Bewk Notes

BRIDGE EQUIPMENT AND
WATCHKEEPING - II
SEMESTER - V
SUMIT SAURAV BEWK-II
BRIDGE EQUIPMENT AND WATCHKEEPING - II

- UG21T4506
S. NO. TOPIC P. NO.
1. RADAR 2
2. THE USE OF RADAR IN NAVIGATION 23
3. TERRESTRIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEMS 29
4. GYRO COMPASS 34
5. SHIP SECURITY ALERT SYSTEM (SSAS) 42
6. INDUCED MAGNETISM IN SHIP AND MAGNETIC COMPASS 44
CORRECTIONS
7. GPS & DGPS 47
8. AUTOMATIC IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM (AIS) 55
9. VDR (VOYAGE DATA RECORDER) 60
10. BRIDGE NAVIGATION WATCH ALARM SYSTEM 64
11. LRIT (LONG RANGE IDENTIFICATION AND TRACKING) 66
PREPARED BY - SUMIT SAURAV

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RADAR
#RADIATION HAZARDS AND PRECAUTIONS
 Exposure to RF fields above 10 GHz at power densities over 1000 W/m2 are
known to produce adverse health effects, such as eye cataracts and skin burns.
 RF fields below 10 GHz (to 1 MHz) penetrate exposed tissues and produce
heating due to energy absorption.
 RF fields above 10 GHz are absorbed at the skin surface, with very little of the
energy penetrating into the underlying tissues.
 RF shocks and burns: charges are induced on metallic objects situated near
radars. Persons standing in RF fields can also have high local absorption of the
fields in areas of their bodies with small cross-sectional areas, such as the
ankles.
 Electromagnetic interference: Radars can cause electromagnetic interference in
other electronic equipment.
 Ignition of flammable liquids and explosives: RF fields can ignite flammable
liquids and explosives through the induction of currents.
 THERMAL EFFECTS:effects include the induction of eye cataracts, and various
physiological and thermoregulatory responses as body temperature increases.
 NON-THERMAL EFFECTS: can alter calcium ion mobility, which is responsible for
transmitting information in tissue cells.
PRECAUTIONS:
 Special care should be exercised with RF safety glasses since any metal may
enhance local fields by acting as a receiving antenna.
 Ensure that radiation hazard warning signs are available and posted.
 Operating and maintenance personnel should observe all rf radiation hazard
signs posted in the operating area.
 Engineering controls: include interlocks, electronic means to exclude the
radar pointing in certain areas, and shielding.
 Administrative controls: include audible and visible alarms, warning signs,
and restriction of access through barriers, locked doors, or limiting access
time to radar.
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 Visual inspection of feedhorns, open ends of waveguides and any other
opening that emits rf energy should not be made unless the equipment is
properly secured and tagged for that purpose.
 Ensure that those radar antennas that normally rotate are rotated
continuously while radiating or are trained to a known safe bearing.
 Ensure that those antennas that do not normally rotate are pointed away
from inhabited areas (ships, piers, and the like) while radiating.
#PULSE REPETITION FREQUENCY(PRF) OR PULSE

RECCURANCE RATE(PRR):
The transmitter sends out short powerful bursts of electromagnetic energy called
pulses through the scanner at a specific number of times per second called PRF or PRR.
 Longer ranges have low PRF and shorter ranges need high PRF for better picture
resolution.
 There must be a null period between the transmission of each pulse to allow the
weaker returning pulse to return without colliding with and cancelling out the
next outgoing pulse.
 Minimum range is affected by the duration of the pulse while the maximum
range is affected by the PRF.
 Most RADARS have a different PRF corresponding to each pulse length.
 A typical PRF is 500 pulses per second for long pulse and 3000 pulses per second
for short pulse.
#RANGE DETERMINATION
The tracing spot leaves the centre, on its radial path, at the same instant that the pulse
leaves the scanner. The tracing spot is made to move at a scale speed equal to half
that of radio waves, so that the time taken for radio waves to travel 2 miles, the
tracing spot would have travelled a scale distance of 1 mile on the screen.
Hence the radius of the screen represents a definite distance, the distance of the paint
from the centre of the screen, using the same ratio, gives the range of the object.
In order to accurately obtain the range of a target two methods are provided on the
display unit:
 RANGE RINGS: a series of concentric, equidistant circles, called range rings or
calibration rings are made to appear centred over the PPI. Each range ring
represents a definite value of range and hence the range of a target can be
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visually estimated with reasonable accuracy, even if a range ring does not
exactly pass through the paint of the target on the screen.
 VARIABLE RANGE MARKER: a circle with a variable radius is provided, the radius
being controlled by a rotary knob. The value of the radius in miles and decimal
of a mile is indicated by a digital display. The radius of the circle is adjusted until
its circumference passes through the nearest edge of the paint of a target on
the screen and the range is read off the digital display.
#BEARING DETERMINATION:
The energy sent out by the scanner is made unidirectional. The scanner is made to
rotate a very constant speed as well as the trace on the screen is also made to rotate
and is synchronised with the scanner such that when the scanner points right ahead,
the trace is at 12 o’clock position of the PPI. The PRF is so high compared to the RPM
that the angle rotated by the scanner between the transmission of a pulse and the
arrival of the echo from a far of target is negligible. So, the paint of a target would
appear in such a position on the PPI that the relative bearing of the target is the angle
at centre, measured clockwise from 12 o’clock position of the PPI to the paint. This can
be read off using a concentric, circular scale fixed around the PPI, graduated from 0 0 to
3590 in a clockwise direction, with its 0 0 at the 12 o’clock position of the PPI.
To facilitate reading off, of the relative bearing, two methods are provided on the
display unit:
 MECHANICAL CURSOR: a separate, circular, perspex sheet is fitted centred over
the PPI. It has diametrical line etched on it called the mechanical cursor. The
cursor is rotated until this line passes through the target on the screen and the
reading where it passes over the graduated scale is the relative bearing. When
the display is gyro-stabilised, the bearings indicated will be true.
 ELECTRONIC BEARING LINE: a radial line is made to appear on the screen, when
desired. This line can be rotated about the centre of the screen by a control
knob. The angle rotated by the line, in a clockwise direction from the heading
marker, is indicted by a digital display. The line is rotated until it passes through
the blip on the screen and the relative bearing read off, from the digital display.
When the display is gyro-stabilised, the bearing will be true.
#IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF A RADAR SET
1. VERTICAL BEAM WIDTH: VBW is the vertical angle at the scanner contained
between the upper and the lower edges of the radar beam. The upper and
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lower edges of the beam are taken to be the lines joining the half-power points
above and below centre of the beam.
 If the VBW was too small, targets would be missed due to rolling and
pitching.
 If the VBW was too large, the radar energy sent out through the scanner
would spread out over a large vertical angle. This means a decrease in the
intensity of the beam whereby the amount of energy striking unit area of
a target would be small, resulting in loss of echo strength and consequent
decrease in the range of first detection of each target.
 As per Performance Standards for Navigational Radars (IMO), the radar
should function without deterioration in performance when the vessel is
rolling or pitching up to +-100.
 The value of VBW depends on the constructional details of the scanner.
2. HORIZONTAL BEAM WIDTH:HBW is the horizontal angle at the scanner
contained between the leading and trailing edges of the radar beam. The
leading and trailing edges of the beam are taken to be the lines joining the half-
power points ahead and behind the centre of the beam, in the direction of
rotation of the scanner.
 HBW causes all targets to appear larger in azimuth, by an amount equal to
half the HBW on either side.
 The value of HBW of a radar set depends on the type of scanner and its
horizontal size – the larger the horizontal size, the smaller the HBW and
vice versa.
 It is because of HBW that a peculiar phenomenon sometimes occurs with
radar, contrary to that associated with vision.
3. PULSE LENGTH(PL): PL is the time taken for a pulse to leave the scanner i.e., the
interval between the instant the leading edge of the pulse leaves the scanner
and the instant the trailing edge does so.
 PL is usually expressed in micro-seconds and may also be expressed in
metres when required to do so.
 PL also referred to as PW (pulse width), is controlled by the transmitter.
 PL does not affect range accuracy.
 PL does affect range discrimination.
 Short pulses are suitable for the shorter-range scales as they give better
range discrimination.
 Long pulses would be unsuitable for short ranges because all targets
painted on the screen would appear too large in the radial direction.
4. PULSE REPETITION FREQUENCY(PRF): PRF is the number of pulses sent out
through the scanner in one second.
 Its unit is Hertz.
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 PRF is also referred to as Pulse Recurrence Rate (PRR).
 A high value of PRF is preferable for a clear and detailed picture.
 Long range scales have a low PRF while shorter range scales have a high
PRF.
5. WAVELENGTH(WL):WL of a commercial marine radar set may be either 3 cm
(9300 to 9500 MHz called the X band) or 10 cm (2900 to 3100 MHz called the S
band). The wavelength of a radar set directly affects its performance.
After a radar pulse has left the scanner, its path of travel and energy content are
influenced by two main factors:
 Attenuation in the atmosphere: it is the loss of energy caused by
scattering, absorption, diffraction etc. while the energy passes through
the atmosphere. Attenuation in the atmosphere is greater when using
waves of shorter length.
 Diffraction: when a ray of energy passes very close to an object, it is bent
slightly towards the object. When radar waves pass very close to the
surface of the earth, they are diffracted downwards and follow the
curvature of earth for some distance. Longer waves are diffracted more
and follow the curvature of the earth to greater distances hence the
surface detection range of far-off targets using longer waves is thus
greater than when using shorter waves.
#LIMITATIONS OF A RADAR SET:
1. RANGE DISCRIMINATION: It is the ability of a radar set to clearly distinguish two

