2.
671 Measurement and Instrumentation
INVESTIGATING THE DIFFERENCES IN OVERTONES BETWEEN MAJOR AND MINOR CHORDS AND THEIR
INVERSIONS
Valeria Gutierrez
MIT Department of Mechanical Engineering
Cambridge, MA, USA
ABSTRACT
When listening to music, people often associate
major chords with positive moods and minor chords with
negative moods [1]. In addition, music theory teaches that
inverting a chord “weakens” its function [2]. In order to
quantitatively describe the difference in perception of
these chords, this study analyzes C major and C minor
chords in all of their inversions using the Power Spectral
Density of the Fast Fourier Transforms of the sound
waves. This revealed that in C major chords, the
overtones are mostly composed of notes in the chord,
making the chord pleasant to hear. In a C minor chord,
however, the overtones fall into an interval unpleasant to
the listener, known as a minor second [3]. For both the
major and minor chords, the overtones of the root note
(C) grew weaker with every inversion, causing the
ambiguity and therefore “weakness” associated with
inverted chords.
KEYWORDS: piano, overtones, chords, inversions,
perception of musical chords
INTRODUCTION
Music is all around us and serves a variety of
different purposes. When writing music, different chords,
a series of different pitches sounding simultaneously, can
be used to convey different moods. In general, major
chords are used for happy and joyous occasions, while
minor chords are used to convey sadness or mystery. In
2014, a study was done to prove that when played for
listeners, a major chord evokes feelings of happiness/joy,
and minor chords evoked feelings of melancholy/sadness.
In addition, inverted chords, chords where the root note
(name of the note; for example, the root note of a C major
chord is a C), is not the lowest note, showed an increase
Tues PM
Prof. John Leonard
12/20/2022
in “tension” ratings, which is consistent with music
theory teachings [1]. Multiple studies have found that
there seems to be no difference between experience with
music/music theory and how these chords are perceived
by listeners. In addition, cross-cultural studies have
shown that similar reactions to chords can be found
across continents [4]. The general consensus is that major
is synonymous with “happy” and minor is synonymous
with “sad.” But what is causing these differences in how
music is perceived by the listener?
The answer is in the overtones. When a note is
played on an instrument, the main, or loudest note heard
is known as the fundamental note. In addition to this
frequency, there is a set of frequencies that ring
simultaneously, in a series of ratios known as the overtone
series. The first five notes in the overtone series make up
the major scale of the fundamental note, which explains
why major chords are more consonant (musically
pleasing). Lower overtones are more prominent to the ear,
which explains why music theory teaches that chords with
the root note as the lowest sounding note are the
“strongest” chords. Studies that have been done on the
correlation between overtones and chord perception tend
to focus on the psychological effect that chord has on
listeners [1,4,5]. This study focuses on analyzing the
overtones themselves and how they interact with one
another.
Using a Vernier Microphone, the soundwaves of
major and minor C triads and their inversions were each
examined. The chords and the individual notes that make
up the chords (C, E, E♭, and G) were each recorded five
times. Fast Fourier Transform analysis was performed on
the waveforms to reveal what overtones are present when
the chords are played. Taking the Power Spectral Density
1 Valeria Gutierrez 12/10/22
(PSD) and integrating across the peaks in overtones
revealed the strength of each note in the chord. What
these analysis techniques reveal about the structure of
harmonies provides a greater foundation of musical
knowledge to anyone with an interest in music and/or
music theory.
moved up an octave (effectively doubling the frequency
of the note). Therefore, a C major chord in root position is
made up of the notes CEG, a C major chord in first
inversion is EGC, and a C major chord in second
inversion is GCE. This is shown on a piano in Figure 2,
and on a musical staff in Figure 3.

BACKGROUND
Previous studies have been conducted on human
subjects to determine people’s perceptions of major vs.
minor chords. Even when all other factors have been
eliminated (tempo, rhythm, etc.), people were able to
assign happiness to major chords and sadness to minor
chords [5]. This study provides a quantitative
representation of what makes our brains react this way to
aural stimuli by examining the overtones of C major and
minor chords in all of their inversions. In this section, the
difference between major and minor chords and what it
means to invert them is described. In addition, the
overtone series is introduced and explained.

