Manual

LAB MANUAL
Automotive Workshop
DEPARTMENT OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING
PILLAI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Dr. K.M.Vasudevan Pillai Campus, Plot No.10,
Sector 16, New Panvel,
Navi Mumbai, Maharashtra 410206
COURSE INCHARGE
Prof. Amey Marathe
Prof. Komal A Kadam
List of Experiments
Sr.No Name of Experiment Page

No.
1 Study and Demonstration of Layout of an Automobile and an 3

Automobile Workshop.
2 Maintenance of Mechanical systems, Electrical 7

Systems,Petrol/Diesel Engine.
3 Study On Board Diagonistics (OBD-II). 52
4 Smoke Analysis of 2/4-Stroke Petrol Engine using Orsat 67

Apparatus.
5 Wheel balancing on a Computerized Wheel Balancer. 69
6 Find the Steering geometry of a vehicle using a Computerized 75

Wheel Aligner.
7 To demount the old tyre and mounting new tyre in the rim 90
using the automatic tyre changer machine.
8 Study of Body Repairing and Reconditioning Methods. 98

Experiment No.1
Study and Demonstration of Layout of an Automobile and Automobile
Workshop.
Aim: Study and Demonstration of Layout of an Automobile and Automobile Workshop.
Apparatus: A working or non working model of Layout of an Automobile.
Theory : Components of an Automobile
1) Basic structure :- This is the unit on which are to be built the remainder of the units to turn it in to a
power operated vehicle. It consist of frame, suspension system, axles, wheels and tyres.
Frame :- There are two distinct forms of construction
1. The conventional pressed steel frame to which all the mechanical units are attached and on which
the body is superimposed.
2. The integral or frameless construction, in which the body structure is so designed as to combine the
functions of body and frame, the units normally attached to the frame being attached directly to the
body. Frameless construction is possible only in case of a closed car, since the roof, screen pillars,
door pillars and rear panel
are essential load taking parts of structure.
Suspension System :- Functions of suspension systems are
1. To prevent the road shocks from being transmitted to the vehicle components
2. To safeguard the occupants from road shocks
3. To preserve the stability of the vehicle in pitching or rolling, while in motion
There are two types of suspension systems
1. The conventional system, in which the springs are attached to a rigid beam axle
2. The independent system, in which there is no rigid axle beam and each wheel, is free to
move vertically without any reaction on the other wheel.
Axles:- The weight carrying portions of the axles , whether it may be front or rear ,may be considered
as beam supported at the ends , loaded at two intermediate points and subjected to following loads
1. The vertical load at the spring centers due to which the weight of the vehicle.
2. A fore and aft load at the wheel centre due to driving or braking effort
3. Torque reactions due to the drive or brakes.
4. A side thrust at the radius of the tyre due to centrifugal force when rounding a curve.
Wheels:-
Wire spoked wheels have been used mainly on sports cars, primarily on account
of their light weight and quickness in changing the wheel .However the pressed steel wheel has
displaced these all ordinary purposes. Such a wheel consist of a central flanged disc pressed in to a
rolled section rim retained. In position by welding. Light alloy wheels are currently used in case of
luxury and sport cars.
2)Power plant :- The power plant provides the motive power for all the various functions which the
vehicle or any part of it, may be called upon to perform. The power plant generally consists of an
internal combustion engine which may be either of spark-ignition, or of compression ignition type.
3)Transmission system :- Functions of transmission system are as follows-
1. To disconnect the engine from the road wheels when desired
2. To connect the engine to driving wheels without shock
3. To vary the leverage between the engine and the driving wheels
4. To reduce the speed permanently in a fixed ratio
5. To turn drive through a right angle
6. To make a provision such that the driving wheels may rotate at different speeds while
taking turns.
Clutch :-
Its purpose is to enable the driver to disconnect the drive from the road wheels instantaneously and to
engage drive from the engine to the road wheels gradually while moving the vehicle from rest.
Gear Box (Transmission) :-

The gear box or transmission provides the necessary leverage variation between the engine and road
wheels.
Bevel pinion and crown wheel:-
They turn the drive through 90 and also provide a permanent reduction in speed .The permanent
reduction is necessitated because of the fact that speed of engine has to be maintained at optimum
level at all times, yet a minimum value of torque has to be made available at the road wheels.
Universal joint :-
They provide for the relative movement between the engine and the driving wheels due to flexing of
road springs.
Differential :-
While taking turns, the driving wheels must run at different speeds. This is done with the help
of differential. Instead of using the long propeller shafts and transmitting the power from engine to the
rear axle , a number of alternative methods have been used.
Figure:Layout Of Automobile.
Layout of an Automobile Workshop.
Experiment No.2
Maintenance of Mechanical systems, Electrical Systems,Petrol/Diesel
Engine.
Battery
Aim :- Demonstration of battery charging and starting systems.
Objectives :-
1. To understand the different electrical systems in an automobile.

2. To understand the different lighting systems in an automobile.
3. To understand the different automobile accessories.
Theory :-
Introduction :- One of the important and essential group of systems belong to the area of auto
electrical. The electrical systems of an automobile are meant to serve the following purposes:-
1. To generate electricity for charging of the battery.
2. To store electricity in the battery and then supply the same to various units.
3. To supply current to starting motor for cranking.
4. To supply current to ignition coil for producing spark in petrol and gas engines.
5. To supply current to the lighting system.
6. To supply current to the horn, dashboard instruments and the control gauges.
7. To supply power to various other electrical accessories.
To accomplish these functions, several systems are contained in automotive electrical line up.
These are as follows:
1. Charging circuit.
2. Starting circuit.
3. Ignition circuit.
4. Lighting circuit.
5. Accessory circuit.
Mahatma Education’s Society’s Pillai College of Engineering New Panvel-410206
Automotive battery :- A battery is an accumulator or storage cell that possesses the capacity
of accumulating and storing the electrochemical; source of current and supplying it as
electrical energy. It serves as a power station for the vehicle and supplies D.C. to various
destinations. The batteries for automobile uses are available in numerous models and in 6V,
12V and 24V range. The batteries may be connected in series to obtain a battery of higher
voltage if so required. A battery is composed of several cells in series. The electromotive
force (emf) of a cell in lead-acid battery is 2V and in alkaline battery is 1.2V; therefore a 12V
lead-acid battery consists of 6 cells (6 x 2 = 12).
Types of batteries :-
Several kinds of batteries are employed on different makes and models of automobiles.
Depending upon the electrolyte and the materials used for the plates, the batteries may be
classified into different types.
1. Lead – acid battery
2. Alkaline battery
(a) Nickel – iron battery
8
(b) Nickel – cadmium battery

(c) Silver – zinc battery
3. Non –conventional battery
(a) Sodium – sulphur battery
(b) Zinc – air battery
(c) Lithium – chloride battery
4. Dry charge battery
Typical structure of storage battery

Charging system in an automobile :-The purpose of charging system in an automobile is to
generate electricity to cater the needs of all the load demands at proper voltage. The name
charging system comes from the fact that the generated electricity is first used to charge a
battery which then supplies current to various loads. The main parts of a charging system are
as follows :-
1. Generator (dynamo) or alternator
2. Voltage and current regulators
3. Cut-out relay
4. Ammeter
5. Battery
6. Indicator lamp
9
Petrol Engine
Aim: Dismantling and assembly of Petrol Engine.
DISASSEMBLY:
ENGINE USED: MARUTI 800
FUELTYPE: PETROL
NO OF CYLINDER: 3
SR PROCEDURE TOOLS USED

NO
1 First step is to remove the cylinder head cover. T-spanner(10)
2 Then the Rocker Arm assembly is removed. Box spanner(14/15),

Ratchet Extension
3 Then start removing cylinder head and the gasket.
4 The engine is then rotated upside down on its stand to make oil T-spanner(10)
sump available for further operation and hence oil sump is
removed.
5 Then the main journal bearings of crankshaft are loosen up for the Box spanner(14/15),
further ease. Ratchet Extension
6 Then the procedure is carried out carefully by pushing the piston Box spanner(17) and use
and connecting rod assembly while supporting the piston by hand hammer if needed without
from below as it comes out. causing any damage
7 Repeat the same procedure with caution and carefully for the other
2 pistons.
8 Then the main journal bearings are removed. Box spanner(14)
9 And the Crankshaft is removed. Box spanner(14)
10
ASSEMBLY:
SR PROCEDURE TOOLS USED
NO
1 Place the crankshaft in position according to the output end Box spanner (14)
2 The journal bearings are placed to keep the crankshaft tight Box spanner (14)
without any play
3 Place piston according to the position marked on the head Box spanner (17)
along with connecting rods
4 Repeat the same procedure with caution and carefully for

the other 2 pistons.
5 Then the main journal bearings of crankshaft are tightened Box spanner(14/15),
to avoid unbalancing of the shaft and piston Ratchet Extension
6 Then the procedure is carried out carefully by pushing the Box spanner (17) and use
piston and connecting rod assembly while supporting the hammer if needed
piston by hand from below as it comes out. without causing any
damage
7 The oil sump is bolted on the top with the use of spanners T-spanner(10)
and engine is rotated for further operations
8 Then the main journal bearings are removed. Box spanner (14)
9 Place the cylinder head correctly to avoid any gaps

between piston and cylinder, also place the gasket on top
10 Then the Rocker Arm assembly is added on the top Boxspanner(14/15),

Ratchet Extension
11 The assembly is completed after the cylinder head cover is T-spanner(10)

bolted
11
Figure:Engine
Figure : Cylinder Block
12
Diesel Engine
AIM: Dismantling and assembly of Diesel engine
Engine used: TATA Indica

Type: Diesel
No. of cylinders: 4
DISASSEMBLY
Step Procedure Tool used Nos.

1 Remove camshaft belt
2 To remove the engine head, remove the head bolts T-spanner (16) 10
3 Remove tapet cover Spanner (10)
4 Now remove the head gasket 3
5 Remove the flywheel bolt T-spanner (16) 6
6 Now flip the engine and remove oil sump bolts Spanner (10) 20
7 Remove the oil sump along with the cover
8 Now remove the stainer bolt Spanner (10) 2
9 Remove casing blocks from both ends T-spanner (10) 6
10 Remove camshaft pulley bolts T-spanner (12) 4
11 Remove puller casing bolts T-spanner (10) 5
12 Now remove the pistons in correct order T-spanner (15) 2
13 Remove crankshaft bearing cap T-spanner (16) 10
14 Now the crankshaft can be removed
13
ASSEMBLY
Step Procedure Tool used
1 Lubricate piston rings with oil
2 Lubricate engine liner

T-spanner
3 Place the crankshaft in position according to the output end
(14)
The journal bearings are placed to keep the crankshaft tight without T-spanner
4
any play (14)
Place piston according to the position marked on the head along T-spanner
5
with connecting rods (17)
Repeat the same procedure with caution and carefully for the other
6
3 pistons.
Then the main journal bearings of crankshaft are tightened to avoid T-spanner
7
unbalancing of the shaft and piston (15)
Then the procedure is carried out carefully by pushing the piston and
T-spanner
8 connecting rod assembly while supporting the piston by hand from
(17)
below as it comes out.
The oil sump is bolted on the top with the use of spanners and T-spanner
9
engine is rotated for further operations (10)
T-spanner
10 Then the main journal bearings are removed.
(14)
Place the cylinder head correctly to avoid any gaps between
11
piston and cylinder, also place the gasket on top
T-spanner
12 Then the Rocker Arm assembly is added on the top
(15)
T-spanner
13 The assembly is completed after the cylinder head cover is bolted
(10)
14
TROUBLESHOOTING
Sr.No Troubleshooting
Measure the piston diameter with Vernier caliper.If the dimensions are not matching
1
with the manufacturers guide the piston needs to be changed.
Measure the bore diameter with dial gauge, if the values differ from the manufacturers
2
guide,rebore or replace the cylinder liner.
3 Check the piston ring clearance with filler gauge.
Check the piston bearing for wear and tear, if found any it
4
should be replaced.
5 Check crankshaft for sagging.
6 Check for proper seal of every compartment
Figure:Engine head gasket
15
Figure:Cylinder block Figure:Piston ring
Figure: Dial gauge Figure:Ring compressor
Conclusion:- Dismantling and mantling of Diesel Engine is done.Troubleshooting and

diagnosis of Diesel Engine is studied.
16
Air filter and Fuel filter for engine
Aim: Dismantling and assembly of air and fuel filter of engine
Dismantling procedure :
A) Fuel pump :
When removing fuel from the tank, be sure to use a hand siphon pump. Don't use an electric
pump—there's a risk of a spark causing an explosion.
1)Disconnect the negative battery cable.
2)With a safe workspace laid out, and your car parked on a level, firm surface, jack it up and
place it on jack stands, or use a lift to provide access to the underside of the car.
3)Relieve the fuel system pressure.
4)Disconnect the filler neck from the fuel tank per your service manual.
5)Support the fuel tank with the jack and the block of wood.
6)Remove the bolts from the straps holding the fuel tank in the vehicle.
7)Carefully disconnect the wiring connections, fuel lines, and vent hoses on the top of the tank
before fully lowering the tank.
8)Once the connections are released, use the jack to carefully lower the tank out of the car.
9)Clean the top of the tank around the existing fuel pump assembly to prevent any dirt or debris
from falling into the tank during removal.
10)Remove the pump assembly.
B) Oil filter :
1) Switch off the engine.
2) Check if it is the correct application for the vehicle, using our electronic catalogue.
3) Remove the engine cover (if needed)
4) Open the cover of the oil filter module and the oil filler cap to facilitate the oil flow.
5) Remove the engine under cover to have access to the housing cap.
6) Place the oil pan to collect the used oil.
17
7) Open the sump drain plug and drain the engine oil
8) Remove the old filter sticking to recommendation.
9) Identify the positioning of seals.
10) Clean module and the cover that will receive the new filter.
11) Lubricate new seals with clean oil (it helps proper positioning of seals). Change the seals by
a hand without using tools (they can damage either seals or their seats, causing leaks).
Assembly procedure
A) Fuel pump :-
1). Clean the top of the tank around the existing fuel pump assembly before starting with
assembly.
2). Place the tank into the car and do the connection.
4). Connect the wirings, fuel lines, and vent hoses on the top of the tank .
5). Connect the bolts from the straps holding the fuel tank in the vehicle.
6). Support the fuel tank with the jack and the block of wood.
7). Connect the filler neck from the fuel tank.
8). Put the fuel system pressure.
9). Connect the negative battery cable.
B) Oil filter :
1). Place the new oil filter
2). Lubricate the new filter and screw into place by hand
3). Clean module and the cover that will receive the new filter.
4). Pour new engine oil .
5). Close the cover of the oil filter module and the oil filler cap to facilitate the oil flow.
6). Place the engine cover (if needed)
7). Run the engine and look for leaks.
8). Check the oil level
Pictures :
18
19
Faults and Remedies:

Air Filter
FAULTS REMEDIES
1.Increased FuelConsumption Clean the Filter by Water high pressure or Replace
2 .Decreased Engine Performance Clean or Replace
3. Black Smoke in Exhaust Replace
4 .Check Engine Light comes on Inspect the Filter to Clean or better Replace
Fuel Filter
FAULTS REMEDIES
1.Lack of responsiveness from Engine Check the Filter of Dirt and Clean it off or
Replace
2.Poor Acceleration Immediate Replacement
3.Hard to get Engine Started Immediate Replacement
Conclusion : Diagnostics and Maintenance for Air Filter and Fuel Filter is done.
20
Maintenance of mechanical systems (gear box, steering, suspension)