small targets, on the same bearing and slightly different ranges, as two separate
targets on the PPI.
 As per Performance Standards for Navigational Radar (IMO), two small
similar objects on the same bearing, separated by 40 metres in range,
should be separately indicated when using a range scale of 1.5 M when
they lie between 50% and 100% of the range scale in use.
 It depends on the following factors:
 The efficiency of the receiver and indicator.
 The pulse length (Theoretical range discrimination is a minimum of
half the pulse length).
 The size of the tracing spot.
2. BEARING DISCRIMINATION: It is the ability of a radar set to clearly distinguish
two targets, on the same range and slightly different bearings, as two separate
targets on the PPI.
 If the angle subtended at the scanner, by the closer edges of two targets,
is equal to or less than HBW their paints would merge on the PPI and they
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would appear as one big target. If the angle so subtended is more than
HBW they would paint as two separate targets.
 Bearing discrimination is usually expressed in degrees and as per
Performance Standards for Navigational Radar (IMO), it should not
exceed 2.50.
 It depends on the following factors:
 The horizontal beam width.
 The spot size.
3. MINIMUM RANGE: As per Performance Standards for Navigational Radar (IMO)
the minimum detection range, with a scanner 15 m high shall not exceed 50 m.
Targets between 50 m and 1 M should be displayed without resetting any
control other than range selector.
 The minimum detection range of a radar set depends on:
 The pulse length:targets closer than ½ PL in metres cannot be
shown on the PPI because their echoes would come back before
reception starts, therefore theoretical minimum range of detection
is represented by ½ PL in metres.
 The de-ionisation delay: a small delay occurs in the TR Cell
between the completion of transmission and the commencement
of reception, this delay increases the minimum detection range.
 The VBW and height of the scanner: these two factors govern the
distance off at which the lower edge of the radar beam would strike
the sea surface.
 The wavelength: the minimum detection range of small targets is
better when using 3 cm waves than when using 10 cm waves.
4. MAXIMUM RANGE: It is the maximum distance radar energy can travel round
trip between pulses and still produce reliable information.
 It depends on the following characteristics of radar set:
 Height of scanner: the greater the height of the scanner above the
sea level, the greater the detection range.
 Power of the set:the greater the power of transmission, the greater
the expected maximum range subject to the other factors.
 Wavelength:10 cm waves have a greater maximum range than 3
cm waves due to less attenuation in the atmosphere and more
diffraction.
 Pulse repetition frequency:each value of PRF has a maximum range
to which it can measure.
 Pulse length:long pulses ensure better maximum ranges than short
pulses because they have more energy and greater ability to suffer
attenuation in the atmosphere.
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 VBW and HBW:the narrower the beam widths, the greater the
directional concentration of the transmitted energy and hence
greater the maximum range.
 Receiver sensitivity:sensitivity of a receiver is its ability to amplify a
very weak signal sufficiently without losing the signal in receiver
noise.
 Nature of target: the height, horizontal size, nature of surface,
shape, material of target and its aspect affect maximum detection
range.
 Weather effects:such as rain, snow, hail, fog etc. cause attenuation
resulting in decrease in detection range.
 Anomalous propagation: super-refraction causes an increase
whereas sub-refraction causes a decrease in maximum detection
range.
 Sea and swell: sea waves frequently obstruct the radar pulses and
echoes, to and from far off objects, thereby reducing the maximum
detection range.
5. RANGE ACCURACY: As per Performance Standards for Navigational Radar (IMO),
the error in the range of an object obtained by using the range rings or the
variable range marker should not exceed 1% of the maximum range of the scale
in use, or 30 m, whichever is greater.
Range accuracy of radar depends on:
 Correct synchronisation: between the transmission of the pulse and
commencement of the trace.
 Uniformity and rectilinearity of the time base: Uniformity of the time
base means that the speed of the tracing spot must be very steady.
Rectilinearity means that each trace created should be a perfect straight
line.
 The scale of size of the tracing spot: the inaccuracy caused by this would
be half the scale size of the spot.
 Height of scanner: which can introduce parallax when the scanner is high
and objects are near and low lying.
When observing small targets very close by, the radar measures the range
from the scanner to the target whereas the correct range should be the
distance along the surface of the earth.
 The curvature of the screen (especially near the tube edge).
6. BEARING ACCURACY: As per Performance Standards for Navigational Radar
(IMO), the radar bearing of an object whose echo appears on the edge of the
display, should be capable of being measured with an accuracy equal to, or
better than, +-10.
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The factors which govern bearing accuracy are:
 Correct alignment between the heading marker and the scanner.
 Correct alignment between the heading marker and the bearing scale.
 Gyro error, if any, when the display is gyro-stabilised.
 Types of bearing marker used.
 Rectilinearity of the trace.
 Beam-width distortion.
 Scale size of the spot.
 Correct synchronization between the revolving scanner and the rotation
of the trace on the PPI.
#BASIC CONTROLS ON A TYPICAL RADAR SET:
1. TIME-SYNCHRONIZED
I. ANTI-CLUTTER: this is also called clutter suppression or swept gain control
or STC(sensitivity-time control). Paint on the PPI caused by sea-echoes is
called clutter. Anti-clutter should be so adjusted that targets within the
clutter area appear just brighter than clutter.
II. RANGE RINGS:these are also called calibration rings. Each range ring
represents a definite value of range and hence the range of a target can
be visually estimated with reasonable accuracy.
III. VARIABLE RANGE MARKER(VRM): a single spike wave is sent to the
control grid of the CRT resulting in a blip being painted on the trace. The
blips of each successive trace join together in azimuth and form a circle.
The value of the radius of the VRM in nautical miles is indicated by a
digital display.
IV. ELECTRONIC BEARING LINE(EBL): this is also called electronic bearing
marker (EBM) or electronic cursor. The angle between the EBL and the
heading marker (the relative bearing) can be read off a digital display.
When the display is gyro-stabilised, the digital display of the EBL gives
gyro bearings.
V. ELECTRONIC RANGE AND BEARING LINE: this is provided on most of the
modern radar sets. The ERBL may be used in several modes:
 Attached-to-own-ship mode.
 Detached-from-own-ship static mode.
 Detached-from-own-ship dynamic mode.
2. NON-SYNCHRONIZED
I. MANUAL TUNING: this control is provided to manually alter the frequency
of the LO so as to bring the frequency of the IF signals to the correct value
required by the IF amplifier.
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II. GAIN: it controls the amplification of all echoes received. If after
amplification, the strength of an echo is below a certain minimum level,
the echo is not fed to the PPI. If after amplification, the strength of an
echo is above a certain maximum value, the excess is cut off before the
signal is fed to the PPI.
III. DIFFERENTIATOR: this is also called FTC (fast time constant) or anti-rain-
clutter. It will reduce the interference on the screen due to rain and
increase the chance of seeing targets within rain showers.
IV. BRILLIANCE: this is also called brightness; this controls the strength of the
electron stream in the CRT. If set very low, no electrons would be
released, hence no picture. If set very high, the screen would get
saturated, hence no targets can be distinguished against the bright
background. If set slightly high, the following disadvantages would be
experienced:
 Decrease in the life of the phosphor coating of the screen.
 Less contrast between paint and the background of the PPI.
 The heading marker would be unnecessarily bright and distracting.
 Night vision of the observer would be adversely affected.
 Secondary emission may take place resulting in blooming.
V. FOCUS: this control ensures that the electron stream converges to a point
as it reaches the screen, by suitably altering the current passing through
the focus coil.
3. AZIMUTH
I. HEADING MARKER ON/OFF:for measurement of bearings, the heading
marker, also called the heading flash is the reference line provided. It is
always visible on the PPI.
II. PICTURE ROTATE:this is called heading marker alignment. This control is
necessary to:
 Align the heading marker to the zero of the scale, in the case of an
unstabilised display.
 Align the heading marker to the course of the vessel, in the case of
a gyro-stabilised display.
III. ELECTRONIC BEARING LINE (EBL)
IV. ELECTRONIC RANGE AND BEARING LINE (ERBL)
V. MECHANICAL CURSOR:the diametric line is made to pass over a target
and the reading where the line intersects the outer fixed scale is the
bearing of the target.
VI. GYRO-STABILISATION SWITCH: an unstabilised display becomes gyro-
stabilised by the operation of this switch. This is called the presentation
mode switch.
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4. OTHERS
I. ON/OFF: this is the main power switch of the radar set and is situated on
the display unit.
II. STANDBY:is a switch that cuts off the EHT to the transmitter and the CRT
when desired by the observer.
III. PULSE LENGTH SELECTOR:is a switch marked ‘short/long’ and gives the
observer a choice of pulse length.
IV. RANGE SELECTOR:this switch gives the observer the choice of range scale.
The range scales to be available are 24,12,6,3,1.5,0.75,0.50 and 0.25 M.
V. CENTRE SHIFT: due to change of earth’s magnetic field from place to
place, external magnetic influences, vibrations, etc. the centre spot shifts
out of the geometric centre of the PPI; this control brings the spot back to
the centre.
VI. PERFORMANCE MONITOR:this switch is provided to check the overall
efficiency of the set.
VII. SCALE ILLUMINATION: the brightness of all readouts such as range scale in
use, bearing scale, digital displays of VRM, EBL, ERBL etc. are all controlled
by this switch.
VIII. SCANNER ON/OFF: this starts or stops the scanner for working,
maintenance, alignment of heading marker etc.
#IMO PERFORMANCE STANDARDS FOR RADAR

