + mpayh + mse Yo = myx, + myyyl + maszl (C1) 2q = MyXy + Myy, + my37%yTilted photo plane | | Figure C-1. The collinearity condition. | | Rotated image plane containing image of A ese (C-2 Image coordinate system rotated such that itis parallel to the object space oor | Figure wuAPPENDIX C 605 Tilted photo. plane Figure C-3 Measurement x-y-r and rotated 2'-y'-2" image coordinate systems. In Eqs. (C-1) the m’s are functions of the rotation angles omega, phi and kappa, ‘These functions are given as Eqs. (B-21) in Appendix B. Also note on Fig. C-3 that the value for z, is equal to (—f). ¢-3 DEVELOPMENT OF THE COLLINEARITY CONDITION EQUATIONS ‘The collinearity condition equations are developed from similar triangles of Fig, C-2 as follows: Reducing, @ ® Also, by identity, ©606 APPENDIX c Substituting (a), (6), and (c) into Eqs. (C-1), wan( Bee) em EB) tm ESE coy sem (BEB) a +m (BB) a +m (BB) Ay som (BEB) atm (AEB) d+ m (ERB) ey Factoring the term (z,/Z, — Z,) from Eqs. (C-2) through (C-4), dividing (C2) and (C-3) by (C-4), and substituting (—f) for z,, the following collinearity equations result: = wy | mXe =X) + mg — Yd) + my — 32 a MT nse = Kd) + tala = Ye) + rss Zq = Zp) 4) * 0 = [Baa = H0 + malts = 1) + ma = 2)! myXq — Xi) + mys — Yi.) + my, = Z) C-4 LINEARIZATION OF THE COLLINEARITY EQUATIONS Equations (C-5) and (C-6) are nonlinear and involve nine unknowns: the three rotation angles omega, phi, and kappa which are inherent in the m’s; the three exposure station Coordinates X,, ¥,, and Z,3 and the three object point coordinates X,, Yq, and Zy. The nonlinear equations are linearized using Taylor's theorem. In linearizing the collinearity equations, Eqs. (C-5) and (C-6) are rewritten as follows: F=0= qr, +0f cy). G=0=q, + 5 (C8) where 4 = mk, — Xi) + mylly — ¥,) + mylZy - 2) r= my(X, — X,) + ma(¥, — ¥,) + my(Z, — Z,) $= maa — Xi) + ma¥a — ¥,) + mylZy - Zed According to Taylor's theorem, Eqs. (C-7) and (C-8) may be expressed in lin- earized form as:APPENDIX C 607 bail ) () aF = (Pro t 4a}, Bet (=). do. 4.155 (OF os (=), * aa/tn met ax) ot BE aF aF + (*) a+ (> aF me 4 (%), a * (=), a, (9) aF aF a + (4) a+ (= oF (), . (a i (z),@ 1 aG ac Be 0 = (@o+ (2) (2) fig ag mo + (5), * Vaa)o * VagJo% * Vaxle aG Be i +.(——) a + \o oo. (2), " (2), at, (2 am (C-10) aG aG aG : (mh Gee (me ara (ae In Eqs. (C-9) and (C-10), (F)p and (G)p are the functions F and G of Eqs. (C-7) and (C-8) evaluated at the initial approximations for the nine unknowns; the terms (GF /ax,)os (OF /0e2)o, (@F/A)o, ete, are partial derivatives of the functions F and G with respect to the indicated unknowns evaluated at the initial approximations; and dx,, dw, db, etc., are unknown corrections to be applied to the initial approximations. The units of dw, de, and dk are radians. Since dx, and dy, are corrections to measured photocoordinates x, and yg» they may be interpreted as residual errors in the measure~ ments, These two terms may therefore be replaced by ¥,, and vy, which are the customary symbols adopted for residual errors. Note from Eqs. (C-7) and (C-8) that partial derivatives aF/ax, and 8G/ay, are both equal to q. Substituting q for these terms in Eqs. (C-9) and (C-10), transposing qd, and qdy. to the left-hand side of the equations, dividing each equation by q, and replacing dr, and dy, by vz, and ¥y,» respectively, the following simplified forms of the linearized collinearity equations _ are obtained: vg, = bydw + bidd + bisdie ~ bydX, — brs, — bral, + bra + Bisd¥g + dyes + J wy, = bude + badd + Daydic — Dyed, — Das, — bral + bydXs + bysd¥, + breZy + K : (C-12) In Eqs. (C-11) and (C-12), 4 and K are equal The b’s are coefficients equal to the partial derivatives. ficients.are given below. In these coefficients AX, AY, and A: (C-l) to Fojg and (Gora respectively. For convenience these coef- Z are equal to (X, —608 APPENDIX c Xs (Wy ~ ¥e)s and (Zq — Z), respectively. Numerical values forty sel 88 Coes terms are obtained by using initial approximations for the unknowns: “fgg by = (emp + madZ) +E (maay + mad bn = SIH 31k [AX cos b + A¥(sin w sin p) + AZ(—sin & cos @)) +E (ax(—sin 6 cos x) + AY (sin w 605 6 cos x) q + AZ(—cos w cos > cos k)) big = Lm AX + mgA¥ + myhZ) bu = 2 ma) + Lem bis = 5 oma) + Lm) big = 2 my + Lem) yo @ th q Ag (=myA¥ + myAZ) + Fmt + mAZ) [AX cos + AY (sin w sin 6) + AZ(—cos w sin )] + Fax $ sin k) + AY(—sin « cos @ sin «) + A2(c0s w cos ¢ sin ¥)] by = £(myax — myAY — myAZ) by = > os) + £ oma bs = 2m) + £ ma)APPENDIX C 609 bas = ms) + Loman - tsh q C-5. APPLICATIONS OF COLLINEARITY The collinearity equations are applicable to the analyti oh photogrammetry problem. As