Steering System
Aim: Dismantling and assembly of steering system in automobiles
Type: Rack and Pinion of Maruti 800 Forward wheel drive
Dismantling
Sr. No PROCEDURE TOOLS USED
1 Remove Pinion Hammer
2 Remove Rack Hammer
3 Remove Tie Rod Spanner
Assembly
1 Attach Tie Rod Spanner
2 Place Rack Hammer
3 Place Pinion Hammer
Gearbox
21
Aim: Dismantling and assembly of GearBox
Dismantling procedure
Sr.No. Procedure Tools used
1 Remove tyre. Spanner(12)
2 Unfasten the bolt and remove the half shaft Spanner(12)
3 Remove gearbox cover Spanner(12)
4 Place the gear box on flat surface and remove input & output shaft from N.A
the gear box.
5 Unfasten the lock nut from the output shaft using a spanner Spanner (22-23)
6 Remove speedometer gear N.A
7 Ball bearing is removed Chisel and

hammer
8 Sim (spacer/washer) is removed N.A
9 Remove the First gear (comprising of 43 teeth) and synchronizing ring. N.A
10 Remove the bush (with no splines) N.A
11 Remove the reverse gear with sleeve hub (comprising of 37 teeth). N.A
12 Remove the second gear alongwith synchronizing ring. (comprising of N.A

39 teeth)
13 Bush is removed (with splines) and oil spring also is removed N.A
14 Needle roller bearing alongwith spacer (sim/washer) is removed N.A
15 Remove the third gear (comprising of 32 teeth). N.A
16 Remove the synchronizing ring (consisting of 2 surclip, sleeve hub, 3 N.A

locks).
17 Remove the spacer ring (sim). N.A
22
18 Remove the fourth gear (comprising of 27 teeth). N.A
19 Needle bearing is removed (inside gear) of 4th gear. N.A
Assembly procedure
Sr.No. Procedure Tools Used
1 After inspection, place the output shaft vertically and insert the needle N.A.
bearing into it.
2 Place the fourth gear on the shaft and insert the spacer into it. N.A.
3 Insert the synchronizing ring with the sleeve hub, while ensure that the 3 N.A.
locks insert into proper slots and fix the surclips respectively.
4 Place the third gear over it, ensure that all the gears and synchronizing N.A.
rings are properly fitted and there is no gap between them.
5 Needle roller bearing along with spacer ( sim ) is placed into shaft. N.A.
6 Spring and bush (with splines) are placed over shaft. N.A.
7 Place the second gear along with synchronizing ring. N.A.
8 Place the reverse gear with sleeve hub over the shaft and ensure that N.A.
there is no gap in between the gear and the ring.
9 Insert the bush (with splines). N.A.
10 Place the first gear (comprising of 43 teeth) and synchronizing ring. N.A.
11 Place the reverse gear with the sleeve hub (comprising of 37 teeth). N.A.
12 Place the bush (with no splines). N.A.
13 Place the first gear (comprising 43 teeth) and synchronizing ring. N.A.
14 Insert Sim (spacer), take care of the center alignment. N.A.
15 Place the ball bearing over it. N.A.
23
16 Place the speedometer gear and ensure the inline assembly of all Hammer
inserted component along with the direction of the gear and the hub. If
deviated then make in proper place by thumping with hammer.
17 Fasten the lock nut from the output shaft using the spanner. Spanner(22-23)
18 Place the output shaft consisting of all the components along with the N.A.
input shaft in the groove provided in the gear box, ensure proper
alignment with the selector forks and rods.
FAULTS AND REMEDIES OF GEARBOX:-
Problems Causes Remedy
Gear case becomes 1.Overload 2. Insufficient or excessive 1. Decrease load or use a larger
unusually hot. lubricating oil. 3. Contaminated oil. 4. model. 2. Adjust oil level so it
Oil viscosity is improper. 5. Bearing aligns with mark on oil gauge. 3.
are improperly mounted. 6. Shaft is Flush interior and resplace oil 4.
connected improperly. 7. Air vent port Change oil with one having the
is closed. 8. Ambient temperature is proper viscosity. 5. Reassemble
too high. and tighten properly (Consult
dealer). 6. Align properly. 7.
Remove rubber plug from oil
cap. 8. Install cooling fan or
move to cooler area.
Unusual or excessive 1. Improper meshing. 2. Bearings are 1. Adjust properly (Consult

noise. damaged or worn. 3. Overloaded. 4. dealer). 2. Replace bearings
Insufficient oil. 5. Oil seal is not wet (Consult dealer). 3. Decrease
with oil. 6. Improper installation or load or use a larger model. 4.
connection. 7. Bearing are improperly Add oil so level aligns with oil
mounted. 8. Input rpm is too high. 9. gauge. 5. Lubricate. 6. Tighten
24
Foreign particles are mixed in oil. loose bolts and align correctly. 7.
Adjust (Consult dealer) 8.
Reduce. 9. Remove foreign
particles and replace oil after
flushing interior. (Consult dealer)
Vibration is excessive 1. Gear teeth are worn 2. Foreign 1. Replace wheel (Consult dealer)
particles are mixed in oil 3. Bearings 2. Remove foreign particles
are worn or damaged, 4. Mounting and,replace oil after flushing
bolts are loose 5. Wheel is improperly interior. (Consult dealer), 3.
aligned Replace bearings
(Consult,dealer), 4. Tighten, 5.
Replace wheel (Consult dealer)
Input/output shafts do 1. Teeth seizure,2. Bearings are worn 1. Replace worm and wheel
not rotate at all or damaged,3. Foreign particles are (Consult,dealer), 2. Replace
mixed,in oil bearings (Consult dealer), 3.
Remove foreign particles
and,replace oil after flushing
interior. (Consult dealer)
Input/output shafts 1. Wheel teeth is worn,2. Wheel boss 1. Replace wheel (Consult
rotates in idle or shaft key are,damaged,3. Input shaft dealer), 2. Replace wheel or key
condition and output or worm teeth are,damaged,4. Input (Consult,dealer), 3. Replace shaft
shaft is not driven shaft is broken or worm (Consult,dealer),4.
Replace shaft (Consult dealer)
25
Teeth are worn 1. Overload,2. Contaminated oil,3. 1. Reduced load, 2. Replace oil
Insufficient oil,4. Oil viscosity is too after flushing,interior, 3. Add oil,
low,5. Ambient temperature is 4. Replace oil with one having
too,high,6. Foreign particles are the proper viscosity, 5. Install
mixed,in oil,7. Excessive rpm,8. cooling fan or move to cooler
Backlash is improper area, 6. Remove foreign particles
clean interior and replace oil, 7.
Reducer rpm or use a different
model, 8. Reassemble and adjust
Main body has cracks 1. Overload,2. Impact load is greater 1. Reduce load or use a
or shaft is broken than,rated load.,3. Connection is larger,model, 2. Reduce impact
improper,4. Gear case has load or use a,larger model, 3.
partial,thickness or cavities Align properly, 4. Replace gear
case (Consult,dealer)
Oil leaks 1. Oil seal is defective,2. Cover 1. Replace oil seal, 2. Tighten
mounting bolts are,loose,3. Air does bolts, 3. Check oil cap, 4.
not escape,4. Input and output shafts Replace shafts (Consult dealer),
are,marred,5. Excessive oil,6. Gear 5. Adjust oil level so it
case has cavities,7. Gear case has aligns,with mark on oil gauge, 6.
fissures,8. Other than Replace gear case
normal,installation directions (Consult,dealer), 7. Replace gear
(horizontal oblique, upside-down etc) case (Consult,dealer), 8. Consult
dealer about installation
26
STEERING GEARBOX
Aim: Dismantling and assembly of steering Gearbox in automobiles
Type: Recirculating ball type of Tata tempo 702
27
Dismantling:
1 Remove Drop Arm Hammer
2 Remove casing bolts Box Spanner 13mm
3 Remove Lock Nut by fixing the 6-7mm bolt using Ring Spanner
spanner 24mm – Lock nut
6mm – bolt
4 Remove adjuster taper bearing Chisel and hammer
5 Remove worm and ball type shaft N.A
6 Remove Drop Shaft N.A
28
Assembly:
1 Place Drop Shaft
2 Place taper bearings on both side without disturbing
3 Place recirculating shaft by aligning the ball with the
drop shaft hole
4 Placecasing bolts Box Spanner 13mm
5 PlaceLock Nut by fixing the 6-7mm bolt using spanner Ring Spanner
24mm – Lock nut
6mm – bolt
6 PlaceDrop Arm Hammer
Faults and remedies of steering
The steering wheel -- also known as the "rack and pinion" -- is made up of several parts and
components that allow the driver to control the direction of the entire vehicle. Problems within
the steering column can cause significant failures, from loose to hard steering. Although the
symptoms are relatively easy to spot, the cause of steering column problems may be due to a
variety of issues.
Inner Tie Rod Sockets
One of the key components of a steering column is the inner tie rod sockets. If these sockets
become worn, several different symptoms can result requiring immediate replacement. The
steering wheel may feel "loose" when turning it. The steering wheel may also rotate, either left
or right, by itself unless the driver holds it in place. Symptoms of inner tie rod socket problems
can also be attributed to completely unrelated issues, such as tire misalignment, so it is
important to diagnose the issue correctly.
Over-torquing and Binding
Over-torquing can be another issue with regard to both the inner and outer tie rod sockets within
the rack and pinion. The usual symptoms of over-torquing are hard steering exhibited when the
steering wheel is difficult to turn in any direction. Alternatively, corroded inner tie rod sockets
can result in this same phenomenon as the corroded sockets can cause the steering wheel to stick
in one place. Binding issues on the strut plates within the steering column can also result in
problems with turning the steering wheel.
Yoke Adjustment
29
Rack and steering columns often need a yoke adjustment to ensure they function properly.
Vehicles in need of a yoke adjustment can experience steering failure or produce unusual noises
within the column. As with most other symptoms, these noises can also occur with other rack
and pinion issues, such as worn inner tie rod sockets.
Remedies for steering failures
A Good Engine Belt
Your power steering system gets its power directly from your vehicle’s engine. This is done
with a belt that runs from your engine’s crankshaft to the power steering pump. Some cars will
have just 1 belt that snakes its way through all the pulleys on your engine, called a serpentine
belt while other vehicles will have individual belts for each accessory. In either case, if this belt
gets frayed, glazed or breaks altogether, it will definitely cause your power steering system to
malfunction. If you have a sudden loss in power steering in your vehicle, a broken belt is a
likely cause. If you simply have a squeaking belt, the problem may be an easy fix.
Good Power Steering Pump
For a great explanation of your power steering pump, visit this How Stuff Works page for a
detailed explanation! Since your power steering pump is a simple machine, the most common
cause of failure for a power steering pump is the bearing going bad. The bearing supports the
shaft that connects the pulley outside the pump to the impeller inside the pump. After miles of
use, it is not unusual for these bearings to wear out. In most cases, worn bearings will start to
hum or whine and will change pitch with your engine RPM. When they get very worn, they can
cause leakage around the pump shaft behind the pulley and even allow the pulley to wobble. In
this case, simply replacing the pump will get things back to normal.
Clear Passageways
Your power steering system’s lifeblood is the hydraulic fluid being pumped through it. The
high pressure this fluid is at is used as a motive force for helping turn your front tires either
through a power steering gear or rack. The actual mechanism for turning high fluid pressure
into motion in your tires is relatively complicated and accomplished through a variety of small
passages. If these passages become clogged it can cause your power steering system to
malfunction. Unfortunately, clogs are very difficult to diagnose because there is no way to
measure the pressures in your power steering system. If a clog is causing your power steering
problems the first thing to do is to try flushing the system. If that doesn’t work, often times you
have to replace the entire steering rack or gear.
30
The last and most common of the power steering problems you may encounter is a leak. First,
your system may actually have a leak where it is drawing air into the system causing your pump
to whine. This leak would be due to a cracked or loose hose in between the fluid reservoir and
the pump. If you have a leak like this you will notice your power steering fluid getting foamy
and your pump whining due to the air in the system. In this case, you can replace those hoses or
tighten the clamps to stop the leak.You may also have a leak on the pressure side. This leak
could be where a rubber hose meets a hard line or at a seal on your power steering rack where it
connects to your tie rods or where the steering column connects. These seals are usually not
serviceable so to get new seals you would need to replace the whole steering rack or gear which
can get expensive. An alternative would be to repair the seals in your power steering system to
stop the leak using BlueDevil Power Steering Stop Leak. Simply pour a bottle into your power
steering fluid reservoir and BlueDevil Power Steering Stop Leak will seal your power steering
leaks as your drive fixing your power steering problems. Simply top off your system with the
manufacturer’s recommended type of power steering fluid and have your car back to driving
like normal quickly and inexpensively.
Ignition Systems
Ignition Components:
Spark Plug
Procedure Fault Remedies
1). Perform inspection - 1). Engine misfire 1). Correct the ignition
visual and vehicle codes timing
2). Check Engine light

2). Remove and replace
2). Clean the spark plug for
spark plugs
3). Vibrations under the carbon settlement
hood that are different from
3). Perform inspection of normal
threads in engine head and 3). Adjust the engine throttle
decide whether compression assembly
testing is required 4). Engine idles in a rough
manner
4). Check the spark plug
4). Perform inspection of
5). Fuel consumption is electrode gap, if more
31
ignition wires increased replace it
5). Install new spark plugs 6). Acceleration is not as

5). Replace Spark Plug
quick as it used to be
6). Test the vehicle to ensure

correct functions 7). Car may be difficult to 6). Replace the Spark Plug
start in the morning Cable
Ignition Cable
1). Visual inspection and 1). Engine misfire Check the Spark Plug Cable
vehicle code scan for any defects
If found then replace it.

2). Spark Plug does not
2). Check each individual
generate Spark
cable using special testing
tools
3). Intensity of the Spark is

3). Remove bad cables low
4). Replace the cables with

new ones
5). Perform inspection of

spark plugs
6). Clear codes and conduct
32
a test of the vehicle to

ensure everything is in
working order.
Ignition Coil
1). Inspect the Spark Plug 1). Check Engine light is Replace the Ignition Coil
illuminated Assembly
2). Inspect the Spark Plug