EQUIPMENT
These Performance Standards should apply to all ship borne radar installations, used in
any configuration, mandated by the 1974 SOLAS Convention, as amended,
independent of the:
 Type of ship.
 Frequency band in use.
 Type of display.
RADAR RANGE AND BEARING ACCURACY:
The radar system range and bearing accuracy requirements should be:
 RANGE: Within 30 m or 1% of the range scale in use, whichever is greater.
 BEARING: Within 10.
RANGE AND BEARING DISCRIMINATION:
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Range and bearing discriminations should be measured in calm conditions, on a range
scale of 1.5 NM or less and at between 50% and 100% of the range scale selected:
 RANGE: The radar system should be capable of displaying two-point targets on
the same bearing, separated by 40 m in range, as two distinct objects.
 BEARING: The radar system should be capable of displaying two-point targets on
the same range, separated by 2.50 in bearing, as two distinct objects.
ROLL AND PITCH:
The target detection performance of the equipment should not be substantially
impaired when own ship is rolling or pitching up to +/- 100.
RADAR AVAILABILITY:
The radar equipment should be fully operational within 4 minutes after switch ON
from cold. A STANDBY condition should be provided, in which there is no operational
transmission. The radar should be fully operational within 5 seconds from the
STANDBY condition.
DISPLAY RANGE SCALES:
 Range scales of 0.25,0.5,0.75,1.5,3,6,12 and 24 NM should be provided.
Additional range scales are permitted outside the mandatory set. Low metric
range scales may be offered in addition to the mandatory set.
 The range scale selected should be permanently indicated.
FIXED RANGE RINGS:
 An appropriate number of equally spaced range rings should be provided for the
range scale selected. When displayed, the range ring scale should be indicated.
 The system accuracy of fixed range rings should be within 1% of the maximum
range of the range scale in use or 30 m, whichever is the greater distance.
VARIABLE RANGE MARKERS:
 At least two variable range markers should be provided. Each active VRM should
have a numerical readout and have a resolution compatible with the range scale
in use.
 The VRMs should enable the user to measure the range of an object within the
operational display area with a maximum system error of 1% of the range scale
in use or 30 m, whichever is the greater distance.
**********************************************************************
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BLOCK DIAGRAM:
Fundamentals of Radar
The RADAR system generally consists of a transmitter that produces an
electromagnetic signal which is radiated into space by an antenna. When this signal
strikes an object, it gets reflected or reradiated in many directions. This reflected or
echo signal is received by the radar antenna which delivers it to the receiver, where it
is processed to determine the geographical statistics of the object.
The range is determined by calculating the time taken by the signal to travel from the
RADAR to the target and back. The target’s location is measured in angle, from the
direction of the maximum amplitude echo signal, the antenna points to. To measure
the range and location of moving objects, the Doppler Effect is used.
The performance of a radar system can be judged by the following:

(1) the maximum range at which it can see a target of a specified size.
(2) the accuracy of its measurement of target location in range and angle.
(3) its ability to distinguish one target from another.
(4) its ability to detect the desired target echo when masked by large clutter echoes,
unintentional interfering signals and intentional radiation.
(5) its ability to recognize the type of target.
(6) its availability (ability to operate when needed), reliability, and maintainability.
#FACTORS AFFECTING RADAR DETECTION:
1- Radar Horizon
2- Sub-refraction
3- Super-refraction
4- Ducting
1. Radar Horizon: It is the distance from the ship to the sea, up to where the radar
rays can detect the target around the ship. The range of the radar horizon
depends on the height of the scanner and on the amount of bending of radar
rays.The locus of points at which the rays from a radar antenna become
tangential to the Earth’s surface. On the open sea this locus is horizontal, but on
land it varies according to the topographical features of the terrain.
2.
3.
4.
An extreme form of super-refraction is known as ducting, when the radar beam

is conducted for long periods within a duct formed by air layers. When this
occurs, unusually long detection ranges of targets may be experienced. It is
during periods of ducting that second trace echoes may appear.
#EFFECT OF PRECIPITATION AND SEA ON RADAR

DETECTION
Raindrops absorb and scatter radar signals, so less energy reaches the target and even
less returns to radar as an echo. Hence, precipitation (rain, snow, hail etc.) and rainfall
in particular affect the propagation of electromagnetic waves in two ways:
1. there is absorption of electromagnetic energy by water drops and vapour which
causes radar signal attenuation (loss).
2. there is a returned signal from the rain which ‘clutters’ the radar return and can
mask targets. This phenomenon is known as rain clutter.
Weather Effects Radar Detection Range: When radio waves pass through the
atmosphere, some of their energy is lost due to absorption, scattering and diffraction.
Such loss of energy is termed attenuation in the atmosphere. Weather conditions such
as drizzle, rain, hail, snow and fog cause loss of echo strength and consequent
decrease in detection range of targets.
1- Drizzle
4- Snow
2- Rain
5- Fog
3- Hail
6- Sandstorm
Effects of weather
Weather conditions affect radar performance, in three ways:
non-standard atmospheric conditions
attenuation
unwanted echoes
FACTORS THAT MIGHT CAUSE FAULTY

INTERPRETATION
The following factors cause the faulty interpretation of the target on the radar display
unit, which officer of the watch should be able to identify to avoid confusion about the
target.
1. INDIRECT ECHOES
CHARACTERISTICS BY WHICH INDIRECT ECHOES MAY BE RECOGNIZED ARE

SUMMARIZED AS FOLLOWS:
2.MULTIPLE ECHOES
3.SECOND TRACE ECHOES

4.SIDE LOBE ECHOES
RADAR AS A RANGE MEASURING INSTRUMENT
In analogue radars, target range is measured electronically by a beam of light that is

continually moving across the screen from the centre to the edge at a speed
equivalent to half that of the radar wave. The light beam forms a line called the time
base or trace on which the target echoes appear.
In more modern raster scan radars range is measured electronically. When the pulse is
transmitted a very precise clocklike timebase signal is produced in the switch register,
corresponding to the speed of the transmitted pulse. If a returning echo is received at
precisely the same time as the timebase signal is produced a switch is turned on and
the returning echo displayed. The range is measured by either fixed range rings or a
variable range marker (VRM).
RADAR AS A BEARING MEASURING INSTRUMENT
Bearing measurement
To obtain an accurate bearing, the radar pulse is concentrated in a narrow beam in the
horizontal plane, and is rotated continuously through 360° in synchronisation with the
trace in an analogue radar. The radar assumes that if it receives an echo, its beam
must be pointing straight at the target in question. A line on the screen called the
heading marker provides a bearing reference, and target bearings are measured by an
electronic bearing line (EBL) or in older radars a bearing cursor.
MARINE RADAR TYPES
X BAND OR 3 CM RADAR
Radar wavelengths are expressed in centimetres, the commonest commercial