examples, Sec. 11-12 one ee = aes section, in which the six elements of exterior orientation of a tilted photo, mph - computed, and Sec: 14-13 explains how collinearity is applied in analyte relative orientation, which is necessary in analytically extending control photogrammetrically. Other applications are described elsewhere in this book. Regardless of the particular problem, an x equation [Eq. (C-11)] and y equation (Eq. (C-12)] are written for each point whose image or images appear in the photo or photos involved in the problem. The equations will contain unknowns, the number of which will vary with the partic- ular problem. If the number of equations is equal to or greater than the number of unknowns, a solution is possible. Initial approximations are needed for all unknowns, and these are generally easily obtained by making certain assumptions, such as vertical photography: The initial approximations do not have to be extremely close, but the closer they are to the unknowns, the faster a satisfactory solution will be reached; and the result is a savings in computer time. In solving a system of collinearity equations of the form of Eqs. (C-11) and (C- 12) for any problem, the quantities which are determined are corrections to the initial approximations. After the first solution, the computed corrections are added to the initial approximations to obtain revised approximations. The solution is then repeated to find new corrections. This procedure is continued (iterated) until the magnitudes of the.corrections become insignificant. A system of collinearity equations of the form of Eqs. (C-11) and (C-12) may be expressed in matrix form as Vy = mAn ki ~ mba (C-13) In Eq. (C-13), m is the number of equations; n is the number of unknowns, Vv is the matrix of residual errors in the measured x and y photocoordinates; Ais the matrix of b’s, the coefficients of the unknowns; X is the matrix of unknown eran oo the initial approximations; and L is the matrix of constant terms J re x. tft - ace of equations exceeds the number Sear iaeia a ha ee mi ie i le values for the un} s ) Sat te Bs ‘of the unknowns may be computed by applying matrix Eqs. (A-14) through (A-17) of Appendix A.610 APPENDIX C C-6 ROTATION IN TERMS OF AZIMUTH, TILT, AND swing Instead of using omega, phi, and kappa as the rotation angles for transfonn titted hatoenosiinae into an x'y’z' coordinate system ier the Bround g 8 ‘ the rotation angles azimuth, tilt, and swing may be used. A tilted photo illustragy? the azimuth (a), tilt (7), and swing (s) angles is shown in Fig. C-4, In the figue t Photo principal plane intersects the datum plane along line NP. The rotation form are developed by intially assuming an x'y'2' coordinate system parallel to xy" a then, by means of rotations, converting it into the xyz: photo measurement S¥stem, ‘The origins of both image coordinate systems are taken at the exposure station L The rotation equations are developed in a sequence of three separate two-dimen. sional rotations. The x'y'z' coordinate system is first rotated about the 2' axis throu, a clockwise angle a to create an xyz" coordinate system. After Totation the y« axis will be in the principal plane of the photo. With reference to Fig. C-5a the Coordinates of any point in the x92" system are ¥ =x! cosa — y'sina ye =x' sina + y! cosa (c1y) ead The second rotation is a counterclockwise rotation 1 about the x* axis to create an x" coordinate system. After rotation, the x and y™ axes are in the plane of Figure C-4 Azimuth, tlt, and s¥i°€ rotation angles.APPENDIX C 611 Figure C-5 Rotation in azimuth, tilt, and swing. (a) First rotation; (b) second rotation; (¢) third rotation. the tilted photograph. With reference to Fig. C-5b the coordinates of any point in the xy" system are amg yt = y® cost + 2% sing z= —y"sint + 2% cost The third rotation is about the z™ axis through the counterclockwise angle @. Angle 6 is defined as: (C-15) 8 = (s — 180°) This third rotation creates an x*°y=z"® coordinate system which coincides with the xyz tilted photo systemt. With reference to Fig. C-Se the coordinates of any point in the xyz system are x = x = x* cos @ + y* sin 8 y = ye? = —x°' sin @ + y* cos 0 (C-16) z= f= Because sin @ equals — sin s, and cos @ equals — cos s, these substitutions may be made into Eqs. (C-16), from which x = —x% coss — y“ sins y = x" sins — y" cos 5 (C17) rE Substituting Eq. (C-14) into Eq. (C-15), in tum substituting into Eq. (C-17), and factoring, the following expressions result for the x, y, and z coordinates of any point: X= myx! + may! + m2 y = myx! + my! + mz! (C-18) ZS myx’ + mypy’ + mst!612 APPENDIX C In Eqs. (C-18), the m’s are = —cos a cos s — sina cos#sins my = my = Sina COS Ss — COS a Cos f sins my = —sintsins m2, = cosa sins — sin a cos t cos s | my = —sina@ sins — cos a cos tcoss (Cty m3 = —sin t cos s my = —sin a sint M32 = —cos a sin t m3; = cost C-7 COLLINEARITY EQUATIONS USING AZIMUTH-TILT-SWING ROTATION By simply substituting Eqs. (C-19) for the m’s into Eqs. (C-5) and (C-6), collinearity equations are obtained which include azimuth, tilt, and swing as unknowns instead of omega, phi, and kappa. By applying Taylor’s theorem, these azimuth, tilt, and ‘swing equations can be linearized and used to solve photogrammetry problems ana- lytically. More frequently, however, the omega-phi-kappa equations are used, and if the tilt, swing, and azimuth angles are desired, they are determined from omega, phi, and kappa as described in Sec. C-8, C-8 CONVERTING FROM ONE ROTATION SYSTEM TO THE OTHER Although the azimuth-tilt-swing expressions [Eqs. (C-19)] for the m’s differ from theit Corresponding omega-phi-kappa expressions (Eqs. (B-21)], their numerical values equal. This is true because the m’s are actually direction cosines relating image 4% ‘object coordinate systems as described in Sec. B-7 of Appendix B. Because of te equality, corresponding m's may be set equal to one another; for example, my = © cos k = —cosacoss — sina cos ¢ sin s. This equality of m’s enables converting back and forth between the omega-phi-kappa and azimuth-tilt-swing systems. If omega, phi, and kappa for a Particular photograph are known, numerical for the m’s can be calculated and tilt, swing, and azimuth determined from lowing: valus the fol- 1-20) Cos t = my; CcAPPENDIX C 613 tang = —Siatsins _ my —sintcoss m3 (C-21) Ssinesinit: _ ey =cos a sint ms, tana = (C-22) The quadrant of s is established h a ‘on the basis ic si; mas: Sux tis always between 0° and 90°, sin bespaiee een eos sis of Ms sd my ate derived fom the sine and corn of pean ae . iy S| a ae aie - the sine and cosine of s are both positive and 5 ni . etween O° and 90°. Using simi! i table was developed to provide the proper quadrant Sead ane ional Algebraic sign Algebraic sign Quadrant Of mys OF My, of may OF ms3 of s ora. S + i ri + + m + - Vv trnbett aL S650 If the tilt, swing, and azimuth are known for a parti i tilt, > a particular photo, conversion ( omega, phi, and kappa is also readily made as follows: : sin b = ms, (C-23) —sinw cos _ mx tao = ——_> = 2. z Oo “cos w cosh Mss ey —cos o sink _ Mar —ah eo (C-25) cos pcos My adopted making omega, phi, ions when viewed from the positive end of their respective x, ¥, OF 2 axeS- ‘Using this sign convention and recog- hizing that for acrial photography omega ‘and phi cannot exceed 90°, then phi is positive and counterclockwise if may is positive. Also, if ms, is negative, phi is hegative and clockwise. Whether phi is positive or negative, since its value is less Thonn 90°, its cosine is always positive. Therefore if the quotient myy/7zs is negative, omega is positive and counterclockwise, and if the quotient is positive, omege is negative and clockwise. 7 : eos can take on any value between 0 and 360°. If my, is positive, hee are is positive because COS is always positive. ‘Also if the quotient 21/711 is negative, rel itive. Now if both the cosine and tangent of kappa are positive, then kappa tan x is positive. No nd nr analy, aollowing table + quadrant I and between O and 90°. 9 quadrant estebyishing the proper quadrant of kappa: sign convention was In Sec. B-7 of Appendix B, a ounterclockwise rotati and kappa positive if they were o614 APPENDIX C a Algebraic sign Algebraic sign Quadrant of my, of ritgy/myy of + - 1 - - u = = m + + IV REFERENCES American Society of Photogrammetry: ‘Manual of Photogrammetry,"” 3d ed., Falls Church, Va., 196 chap. 2. “Manual of Photogrammetry,"” 4th ed., Falls Church, Va., 1980, chap. 2. Keller, M., and G. C. Tewinkel: ‘Space Resection in Photogrammetry,’ ESSA Technical Report Cag 32, U.S. Coast annd Geodetic Survey, Washington, D.C., 1966. PROBLEMS C-1 State the condition of collinearity in photogrammetry. C-2 Explain why linearized collinearity equations must be iterated a number of times before a satisfactory solution is achieved. C-3 For the following matrix M, what are the values of omega, phi, and kappa? What are azimuth, tit, and swing? 0.386333 —0.922054 0.023741 0.922345 0.386341 —0.004423 M= 0.005094 0.023606 0.999708 Nes (C-4 Repeat Prob. C-3, except that the matrix M is composed of the following values: 0.918650 0.392071 +—0.048606 M = | —0.392262 -0.919834 —0.005954 7044... 0.013597 0.998800