CHORDS AND INVERSIONS

In music, a chord is a set of three or more pitches Figure 2: The six possible variations of a C major and
C minor triad. In root position, the name of the chord
that are heard simultaneously. There is a wide variety of
is the lowest sounding note (C). To invert the chord,
chords, but the ones this study focuses on are triads, the lowest sounding note is moved up an octave.
which are made up of three notes. The “type” of the chord
is based on the intervals of the notes that make up the
chord. This study focused on a C major chord, which is
made up of the notes CEG, and a C minor chord, which is
made up of the notes CE♭G. Figure 1 shows how a C
major and a C minor chord are played on the piano.

Figure 3: The six possible variations of a C major and

Figure 1: C Major and C Minor root position chords
shown on the piano.
When a triad is in root position, the notes can be
written on a staff directly above each other with no gaps.
In order for a triad to be in root position, the root of the
chord (C) needs to be the lowest sounding note. Inverting
a triad can produce two other ways to write the same
chord. To invert a triad, the lowest sounding note is
C minor triad, shown on a musical staff. In root
position, the name of the chord is the lowest sounding
note (C). To invert the chord, the lowest sounding note
is moved up an octave.
THE OVERTONE SERIES
When playing a note on an instrument, the main note
heard is known as the fundamental note. In reality, there
are other notes with higher frequencies that resonate

2 Valeria Gutierrez 12/10/22

simultaneously along with the fundamental. This set of
frequencies is known as the overtone series, which
follows the same pattern of ratios, regardless of what note
is the fundamental note. The first overtone has a
frequency twice as high as the fundamental note, which is
known as an octave. The next overtone has a frequency
three times as high as the fundamental, which is a fifth
above, and so forth. Figure 4 shows the first two
overtones and how their ratios relate to the fundamental
note [6]. This same pattern of higher frequencies follows
for the rest of the overtone series, an example of which is Figure 6: Side by side comparison of a 130 Hz “pure”
shown in Figure 5 using C3 as the fundamental note. To sine wave to the audio file for the note C3 played on a
see how these overtones affect the waveform, a side by piano. The period of the waveform on the right is
side comparison of a 130 Hz “pure” tone is compared to about 130 Hz, which tells us the fundamental
an audio recording of a C3 (which has a fundamental frequency of the note, in this case a C3. The other
frequency of ~130 Hz) in Figure 6. “wiggles” in the waveform are caused by the higher
frequency overtones.

Figure 4: Illustration showing the first two overtones
present in a fundamental note [6]. These waves
represent string ratios on a piano, shown on the left.
The same pattern follows for higher overtones,
occurring due to subdivisions of the piano strings
oscillating.
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
In this study, 5 trials C major and minor chords and
their inversions, along with the notes that make up these
chords, were recorded on a grand piano. They were then
analyzed by finding the Fast Fourier Transform, and
Power Spectral Density of the waveforms.
AUDIO SAMPLES
The apparatus used in this experiment was a grand
piano located in the music practice rooms in MIT’s
building 4. To record the audio of the chords, a Vernier
Microphone (MCA) was used alongside a Labquest Mini.
This setup is shown in Figure 7, and the specific chords
and notes recorded can be found in Figure 8.

Figure 5: The overtone series using C3 as the

fundamental note. The number next to the note name
indicates the octave of the note. Frequency in Hz is
shown underneath the staff. These are the first 9 notes
that resonate along with C3 when it is played on the
piano. This same sequence of intervals was applied to
other notes in the C major and minor chords in order
to find each of their series of overtones.

Figure 7: Data collecting setup, showing a Vernier

Microphone being used alongside a LabQuest Mini to
record notes and chords played on a grand piano. (Not
to scale.)