marine radar being 3 cm (actually 3.1 to 3.2 cm). This corresponds to a frequency of
9300 to 9500 megahertz (millions of cycles per second) and is called X-band radar. A 3
cm radar requires a smaller scanner to achieve the desired beamwidth and definition
as compared with a 10 cm radar. X-band radars are particularly suited to coastal
navigation and pilotage due to their high picture definition and quality.
LIMITATION
On the negative side a 3 cm radar produces more side lobes than a 10 cm radar and
the radio waves are not as refracted to the same extent. Therefore they will not
achieve the same range as a 10 cm radar.
S BAND OR 10 CM RADAR
Another common marine radar wavelength is 10 cm (actually 9.2 to 10 cm) with a
frequency of 3000 to 3246 megahertz. This is known as S-band radar. A 10 cm radar
will require a scanner up to 5 metres long to focus the beam. However, once produced
the beam will produce fewer side lobes and travel further along the surface, resulting
in a greater maximum range. Another advantage of S-band radars because of their
longer pulse length and greater power is that they will be less affected by attenuation
than X-band radars.
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S-band radars are suited to long range landfall navigation and early detection of
targets for collision avoidance, due to their superior range and the cohesive quality of
their pulses.
LIMITATION
On the negative side 10 cm radars require a larger scanner, greater

power and often a longer pulse length resulting in a loss of definition at short ranges.
A 3 cm radar is nearly always the preferred choice for small craft due to the greater
power and scanner size requirements of 10 cm radar.
Performance monitoring
A performance monitor informs the radar operator whether the radar is operating at
full efficiency or not. It should be used when the set is first turned on and at frequent
intervals thereafter when no targets are present on the screen. A lack of targets may
be due to a lack of targets but may also be due to poor radar performance. There are
two types of performance monitors, external and built-in. Both types both utilise a
metal echo box mounted behind the scanner and resonant to the radar’s frequency to
capture some of the radar’s transmitted energy. The external type makes a long plume
like line on the screen in the direction of the echo box. The length of the plume
depends upon the following:
transmitted power
receiver sensitivity
correct tuning
The monitor gives an indication of the efficiency of the set. The length of the plume is
measured when the set is installed and known to be performing well. If at any time the
plume is shorter, one or more of the above factors may have deteriorated and
allowance for this made, or the fault rectified. The built-in type is used in the same
manner, but produces a circular pattern the radius of which is measured.
The basic controls used to tune the performance of a radar are:

power/standby/transmit
brilliance
gain
heading marker
range
tuning
anti sea clutter control (STC)
Incorrect adjustment of controls
If the radar controls are incorrectly adjusted the performance of the radar will be
adversely affected. This could result in small and weak targets remaining undetected
and larger targets being detected at a reduced range. Good watchkeeping procedure
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should ensure that the radar is carefully monitored, checked against the visual watch
whenever the opportunity arises and always tuned for optimum performance.
#Display : Display has a circular screen representing on a scale, an actual area around
the ship and is called the Plan Position Indicator (PPI) because it gives a bird’s eye view
(plan) of the positions of targets around the ship. The distance represented by the
radius of the screen is called the range scale in use.
There are two types of display:
1. True Motion Display
2. Relative Motion Display
1. True Motion Display: In true motion display the origin (centre –represents own
ship) moves across the radar screen at the course and speed of the own ship. The
course is fed in directly from the gyro compass and speed from the ship’s log.
The movement of all targets on the radar screen are true, stationary targets remain
stationary where as moving targets
move on the screen on their actual courses and speeds. The centre may be shifted at
any time to any convenient part of the radar screen, as desired by the operator.
During the
course of its run, when the centre reaches its limiting point it will jump back to the
place where it was shifted. The heading marker, EBL, VRM, range rings move along
with the origin.
2. Relative Motion Display : In relative motion display the centre (origin-
represents own ship ) remains stationary, while all other targets move on the
radar screen, with a course and speed opposite to that of own vessel. In this
thestationary targets also appear to move opposite to the own ship’s course
and speed on the radar screen. The(origin)centre is normally centred over the
radar screen but can be shifted to a desired place on the radar display by the
operator.
#Kind of Radar Displays
1- Head Up Display
2- North Up Display
3- Course Up Display
4- Sea stabilised Display
5- Ground Stabilised Display
1.Head Up Display : In head up display the 12 o’clock or 000 of display represents
the own ship’s course and hence heading marker remains at the 000 of the
fixed, graduated around the PPI, in this all bearings are relative. The left side of
the radar screen denotes port side and right side, starboard side of the ship. To
find the true bearing of the target, the own ship’s heading must be known to
the operator. The sum of the relative bearing of the target and true course of
own ship will give the true bearing of the target. If the sum exceeds 360 deg,
then 360 deg must be subtracted from the total to obtain the true bearing of
the target. During course alteration smudging of the picture takes place.
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2.North Up Display :In this the 12 o’clock or 000 of the display represents true
north and the heading marker represents the true course of the own ship being
steered. All bearings of targets are true. As the own ship alters course, the
headingmarker swings around to the new course on the display, but all targets
remain on their original (same) place, they will not shift. Hence smudging of
targets does not take place during the course alterations or yaw.
3.Course Up Display : This is similar to the head up display, in this all bearings are
true, smudging of the picture will not take place during course alteration.
Shadowsectors and blind sectors remain on the same parts of the display. The
onlydrawback is that the picture is course up while the chart is north up.
CPA = Closest Point of Approach or the closest two ships will pass each other if both
ships maintain course and speed. If the CPA is zero it means the two ships will collide.
A very small CPA may also mean a collision as CPA is usually measured using radar
input and therefore the reference point is the radar aerial or the bridge. In large ships,
the bridge may be hundreds of feet from the bow or stern. So while the two bridges
may pass clear other parts of the ship will collide.
TCPA = Time to CPA ie the time at which CPA will happen if both ships maintain course
and speed.
**********************************************************************
2. THE USE OF RADAR IN NAVIGATION
#THE USE OF PARALLEL INDEXING TECHNIQUE IN

RADAR NAVIGATION:
 TO CHECK THE DIRECTION OF THE HM USING AN OFF-CENTRE DISPLAY.

 TO OBTAIN THE BEARING OF A TARGET USING AN OFF-CENTRE DISPLAY.
 TO OBTAIN THE BEARING BETWEEN TWO TARGETS.
 TO OBTAIN THE APPROXIMATE DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO TARGETS.
 TO OBTAIN THE CPA RANGE QUICKLY (RM DISPLAY ONLY).
 TO OBTAIN THE COURSE AND SPEED OF A TARGET QUICKLY (TM ONLY).
#PARALLEL INDEX TECHNIQUE:
 It is the art of manoeuvring a ship to a desired position, or along a desired

track, in such a manner that the entire manoeuvre is carried out while using
the PPI only.
 The chart is consulted before hand and a little pre-computation may be
done, but no fixes are plotted on the chart because continuous monitoring is
done on the PPI with the help of parallel index.
 Allowance for current and wind are made, as and when necessary, during
the manoeuvre, by inspection of the ship’s progress on the PPI.
#AIS OVERLAY ON RADAR:
 They provide two independent ways of detecting targets.