2). Engine misfires or rough
cable
running of the engine
3). Visual Inspection on 3). Vehicle won't start

check vehicle code scanning
4). Spark intensity is less

4). Check the ignition coil
5). Spark is not generated
33
WIPER
Working windshield wipers are vital for driver's visibility. A vehicle is considered unsafe if the
wipers don't work. The front wiper motor and the wiper transmission mechanism (linkage) are
installed below the windshield, under the cowl panel cover.
How the wiper system works: when you turn the wiper on, the wiper switch sends the signal to
the control module. The control module operates the wiper relay. The relay sends 12-volt power
to the wiper motor. The motor rotates a little arm that through links moves the wiper arms.
There are mainly three reasons if your wiper system does not work
1). Mechanical Failure
2). Electrical Failure
3). Wiper Blade Failure
34
Procedure to maintain the Wipers: -
1). Defrost and Scrape before using the Wipers
Windshield wipers tend to stick when there’s been heavy snow or ice, causing them to snap if
you turn them on before defrosting the windshield. In freezing temperatures, run the defroster
first and scrape away any snow or ice, if necessary. It’s helpful if you warm up the car ahead of
time with the defroster on high, especially if you have an early morning commute.
2). Replace the Blades at least twice a Year
Wiper blades are only designed to last about six months. After that, you’ll start to notice a
decline in your driving visibility. To help combat this problem, buy replacements every six
months and change them on time. You’ll also need to keep an eye on the blades for signs of
early wear, such as smearing, skipping, or squeaking across the glass. The process is so easy, in
fact, that you can do it yourself with a little practice.
3). Keep the Windshield Clean
Your car’s wiper blades are going to wear more quickly if they’re wiping across filthy glass. To
help prolong their longevity, clean your windshield every time you stop to fill up at a gas
station. Most stations provide a squeegee specifically for this use, so take advantage of it. Just be
sure to inspect the sponge before useand wipe it with a paper towel when needed, as communal
squeegees can harbor small rocks and other debris that can scratch your windshield.
4). Never run the Wiper on dry Windshield
Windshield wipers are designed to be used when the windshield is wet. Operating them on a dry
surface can cause the wipers to wear out much more quickly than they would normally, which
only causes extras headaches. When you do need to clean a dry windshield, such as when
there’s pollen buildup on the glass, press the washer button first. This will require you to keep
your car topped up on windshield washer fluid, which is another thing to remember as part of
your wipers’ routine maintenance.
5). Reposition the blades during the Winter Months
Dealing with frozen windshield wipers is the last thing you want to be doing before work on a
cold winter morning. To prevent this problem, pull the wiper blades away from the windshield
the night before a freeze. This keeps the rubber squeegee part of the blades from freezing to the
glass, and it makes it easier to scrape away any ice and snow. Taking care of your car requires
35
paying attention to the little things. When it comes to your windshield wipers, getting into a
routine and being vigilant can ensure they’re always ready to go when you need them.
Sr. No. Problem Faults Remedies
1. The wiper arm shaft seizes One of the shafts seizes Dismantle the
up inside the linkage up linkages and then
clean and lubricate it
or
Replace the linkages
2. One of the links separates The links are made of Replace the links or
plastic or rubber, when
they get rusted, they pop Replace the whole
out the linkage linkage assembly
3. The nut that holds one of One of the nuts become Reposition the wiper
the wiper arms comes loose loose and the arm stops and retighten the both
working or shifts from its the nuts of wiper
position
4. Both wipers work, but stop The arm connected to the Realign the assembly
in the wrong position wiper motor gets loose or
shifts on motor shafts
5. Problems with a Cause the wiper motor to Replace the

multifunction switch work in the same mode multifunction switch
and not in other mode
6. Wiper motor doesn’t start There may be corrosion Repair the motor or
present replace it
36
Wiper Transmission MechanismWiper Motor Electric Diagram
VEHICLE HEADLAMPS
Housing: The housing of the headlamp has the following tasks:
• Carrier of all headlamp components (cable, reflector, etc.)
• Fixing to the vehicle body
• Protection against exterior influences (humidity, heat, etc.)
• Thermoplastics are used as housing material.
37
Reflector: The major functional aim of the reflector is to capture the greatest possible share of
the luminous flux radiated by the bulb and to direct this towards the road. There are various
different reflector systems available to enable headlamp designers to meet this requirement as
effectively as possible.
Material selection for reflectors: Whereas some years ago most reflectors were made of sheet
steel, the demands made on headlamps today, such as production tolerances, design, surface
quality, weight etc. lead to the use of mainly plastics (various thermoplastics) for reflectors.
These are manufactured with a high accuracy of mold reproducibility.
This allows tiered and multiple-chamber systems in particular to be realised. Subsequently, the
reflectors are coated to achieve the necessary surface quality. In the case of headlamp systems
with a high thermal stress, reflectors may also be manufactured from aluminium or magnesium.
In the next step an aluminium reflection layer and then a silicon protective layer are vapor-
plated onto the reflector surface.
38
Projection modules: Due to their exactly demarcated beam path and high luminous flux,
projection modules are used very often in modern headlamps. Thanks to different lens
diameters, lighting functions, and installation possibilities these modules can be used for a wide
range of individual headlamp concepts.
Cover lenses: Cover lenses with dispersion optics have the task of deflecting, scattering or
focusing the luminous flux collected by the reflector in such a way that the required light
distribution, such as the cut-off line, is produced. This previous standard concept has now
almost been completely replaced by non-patterned systems.
They are used for the following headlamp systems:
● Inner lens (DE system), for low beam, high beam (bi-xenon) and fog light
● Separate cover lens within the headlamp, directly in front of the reflector
● Free-form headlamps (FF), completely without additional patterning
39
Material selection for cover lenses
Conventional cover lenses are generally made of glass. This must be free of streaks and bubbles.
However, due to the requirements mentioned previously, the cover lenses are increasingly made
of plastic (polycarbonate, PC).
Compared to glass, this has numerous advantages:
● Extremely impact-resistant
● Very light
● Smaller production tolerances are possible
● Much more design freedom
● The special surface coating makes the lens scratchproof in compliance with ECE and
SAE regulations
TIPS FOR CLEANING A HEADLIGHT LENS WITH PLASTIC COVER: PRACTICAL

TIPS
In order to avoid damage to plastic cover lenses, the following information should be observed:
● Never clean plastic cover lenses with a dry cloth (danger of scratches)!
40
● Before adding anything to the water in the lens cleaning system, such as a cleaning agent
or antifreeze, always check the instructions in the vehicle handbook.
● Cleaning chemicals which are too aggressive or of the wrong type can destroy plastic
cover lenses.
● Never use impermissible high-wattage bulbs!
● Only use bulbs with a UV-filter!
BI-XENON HEADLIGHTS MODULE: FUNCTION
Xenon headlights are comprised of the gas discharge lamp, the xenon ballast, and the reflection
and projector-type system. Bi-Xenon means that high beam and low beam are realised by a
projection module. This has the advantage that only one ballast is required. This means that two
light distributions with a large luminous fluxare realised within the smallest installation space.
Through the use of a moveable cover, a purely mechanical switch between the light distributions
for high beam and low beam is possible. This means that, aside from the actuating mechanics
for the cover, there is no additional outlay for a separate headlamp with its own control
electronics. The high beam light also reaches further and the areas to the side of the road are
illuminated better.
41
FAULTY XENON BALLAST: CAUSE OF FAILURE
A faulty ballast results in the complete failure of the headlamp.
Causes of failure of the ballast include:
● Lack of voltage supply

● Lack of ground connection
● Faulty electronics in the device
● Internal short circuits
CHECKING THE XENON BALLAST: TROUBLESHOOTING
● Check whether the ballast attempts to ignite the bulb when the light is switched on. The
ignition attempts can be clearly heard in the vicinity of the headlamp. If the ignition attempts are
unsuccessful, the xenon bulb should be tested by using the bulb from the other headlamp.
● If no ignition attempt is carried out, the fuse should be checked.
● If the fuse is OK, check the voltage and ground supply directly on the ballast. Voltage
must be at least 9 Volts.
● If the voltage and ground supply, as well as the xenon bulb, are OK, the cause of the
fault is a faulty ballast.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF LED CAR LIGHTS – DEFINITION, STRUCTURE, AND

FUNCTION: BASIC PRINCIPLES
The light emitting diode is also called a luminescence diode or, in short, LED. LED stands for
"light emitting diode", as it turns electrical energy into light. Physically, it is a cold-light source
and an electronic semiconductor component part in optoelectronics. Its conductivity lies
between that of conductors (e.g. metals, water, graphite) and non-conducting materials (e.g.
non-metals, glass, wood).
Structure
LEDs are available in the widest range of sizes, designs, and colours, depending on
requirements. The classic variant (standard LED) has a cylindrical shape and is closed by a
hemisphere at the spot where the light is emitted.
42
Simple LEDs consist of the following components
● LED chip
● Reflector tray (with contact to cathode)
● Gold wire (contact to anode)
● Plastic lens (combines and holds components)
High-performance diodes possess a large metal blank that allows for a better heat regulation. As
the heat is dissipated more easily, more current can flow through the diode, the light emission
covers more area, and the light output is higher. Compared to a simple 5 mm LED, the heat
resistance is reduced tenfold. In practical terms, this means that a high-performance diode, such
as the Luxeon Rebel, has a square emission area of about 1 mm and an efficiency of approx. 40-
100 Lumen. The power of a normal 5 mm standard LED pales in comparison to this. With a size
of 0.25 mm and a power of less than 0.1 W and 20-30 mA, it only reaches an efficiency of 1-2
Lumen.
The small, flat design of LEDs offers considerable leeway for ground-breaking product designs:
For example the "LEDayFlex" daytime running light module for passenger cars, trucks, and
caravans.
ADJUSTMENT OF HEADLAMP SYSTEMS: GOOD TO KNOW
Since asymmetric light distribution appeared on the market in 1957, there have also been
statutory provisions for headlamp adjustment.
43
Headlamps were first aimed at the so-called "10-meter wall". That means a vehicle is driven to a
distance of 10 m in front of a light-coloured wall which has certain markings on it. The
headlamps are then checked or adjusted on the basis of these markings.
This has remained the statutory test method until today. It is still used particularly for checking
agricultural or special vehicles. One of the disadvantages of this method is that a relatively large,
light-coloured and free wall needs a corresponding amount of space. Both were, and are, not
exactly often present in workshops.
These circumstances were also ultimately among the factors responsible for the development of
beamsetters. Such devices enable quicker and more flexible checking of light distribution.
The following describes the measuring methods, the legal basis, and the most important stages
involved in professional headlamp adjustment.
OPTIMAL BEAMSETTER ADJUSTMENT: INSTRUCTIONS
Measurement method
Fig. 2: 1 Fresnel lens, 2 Aiming screen, 3 Scaled wheel, 4 Photodiode

Beamsetters fundamentally simulate the 10 m wall. The lens installed in the beamsetter box
shortens the prescribed 10 m distance to 50 cm (Fig. 2 - lens to aiming screen).
The disadvantages, such as high amount of space and a suitable wall, are omitted. A beamsetter
can also be flexibly used at different places within the workshop, provided the workshop floor
adheres to the required tolerances.
Headlamp adjustment location
44
Fig. 3: Requirements for headlamp adjustment location

The composition and condition of the floor are of primary importance to enable exact headlamp
adjustment. That is why it also has its own standard (DIN ISO 10604) in which the "test
surface" is specified precisely and the permissible tolerances listed. The graphics listed in Figure
3 clearly illustrate the requirements.
If these tolerances are not adhered to, even minor deviations have a large impact on the light
distribution.
A sample calculation makes this clear:
As already mentioned, a lens is installed in the beamsetter which shortens the prescribed 10 m
measuring distance to the wall to only 50 cm. A mere 5 mm measured wrongly on the aiming
screen of the beamsetter thus corresponds to 10 cm difference over 10 m (ratio 10 m to 50 cm is
factor 20). A vehicle with headlamps installed at a height of 60 cm has a low beam with a range
of 60 meters (at 1% forward tilt = 10 cm inclination to 10 m range).
This means that the headlamp light would deviate by 60 cm. This example clearly illustrates the
decisive effect that a precise test surface has on light distribution, as millimeters can decide
between glare for the oncoming traffic or driving in semi-darkness!
The following points must be observed:
● Test the headlamp function.

● Check the cover lenses for gravel throw damage, scratches, and for dullness.
● The tyres must have the prescribed air pressure.
● Load the vehicle with a person or a weight of 75 kg on the driver's seat. The vehicle is
otherwise not loaded.
● No load is required for trucks and other multi-lane vehicles.
● Single-lane vehicles and single-axle traction or working machines (with seat cart or
trailer) should be loaded with a person or 75 kg on the driver's seat.
● In the case of vehicles with hydraulic or air suspension, manufacturers' instructions must
be heeded.
45
● If automatic correction of the headlamps or an infinite or multi-stage setting fixture is

available, follow the manufacturer's instructions. In this case, various function tests, depending
on the manufacturer, must be carried out.
● A diagnostic tester is required for adjusting various vehicles with automatic illumination
range adjustment, since the control unit has to be set to "basic mode" during adjustment. If the
cut-off line is set correctly, this value is set as the new control value, Fig. 4.
Setting up the beamsetter
Fig. 5: Distance of front edge of the beamsetter box to the headlamp

If the floor conditions are suitable and the vehicle has been prepared, the beamsetter still has to
be aligned to the vehicle to enable exact adjustment.
The beamsetter is moved in front of the headlamp to be checked. The beamsetter box must be
aligned to the middle of the headlamp or to the light source. Vertical and horizontal deviations
may not exceed 3 cm. The distance between the beamsetter box and the headlamp varies
depending on the manufacturer. For thebeamsetters, the distance between the front edge of the
beamsetter box and the headlamp may be between 30 and 70 cm, see Figure 5.
The beamsetter box is then aligned to the vehicle. Devices with a wheel-mounted base must be
individually aligned for each headlamp to be checked. For beamsetter devices on rails, the
beamsetter box only needs to be aligned once. Using the broad-band, laser, or mirror sight, align
the beamsetter box in such a way that the sight line touches two points situated at the same
height, symmetrically to the vehicle’s longitudinal axis, see Fig. 5, dashed lines.
46
INFLUENCE OF HUMIDITY ON PHOTOMETRIC SYSTEMS: BASIC PRINCIPLES
If humidity penetrates into a lighting system, the impairment to the light distributionor light
output as perceived by the driver only represents the obvious effect. The corrosion caused by
humidity is a much more serious problem in many cases. Whereas excessive fogging in
headlamps and other lamps can be seen quickly, corrosion works in hidden spots. The whole
extent of the “decay” only comes to light when diagnostics take place, e.g. when one of the light
functions fails. Corroded plug connections, crimp contacts that have been oxidized away, and
completely dilapidated bulb holders are only a few examples of what can be found. Compared
with commercial vehicles and passenger cars, this subject is even more of an issue with motor
homes and caravans. Here, penetrating humidity may not only damage the light and its wiring, it
can also spread into the insulation of the bodywork, which can result in mold forming.
The most important points related to proper repairs will be explained using the example of
various lamps on a motor home.
First, let us explain a few physical laws related to humidity in lighting systems.
Fogging in lamps: If complaints are received about the above, this does not necessarily mean
there is a fault in the lighting. When the cover lens fogs up, the photometric output area should
dry within a certain period after the light bulb has been switched on. However, this process can
happen more or less quickly depending on the ambient temperature and relative air humidity.
This process is completely in line with normal physical laws and completely harmless from a
technical point of view, since the reflector is protected against the influence of fogging.
When the light bulb is switched on, the air inside the light heats up. The expanded, heated, and
dry air is displaced out of the housing of the rear combination lamp through the ventilation slits.
After the light bulb has been switched off, the air in the rear combination lamp slowly cools
down again. This causes saturated humid air from outside to be “sucked” into the light interior.
This can lead to condensation on the inside of the cover lens on account of high air humidity and
greater temperature differences inside the light. This condition occurs more frequently in the
cold months and in humid weather. However, if there is so much fogging that water drops form
on the cover lens or water even accumulates in the lower area of the light the seal should be
checked for damage and replaced if necessary.
Equally, any “blockage” of the light ventilation openings should be checked. The light can be
blasted with oil-free compressed air to dry it out. If water still accumulates in the light after this
process, the light has to be replaced.
47
Capillary effect The capillary effect in lamps is a less well-known subject. This phenomenon is
often responsible for water penetrating into a light and accumulating in it. The capillary effect
describes the property of liquids to spread to different extents in narrow tubes or cracks.
In the case of an electric cable, the capillary effect is that water molecules and molecules of the
cable sheathing gravitate towards one another. The tighter a capillary is (capillary = tight
cavity), the greater this gravitational effect. For the capillary effect to have any effect at all,
water has to get into the cable. This is often due to a plug connection not being waterproof.
Simple blade terminals, incision-type connectors (current thieves) etc. do not offer the cable
sufficient protection against humidity. This means that water can penetrate the cable through
poorly or non-insulated cable areas under the cable sheathing (insulation)
Through the capillary effect in the cable, humidity penetrates between the copper wires and
cable sheathing into the light.
For this reason, waterproof connectors and cable connections such as Superseal connectors
should always be used.
48
TROUBLESHOOTING ON FOGGED LIGHTING SYSTEMS: TROUBLESHOOTING
If a driver complains about heavy fogging on their vehicle’s lighting equipment, this can have
several causes. A systematic procedure is thus essential to fast and reliable troubleshooting. The
troubleshooting tree (see diagram) illustrates the main testing steps.
WINDSHIELD REPAIRING
Window screen maintenance
Tools for repairing
 A Mirror to place on the inside of the windshield
 A Bridge & injector
 Windshield repair resin
 Windshield pit filler
 Plastic curing tab
 Razor blades
 A dermal tool with special glass bit for cracks
Procedure
Step 1: prep the chip and windshield for repair. Using an alcohol pad to clean the area, and
gently scribe out any loose glass from the "impact point".
Step 2: hook your mirror up on the inside of the windshield, centered on the chip you are going
to be repairing. This will allow you to keep an eye on the chip from all angles, which is very
helpful with all windshield repairs.
Step3: Make a Seal Over the Chip
Step 4: After you effectively have created a seal around the chip, put 3-8 drops of resin into the
injector area.
Step 5: Use the injector to push the resin into the windshield chip. You should be able to see it
start to clear up through your mirror. Keep an eye on it, releasing air and re-injecting the resin
when needed. Leave it alone for about 5-10 minutes.
Step 6: the pit is the area where little bits of glass are missing.
Step 7: Grab a razor blade, and hold it securely upright. Scrape off all excess pit filler, leaving
only the area where glass was missing filled.
Diagnose and Repair a Faulty Windshield Washer Pump