3 Valeria Gutierrez 12/10/22


Figure 8: List of all recorded chords as well as the
individual notes that make up these chords. A total of
13 audio samples were recorded, each 5 times, for a
total of 65 audio samples.
Once all of the audio samples were recorded, they
were analyzed in the frequency domain. Since the audio is
a periodic signal, fourier analysis was used, including
Fast Fourier Transforms, and Power Spectral Density.
FOURIER SERIES AND FOURIER TRANSFORMS
The audio samples examined in this study are
periodic in nature, which is why they were examined in
the frequency domain. Figure 9 shows a waveform of the
first trial of C3.
Figure 9: C3 Audio File. The note has a periodic
waveform, which is apparent when looking at the time
interval 1-1.09 seconds. The period of the waveform is
known as the fundamental frequency, which in this
case is 130.8 Hz for C3. The higher frequency
“wiggles” are due to the higher frequency harmonics
in the overtone series.
The waveforms can be described as a sum of
sinusoids using the Fourier series. The general form of the
Fourier series for a function g(t) is shown below:
∞ the strength of a signal as a function of frequency. In this
𝑎0
𝑔(𝑡) = + ∑ (𝑎𝑚𝑐𝑜𝑠(2π𝑚𝑓0𝑡) + 𝑏𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛(2π𝑚𝑓0𝑡))
2
𝑚=1
where 𝑎𝑚 and 𝑏𝑚 are the Fourier coefficients for the mth
𝑎0
harmonic, 𝑚𝑓0 is the frequency, and 2
is a constant term
describing the average amplitude of the signal. The
equation is written in terms of of amplitude 𝐴𝑚 and phase
ϕ𝑚 as follows:
𝑎0 ∞
𝑔(𝑡) = 2
+ ∑ 𝐴𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛(2π𝑚𝑓0𝑡 + ϕ𝑚) [7].
𝑚=1
By deconstructing a wave into its sinusoidal
components, it is simpler to analyze frequency content of
the waves, which aids in identifying overtone frequencies
present in the chords. This was done using Fast Fourier
Transforms, which are outlined in the next section.
FAST FOURIER TRANSFORMS
Fourier analysis works by “testing” the signal for the
presence of each frequency. In order to find frequencies
present along with their corresponding amplitudes and
phases, Discrete Fourier Transforms (DFTs) multiply the
raw signal by sine waves with discrete frequencies. A
Fast Fourier Transform is a DFT that uses a more efficient
2
algorithm. A DFT needs 𝑁 operations, while an FFT
only needs 𝑁𝑙𝑜𝑔2𝑁 operations, which significantly
reduces the computation time [8]. An example of FFT
analysis is shown in Figure 10.
Figure 10: C3 audio file shown in the time domain
(left) and frequency domain using the FFT (right). The
fundamental frequency and overtones are more clearly
shown in the frequency domain, which aids in
identifying the overtones present in chords.
POWER SPECTRAL DENSITY
The Power Spectral Density (PSD) of a signal finds
study, PSD is a good tool to find the percent overtone
strength in a chord for each of the 12 possible notes. The
PSD is found by taking the squared magnitude at each
frequency of the FFT divided by the frequency spacing.
2
The result has units [𝑔] /𝐻𝑧 where [g] is the units of the
signal g(t) [7].
4 Valeria Gutierrez 12/10/22
 A key benefit of using the PSD is that it is
normalized to the frequency spacing, which allows for
comparison of signals with different lengths. The PSD
was calculated in MATLAB, using the periodogram()
function. Figure 11 shows the difference between PSD
and FFT plots, using the C3 waveform file as an example.
POWER SPECTRAL DENSITY
The Power Spectral density takes the FFTs
performed before, and shows the power, or strength of the
frequencies per unit frequency. By plotting the frequency
against the square of its amplitude, using the PSD helps to
eliminate frequencies of lower strengths, while
amplifying the more prominent frequencies. This helped
to eliminate noise in the signals of the chords recorded.
Figure 13 shows a comparison of the FFT and PSD for
the first trial of the C major root position chord. The
PSDs of all chords for the first trial are shown in Figure
14. This process was repeated for the remaining 5 trials.