 They give two independent estimates of the target range, bearing, course,
and speed.
 Radar can detect targets that do not carry AIS.
 AIS transmissions are almost unaffected by sea clutter or heavy rain,
allowing the detection of targets, in conditions where they are likely to be
invisible to the Radar.
 The VHF frequencies used by the AIS are better at detecting around
headlands and islands than radar is, allowing detection of targets that are in
radar shadow.
 Radar is based on relative motion, aligned to ships heading and is, therefore,
better suited for collision avoidance. It can continue to operate with no
reliance on other internal or external navigational aids.
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 AIS is more accurate than radar since it is continuously fed with data from
reliable sensors.
 Radar can n have very poor accuracy when tracking a target. AIS maintains its
accuracy and gives a prompt indication of changes in heading, and will give
the rate of turn if it is available from the target.
 The user normally has very good knowledge of his/her ship’s radar
capabilities. They have no control over the effectiveness of the data supplied
by other Ships AIS equipment, sometimes it can be of very poor quality.
 In poor visibility, you can see which ship there is and if there is a need for
special manoeuvres around it - maybe because it is restricted in some way,
for example like a fishing vessel
#AIDS TO RADAR:
1. RACON
 A Racon is a radar responder beacon.
 When the ship’s pulse arrives at the Racon, the Racon amplifies and
returns the pulse to the scanner as a fairly
fairly strong signal of the same
frequency. This signal creates a short, bright line on the PPI.
 A Racon is useful in identifying light
light-vessels
vessels or buoys in poor visibility
especially in areas of high traffic density and in crowded anchorages.
 Where several buoys are in the same locality have Racons fitted on them,
the Racon signal of each object is so designed as to appear as a different
Morse letter for identification purpose.
2. SART (SEARCH AND RESCUE TRANSPONDER)
 SART enables search and rescue (SAR) units to to locate ships or their
survival craft when in distress.
 It is a portable device to be taken to the lifeboat or liferaft when
abandoning ship.
 When interrogated by radar waves of the X band, a SART gets triggered
into transmitting a series of pulses.
 The
he signals extend outwards from the position of the SART, along the line of
bearing, for distance of 8 NM on the PPI. The gap between successive blips is
0.6 NM.
#POSITION FIXING:
 FIXING BY RADAR BEARINGS:

The crucial factor in radar navigation is to co
correctly
rrectly identify radar
conspicuous features that are recognizable on the chart as well as on the
radar screen. Towers, monuments, buildings and other prominent features
that are favourites with compass navigation will not be visible on radar.
However, objects
cts such as headlands, islands, buoys, beacons will, with the
added advantage that they will be equally useable by day or night.
 FIXING BY RADAR RANGES:
#ERRORS IN RADAR BEARINGS:
 ANGLE OF SQUINT: The heading marker should appear when the pulse
leaves the
he scanner in the ahead direction. If it does not, all radar bearing
would be in error, whether obtained by the EBL or by the mechanical cursor,
whether the display is gyro
gyro- stabilised or not. This is called squint.
 MISALIGNMENT BETWEEN HEADING MARKER AND

AND BEARING SCALE
SCALE:
 ERROR OF PARALLAX::
 CENTRING ERROR:
 DIGITAL ERROR OF EBL:
 SOME OTHER SOURCES OF ERROR:

#ERRORS IN RADAR RANGES:
 ERROR OF RANGE RINGS: error of range rings is quite rare. Once checked
and corrected, it should normally last indefinitely.The error of range rings
should not exceed 1% of the maximum range of the scale in use, or 30
metres, whichever is greater.
 ERROR OF THE VRM:

******************************************************************************
3.TERRESTRIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM
 It is the method of navigation used by mariners that uses landmarks as

reference points, ship's stability, fuel consumption and ship's speed along with
tides and currents.
 This is the opposite of celestial navigation, which plots positions in relation to
the stars.
Basic principles of terrestrial navigation
1. Dead Reckoning
2 .Proximity Systems
3 Distance based Navigation
4 Distance difference based Navigation
5 Distance ratio based Navigation
6 .Angle-of-arrival based Navigation
7.Signature based Navigation
Dead Reckoning
Dead reckoning is the process of estimating one's current position based upon a
previously determined position, or fix and advancing that position based upon
known speed, elapsed time, and course.
Proximity Systems
Proximity positioning systems are also known as signpost or beacon system.

The position estimates for an object are determined from its proximity to fixed
detection devices
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E-LORAN
 Enhanced Loran is an internationally standardized positioning, navigation,
and timing (PNT) service for use by many modes of transport and in other
applications.
 It is the latest in the long-standing and proven series of low-frequency,
Long-Range Navigation (LORAN) systems.
 E-Loran meets the accuracy; availability, integrity, and continuity
performance requirements for aviation, maritime harbor entrance
and approach maneuvers.
PRINCIPLES
E-Loran uses pulsed signals at a center frequency of 100 kHz. The pulses are
designed to allow receivers to distinguish between the groundwave and skywave
components in the received composite signal.
This way, the E-Loran signals can be used over very long ranges without fading or
uncertainty in the time-of-arrival (TOA) measurement related to skywave.
WORKING
E- LORAN System works with the proper synchronization between the followings
elements of the system:-
TRANSMITTING STATIONS
 All E-Loran transmitters use modern solid-state transmitter (SSX) and

control technology.
 They have uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) that ensure that any
failure of the incoming power will neither interrupt nor affect the
transmitted signal.
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 E-Loran transmissions are synchronized to an identifiable, publicly-

certified, source of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) by a method wholly
independent of Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)
CONTROL CENTERS
 E-Loran transmitting stations run unattended.

 Sufficient Personnel are at the control centers and on call to respond
rapidly to failures and to maintain the published very high levels of
availability and continuity.
 Security of these sites and of any critical communications systems is of a
high level, reflecting the importance of the applications for which the
transmitted signal is being used.
MONITOR SITES/REFERENCE STATIONS
 Monitor sites, located in the E-Loran coverage area, are used to provide
integrity for the user community.
 The receivers used at these sites monitor the E-Loran signals and provide
real-time information to the control centers regarding signals in space.
USERS’ EQUIPMENT
 E-Loran users’ receivers operate in an all-in-view mode

 That is they acquire and track the signals of many Loran stations and
employ them to make the most accurate and reliable position and
timing measurements.
 Another benefit of using the all-in-view mode is that it ensures that
the E-Loran receiver is always tracking the correct cycle of each
individual signal.
BLOCK DIAGRAM
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Page 33
ERRORS
 Because E-Loran signals travel over the surface of the earth (i.e., they are
Groundwave), they are subject to small propagation delays that depends
On electrical conductivity of the ground.
 To achieve the high level of accuracy required for aviation approaches,
harbor entrance and approach maneuvers, and to recover precise time,
these propagation delays must be measured and corrections must be
applied.
 User and System Monitor Receivers will store and employ these Signal
Propagation Corrections to maximize the accuracy and also provide
integrity for the solutions they deliver.
Page 34
4. GYRO COMPASS
 THE PROPERTIES OF FREE GYROSCOPE:
Gyroscope having three degrees of freedom is called “FREE GYROSCOPE”.