Materials Needed
• A friend to help
• Gloves
49
• Ratchet and socket set, 8mm through 19mm

• Replacement washer pump fuse
• Safety glasses
• Sewing needle
• Test light
• Windshield washer fluid
Step 1: Prepare the vehicle. Park your car on level ground. Then turn the key to the ON position,
but do not actually start the vehicle.
Step 2: Find the washer reservoir. Open the vehicle hood, prop it up, and locate the washer
reservoir.
Step 3: Open the reservoir cap and take a peek inside. If the reservoir is empty, pour some of the
windshield washer fluid inside and test the nozzles a few times to see if that allows them to
work.
Step 4: Place a hand on the reservoir and test the nozzles again. If there is fluid in the reservoir
and the nozzles are still unable to spray it onto the windshield, try placing your hand on the
reservoir while a friend operates the washer nozzles.
Feel and listen for the washer pump to operate.
Step 5: Inspect the vehicle. If you can feel or hear the pump working, take a look around the
vehicle.
Take note of the ground and try to locate any puddles of water. Finding one likely indicates a
leak. If no puddles are located, then you may be dealing with a weak washer pump or clogged
nozzles
Step 6: Locate the source of the leak and replace the tubing if needed. Replacing the tubing for
the nozzles involves slipping off the connectors so they can be cut to size.
•Tip: Be sure to bring the damaged hose to your local parts store as this will allow you to
get the correct tubing diameter for the replacement.
Step 7: Unclog the washer nozzles if needed. Clogged nozzles can be remedied with a sewing
needle.
Slide one side of the needle into the holes of the washer nozzles to clear the clog and repeat as
necessary. Retry the car’s nozzles again to see if this improved the stream of water.
Part 2 of 2: Inspecting the windshield washer pump fuse
If during this inspection you have not been able to see or hear the windshield washer pump turn
on, then your next step is to locate and check the pump’s fuse.
Step 1: Locate the washer pump fuse. Using your owner's manual, locate the fuse for the washer
pump.
Step 2: Test the fuse with the test light. Attach the clip of the text light to any bare metal surface
on the car. This will ground the test light.
50
Have a friend activate the washer nozzles while you touch both sides of the fuse with the test
light. If the fuse is good, the test light will illuminate on both posts of the fuse.
Step 3: Replace the defective fuse as needed. If there is no power, remove, inspect, and replace
the fuse if necessary with an appropriate replacement fuse. Test the nozzles once more.
Step 4: Test the washer pump itself. If there is power at the fuse yet still no spray from the
nozzle, it is time to go back to the washer reservoir.
Locate the washer pump at the bottom of the reservoir. Attach the test light clip again, have a
friend activate the washer nozzles, and proceed to probe the back of the connector on the washer
pump.
When the nozzles are activated, the test light should indicate power on one of the two wires. If
power is verified, then it confirms that the washer pump motor itself is indeed not working and
may need to be replaced.
REPAIR WORK ON THE STOP LIGHT: INSTRUCTIONS
Failure of a light function is often the reason for a visit to the workshop.
In the case described here, the left stop light and one side marker light have failed. The reason
becomes obvious when dismantling the lamps. The rear combination lamp is not sealed against
the plastic body, so that there is nothing stopping dirt and water penetrating the light .
51
Experiment No.3
Study the On-Board Diagnostics
AIM: Study the On-Board Diagnostics
Introduction
On-board diagnostics (OBD) is an automotive term referring to a vehicle's self-diagnostic and
reporting capability. OBD systems give the vehicle owner or repair technician access to the
status of the various vehicle sub-systems. The amount of diagnostic information available via
OBD has varied widely since its introduction in the early 1980s' versions of on-board vehicle
computers. Early versions of OBD would simply illuminate a malfunction indicator light or
"idiot light" if a problem was detected but would not provide any information as to the nature of
the problem. Modern OBD implementations use a standardized digital communications port to
provide real-time data in addition to a standardized series of diagnostic trouble codes, or DTCs,
which allow one to rapidly identify and remedy malfunctions within the vehicle.
History
 1969: Volkswagen introduces the first on-board computer system with scanning
capability, in their fuel-injectedType 3 models.
52
 1975: Datsun 280Z On-board computers begin appearing on consumer vehicles, largely
motivated by their need for real-time tuning of fuel injection systems. Simple OBD
implementations appear, though there is no standardization in what is monitored or how
it is reported.
 1980: General Motors implements a proprietary interface and protocol for testing of the
Engine Control Module (ECM) on the vehicle assembly line. The 'assembly line
diagnostic link' (ALDL) protocol communicates at 160 baud with Pulse-width
modulation (PWM) signaling and monitors very few vehicle systems. Implemented on
California vehicles for the 1980 model year, and the rest of the United States in 1981, the
ALDL was not intended for use outside the factory. The only available function for the
owner is "Blink Codes". The Diagnostic Trouble Codes (DTC's) can be interpreted
through the blinking pattern of the "Check Engine" (MIL) light.
 1986: An upgraded version of the ALDL protocol appears which communicates at 8192
baud with half-duplex UART signaling. This protocol is defined in GM XDE-5024B.
 1988: The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) recommends a standardized
diagnostic connector and set of diagnostic test signals.
 1991:[1] The California Air Resources Board (CARB) requires that all new vehicles sold
in California in 1991 and newer vehicles have some basic OBD capability. These
requirements are generally referred to as "OBD-I", though this name is not applied until
the introduction of OBD-II. The data link connector and its position are not standardized,
nor is the data protocol.
 ~1994: Motivated by a desire for a state-wide emissions testing program, the CARB
issues the OBD-II specification and mandates that it be adopted for all cars sold in
California starting in model year 1996 (see CCR Title 13 Section 1968.1 and 40 CFR
Part 86 Section 86.094). The DTCs and connector suggested by the SAE are
incorporated into this specification.
 1996: The OBD-II specification is made mandatory for all cars sold in the United States.
53
 2001: The European Union makes EOBD mandatory for all gasoline (petrol) vehicles
sold in the European Union, starting in MY2001 (see European emission standards
Directive 98/69/EC).
 2004: The European Union makes EOBD mandatory for all diesel vehicles sold in the
European Union
 2008: All cars sold in the United States are required to use the ISO 15765-4signaling
standard (a variant of the Controller Area Network (CAN) bus).
 2008: Certain light vehicles in China are required by the Environmental Protection
Administration Office to implement OBD (standard GB18352) by July 1, 2008. Some
regional exemptions may apply.
 2010: HDOBD (heavy duty) specification is made mandatory for selected commercial
(non-passenger car) engines sold in the United States.
Standard interfaces
ALDL
GM's ALDL (Assembly Line Diagnostic Link) is sometimes referred as a predecessor to, or a
manufacturer's proprietary version of, an OBD-I diagnostic. This interface was made in different
varieties and changed with power train control modules (aka PCM, ECM, and ECU). Different
versions had slight differences in pin-outs and baud rates. Earlier versions used a 160 baud rate,
while later versions went up to 8192 baud and used bi-directional communications to the PCM.
OBD-I
The regulatory intent of OBD-I was to encourage auto manufacturers to design reliable emission
control systems that remain effective for the vehicle's "useful life".The hope was that by forcing
annual emissions testing for California,and denying registration to vehicles that did not pass,
drivers would tend to purchase vehicles that would more reliably pass the test. OBD-I was
largely unsuccessful as the means of reporting emissions-specific diagnostic information was
not standardized. Technical difficulties with obtaining standardized and reliable emissions
information from all vehicles led to an inability to implement the annual testing program
54
effectively.The Diagnostic Trouble Codes (DTC's) of OBD-I vehicles can usually be found
without an expensive 'scan tool'. Each manufacturer used their own Diagnostic Link Connector
(DLC), DLC location, DTC definitions, and procedure to read the DTC's from the vehicle.
DTC's from OBD-I cars are often read through the blinking patterns of the 'Check Engine Light'
(CEL) or 'Service Engine Soon' (SES) light. By connecting certain pins of the diagnostic
connector, the 'Check Engine' light will blink out a two-digit number that corresponds to a
specific error condition. The DTC's of some OBD-I cars are interpreted in different ways,
however. Cadillac (gasoline) fuel-injected vehicles are equipped with actual on-board
diagnostics, providing trouble codes, actuator tests and sensor data through the new digital
Electronic Climate Control display. Holding down 'Off' and 'Warmer' for several seconds
activates the diagnostic mode without the need for an external scan tool. Some Honda engine
computers are equipped with LED's that light up in a specific pattern to indicate the DTC.
General Motors, some 1989-1995 Ford vehicles (DCL), and some 1989-1995 Toyota/Lexus
vehicles have a live sensor data stream available, however, many other OBD-I equipped
vehicles do not. OBD-I vehicles have fewer DTC's available than for OBD-II equipped vehicles.
OBD-1.5
OBD 1.5 refers to a partial implementation of OBD-II which General Motors used on some
vehicles in 1994, 1995, & 1996. (GM did not use the term OBD 1.5 in the documentation for
these vehicles — they simply have an OBD and an OBD-II section in the service manual.)
For example, the 94–95 Corvettes have one post-catalyst oxygen sensor (although they have two
catalytic converters), and have a subset of the OBD-II codes implemented. For a 1994 Corvette
the implemented OBD-II codes are P0116-P0118, P0131-P0135, P0151-P0155, P0158, P0160-
P0161, P0171-P0175, P0420, P1114-P1115, P1133, P1153 and P1158.[9]
This hybrid system was present on the GM H-body cars in 94-95, W-body cars (Buick Regal,
Chevrolet Lumina ('95 only), Chevrolet Monte Carlo ('95 only), Pontiac Grand Prix, Oldsmobile
Cutlass Supreme) in 94-95, L-body (Chevrolet Beretta/Corsica) in 94-95, Y-body (Chevrolet
Corvette) in 94-95, on the F-body (Chevrolet Camaro and Pontiac Firebird) in 95 and on the J-
Body(Chevrolet Cavalier and Pontiac Sunfire) and N-Body (Buick Skylark, Oldsmobile
55
Achieva, Pontiac Grand Am) in 95 and 96 and also on '94-'95 Saab vehicles with the normally
aspirated 2.3.
The pin out for the ALDL connection on these cars is as follows:
12 3 4 5 6 7 8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
For ALDL connections, pin 9 is the data stream, pins 4 and 5 are ground, and pin 16 is battery
voltage.
An OBD 1.5 compatible scan tool is required to read codes generated by OBD 1.5.
Additional vehicle-specific diagnostic and control circuits are also available on this connector.
For instance, on the Corvette there are interfaces for the Class 2 serial data stream from the
PCM, the CCM diagnostic terminal, the radio data stream, the airbag system, the selective ride
control system, the low tire pressure warning system, and the passive keyless entry system.
An OBD 1.5 has also been used on Mitsubishi cars of '95 '97 vintage,some1995 Volkswagen
VR6'sBuick Riviera of 1995 vintage and in the Ford Scorpio since 95.
OBD-II
OBD-II is an improvement over OBD-I in both capability and standardization. The OBD-II
standard specifies the type of diagnostic connector and its pin out, the electrical signaling
protocols available, and the messaging format. It also provides a candidate list of vehicle
parameters to monitor along with how to encode the data for each. There is a pin in the
connector that provides power for the scan tool from the vehicle battery, which eliminates the
need to connect a scan tool to a power source separately. However, some technicians might still
connect the scan tool to an auxiliary power source to protect data in the unusual event that a
vehicle experiences a loss of electrical power due to a malfunction. Finally, the OBD-II standard
provides an extensible list of DTCs. As a result of this standardization, a single device can query
the on-board computer(s) in any vehicle. This OBD-II came in two models OBD-IIA and OBD-
IIB. OBD-II standardization was prompted by emissions requirements, and though only
56
emission-related codes and data are required to be transmitted through it, most manufacturers
have made the OBD-II Data Link Connector the only one in the vehicle through which all
systems are diagnosed and programmed. OBD-II Diagnostic Trouble Codes are 4-digit,
preceded by a letter: P for engine and transmission (powertrain), B for body, C for chassis, and
U for network.
OBD-II diagnostic connector
Female OBD-II connector on a car
Female OBD-II connector pinout - front view

The OBD-II specification provides for a standardized hardware interface—the female 16-pin
(2x8) J1962 connector. Unlike the OBD-I connector, which was sometimes found under the
hood of the vehicle, the OBD-II connector is required to be within 2 feet (0.61 m) of the steering
wheel (unless an exemption is applied for by the manufacturer, in which case it is still
somewhere within reach of the driver). SAE J1962 defines the pin out of the connector as:
57
1 Manufacturer discretion. 9 Manufacturer discretion.

GM: J2411 GMLAN/SWC/Single-Wire CAN. GM: 8192 baud ALDL where fitted.
VW/Audi: Switched +12 to tell a scan tool
whether the ignition is on.
2 Bus positive Line of SAE-J1850 PWM and SAE- 10 Bus negative Line of SAE-J1850
1850 VPW PWM only (not SAE-1850 VPW)
3 Ford DCL(+) Argentina, Brazil (pre OBD-II) 11 Ford DCL(-) Argentina, Brazil (pre
1997-2000, USA, Europe, etc. Chrysler CCD OBD-II) 1997-2000, USA, Europe,
Bus(+) etc. Chrysler CCD Bus(-)
4 Chassis ground 12 Not connected
5 Signal ground 13 Manufacturer discretion

Ford: FEPS - Programming PCM
voltage
6 CAN high (ISO 15765-4 and SAE-J2284) 14 CAN low (ISO 15765-4 and SAE-
J2284)
7 K line of ISO 9141-2 and ISO 14230-4 15 L line of ISO 9141-2 and ISO 14230-4
8 Manufacturer discretion. 16 Battery voltage

Many BMWs: A second K-Line for non OBD-II
(Body/Chassis/Infotainment) systems.
The assignment of unspecified pins is left to the vehicle manufacturer's discretion.