Figure 11: C3 audio file shown in the time domain

(left) and frequency domain using the FFT (right). The
fundamental frequency and overtones are more clearly
shown in the frequency domain, which aids in
identifying the overtones present in chords.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Figure 13: The difference between the PSD and FFT
After recording all audio samples, FFT and PSD of an input, using a C major root position chord as an
analysis was used to compute the percent overtone example. The strength of these peaks were integrated
strength in each chord for each of the 12 possible notes. in section 4.3 to create histograms showing the
strength of each note.
FAST FOURIER TRANSFORMS
The first step to analyze the recorded audio files was
to convert them into the frequency domain using Fast
Fourier Transforms (FFTs). Figure 12 shows the C major
root position chord in both the time domain, and
frequency domain. This process was repeated for each of
the 6 chords in all 5 trials.

Figure 12: Using the first trial of a C major root

position chord as an example, its FFT is shown
alongside its time domain counterpart. The peaks in
the FFT plot show what overtone frequencies are
present in the chord.

5 Valeria Gutierrez 12/10/22

 note names, sorted from strongest to weakest. Similar
tables were made for the other 5 chords, in order to more
easily identify overtones present during analysis.
Table 1: First 15 Peak Locations, and corresponding
note names for the first trial of the C Major Root
Position chord. They are listed in order from strongest
to weakest, corresponding to the strengths shown for
the PSD of Figure 9. The number next to the note
name corresponds to which octave the note is in.
Overtone frequencies of the same note have been
highlighted in the same color.

Frequency (Hz) Note Name

130.1 C3

328.1 E4

261.0 C4

390.6 G4

129.6 C3

586.2 D5

194.8 G3

129.2 C3

391.4 G4

128.4 C3

Figure 14: The difference between the PSD and FFT 195.3 G3
of an input, using a C major root position chord as an
example. The strength of these peaks were integrated 261.7 C4
in section 4.3 to create histograms showing the
strength of each note. 783.0 G5
After visual inspection, the gaps in frequencies for
the major chords (left column) are more equally spaced 657.0 E5
than for those of minor chords (right column). The
164.1 E3
inconsistent gaps in overtone frequencies lead to
dissonant (not pleasing) intervals being heard, which
explains why minor chords are musically dissonant. In
addition, as you invert a chord (rows two and three), you INTEGRATING PSD FOR EACH NOTE
lose some of the lower sounding overtones. This perhaps Once all PSD plots were created, the average was
is what causes uncertainty in the chord, since it takes our taken across the 5 trials in order to calculate the average
brains more effort to identify the root of the chord, in this amplitudes across the 6 chords. These amplitudes were
case a C [2]. integrated and summed for frequencies of the same note
regardless of octave. To account for differences in
Using a peak finding function, the first 15 peaks and
loudness due to unintentionally playing chords at
their strengths were calculated in order to be integrated in
different volumes, the sums of integrals were then divided
section 4.3 below. Table 1 shows the expected locations
by the total sum of overtones in the chord, in order to find
of the first 15 peaks of a C Major chord, along with their