The properties of free gyroscope are as follows:
 GYROSCOPIC INERTIA OR RIGIDITY IN SPACE:
 A freely spinning gyroscope will maintain its axis of spin in the same direction with
respect to space, irrespective of how its supporting base is turned.
 It resists any attempt to change its direction of spin.
 Thus, a free gyroscope has high directional stability. This property is called
GYROSCOPIC INERTIA OR RIGIDITY IN SPACE.
 PRECESSION:
 Precession is the angular displacement of the spin axis of the gyroscope when a
torque is applied to gyroscope.
 Hence, when a torque is applied to the spin axis the resulting movement will be in
the direction at right angle to the applied torque.
 Earth is also a free gyroscope pointing north axis toward Polaris (rigidity in space).
 The angular rate of precession is directly proportional to the applied force and is
inversely proportional to the angular momentum of the rotor.
 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN APPLIED FORCE AND

PRECESSION:
 Precession is the term used to describe the movement of the axle of a gyroscope
under the influence of an external force.
 If a force is applied to the rotor by moving one end of its axle, the gyroscope will
be displaced at an angle of 90° from the applied force.
 THE EFFECTS OF EARTH’S ROTATION ON A FREE

GYROSCOPE:
 Drift of the N end of the spin axis is to the E in the northern hemisphere and to the
W in the southern hemisphere.
Page 35
 Tilt of the N end of the spin axis is upwards if the N end is to the east of the
meridian and downwards if it is to the W of the meridian.
#DAMPING:
 For a gyrocompass to point north, it is necessary that the oscillation be damped out
so that the unit can settle on the meridian and not keep passing through it.
 Damping an oscillator involves changing its energy state by opposing the velocity of
the body.
 Two principal methods for damping are as follows:
 The first, used in all gyrocompasses except the Sperry, was developed by Schuler.
 The second method of damping is used in the Sperry gyrocompass.
#DRIFT AND TILT:
Tilt is elevation or depression of the spin axis above or below the horizon.
Drift is the movement of the spin axis in the direction of azimuth.
Rate of tilting in degrees per hour = 150 sine Azimuth * cosine Latitude
Rate of Drift in degrees per hour = 150 sine Latitude
TILT:
 If a free gyroscope is situated on the equator and lies with its axis East West and
horizontal, it can be assumed of as pointing to a star with zero declination and
isabout to rise.
 The East End of the gyroscope axis will follow the movement of this star and will
tilt upwards as the star rises.
 After nearly six hours the axis will be vertical and after nearly twelve hours the
gyroscope will have turned completely over with the axis again horizontal but
now the original East end of the axis would be pointing to the star setting due
West.
 After one sidereal day, the gyroscope would have tilted through 360 0 and the
star would again be rising.
 This rate of tilting of 3600 in a day is a rate of 150 per hour.
 If the gyroscope had been situated on the equator with its axis lying in the North
– South direction, then the North end would be pointing towards the Pole star
and would then have no apparent movement relative to the Earth.
 The rate of tilting thus varies from zero when the axis is lying North – South to a
maximum when it is lying East – West. That is the rate of tilting varies as the
Sine of the Azimuth.
 A free gyroscope situated at a pole with its axis horizontal would have an
apparent turntable motion due to the Earth’s rotation.
Page 36
 That is, it would follow a fixed star around the horizon but it would not rise or
set.
 The rate of tilting thus varies from a maximum when the latitude is 0O to zero
when the latitude is 900.That is the rate of tilting varies as the Cosine of the
Latitude.
 Rate of tilting in degrees per hour = 15O sine Azimuth * cosine Latitude.
 The direction of tilting is such that the end of the gyroscope axis, which lies to
the East of the meridian, tilts upwards and the end of the axis, which lies to the
West of the meridian tilts downward.
DRIFT:
 Drift is the apparent movement of a gyroscope in azimuth.
 A free gyroscope situated at the North Pole with its axis horizontal will have an
apparent movement, which is entirely in the horizontal plane.
 Its axis will appear to move in a clockwise direction when viewed from above. This
would be due to the real counter clockwise rotation of the earth beneath, this circular
motion causes the gyroscope to drift through 360 0 in one sidereal day, that is at a rate
of 150 per hour.
 A free gyroscope situated at the equator with its axis horizontal will not drift at
all,irrespective of whether its axis is set in the North – South or East – West line.
 The rate of drift for a gyroscope with its axis horizontal thus varies from a maximum
at the poles to zero at the equator.
 That is the rate of drift varies as the sine of the latitude. For a free gyroscope with
its axis horizontal: Rate of Drift in degrees per hour = 150 sin Latitude.
 The direction of drift depends upon hemisphere so that the North end of a
horizontal gyroscopic axis drifts to the eastwards in the Northern hemisphere but to
the Westwards in the southern hemisphere.
#PROCEDURE FOR STARTING AND STOPPING
STARTING:
 A gyro needs time to settle on the meridian, the time taken will depend on the
make, model & geographical location of the gyro.
 The settling time may be between one & several hours, manual provided by the
manufacturer has to be consulted before switching on the gyro.
 If compass has been switched off, it will take longer time to bring compass intouse.
Following are the procedures for Sperry MK 37 digital.
 At power-up and prior entering the settling mode, system performs automatic
procedure to determine if the equipment is operating within specified parameters.
 If gyro is stationary the system opts for cold start, if rotating a hot start if
programmed.
Page 37
 During a cold start, if no heading data is input to system when requested the gyro
selects automatic. Once the power is switched on, two bleeps prompts for heading
input, if the heading data is not entered within 5 minutes, the gyroswitches to an auto
level process. (In some older make, the slewing is done manually, a special key is
provided for the same which is inserted into a slot).
 If heading data is fed the rotor is automatically slewed.
 The rotor is brought up to required speed within 14 minutes and the gyro will
subsequently settle within an hour.
 If heading data is not fed, the gyro will settle within 5 hrs.
OR
 Refer to the manufacturer’s manual and follow the procedure.
 Make a preparation of at least four hours before the compass is required for
service.
 Check that all supply switches are open.
 Adjust the latitude and speed setting accordingly.
 Switch on an alternator and wait for 10 seconds until it gains full speed.
 The compass will settle faster in port than at sea and also depends on how
much the gyro axel was out of meridian.
 Test the alarm switch on the alarm panel.
 Follow ISM checklist (check ship head, liquid level, sphere position).
 Switch on pulse generator.
 Switch on main gyro power.
 Unlock horizontal gimbals system.
 Switch on all repeaters.
STOPPING:
 Follow manufacturer’s instructions.