EOBD
The EOBD (European On Board Diagnostics) regulations are the European equivalent of OBD-
II, and apply to all passenger cars of category M1 (with no more than 8 passenger seats and a
Gross Vehicle Weight rating of 2500 kg or less) first registered within EU member states since
58
January 1, 2001 for petrol (gasoline) engined cars and since January 1, 2004 for dieselengined
cars.
For newly introduced models, the regulation dates applied a year earlier - January 1, 2000 for
petrol and January 1, 2003 for diesel.
For passenger cars with a Gross Vehicle Weight rating of greater than 2500 kg and for light
commercial vehicles, the regulation dates applied from January 1, 2002 for petrol models, and
January 1, 2007 for diesel models.
The technical implementation of EOBD is essentially the same as OBD-II, with the same SAE
J1962 diagnostic link connector and signal protocols being used.
With Euro V and Euro VI emission standards, EOBD emission thresholds will be lower than
previous E
EOBD fault codes

Each of the EOBD fault codes consists of five characters: a letter, followed by four numbers.
The letter refers to the system being interrogated e.g. Pxxxx would refer to the powertrain
system. The next character would be a 0 if complies with the EOBD standard. So it should look
like P0xxx.
The next character would refer to the sub system.
 P00xx - Fuel and Air Metering and Auxiliary Emission Controls.
 P01xx - Fuel and Air Metering.
 P02xx - Fuel and Air Metering (Injector Circuit).
 P03xx - Ignition System or Misfire.
 P04xx - Auxiliary Emissions Controls.
 P05xx - Vehicle Speed Controls and Idle Control System.
 P06xx - Computer Output Circuit.
 P07xx - Transmission.
 P08xx - Transmission.
The following two characters would refer to the individual fault within each subsystem.
59
EOBD2
The term "EOBD2" is marketing speak used by some vehicle manufacturers to refer to
manufacturer-specific features that are not actually part of the OBD or EOBD standard. In this
case "E" stands for Enhanced.
JOBD
JOBD is a version of OBD-II for vehicles sold in Japan.
ADR 79/01 & 79/02 (Australian OBD standard)
The ADR 79/01 (Vehicle Standard (Australian Design Rule 79/01 – Emission Control for Light
Vehicles) 2005) standard is the Australian equivalent of OBD-II.
It applies to all vehicles of category M1 and N1 with a Gross Vehicle Weight rating of 3500 kg
or less, registered from new within Australia and produced since January 1, 2006 for petrol
(gasoline) engined cars and since January 1, 2007 for dieselengined cars.
For newly introduced models, the regulation dates applied a year earlier - January 1, 2005 for
petrol and January 1, 2006 for diesel.
The ADR 79/01 standard was supplemented by the ADR 79/02 standard which imposed tighter
emissions restrictions, applicable to all vehicles of class M1 and N1 with a Gross Vehicle
Weight rating of 3500 kg or less, from July 1, 2008 for new models, July 1, 2010 for all
models.[15]
The technical implementation of this standard is essentially the same as OBD-II, with the same
SAE J1962 diagnostic link connector and signal protocols being used.
OBD-II signal protocols

There are five signaling protocols that are permitted with the OBD-II interface. Most vehicles
implement only one of the protocols. It is often possible to deduce the protocol used based on
which pins are present on the J1962 connector:
 SAE J1850 PWM (pulse-width modulation — 41.6 kB/sec, standard of the Ford Motor
Company)
o pin 2: Bus+
o pin 10: Bus–
60
o High voltage is +5 V
o Message length is restricted to 12 bytes, including CRC
o Employs a multi-master arbitration scheme called 'Carrier Sense Multiple Access
with Non-Destructive Arbitration' (CSMA/NDA)
 SAE J1850 VPW (variable pulse width — 10.4/41.6 kB/sec, standard of General
Motors)
o pin 2: Bus+
o Bus idles low
o High voltage is +7 V
o Decision point is +3.5 V
o Message length is restricted to 12 bytes, including CRC
o Employs CSMA/NDA
 ISO 9141-2. This protocol has an asynchronous serial data rate of 10.4 kBaud. It is
somewhat similar to RS-232; however, the signal levels are different, and
communications happens on a single, bidirectional line without additional handshake
signals. ISO 9141-2 is primarily used in Chrysler, European, and Asian vehicles.
o pin 7: K-line
o pin 15: L-line (optional)
o UART signaling
o K-line idles high, with a 510 ohm resistor to Vbatt
o The active/dominant state is driven low with an open-collector driver.
o Message length is Max 260Bytes. Data field MAX 255.
 ISO 14230 KWP2000 (Keyword Protocol 2000)
o pin 7: K-line
o pin 15: L-line (optional)
o Physical layer identical to ISO 9141-2
o Data rate 1.2 to 10.4 kBaud
o Message may contain up to 255 bytes in the data field
61
 ISO 15765 CAN (250 kBit/s or 500 kBit/s). The CAN protocol was developed by Bosch
for automotive and industrial control. Unlike other OBD protocols, variants are widely
used outside of the automotive industry. While it did not meet the OBD-II requirements
for U.S. vehicles prior to 2003, as of 2008 all vehicles sold in the US are required to
implement CAN as one of their signaling protocols.
o pin 6: CAN High
o pin 14: CAN Low
All OBD-II pinouts use the same connector, but different pins are used with the exception of pin
4 (battery ground) and pin 16 (battery positive).
OBD-II diagnostic data available

OBD-II provides access to data from the engine control unit (ECU) and offers a valuable source
of information when troubleshooting problems inside a vehicle. The SAE J1979 standard
defines a method for requesting various diagnostic data and a list of standard parameters that
might be available from the ECU. The various parameters that are available are addressed by
"parameter identification numbers" or PIDs which are defined in J1979. For a list of basic PIDs,
their definitions, and the formula to convert raw OBD-II output to meaningful diagnostic units,
see OBD-II PIDs. Manufacturers are not required to implement all PIDs listed in J1979 and they
are allowed to include proprietary PIDs that are not listed. The PID request and data retrieval
system gives access to real time performance data as well as flagged DTCs. For a list of generic
OBD-II DTCs suggested by the SAE, see Table of OBD-II Codes. Individual manufacturers
often enhance the OBD-II code set with additional proprietary DTCs.
OBD Applications
Various tools are available that plug into the OBD connector to access OBD functions. These
range from simple generic consumer level tools to highly sophisticated OEM dealership tools to
vehicle telematics devices.
62
Hand-held Scan Tools
Multi-brand vehicle diagnostics system handheld Autoboss V-30 with adapters for connectors of
several vehicle manufacturers.
A range of rugged hand-held scan tools is available.
 Simple fault code readers/reset tools are mostly aimed at the consumer level.
 Professional hand-held scan tools may possess more advanced functions
o Access more advanced diagnostics
o Set manufacturer- or vehicle-specific ECU parameters
o Access and control other control units, such as air bag or ABS
o Real-time monitoring or graphing of engine parameters to facilitate diagnosis or
tuning
Mobile Device Based Tools and Analysis
Mobile device applications allow mobile devices such as cell phones and tablets to display and
manipulate the OBD-II data accessed via USB adaptor cables or Bluetooth adapters plugged into
the car's OBD II connector.
63
PC-based Scan Tools and Analysis Platforms
Typical simple USB KKL Diagnostic Interface without protocol logic for signal level
adjustment.
A PC-based OBD analysis tool that converts the OBD-II signals to serial data (USB or serial
port) standard to PCs or Macs. The software then decodes the received data to a visual display.
Many popular interfaces are based on the ELM or STN1110 OBD Interpreter ICs, both of which
read all five generic OBD-II protocols. Some adapters now use the J2534 API allowing them to
access OBD-II Protocols for both cars and trucks.
In addition to the functions of a hand-held scan tool, the PC-based tools generally offer:
 Large storage capacity for data logging and other functions
 Higher resolution screen than handheld tools
 The ability to use multiple software programs adding flexibility
The extent that a PC tool may access manufacturer or vehicle-specific ECU diagnostics varies
between software products as it does between hand-held scanners.
Data Loggers
TEXA OBD log. Small data logger with the possibility to read out the data later on PC via USB.
Data loggers are designed to capture vehicle data while the vehicle is in normal operation, for
later analysis.
64
Data logging uses include:

 Engine and vehicle monitoring under normal operation, for the purpose of diagnosis or
tuning.
 Some US auto insurance companies offer reduced premiums if OBD-II vehicle data
loggers or cameras are installed - and if the driver's behavior meets requirements. This is
a form of auto insurance risk selection
 Monitoring of driver behavior by fleet vehicle operators.
Analysis of vehicle black box data may be performed on a periodic basis, automatically
transmitted wirelessly to a third party or retrieved for forensic analysis after an event such as an
accident, traffic infringement or mechanical fault.
Emission Testing
In the United States, many states now use OBD-II testing instead of tailpipe testing in OBD-II
compliant vehicles (1996 and newer). Since OBD-II stores trouble codes for emissions
equipment, the testing computer can query the vehicle's onboard computer and verify there are
no emission related trouble codes and that the vehicle is in compliance with emission standards
for the model year it was manufactured.
In the Netherlands, 2006 and later vehicles get a yearly EOBD emission check.
Driver's Supplementary Vehicle Instrumentation

Driver's supplementary vehicle instrumentation is instrumentation installed in a vehicle in
addition to that provided by the vehicle manufacturer and intended for display to the driver
during normal operation. This is opposed to scanners used primarily for active fault diagnosis,
tuning, or hidden data logging.
Auto enthusiasts have traditionally installed additional gauges such as manifold vacuum, battery
current etc. The OBD standard interface has enabled a new generation of enthusiast
instrumentation accessing the full range of vehicle data used for diagnostics, and derived data
such as instantaneous fuel economy.
65
Instrumentation may take the form of dedicated trip computers,computer or interfaces to PDAs,
smartphones, or a Garmin navigation unit.
As a computer is essentially a PC, the same software could be loaded as for PC-based scan tools
and vice-versa, so the distinction is only in the reason for use of the software.
These enthusiast systems may also include some functionality similar to the other scan tools
Vehicle Telematics
OBD II is no longer only used by professionals and hobbyists to repair vehicles. OBD II
information is commonly used by vehicle telematics devices that perform fleet tracking, monitor
fuel efficiency, prevent unsafe driving, as well as for remote diagnostics and by Pay-As-You-
Drive insurance. Although originally not intended for the above purposes, commonly supported
OBD II data such as Vehicle Speed, RPM, and Fuel Level allow GPS based fleet tracking
devices to monitor vehicle idling times, speeding, and over-revving. By monitoring OBD II
DTCs a company can know immediately if one of its vehicles has an engine problem and by
interpreting the code the nature of the problem. OBD II is also monitored to block mobile
phones when driving and to record trip data for insurance purposes.
Security issues
Researchers at the University of Washington and University of California examined the security
around OBD, and found that they were able to gain control over many vehicle components via
the interface. Furthermore, they were able to upload new firmware into the engine control units.
Their conclusion is that vehicle embedded systems are not designed with security in mind.
There have been reports of thieves using specialist OBD reprogramming devices to enable them
to steal cars without the use of a key. The primary causes of this vulnerability lie in the tendency
for vehicle manufacturers to extend the bus for purposes other than those for which it was
designed, and the lack of authentication and authorization in the OBD specifications, which
instead rely largely on security through obscurity.
66
Experiment No.4
Smoke Analysis of 2/4-Stroke Petrol Engine using Orsat
Apparatus.
Aim: To analyze smoke of 2/4 stroke petrol engine using Orsat Apparatus.
Procedure:
1.The whole apparatus is thoroughly cleaned, stoppers greased and then tested for air-tightness.
2.The absorption pipettes are filled with their respective solutions to level just below their
rubber connections.
2. Their stop-cocks are then closed and jacket and levelling reservoir are filled with water.
3. The three-way stop-cock is opened to the atmosphere and reservoir is raised with water.
4. The three-way stop-cock is now connected to the flue gas supply and the reservoir is lowered
to draw in the flue gas in the burette.
5. Gas is sucked in the burette and the volume of the flue gas is adjusted to 100 ml at
atmospheric pressure.
6. The three-way stop-cock is opened to atmosphere and the reservoir is carefully raised till the
level of water in it is the same as in the burette and the three-way stop-cock is then closed
finally.
7. The gas is again sent to the burette by lowering the water reservoir.
8. This process is repeated several times to ensure complete absorption of CO2 by KOH
solution.
9. The unabsorbed gas is finally taken back to the burette.
10.The volumes of O2 and CO are similarly determined by passing the remaining gas through
alkaline pyrogallic acid pipette and cuprous chloride pipette respectively.
11. The gas remaining in burette after absorption of CO2, O2 and CO is taken as nitrogen.
Observation:
Engine type : Single cylinder 4-stroke , 150 cc, petrol Model : Bajaj Pulsar 150
engine
Mode of CO% CO2 O2 HC ppm
Operation
Idling 1.10 2.0 0.0 550
67
Technical Data ( Idling emission ) :-

CO measurement range :- 0.0 - 3.5%
HC measurement range :- 0.0 – 6000 ppm :
Non-methane HC :- 0.3 times HC
Result :- The CO % found to be 1.10 %

The HC found to be 550 ppm
Non-methane HC 165ppm
Reactive HC 275ppm
Conclusion :- All the following values found to be within limits.
68
Experiment No.5
Wheel balancing on a Computerized Wheel Balancer
AIM: To perform wheel balancing on a Computerized Wheel Balancer.
DESCRIPTION:
MAKE & MODEL: Computerized Wheel Balancer A-70L
Wheel weight : up to 65kg.
Rim dia. : passenger cars – 10” to 16”
Small trucks - up to 17.5”
Motorcycles - up to 23”
Rim width : up to 14”
Measuring time : 3secs.
PROCEDURE:
Preparatory work on wheel
Clean rim & tire.
Remove old balancing
weights. Check tire
pressure.
Check for tire wear or damage to rim.
Remove stone pieces embedded in the tire treads.
Installing wheel on machine using positive centering flange.
Mount the tire on the centering cone of appropriate size and press it against the
compression ring. Hold the wheel carefully against the cone and at the same time push
the clamping jacket onto the
flange shaft and tighten the rapid clamping nut by hand.
69
Rim data input.

Turn on main switch. The wheel rim diagram appears on the screen.
Press the OK/MEMORY key; page 1 of the menu appears on the screen, with allocation
numbers up to 32. Press OK to view menu from numbers 33 to 64.
Select the required rim data allocating number for the wheel to be balanced by entering
it with the number keys.
Press OK. The number appears on the screen along with the relevant rim data & rim
diagram.
Slide out the rim distance sensor arm from the zero position until it touches the rim
flange and wait for acoustic signal. The value is displayed on the screen. The machine is
now ready for balancing procedure.
Selecting balancing method :-

Press key 4, 5 & 6 as desired for hammer-on, sticker-on weights and their
locations. Press GRAMME/OUNCE key to measure in grams or ounce as
desired.
Press key no.17 once for fine balancing, twice for 5g suppression threshold and thrice for
10g suppression threshold.
Balancing the wheel :-
Close the wheel guard. The machine starts automatically.
After 3secs the brake is applied automatically and the imbalance values along with the
direction are shown on the top of the screen.
The direction arrows shorten as the wheel is turned to the correct position. At the correct
balancing position, the arrows disappear & imbalance value changes from red to green.
The attachment point for the balancing weights for outer & inner planes is always 12
O’clock position.
After attaching balancing weights, a check run is carried out. Correct balancing is shown
as a white “000” display.
70
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Wheel no. Inner side weights Outer side

(grams) weights (grams)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
DISCUSSIONS:
1. What is the necessity of wheel balancing?
2. What so you mean by static and dynamic balancing?
3. Explain the terms wheel wobble, shimmy and tramp.
71
Q.1 ) WHAT IS THE NECESSITY OF WHEEL BALANCING?

ANS: -Tire balance, also referred to as tire unbalance or imbalance, describes the distribution of
mass within an automobile tire or the entire wheel to which it is attached.
When the wheel rotates, asymmetries of mass may cause it to hop or wobble, which can cause
ride disturbances, usually vertical and lateral vibrations. It can also result in a wobbling of the
steering wheel or of the entire vehicle. The ride disturbance, due to unbalance, usually increases
with speed. Vehicle suspensions can become excited by unbalance forces when the speed of the
wheel reaches a point that its rotating frequency equals the suspension’s resonant frequency.
Tires are balanced in factories and repair shops by two methods: static balancers and dynamic
balancers. Tires with high unbalance forces are downgraded or rejected. When tires are fitted to
wheels at the point of sale, they are measured again on a balancing machine, and correction
weights are applied to counteract the combined effect of the tire and wheel unbalance. After
sale, tires may be rebalanced if driver perceives excessive vibration.
Q.2 ) WHAT SO YOU MEAN BY STATIC AND DYNAMIC BALANCING?

