GPS at

I the
In th Name
N off God
G d
GPS Assisted Aerial Triangulation
Dr. Hamid Ebadi

GPS Assisted Aerial Triangulation
o The main purpose of aerial triangulation (AT) is the determination of ground

coordinates for a large number of terrain points and the exterior orientation
parameters of aerial photographs using as few control points as possible.
o The best scenario in mapping projects is that to have the exterior orientation
parameters accurate enough so that the AT can be neglected.
o The GPS accuracy for attitude parameters is about 15 arc minutes and still far
from what can be obtained from conventional block adjustment (5 arc
seconds).
o The integration of GPS measurements into photogrammetric blocks allows the

accurate determination of coordinates of the exposure stations, thus reducing
the ground control requirement to a minimum.
observation equation for DGPS phase
measurement
o There are three types of positioning information that can be extracted from
GPS satellite signals: pseudorange (code), carrier phase, and phase rate
(Doppler Frequency).
o Due to the high accuracy required for aero triangulation, and in order to
eliminate the effects of systematic errors in these observations, double
difference GPS phase measurement is used.
used
∇ΔΦ = ∇Δρ + ∇Δ dρ + λ∇ΔN − ∇Δ d ion + ∇Δ d trop + ε∇ΔΦ

Combined GPS-Photogrammetric
Block Adjustment
o The observation equations for the camera projection centers are added to the
conventional block adjustment.
o Th
The observation
b ti equation
ti should
h ld take
t k into
i t accountt the
th eccentricity
t i it vector
t
between the antenna phase centre and the projection centre of the camera.
o This vector is usually determined using geodetic observations and expressed

relative to the camera frame coordinate system.
Antenna Phase Centre O
Exposure
p
Station C
y
f
x
Image Point
B
Object Point
Z A
Y
X
Block Adjustment
o The observation equations are given as (Ebadi and Chapman, 1995):
⎛ V Xi⎞
GPS
⎛ X i⎞
PC ⎛ ⎛ X i⎞ GPS ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎟
⎜ V Yi ⎟ = ⎜ Y i⎟ − ⎜ ⎜ Y i⎟ + MκΦω × a⎟
T
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎟
⎝ V Zi ⎠ ⎝ Zi ⎠ ⎝ Z i ⎠
Block Adjustment
o These equations are given as:

Ground Control Configuration for
GPS-Photogrammetric Blocks
o Theoretically, as long as datum transformation is known, no control points are

needed to carry out the GPS-photogrammetric block adjustment.
o If the
th coordinate
di t system
t off the
th final
fi l object
bj t coordinates
di t is i to
t be
b a system
t other
th
than WGS84, then ground control points are required to define the datum. For
this purpose, 4 control points are usually used at the corners of the block.
o To overcome the weakens caused by drift parameters, various ground control

configurations can be utilized to strengthen the geometry and recover all
unknowns in the block adjustment.
Ground Control Configuration for
GPS-Photogrammetric Blocks
o The GPS-photogrammetric blocks can be made geometrically and numerically

stable and solvable for all unknowns in 3 ways (Ackermann and Schade, 1993):
((a)) - If the
th block
bl k has
h 60% sideid lap.
l
(b) - If 2 chains of vertical control points across the front ends of the block are
used.
(c) - If 2 cross strips of photography at the front ends of the block are taken.
taken
case a case b case c

horizontal
vertical
Problems Encountered
Antenna-Aerial Camera Offset
o GPS provides
id ththe coordinates
di t off the
th antenna
t phase
h centre
t andd not,
t as desired,
d i d
the projection centre of the camera .
o The offset vector can be surveyed using geodetic methods and measured with
respect to the image coordinate system or treated as an unknown quantity and
solved together with other unknowns in a block adjustment.
Synchronization Between Exposure And GPS Time
o T
To interpolate
i t l t exposure station
t ti positions
iti f
from GPS positions,
iti th instants
the i t t off
exposure must be recorded using the receiver time scale with precise
synchronization to GPS time.
o The photogrammetric camera should be equipped with a shutter synchronized

electronic signal, providing an accuracy better than 1 ms.
Geodetic Datum
o GPS provides
id coordinates
di t in i the
th WGS84 which
hi h is
i a geocentric
t i Cartesian
C t i
coordinate system centered at the mass centre of the earth. However, the
reference systems usually used in aerial triangulation are the local coordinate
systems referring to the local ellipsoids.
ellipsoids
o Planimetric coordinates may be obtained by transforming from WGS84 to the

local coordinate system
y that there is still a need for minimum gground control
points and this transformation can also be based on published formulas .
Ambiguity Resolution
o This
Thi problem
bl can be
b handled
h dl d in
i a number
b off ways:
o It can be approximately determined from the pseudorange observed in

the C/A or P codes.
codes
o Calibrating N (by going over a known point at the airport) is another

solution.
o The unknown N can also be determined using "On The Fly" ambiguity
resolution methods.
Cycle Slip
o C
Cycle
l slips
li are discontinuities
di ti iti ini the
th time
ti series
i off a carrier
i phase
h as
measured in the GPS receiver.
o Some approaches for cycle slip detection and correction are:
¾ Using receiver with more than 4 channels to obtain redundant

observations
¾ Integrating GPS with INS or other sensors.
¾ Using dual frequency receivers.
¾ Applying
pp y g OTF ambiguity
g y resolution techniques
q Locking
g on new
course GPS positions derived from C/A code .
Accuracy Performance of the GPS-
Photogrammetric Blocks
o The advantages are that there is little error propagation and the
accuracy distribution is quite uniform throughout the block.
o Accuracy does not also depend on the block size
o G
Groundd control
t l points
i t are no longer
l required
i d for
f controlling
t lli theth block
bl k
accuracy
o Th
The geometryt off the
th block
bl k may beb weakened
k d byb introducing
i t d i GPS shifthift
and drift parameters but the required accuracy is still maintained.

GPS at

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I the

GPS Assisted Aerial Triangulation

Dr. Hamid Ebadi

o The main purpose of aerial triangulation (AT) is the determination of ground

o The integration of GPS measurements into photogrammetric blocks allows the

∇ΔΦ = ∇Δρ + ∇Δ dρ + λ∇ΔN − ∇Δ d ion + ∇Δ d trop + ε∇ΔΦ

o This vector is usually determined using geodetic observations and expressed

o The observation equations are given as (Ebadi and Chapman, 1995):

o These equations are given as:

o Theoretically, as long as datum transformation is known, no control points are

o To overcome the weakens caused by drift parameters, various ground control

o The GPS-photogrammetric blocks can be made geometrically and numerically

case a case b case c

 Antenna-Aerial Camera Offset

 Synchronization Between Exposure And GPS Time

o The photogrammetric camera should be equipped with a shutter synchronized

o Planimetric coordinates may be obtained by transforming from WGS84 to the

o It can be approximately determined from the pseudorange observed in

o Calibrating N (by going over a known point at the airport) is another

o Some approaches for cycle slip detection and correction are:

¾ Using receiver with more than 4 channels to obtain redundant

¾ Integrating GPS with INS or other sensors.

¾ Using dual frequency receivers.

o Accuracy does not also depend on the block size

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