6 Valeria Gutierrez 12/10/22

the percent strength of the overtones. The results for all
six chords are shown in Figure 15.
Figure 15: Percentage of overtone strength in each
chord for each of the 12 possible notes. These were
calculated by integrating the amplitude of the peaks of
the PSD plots shown in Figure 10.
First looking at the C major chord overtones (left
column), it is clear that most overtones are either a C, E,
or G, which makes sense considering that these are the
notes that outline the major chord. The note D shows up
in the overtone series for C, E, and G, which means it is
reinforced and amplified, and explains why it is showing
up in these plots. Although the note D is not a part of the
chord, the interval between a G and a D is a fifth, which
is the second most consonant interval in music theory,
after an octave. In the C major first inversion graph, the
strength of the root note (C) diminishes significantly.
When looking at the C major second inversion graph,
there are no strong overtones present for the note C. This
clearly shows the ambiguity that comes from inverting a
chord, since we are not hearing the note that is the root of
the chord. Our brains have a harder time identifying a
chord without the root, which is consistent with music
theory teachings [2].
When examining the C minor chord overtones (right
column), the notes are clashing with one another, which
causes intervals that are unpleasant to the listener. Two
bar graphs that are right next to each other represent notes
being a half step away from each other. This is the
smallest musical interval and is considered the most
dissonant interval in music, which is strong and present
throughout all inversions of the chord. The fact that we
are seeing a strong presence of the overtones D and E♭
indicates that we are hearing that dissonance in the
overtones when a C minor chord is played.
LIMITATIONS AND SOURCES OF ERROR
Any inconsistencies in frequencies recorded in the
overtones may be explained by the piano being out of
tune. In addition, this piano was likely tuned using equal
temperament, which means that the intervals between all
of the notes are equal. In the overtone series, the spacing
between overtones is not exact and does not line up with
equal temperament tuning, which explains why the
frequencies of the overtones may be slightly off from one
another.
CONCLUSIONS
These findings help to explain and give context to
many ideas that are given in music theory. The overtones
present in a C major chord are made up of consonant
intervals, which are pleasing for the brain to hear, and
explain why major chords are used to convey happy
moods. The opposite is true for minor chords- songwriters
take advantage of this and use minor chords in sad or
frightening contexts. In addition, when a chord is
inverted, the strength of overtones of the root note
decreases, which makes it harder for our brains to identify
what chord is being played. This is consistent with music
theory teachings, which emphasize that chords that have
been inverted provide an ambiguity to chord progressions.
The results of this study add a quantifiable answer to
the many psychological studies that have been done on
musical perception so far. This work could be expanded
to investigate many other kinds of chords (e.g.
diminished, augmented, dominant seventh, etc.).
Applying these same analysis methods, and perhaps even
expanding on them could give even more knowledge as to
how music is listened to. This is applicable to anyone
with an interest in music, who has ever been curious as to
why we hear music differently based on its structure.
7 Valeria Gutierrez 12/10/22
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I’d like to thank Dr. Hughey and Prof. Leonard for
their continued support and advice throughout the
semester. I would also like to thank Kate Parsons for her
help in effectively communicating my findings, and Caleb
Hall from MIT Libraries for his assistance in finding
resources.

REFERENCES
[1] Lahdelma, I., and Eerola, T., 2016, “Single Chords Convey
Distinct Emotional Qualities to Both Naïve and Expert
Listeners,” Psychol. Music, 44(1), pp. 37–54.
[2] Parncutt, R., 1988, “Revision of Terhardt’s
Psychoacoustical Model of the Root(s) of a Musical
Chord,” Music Percept. Interdiscip. J., 6(1), pp. 65–93.
[3] “5.3 Consonance and Dissonance” [Online]. Available:
https://www.earmaster.com/music-theory-online/ch05/chap
ter-5-3.html. [Accessed: 30-Nov-2022].
[4] Virtala, P., and Tervaniemi, M., 2017, “Neurocognition of
Major-Minor and Consonance-Dissonance,” Music
Percept. Interdiscip. J., 34(4), pp. 387–404.
[5] Hevner, K., 1935, “The Affective Character of the Major
and Minor Modes in Music,” Am. J. Psychol., 47(1), pp.
103–118.
[6] Maršík, L., 2019, “Cover Song Identification Using Music
Harmony Features, Model and Complexity Analysis.”
[7] Massachusetts Institute of Technology, “Fourier Analysis
Overview,” p. 9.
[8] Hanly, S., “Vibration Analysis: FFT, PSD, and
Spectrogram Basics [Free Download]” [Online].
Available:
https://blog.endaq.com/vibration-analysis-fft-psd-and-spec
trogram. [Accessed: 10-Dec-2022].

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