ANS:-
STATIC BALANCE:-
Static balance can be measured by a static balancing machine where the tire is placed in its
vertical axis on a non-rotating spindle tool. The spot on the tire with the greatest mass is acted
72
upon by gravity to deflect the tooling downward. The amount of deflection indicates the
magnitude of the unbalance. The angle of the deflection indicates the angular location of the
unbalance. In tire manufacturing factories, static balancers operate by use of sensors mounted to
the spindle assembly. In tire retail shops, static balancers are usually non-rotating bubble
balancers, where the magnitude and angle of the unbalance is observed by looking at the center
bubble in an oil-filled glass sighting gauge. While some very small shops which lack specialized
machines still do this process, they have been largely replaced in larger shops with machines.
DYNAMIC BALANCE:-
Dynamic balance describes the forces generated by asymmetric mass distribution when the tire
is rotated, usually at a high speed. In the tire factory, the tire and wheel are mounted on a
balancing machine test wheel, the assembly is accelerated up to a speed of 300 RPM or higher,
and sensors measure the forces of unbalance as the tire rotates. These forces are resolved into
static and couple values for the inner and outer planes of the wheel, and compared to the
unbalance tolerance (the maximum allowable manufacturing limits). If the tire is not checked, it
has the potential to wobble and perform poorly. In tire retail shops, tire/wheel assemblies are
checked on a spin-balancer, which determines the amount and angle of unbalance. Balance
weights are then fitted to the outer and inner flanges of the wheel. Dynamic balance is better (it
is more comprehensive) than static balance alone, because both couple and static forces are
measured and corrected.
The dynamic balance can only be conducted if the driver comes to the garage and has the garage
check for imbalances. With the existing sensors found in many cars, however, the imbalance can
be estimated in real time, as seen in a recent SAE paper: sensors such as the ABS wheel speed
sensors were used to detect an imbalanced tire or tires in real time.
73
Q.3 ) EXPLAIN THE TERM WHEEL WOBBLE, SHIMMY AND TRAMP?

ANS:-
WHEEL WOOBLE:-Wobble are all words and phrases used to describe a quick (4–10 Hz)
oscillation of primarily just the steerable wheel(s) of a vehicle. Initially, the rest of the vehicle
remains mostly unaffected, until translated into a vehicle yaw oscillation of
increasing amplitude producing loss of control. Vehicles that can experience this oscillation
include motorcycles and bicycles, skateboards, and in theory any vehicle with a single steering
pivot point and a sufficient amount of freedom of the steered wheel, including that which exists
on some light aircraft with tricycle gear where instability can occur at speeds of less than
50 mph; this does not include most automobiles. However, coil-sprung vehicles with a track
bar setup such as the Jeep WJ, XJ, ZJ, TJ, and JK with both stock and after-market suspension
lifts may also have this problem. The initial instability occurs mostly at high speed and is similar
to that experienced by shopping cart wheels and aircraft landing gear.
SHIMMY :-Shimmy means the front wheels move in and out or vibrate at certain speeds.
Shimmy is definitely noticeable in the steering wheel. If the shimmy is bad enough, it can be
very dangerous because its force can break some of the steering parts. Shimmy can be caused by
wheels and tires that are out of balance or bent wheels, as well as other causes. Shimmy will be
worse if the steering parts are worn or out of adjustment.
WHEEL TRAMP :-Wheel tramp means the wheels are bouncing up and down. This also is
noticeable in the steering wheel, but as a vibration, whereas shimmy tries to turn the steering
wheel back and forth. Wheel tramp, like shimmy, is also caused by wheels and tires that are out
of balance. However, the out-of-balance portion is equal across the wheel or tire. This causes the
wheel to move straight up and down rather than sideways as in shimmy. Wheel tramp, like
shimmy, will be worse on a vehicle if some of the parts are loose, worn, or improperly adjusted.
74
Experiment No.6
Investigating Steering geometry of a vehicle using a Computerized
Wheel Aligner
AIM: To find the Steering geometry of a vehicle using a Computerized Wheel Aligner.
THEORY: The computerized wheel aligners are advanced micro-processor controlled systems
capable of giving simultaneous displays of alignment readings of left and right wheels of
all cars, LCV’s and HCV’s. The measuring sensors incorporate highly sensitive devices
for measuring the wheel alignment parameters. The built-in database includes alignment
data of all Indian and Imported vehicles.
DESCRIPTION:
Make & Model: Charged Couple Device (CCD) Wheel Aligner 7000 RF
Wheel size : for cars-10” to 17’
For trucks-14” to 26”
MEASURING
MEASURING SCOPE RANGE
Total toe 100
Individual toe 50
Camber 80
Caster 180
King-pin inclination 180
Set back 50
75
PROCEDURE:
Checking the vehicle
Check the following features on the vehicle visually.
Matching wheel & tire sizes. Conditions of the king-pin, wheel bearings and track
rod pivots. Condition of suspension. Tire pressure.
Linking up the unit

Park the vehicle over the pit with the front wheels resting on the center of their
respective turn tables and apply the handbrake.
Attach the universal measuring equipment holder to front wheels only
Introduce the value sensors with arm into the front wheel measuring equipment holder
and secure it with the toggle screws. Fix elastic cords running along the rear wheels into
both the front value sensors measuring bars levers.
Start machine and select the appropriate vehicle from the vehicle data bank using
Target/Actual Value Comparison key (no. 19).Press Twin Sensor System key (no. 18).
Run out compensation

Set the steering visually to the straight ahead position. Lift the wheels approx. 6cm. above
the ground and set the value sensor in a horizontal position using the spirit level.
Press the Compensation key (no.30) on the value sensor until its LED lights up. Turn the
wheel through 900 in the direction of travel, set the value sensor to the horizontal using the
spirit level and again press Compensation key until the LED lights up.
Repeat the same for 1800 & 2700 rotation of the wheel. A red arrow appears on the screen to
confirm the compensating process for the particular wheel. Follow same procedure for other
wheel.
Remove the turn table pins. Set down the wheel, and set both value sensors horizontal.
Depress the Lower Wheel key (no.31) on the value sensor until the LED lights up. The red
76
arrow on the screen is replaced by green ones.

Fully depress the brake pedal. Fit the brake lock. Rock the vehicle several times and check
the horizontal position of the value sensors. Press the Straight Ahead key (no.1). Turn the
steering wheel until the same alignment value is displayed for both the wheels.
Measurement of Caster, Camber, Toe and Setback.

Press Caster key (no.5) to obtain the symbolic caster display. A green “STOP” square is
replaced by a red guide arrow indicating the direction in which the wheels have to be
steered.
Steer the wheels, the changes it’s color from red to green. A green “STOP” again appears.
Repeat the same for the other direction also. The measured values are then displayed, which
is the value of the caster angle on individual front wheels.
Press King-pin Inclination key (no.6) for display of king-pin inclination values both the
wheels. Press Straight Ahead key (no.1) and equalize both the wheels and lock the
steering wheel.
Press Left Camber key (no.8) for camber and individual toe values for left hand wheel.
Press Right Camber key (no.9) for camber and individual toe values for right hand wheel.
Press Individual Toe key (no.10) for measurement of individual toe values for both the
wheels. Press Total Toe and Set Back key (no. 11) for the measurement for Total Toe
and Set-Back
77
OBSERVATION TABLE:
MAKE : DATE:
MODEL: KM RUN:
REG. NO.:
LOAD CONDITION: RIM DIA:
SPECIFIED LEFT WHEEL RIGHT WHEEL

UNIT Measured Adjusted Measured Adjusted
VALUE
value value value value
TOE IN
PARTIAL mm.
TOE IN
TOTAL mm.
SET-BACK Deg.
CAMBER Deg.
CASTER Deg.
KING PIN
INCLINATI Deg.
ON
78
DISCUSSIONS:
Q) Discuss various parameters which effect the wheel alignment of a vehicle.

Q) What is the effect of a) Incorrect camber, b) Incorrect caster?
Q) Discuss briefly the term cornering force and self-righting torque.
Q.1 ) DISCUSS VARIOUS PARAMETERS WHICH EFFECT THE WHEEL ALIGNMENT OF

A VEHICLE. ?
ANS: - The three major alignment parameters on a car are toe, camber, and caster. Most
enthusiasts have a good understanding of what these settings are and what they involve, but many
may not know why a particular setting is called for, or how it affects performance. Let's take a
quick look at this basic aspect of suspension tuning.
UNDERSTANDING TOE
When a pair of wheels is set so that their leading edges are pointed slightly towards each other, the
wheel pair is said to have toe-in. If the leading edges point away from each other, the pair is said
to have toe-out. The amount of toe can be expressed in degrees as the angle to which the wheels
are out of parallel, or more commonly, as the difference between the track widths as measured at
the leading and trailing edges of the tires or wheels. Toe settings affect three major areas of
performance: tire wear, straight-line stability and corner entry handling characteristics.
For minimum tire wear and power loss, the wheels on a given axle of a car should point directly
ahead when the car is running in a straight line. Excessive toe-in or toe-out causes the tires to
scrub, since they are always turned relative to the direction of travel. Too much toe-in causes
accelerated wear at the outboard edges of the tires, while too much toe-out causes wear at the
inboard edges.
79
So if minimum tire wear and power loss are achieved with zero toe, why have any toe angles at
all? The answer is that toe settings have a major impact on directional stability. The illustrations at
right show the mechanisms involved. With the steering wheel centered, toe-in causes the wheels
to tend to roll along paths that intersect each other. Under this condition, the wheels are at odds
with each other, and no turn results.
When the wheel on one side of the car encounters a disturbance, that wheel is pulled rearward
about its steering axis. This action also pulls the other wheel in the same steering direction. If it's a
minor disturbance, the disturbed wheel will steer only a small amount, perhaps so that it's rolling
straight ahead instead of toed-in slightly. But note that with this slight steering input, the rolling
paths of the wheels still don't describe a turn. The wheels have absorbed the irregularity without
significantly changing the direction of the vehicle. In this way, toe-in enhances straight-line
stability.
If the car is set up with toe-out, however, the front wheels are aligned so that slight disturbances
cause the wheel pair to assume rolling directions that do describe a turn. Any minute steering
angle beyond the perfectly centered position will cause the inner wheel to steer in a tighter turn
radius than the outer wheel. Thus, the car will always be trying to enter a turn, rather than
maintaining a straight line of travel. So it's clear that toe-out encourages the initiation of a turn,
while toe-in discourages it.
80
With toe-in (left) a deflection of the suspension does not cause the wheels to initiate a turn as with
toe-out (right).
The toe setting on a particular car becomes a trade-off between the straight-line stability afforded
by toe-in and the quick steering response promoted by toe-out. Nobody wants their street car to
constantly wander over tar strips-the never-ending steering corrections required would drive
anyone batty. But racers are willing to sacrifice a bit of stability on the straightaway for a sharper
turn-in to the corners. So street cars are generally set up with toe-in, while race cars are often set
up with toe-out.
With four-wheel independent suspension, the toe must also be set at the rear of the car. Toe
settings at the rear have essentially the same effect on wear, directional stability and turn-in as
they do on the front. However, it is rare to set up a rear-drive race car toed out in the rear, since
doing so causes excessive over steer, particularly when power is applied. Front-wheel-drive race
cars, on the other hand, are often set up with a bit of toe-out, as this induces a bit of over steer to
counteract the greater tendency of front-wheel-drive cars to under steer.
Remember also that toe will change slightly from a static situation to a dynamic one. This is is
81
most noticeable on a front-wheel-drive car or independently-suspended rear-drive car. When

driving torque is applied to the wheels, they pull themselves forward and try to create toe-in. This
is another reason why many front-drivers are set up with toe-out in the front. Likewise, when
pushed down the road, a non-driven wheel will tend to toe itself out. This is most noticeable in
rear-drive cars.
The amount of toe-in or toe-out dialed into a given car is dependent on the compliance of the
suspension and the desired handling characteristics. To improve ride quality, street cars are
equipped with relatively soft rubber bushings at their suspension links, and thus the links move a
fair amount when they are loaded. Race cars, in contrast, are fitted with steel spherical bearings or
very hard urethane, metal or plastic bushings to provide optimum rigidity and control of
suspension links. Thus, a street car requires a greater static toe-in than does a race car, so as to
avoid the condition wherein bushing compliance allows the wheels to assume a toe-out condition.
It should be noted that in recent years, designers have been using bushing compliance in street
cars to their advantage. To maximize transient response, it is desirable to use a little toe-in at the
rear to hasten the generation of slip angles and thus cornering forces in the rear tires. By allowing
a bit of compliance in the front lateral links of an A-arm type suspension, the rear axle will toe-in
when the car enters a hard corner; on a straightaway where no cornering loads are present, the
bushings remain undistorted and allow the toe to be set to an angle that enhances tire wear and
stability characteristics. Such a design is a type of passive four-wheel steering system.
THE EFFECTS OF CASTER

Caster is the angle to which the steering pivot axis is tilted forward or rearward from vertical, as
viewed from the side. If the pivot axis is tilted backward (that is, the top pivot is positioned farther
rearward than the bottom pivot), then the caster is positive; if it's tilted forward, then the caster is
negative.
Positive caster tends to straighten the wheel when the vehicle is traveling forward, and thus is
used to enhance straight-line stability. The mechanism that causes this tendency is clearly
illustrated by the castering front wheels of a shopping cart (above). The steering axis of a
shopping cart wheel is set forward of where the wheel contacts the ground. As the cart is pushed
82
forward, the steering axis pulls the wheel along, and since the wheel drags along the ground, it
falls directly in line behind the steering axis. The force that causes the wheel to follow the steering
axis is proportional to the distance between the steering axis and the wheel-to-ground contact
patch-the greater the distance, the greater the force. This distance is referred to as "trail."
Due to many design considerations, it is desirable to have the steering axis of a car's wheel right at
the wheel hub. If the steering axis were to be set vertical with this layout, the axis would be
coincident with the tire contact patch. The trail would be zero, and no castering would be
generated. The wheel would be essentially free to spin about the patch (actually, the tire itself
generates a bit of a castering effect due to a phenomenon known as "pneumatic trail," but this
effect is much smaller than that created by mechanical castering, so we'll ignore it here).
Fortunately, it is possible to create castering by tilting the steering axis in the positive direction.
With such an arrangement, the steering axis intersects the ground at a point in front of the tire
contact patch, and thus the same effect as seen in the shopping cart casters is achieved.
The tilted steering axis has another important effect on suspension geometry. Since the wheel
rotates about a tilted axis, the wheel gains camber as it is turned. This effect is best visualized by
imagining the unrealistically extreme case where the steering axis would be horizontal-as the
steering wheel is turned, the road wheel would simply change camber rather than direction. This
effect causes the outside wheel in a turn to gain negative camber, while the inside wheel gains
positive camber. These camber changes are generally favorable for cornering, although it is
possible to overdo it.
Most cars are not particularly sensitive to caster settings. Nevertheless, it is important to ensure
that the caster is the same on both sides of the car to avoid the tendency to pull to one side. While
greater caster angles serve to improve straight-line stability, they also cause an increase in steering
effort. Three to five degrees of positive caster is the typical range of settings, with lower angles
being used on heavier vehicles to keep the steering effort reasonable.
83
Like a shopping cart wheel (left) the trail created by the castering of the steering axis pulls the
wheels in line.
Camber is the angle of the wheel relative to vertical, as viewed from the front or the rear of the
car. If the wheel leans in towards the chassis, it has negative camber; if it leans away from the car,
it has positive camber (see next page). The cornering force that a tire can develop is highly
dependent on its angle relative to the road surface, and so wheel camber has a major effect on the
road holding of a car. It's interesting to note that a tire develops its maximum cornering force at a
small negative camber angle, typically around neg. 1/2 degree. This fact is due to the contribution
of camber thrust, which is an additional lateral force generated by elastic deformation as the tread
rubber pulls through the tire/road interface (the contact patch).
To optimize a tire's performance in a corner, it's the job of the suspension designer to assume that
the tire is always operating at a slightly negative camber angle. This can be a very difficult task,
since, as the chassis rolls in a corner, the suspension must deflect vertically some distance. Since
the wheel is connected to the chassis by several links which must rotate to allow for the wheel
deflection, the wheel can be subject to large camber changes as the suspension moves up and
down. For this reason, the more the wheel must deflect from its static position, the more difficult it
is to maintain an ideal camber angle. Thus, the relatively large wheel travel and soft roll stiffness
needed to provide a smooth ride in passenger cars presents a difficult design challenge, while the
small wheel travel and high roll stiffness inherent in racing cars reduces the engineer's headaches.
It's important to draw the distinction between camber relative to the road, and camber relative to
the chassis. To maintain the ideal camber relative to the road, the suspension must be designed so
that wheel camber relative to the chassis becomes increasingly negative as the suspension deflects
upward. The illustration on the bottom of page 46 shows why this is so. If the suspension were
84
designed so as to maintain no camber change relative to the chassis, then body roll would induce
positive camber of the wheel relative to the road. Thus, to negate the effect of body roll, the
suspension must be designed so that it pulls in the top of the wheel (i.e., gains negative camber) as
it is deflected upwards.
While maintaining the ideal camber angle throughout the suspension travel assures that the tire is
operating at peak efficiency, designers often configure the front suspensions of passenger cars so
that the wheels gain positive camber as they are deflected upward. The purpose of such a design is
to reduce the cornering power of the front end relative to the rear end, so that the car will
understeer in steadily greater amounts up to the limit of adhesion. Understeer is inherently a much
safer and more stable condition than oversteer, and thus is preferable for cars intended for the
public.
Since most independent suspensions are designed so that the camber varies as the wheel moves up
and down relative to the chassis, the camber angle that we set when we align the car is not
typically what is seen when the car is in a corner. Nevertheless, it's really the only reference we
have to make camber adjustments. For competition, it's necessary to set the camber under the
static condition, test the car, and then alter the static setting in the direction that is indicated by the
test results.
The best way to determine the proper camber for competition is to measure the temperature
profile across the tire tread immediately after completing some hot laps. In general, it's desirable
to have the inboard edge of the tire slightly hotter than the outboard edge. However, it's far more
important to ensure that the tire is up to its proper operating temperature than it is to have an
"ideal" temperature profile. Thus, it may be advantageous to run extra negative camber to work
the tires up to temperature
85
(TOP RIGHT) Positive camber: The bottoms of the wheels are closer together than the tops. (TOP
LEFT) Negative camber: The tops of the wheels are closer together than the bottoms. (CENTER)
When a suspension does not gain camber during deflection, this causes a severe positive camber
condition when the car leans during cornering. This can cause funky handling. (BOTTOM) Fight
the funk: A suspension that gains camber during deflection will compensate for body roll. Tuning
dynamic camber angles is one of the black arts of suspension tuning.
Q.2) WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF A) INCORRECT CAMBER, B) INCORRECT CASTER?

ANS:-Camber angle is the angle made by the wheels of a vehicle; specifically, it is the angle
between the vertical axis of the wheels used for steering and the vertical axis of the vehicle when
viewed from the front or rear. It is used in the design of steering and suspension. If the top of the
wheel is farther out than the bottom (that is, away from the axle), it is called positive camber; if
the bottom of the wheel is farther out than the top, it is called negative camber.
86
Camber angle alters the handling qualities of a particular suspension design; in particular, negative
camber improves grip when cornering. This is because it places the tire at a better angle to the
road, transmitting the forces through the vertical plane of the tire rather than through a shear force
across it. Another reason for negative camber is that a rubber tire tends to roll on itself while
cornering. The inside edge of the contact patch would begin to lift off of the ground if the tire had
zero camber, reducing the area of the contact patch. This effect is compensated for by applying
negative camber, maximizing the contact patch area. Note that this is only true for the outside tire
during the turn; the inside tire would benefit most from positive camber.
On the other hand, for maximum straight-line acceleration, the greatest traction will be attained
when the camber angle is zero and the tread is flat on the road. Proper management of camber
angle is a major factor in suspension design, and must incorporate not only idealized geometric
models, but also real-life behavior of the components; flex, distortion, elasticity, etc. What was
once an art has now become much more scientific with the use of computers, which can optimize
all of the variables mathematically instead of relying on the designer's intuitive feel and
experience. As a result, the handling of even low-priced automobiles has improved dramatically in
recent years.
In cars with double wishbone suspensions, camber angle may be fixed or adjustable, but in
MacPherson strut suspensions, it is normally fixed. The elimination of an available camber
adjustment may reduce maintenance requirements, but if the car is lowered by use of shortened
springs, the camber angle will change. Excessive camber angle can lead to increased tire wear and
impaired handling. Significant suspension modifications may correspondingly require that the
upper control arm or strut mounting points be altered to allow for some inward or outward
87
movement, relative to longitudinal centreline of the vehicle, for camber adjustment. Aftermarket
plates with slots for strut mounts instead of just holes are available for most of the commonly
modified models of cars.
Caster angle is the angular displacement from the vertical axis of the suspension of a steered
wheel in a car, bicycle or other vehicle, measured in the longitudinal direction. It is the angle
between the pivot line (in a car - an imaginary line that runs through the centre of the upper ball
joint to the centre of the lower ball joint) and vertical. Car racers sometimes adjust caster angle to
optimize their car's handling characteristics in particular driving situations. In Figure , θ is the
caster angle, red line is the pivot line, grey area is the tire. A positive caster angle is shown with
the front of the vehicle being to the left. SuperPro origins were born out of vehicles that were not a
pleasure to drive due to caster differences. These were commonly known as a ‘’pull to the left
‘’cars. Manufacturers tend to build in preset alignment specifications and in many vehicles caster
adjustment was simply not offered on an original vehicle suspension system.When wheel-aligning
a car, I always went to great lengths to correct the caster on a vehicle where possible, however this
was not possible that often. As a young wheel alignment mechanic, I knew motor sport offered all
sorts of suspension angle adjustment so why not offer some to my customers. So, in 1987 the first
SuperPro bushing were born, tested and successfully starting the large range we now have
available.
88
Q.3) DISCUSS BRIEFLY THE TERM CORNERING FORCE?

ANS: -Cornering force or side force is the lateral (i.e., parallel to the road surface) force produced
by a vehicle tire during cornering. Cornering force is generated by tire slip and is proportional to
slip angle at low slip angles. The rate at which cornering force builds up is described by relaxation
length. Slip angle describes the deformation of the tire contact patch, and this deflection of the
contact patch deforms the tire in a fashion akin to a spring.
As with deformation of a spring, deformation of the tire contact patch generates a reaction force
in the tire; the cornering force. Integrating the force generated by every tread element along the
contact patch length gives the total cornering force. Although the term, "tread element" is used,
the compliance in the tire that leads to this effect is actually a combination of sidewall deflection
and deflection of the rubber within the contact patch. The exact ratio of sidewall compliance to
tread compliance is a factor in tire construction and inflation pressure.
The diagram is misleading because the reaction force would appear to be acting in the wrong
direction. It is simply a matter of convention to quote positive cornering force as acting in the
opposite direction to positive tire slip so that calculations are simplified, since a vehicle cornering
under the influence of a cornering force to the left will generate a tire slip to the right.
The same principles can be applied to a tire being deformed longitudinally, or in a combination of
both longitudinal and lateral directions. The behavior of a tire under combined longitudinal and
lateral deformation can be described by Traction Circle.
89
Experiment No.7
Removing and refitting tire using an Automatic Tire Changer
AIM: Removing and refitting tire using an Automatic Tire Changer.
THEORY: To safeguard all the tires against any damages and thus prolonging the tire life and
achieving economy in tire. The pneumo-electric automatic tire changer is designed and works in
such a way that, the hard to break bead is first separated from the wheel rim by applying a uniform
pneumatic force all around the bead portion without damaging even the small portion of the tire.
A well designed tool head ease out the fitting on as well as removal of the tire bead from it’s rim
in a fraction of a moment without causing even the slightest damage to the bead rubber/rim.
SPECIFICATION:
Make and Model : Autech TC 550
Clamping diameter range:
a. LCV/TRUCK WHEELS : 16” to 18”
b. CAR WHEELS : 10” to 20”
c. TWO WHEELERS : 8” to 23”
PROCEDURE:
Unseating the tire bead.
Open the valve cap and unscrew the valve pin and allow the tube fitted in tire to deflate complete.
Place the deflated wheel between the three rubber support pads and the opened bead breaker
blade. Holding the tire in this unseating position, press the extreme right bead breaker cylinder
operating pedal P3, which will bring the arm close to the wheel and the blade will press the
portion of tire bead with force uniformly all around and push it off the seating of the rim.
Turn the wheel through 1800 and unseat the remaining portion of the bead. Bring the other side of
wheel in the unseating position and repeat pressing of pedal in two or three positions as required
so that the tire bead of other side is also free off the rim.
Clamping of the wheel
90
The jaws are first allowed to close i.e. come in the central position by first pressing the pedal P2.
By lifting the pedal the jaws start moving outward and come in contact with the inner periphery of
the wheel rim, thus holding it firmly from inside to outside.
For releasing the rim the jaw pedal is to be pressed, allowing the jaws to move inward thus
releasing the holding pressure and the rim/tire can be removed
Setting the swinging arm.
The horizontal swinging arm is to be positioned in such a way that the mounting tool head neck is
just in line with the flange of the rim. The height of this shaft is so adjusted that the tool head just
rests on the flange of the rim and the same is locked thereby pulling the cam lever type locking
device.
The lateral rim and tool head clearance is to be set to 3 to 4mm by rotating the adjusting hand
wheel inward, so that the work can now be carried out away from the rim.
Positioning tire bead on tool head
The tire lever is then to be inserted in between the bead and the rim, and bead lifted upward taking
the support on the notched peak of the tool head, simultaneously pressing the tire with other hand
into the well of rim from the opposite end of tool head. The lifted portion of the bead is to be
placed on the round shoe portion of tool head.
Taking out the bead
Press down the extreme left motor switch pedal P1 and the wheel will turn clockwise. The slow
rotary motion of the clamping plate automatically lifts the tire bead upward above the rim flange
and the tire bead and can be removed as soon as the initial tension is released during further
movement of the wheel.
After the top bead is completely cleared off the flange, the lower bead of the tire can also be
removed in the same manner. Finally when both beads are removed the entire tire can be taken
out, after first lifting the hex. Shaft and swiveling the horizontal arm away.
Mounting tire on rim

First clamp the bare rim on the jaws if the same is released after removal procedure. Place the tire
duly lubricated at both of its beads on to the rim. Insert the tube positioning the valve stem in the
91
rim opposite to tool head. Swivel the horizontal arm into the work position. Set necessary rim and
tool head clearance as earlier.
The portion of bead opposite the valve stem should first be taken for mounting. By using tire lever
bring the lower tire bead onto the tool head rear heal portion in such a way that it rests there, and
passes through under the rounded portion of tool head.
Once the initial position has been reached operate the clamping plate by pressing down the tire
from nearby so as to keep the bead above the tool simultaneously stretches the tire bead, thereby
adjusting it suitably. The round toe portion of tool head goes on continuously pushing the tire
bead on to the rim seat. Thus lower bead is fitted first.
After the lower bead is pressed in the upper tire bead is also mounted in the same manner. Ensure
that both the tire are firmly securing the seat of the rim.
DISCUSSIONS:
1. Discuss the different types of wheels used in an automobile. Draw and explain the
construction of any one.
2. Draw cross-section of an automobile tire and show it’s various constructional features.
3. How do you designate a tire?
Q.1 ) Discuss the different types of wheels used in an automobile. Draw and explain the
construction
of any one..
ANS: - Automobile wheel is an integral component of each contemporary automobile. The basic
idea of each car, truck or SUV is to transport the passengers from point A to point B by means of
moving along a road. The task of an auto wheel is to move a vehicle on a road and to change the
direction of the movement. Each modern vehicle has two pairs of wheels: front and rear.
Depending on where a vehicle's engine and drive wheels are found, the automobile layout can be
divided into following categories: front-, rear- and four-wheel drive.
A rim is a necessary part of every automobile wheel. Depending on the material, used in wheel
rim production, there are several most common rim's types available in the contemporary
automobile market:
92
•Steel wheel rim. It is a standard type of a rim. Due to its properties, steel is one of the most
important engineering and construction material. Steel features great formability, impermeability
and durability. Its notch-toughness makes it possible to resist cracks that may lead to sudden
collapse of a product structure. Steel is a cost-effective material as it is less exotic material and its
manufacturing process is not so complicated. This type of wheels are usually easy to repair.
Compared to other materials, one of the main disadvantages of steel is its heavy weight.
•Alloy wheel rim. This automobile part is manufactured from an alloy of magnesium or
aluminium. One of the main benefits is the lightweight that results in better handling and
reduction of unsprung weight. When installed on a vehicle, alloy wheels reduce the overall weight
that in its turn lead to fuel saving. Compared to steel wheels, alloy rims provide better heat
conduction. This improves braking performance as the heat is dissipated from the vehicle's brakes.
It also reduce a possibility of overheating. The disadvantage of the alloy rims includes inability to
withstand corrosion. It is necessary to apply a paint layer or another coatings to prevent rust.
Higher price is another disadvantage of this material. Alloy wheels are also difficult to repair.
Unlike steel wheels that are mostly popular among devotees of vintage appearance, alloy rims are
commonly used as they are available in dozens of styles and may add stylish accent to vehicle
exterior.
•Carbon fibre wheel rim. Compared to alloy and steel wheels, this type of rims is less popular as
its major disadvantage is high price. This material is widely used in high-end automobile racing.
Carbon fibre wheels are available as the automotive aftermarket add-ons. They benefit in terms of
attractive appearance and high-end performance. Carbon fibre composites have high strength-to-
weight ratio. The material pros include toughness, resilience and great fatigue strength. Due to its
advantages, carbon-fibre-reinforced polymer is used in manufacturing of supercars. Along with
the reduced fuel consumption and longer service life, this type of wheels benefits to performance
as well as handling.
93
Every automotive wheel consists of a rim, disk and tire. A wheel manufacturing is a complex
work that integrates a various production technologies and equipment. Depending on the wheel
structure and applied materials, the following types of wheel production are used:
•Forging is a manufacturing process by which metal is heated up to the required temperature,

placed in a certain die and then the compressive force is applied. Forging improves the physical
properties of the metal and refines its grain structure. This results in the increased strength of a
wheel. This manufacturing process eliminates the porosity and voids that may cause the corrosion
and cracks. The pros include the limited variation of shapes and high production costs due to the
complex manufacturing technology that lead to the increased price of the product.
•Casting is a solidification process. Molten aluminium is poured into a mold, which contains a
cavity of the required shape and then the process of the solidification takes place. Casting has the
advantage of allowing to implement various ideas in terms of style. Until recently, gravity casting
was widely used by the wheel manufacturers. At present this technology is replaced by low
pressure die casting. This technique is aimed at reducing porosity, which is among the main
disadvantages of casting.
In terms of construction, a wheel rim is made as a one-, two- and three-piece auto part. Each type
has its place in today's automobile market. Most alloy wheels are constructed as one-piece
product. For this type the name speaks for itself. A wheel is made in a mold as a single piece. This
type of rims is widely used due to its affordability and strength of the structure. Unfortunately,
94
these wheels are hard to repair. In case of damage, the most reliable variant is to replace it with
another one. One-piece rims are available with less options compared to multi-piece wheels.
As for two-pieces rim, the wheel is manufactured of centre and outer barrel. Then these separate
parts are welded or bolted together. This type of wheels has more options in sizes. This is possible
owning to the separated parts. This also benefits to repair. There is no necessity to replace the
whole wheel in case one of its parts is damaged. A lot of custom options are available for this
type. The main disadvantage is the assembling process. In case a wheel is assembled improperly it
can leak air.
When an inside rim half, outside rim half and centre are joined using the top-notch fasteners, this
type is called a three-piece rim. This type is subject to customization. Three-piece wheels are
offered in a great variety of sizes and offsets. Custom paint, chrome plating and powder coat are
most common types of finishes available for wheels. Three-piece rim has nearly the same
drawbacks as a two-piece wheel: air leakage when not assembled correctly and high price.
Q.2) Draw cross-section of an automobile tire and show it’s various constructional features.
ANS:-
A cross-section of a tire. Number 12 indicates the radial-ply. Numbers 14 and 16 are bias-plies.
Construction:- With only radial cords, a radial tire would not be sufficiently rigid at the contact
with the ground. To add further stiffness, the entire tire is surrounded by additional belts oriented
closer to the direction of travel, but usually at some "spiral" angle. These belts can be made of
steel (hence the term steel-belted radial), polyester, or Aramid fibres such as Twaron or Kevlar. In
this way, low radial tires separate the tire carcass into two separate systems:
The radial cords in the sidewall allow it to act like a spring, giving flexibility and ride comfort.
The rigid steel belts reinforce the tread region, giving high mileage and performance.
Each system can then be individually optimized for best performance.
95
Q) How do you designate tyre?

ANS: -Tyre size markings can be found on the tyre's sidewall and usually look similar to this:
Tyre dimension may be prefixed by a letter which denotes tyre's intended usage. Here is what
each means:
195 mm Section Width. Nominal section width of the tyre in millimetres.
65 Aspect Ratio. The sidewall height as a percentage of the section width. For example, sidewall
height of this tyre will be 195 x 0.65 = 126.75 mm
R Construction Code. Denotes radial construction which is dominant for passenger tyres.
15 Rim Size. Wheel diameter in inches to which the tyre fits.
91 Load Index. Load capacity of the tyre which is the maximum weight the tyre can carry. You
may look up the value in the load index table.
T Speed Index or Speed Rating. Maximum speed at full load. You may look up the value in the
speed index table.
96
97
Experiment No.8
Study of Body Repairing and Reconditioning Methods
Aim: Study of Body Repairing and Reconditioning Methods.
Description: Some jobs are not required but are equally important. Most of these jobs are done
after an accident or system failure. Hence, these are done in specialised garages.
Automobile, Body repairing, repainting and denting
1. Denting- Removing a dent
Automobile body repairing and removing dent is a very complicated procedure. Any automobile
technician without training cannot work properly in a sequential manner.
For body repairing, different types of tools are used. Hammers are used for body repairing, are
available in different shapes, sizes and weights in between 0.5 to 5 kg. Sometimes fir small dents,
plastic hammers are used. The dolly blocks used in denting are available in different shapes and
sizes. There are also special spoons used for denting which are in a variety of shapes and sizes.
To attend to a dent repair, it is necessary to examine dent very carefully and to dint out how the
dent is formed in correct sequence.
1. Preparing of work
Before starting actual repair it is necessary to clean dented area thoroughly, removing paint, road
dust and other particles from both the top and bottom of dented area.
2. Ironing of dent
Referring fig. paint Y is the paint of impact and Z is one of flanged edges of panel, which are to
be unlocked after X is unlocked once you unlock this dented area of sheet metal. It will spring
beck to its original shape with help of dolly clocks, small dents can be ironed out in different
stages of removing waves.
3. Welding
The Sheet metal may be lifted when under reversed loading. Under these circumstances, it is
necessary to weld cracks for permanent joints.
98
4. Finishing Job
Final job is to smoothen out the bumped surface to its original shape. Slight irregularities are
roughness in surface can be felt by moving the hand over dented area. Special flexible files are
used to remove high spots.
5. Metal shrinkages
Panel and other sheet metal components which are hammered to bring these to original shape
usually get stretched during repair weakening the structure. This stretched area can be shrunken
by localized heating with torch and hammer with help of dolly block, to smoothen it out.
6. Final Step
In the final step, a thick paste is applied with a knife edge. After 3 to 4 hours, It is smoothened
with a file.
Denting tools used during operation:

1. Hammer: These are special purpose hammers for roughing out heavy dent’s; hammers
weighing 0.25 to 2 kg are used. For small dents and final dent, light weight hammers are used.
2. Dolly Block: These are small set of anvils, which are used in hand underneath the dent while
dent is being hammered.
3. Spoons: Used for same purpose as dolly block but are made small for dents which are difficult
to access.
4. Files: These are also available in various shapes and sizes. These are used to smooth out the
rough surface or removal of excess unwanted metal from surface.
5. Other tools: Soldering equipment, blow lamps, electric and gas welding equipment etc.
Buffing and polishing machines are also used for denting work.
5] Painting: -
Paint is a mechanical mixture, considering pigments and extenders suspended in a vehicle. The
vehicle used is a film forming coat of oil. Liquids are added. These liquids are diluted as thinners.
Volatile liquids like material mineral turpentine or organic solvents. To reduce defects of cracking
in firm, plastics are added.
99
Primer: - Primer is applied to metal to achieve maximum adherence. Primer is fairly thin material
and allows them to flow into grooves, out into metal by grinding disc or sand paper. There are
different types of primer made for different application.
Zinc chromate is basically used as a new construction. Another primer is vinyl wash primer which
is applied to base substrate primer to primer or surface.
Primer surfaces: -
A primer surface is recommended to improve surface conditions by filling the surface
imperfections. Filling is a matter of placing sufficient material as surface so that after it dries and
shrinks, surplus material may be sanded off to level. To accomplish this, fillers or surfaces carry a
very high solid content that includes pigments as well as other materials and the filler so
formulated that when sprayed as a surface, they build up the film thickness very rapidly.
Primer sealers: -
The purpose of primer sealer is to provide adhesion between coat of paint and old painted surface
and to act like a barrier, to prevent solvent from penetrating through old finish.
Application of paint: -
1. Brushing: - A surface may be painted by using a brush. Thus may be made according to type of
paint to be applied.
2. Spraying: - Paint is sprayed on surface by using spraying apparatus. It is easy and quick. Thus,
a lot of labor is saved. The disadvantage is loss of paint, which does not strike surface to be
painted. It also spoils atmosphere.
3. Dipping: - It is applicable to articles, which have got uniform shape and have got no pockets.
The articles to be coated are dipped in paint and kept in a tank.
4. Baking and Finishing: - The object of baking is to improve properties such as adhesion,
hardness, resistance to corrosion and destructive agent of film. Baking is carried out at a temp
between 100 to 4000 C. The temp depends upon vehicle in paint. At high temp, the strain in film
is removed. High temp makes film liquid enough to flow into the irregularities to remove pin
holes which are removed by solvents.
100
Painting Equipment’s: -
1. Spray Booth: - It should provide a clean environment for painting increased productivity and a
safe working environment for painter. The type of spray booth required, depends upon type of
work that will be done in them, type of material used in spraying operation and different code
requirements regarding air velocity, air replacement exhaust stocks and lighting.
A. Water wash type: - Water wash booths use a type of air washing action to trap the point
particles. A water wash booth delivers cleaner air to the
atmosphere and thus less pollution as well as constant velocity that results better ventilation
system.
B. Point-Arrestor type: - This type of booth remove air borne paint particles from the spray
booth exhaust air by using a disposable paint arrestor filter. This booth is usually suited for limited
or interrupted spray operation such as refinish shop where point use is moderate.
A spray booth should have walls that are smooth. This will eliminate dust clinging to them. The
booth should be file proof and should have an unobstructed working area as well as access done,
so that painter can go to spray booth without opening large door.
2. Air Compressor: - It compresses air which operates cleaning and dusting equipment and spray
gun. An air compressor is designed to supply air continuously at a determined pressure and
metered volume cubic feet/minute.
There are two general types single stationary unit anchored to floor o as a portable unit that can be
moved to a particular job.
Two stage compressor is more sufficient. It will give higher pressure which permits faster
operation of tools, more air stored in air receiver and greater air delivery.
3. Automatic pressure switch: - Most compressor are equipped with an automatic for switch
which is pneumatically controlled electric used for starting and stopping electric motors at
required pressures.
4. Ai Transformers: - It is a device that condenses air, oil, moisture, regulators and strains the air
and provides outlet to which spray are attached.
Preparatory work for repairing: -
101
i. Degreasing: - It is a process by which an organic deposit such as oil, metallic soaps etc. and
inorganic matters are removes from metal surface.
ii. Derusting: - If metal is exposed to water, oxides are formed, these are called rust. For rust
removal, phosphoric acid consisting of derusting agent is used.
iii. Rinsing: - Immediately after derusting, work metal surface most be washed to remove acid
and salts.
iv. Phosphate coating: - A phosphate coating is a mandatory metallic coating using phosphates of
iron, zinc, manganese which are deposited on steel surface.
v. Sealing: - After drying, sealing coat must be applied within 2 hours during monsoon and 6
hours during summers and winter.
Infrared baking elements: - To speed up drying of materials, many shops have installed infrared
baking equipments. It is a portable unit.
Spray gun: -
A spray gun is a mechanical means of bringing air and paint together. It airtomizes breaks of pants
stream into spray and by ejection applies coating to a surface to pressure and beautify. This is
done by moving air and paint to different passage way in gun body until they meet at fluid tip and
air gap. When air and paint meet, air breaks of the paint and airstream heals area to be painted and
apply the paint to surface in a controlled pattern. When sprayed on thickly enough surface the
paint particles journed together and form a film that is smooth, without any bench.
To achieve proper paint, gun metal at all times is to be held perpendicular to surface being coated.
If gun is tilted there will be flooding condition that will occur nearest to gun and dry spray at
bottom of pattern.
The spray gun should be moved with a steady speed of approximately 1 foot/sec.
Painting Procedure: -
thinners or both.
pigments in varnish.
102
in air leaving behind a transparent hard and waterproof film.
surface, it is passed through series of tanks having different solutions for a predetermined period.
filled to avoid paint entry and easy filaments of nuts and bolts.
It is a protective and anti-corrosive treatment and is applied as initial coating. This gives paint film
necessary thickness and adheres paint over a base metal. After applying primer, components are
passed to electronic oven maintained at 1500C where they are dried.
Sanding and putty operation: It is carried to improve appearance of primer surface by removing
small flaws, defects, bents, damage etc.
Putty is applied with a knife to all surfaces to omit paint shop defects.
Final painting: This is identical to primer coating except here desired paint is applied. One or
more coats of paint are applied to base metal. Front exposed area are coated more rigorously than
other surfaces. After drying component are subjected to quality control inspection.
Troubleshooting and paint failure:
1. Cracking 8. Wrinkling
2. Shrinking & splitting 9. Blistering
3. Cratering & crawling 10. Fish eyes
4. Pin holes or holing 11. Bleeding
5. Sand scratches 12. Hand or finger prints
6. Rub through 13. Rain or finger prints
7. Runs & sages 14. Corrosion attack
Cracking:
Fine minute cracks in finish usually only appear on surface on paint film. This condition is
generally caused by too heavy film of lacquer top-coat or by sudden temperature changes.
103
Shrinking & splitting:

It is caused by contraction and cracking of material. This is caused by applying material i.e. heavy
coats. The putty must be removed in affecting area and apply as directed.
Cratering & crawling:
Surface blemishes in a freshly painted surface where paint has readed from small areas are usually
found in form of small round patches. It is caused by oil and moisture in spray lines. To repair a
freshly painted surface wash off with solvent thoroughly.
Pin holes or holing:
Breaks I a dry paint film no longer than the head of a pin, exposing surface underneath are caused
by oil or moisture in equipment or material applied to cold surface. To repair this, sand damaged
area and refinish and repaint surface.
Sand scratches and swelling:
It is an exaggerated reproduction of sand marks in underlying finish of new top coat. They are
caused by solvent penetration into underlying surface improper cleaning. Using two coarse grade
of sand paper. To repair, allow to cure thoroughly and wet coats of sealer and re-spray with top
coats.
Rub through:
Burning of lacquer finisher through the primer during compounding operation is caused by not
applying enough material to allow proper compounding or excessive rubbing and compounding.
To repair, sand affected areas and repair it.
Runs & sages:
A paint film that has dropped under its own weight and display a thick edge or wrinkle at lower
part. It is caused by too heavy application of paint. To repair, wash up and repair.
Wrinkling: The buckling of a paint film on its surface causes a slivered appearance. It occurs
when film is dry on surface but remain soft underneath. This is caused by applying on material
heavy coat particularly in hot, humid weather. To repair allow to dry thoroughly sand the affected
area to remove wrinkles and repaint it.
104
Blistering:
It is caused by oil and moisture in spray line or temperature variation between shop material or
surface to be painted or by high humidity conditions. To repair, remove blisters and sand down to
metal. Treat metal, prime it and give the top coat.
Fish eyes:
Small crater on finished surfaces circled by a noticeable ring are caused by silicon contaminated
on surface. To repair, washout while paint it still wet clean it thoroughly and repaint it.
Bleeding:
It is migration of soluble dyes or pigments from an oil finish into a newly applied finish, as a
result of solvent action.
Rain water spotting:
Small circular imprints in the finish that are low in glass are caused by premature exposure of
freshly painted vehicle to rain or sunlight. To repair, allow drying wet sand and refinish.
Corrosion attack:
Corrosion on metal surface caused by improper cleaning and treatment of metal by torching metal
with bare hands after cleaning or by moisture and chemicals attracting the metal through breaks in
film. To repair, remove paint from base metal, clean thoroughly and repaint.
105
106
107
108
109
110

Manual

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Manual

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

LAB MANUAL

DEPARTMENT OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

PILLAI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Sr.No Name of Experiment Page

1 Study and Demonstration of Layout of an Automobile and an 3

2 Maintenance of Mechanical systems, Electrical 7

3 Study On Board Diagonistics (OBD-II). 52

4 Smoke Analysis of 2/4-Stroke Petrol Engine using Orsat 67

5 Wheel balancing on a Computerized Wheel Balancer. 69

6 Find the Steering geometry of a vehicle using a Computerized 75

8 Study of Body Repairing and Reconditioning Methods. 98

Gear Box (Transmission) :-

1. To understand the different electrical systems in an automobile.

(b) Nickel – cadmium battery

Typical structure of storage battery

SR PROCEDURE TOOLS USED

1 First step is to remove the cylinder head cover. T-spanner(10)

2 Then the Rocker Arm assembly is removed. Box spanner(14/15),

3 Then start removing cylinder head and the gasket.

8 Then the main journal bearings are removed. Box spanner(14)

9 And the Crankshaft is removed. Box spanner(14)

4 Repeat the same procedure with caution and carefully for

9 Place the cylinder head correctly to avoid any gaps

10 Then the Rocker Arm assembly is added on the top Boxspanner(14/15),

11 The assembly is completed after the cylinder head cover is T-spanner(10)

Figure : Cylinder Block

Engine used: TATA Indica

Step Procedure Tool used Nos.

2 Lubricate engine liner

3 Check the piston ring clearance with filler gauge.

5 Check crankshaft for sagging.

6 Check for proper seal of every compartment

Figure:Engine head gasket

Figure:Cylinder block Figure:Piston ring

Figure: Dial gauge Figure:Ring compressor

Conclusion:- Dismantling and mantling of Diesel Engine is done.Troubleshooting and

Air filter and Fuel filter for engine

Aim: Dismantling and assembly of air and fuel filter of engine

Faults and Remedies:

Maintenance of mechanical systems (gear box, steering, suspension)

Aim: Dismantling and assembly of steering system in automobiles

Type: Rack and Pinion of Maruti 800 Forward wheel drive

Aim: Dismantling and assembly of GearBox

Sr.No. Procedure Tools used

1 Remove tyre. Spanner(12)

2 Unfasten the bolt and remove the half shaft Spanner(12)

3 Remove gearbox cover Spanner(12)

6 Remove speedometer gear N.A

7 Ball bearing is removed Chisel and

8 Sim (spacer/washer) is removed N.A

10 Remove the bush (with no splines) N.A

12 Remove the second gear alongwith synchronizing ring. (comprising of N.A

14 Needle roller bearing alongwith spacer (sim/washer) is removed N.A

15 Remove the third gear (comprising of 32 teeth). N.A

16 Remove the synchronizing ring (consisting of 2 surclip, sleeve hub, 3 N.A

17 Remove the spacer ring (sim). N.A

18 Remove the fourth gear (comprising of 27 teeth). N.A

19 Needle bearing is removed (inside gear) of 4th gear. N.A

7 Place the second gear along with synchronizing ring. N.A.

9 Insert the bush (with splines). N.A.

12 Place the bush (with no splines). N.A.

14 Insert Sim (spacer), take care of the center alignment. N.A.

15 Place the ball bearing over it. N.A.