 Follow ISM checklist.
 Switch off all repeaters (Gyro, Course recorder, radar).
 Place gimbals system horizontal and lock it.
 Switch off main Gyro power.
 Switch off pulse generator.
 Switch off the alternator and lock the rotor.
 Open the azimuth motor switch.
#ROUTINE MAINTENANCE
 EACH WATCH:
 Check repeater with a master compass to ensure that repeater is functioning
properly, if power fails repeater may have to be reset.
Page 38
 Check the compass error by azimuth.
 Speed and latitude characters should be reset as necessary.
 Inspect the compass to guard against any abnormal condition of operation.
 MONTHLY:
 Check the alarm buzzer.
 Clean and oil part as indicated in the manufacturer’s manual.
 General cleanliness should be checked, repair and maintenance should only be
carried out by a professional.
 GENERAL:
 It is recommended that gyro compass should run continuously, if stops then it
should be restarted and subsequently checked before use to ensure it is settled
and reading correctly.
 Latitude and speed correction should be applied.
 Repeaters should be synchronised.
#PRINCIPAL PARTS OF GYRO COMPASS:
 MASTER COMPASS:discovers and maintains the true north reading with the help
of gyroscope.
 CONTROL PANEL: it is used for computing and amplifying circuitry components.
Governs the electrical operation of the system and ascertains the running
condition by means of a suitable meter.
 TRANSMISSION UNIT: consists of amplifiers and repeater switches. It is used to
transmit the heading data of the master compass to the repeater compasses and
other equipments such auto pilot.
 POWER ADAPTER: is used for converting the ship’s power supply into the power
necessary for operating the static inverter and transmission units. For continuous
operating of this gyrocompass, we need standby power supply system.
 REPEATER: indicates the ship’s heading shown by master compass by means of a
signal from the transmission unit.
 COURSE RECORDER: makes a continuous record of the manoeuvring on a moving
strip of paper.
 ALARM UNIT: indicates failure of the ship’s supply.
 AMPLIFIER PANEL: controls the follow-up system.
 MOTOR GENERATOR: converts the ship’s DC supply to AC and energizes the
compass equipment.
Page 39
#ERRORS ASSOCIATED WITH GYRO COMPASS:
#STATIC ERRORS:
 TRANSMISSION ERROR
 VARIABLE ERROR:
o DYNAMIC ERRORS:
 ROLLING ERROR
 MANOEUVRING (BALLISTIC) ERROR
 LATITUDE (DAMPING) ERROR
 SPEED AND COURSE ERROR
o SPEED/LATITUDE ERROR
1. SPEED AND COURSE ERROR: If a vessel makes good a northerly or southerly course,
the north end of the gyro spin axis will apparently tilt up or down since the
curvature of the earth causes the ship to effectively tilt bows up or down with
respect to space.
The error varies, with the cosine of the ship’s course. Speed/course gyrocompass
errormagnitude must also be affected by latitude and will produce an angle of tilt in
the settled gyro. Hence latitude/course /speed error is sometimes referred to as LCS
error.
2. LATITUDE (DAMPING) ERROR: Latitude error is a constant error, the magnitude of
which is directly proportional to the earth’s rotation at any given latitude. It is,
therefore, present even when the ship is stationary.
CORRECTION:Correction for latitude error requires that a torque be applied to
precess the gyro at an angular rate, varying with latitude, to cancel the error. This
will be an external correction that can be eithermechanical or electronic.
3. MANOEUVRING (BALLISTIC) ERROR:This error occurs whenever the ship is subject
to rapid changes of speed or heading. Because of its pendulous nature, the compass
gravity control moves away from the centre of gravity whenever the vessel changes
speed or alters course.
4. ROLLING ERROR:
As the name suggests, this error is caused by a vessel rolling. The error cancels when
the ship is steaming north or south and is maximum when following an east/west
course.
CORRECTION: since roll error is caused by lateral acceleration, mounting the

gyrocompass low in the vessel and as close as possible to the centre of roll will reduce
this error still further.
#FOLLOW UP SYSTEMS:
A system enabling control of the gyro when it is fitted on board a moving platform.
A stationary gravity-controlled gyrocompass will adequately settle close to the
horizontal and near to the meridian, provided that it has freedom to move about the
horizontal and vertical axes. However, if the gyrocompass is to be mounted on a ship,
the base (phantom) ring needs to be capable of rotating through 360° without
introducing torque about the vertical axis.
A number of methods have been developed to eliminate torque about the vertical
axis. These include the use of high tensile torsion wires and buoyancy chambers.
#FAMILIARISATION WITH VARIOUS TYPES OF GYRO-

COMPASSES USED ON MERCHANT SHIPS:
 Admiralty Sperry type.

 Anschutz.
 Arma Brown compass.
#SPEED CORRECTION:
A signal that is proportional to the ship’s speed and the cosine of the ship’s course, is
coupled back to the azimuth amplifier to cause the gyro ball to tilt in opposition to the
apparent tilt caused by the northerly or southerly component of the ship’s speed.
#LATITUDE CORRECTION:
The latitude correction circuit provides a signal, proportional to the sine of the vessel’s
latitude, to cause the gyro ball to process in azimuth at a rate equal and opposite to
the apparent drift caused by the rotation of the earth. This signal will be zero at the
equator and maximum at the poles. It must also be of opposite phase for north or
south latitudes.
******************************************************
Page 42
5. SHIP SECURITY ALARM SYSTEM
 The Ship Security Alert System (SSAS) is a safety measure for

strengthening ship’s security and subduing acts of piracy and/or
terrorism against shipping.
 Widely Acknowledged as a part of the International Ship and Port Facility
Security Code (ISPS code), the Ship Security Alert System (SSAS)
complements the International Maritime Organization (IMO)’s attempts
to increase maritime vessel security.
 The SSAS is used by the ship to transmit a security alert to a competent
authority when the security of the ship is under threat.
 WORKING:
 When the maritime security staff comprehends probable danger from pirates or
terrorists, SSAS alert is triggered.
 The beacon transmits a specific security alert, with important details about the ship
and its location, to the administration and to the owner, or appointed professional
SSAS management and monitoring services.
 Once receiving the signal, the administration will notify the nearest national
authorities of the area which will dispatch appropriate military or law-enforcement
forces to deal with the terrorists or pirates.
 INFORMATION TRANSMITTED:
When the Ship Security Alert System is activated, following details will be sent to the
administration :
1. Name of the ship
2. IMO Number of the ship
3. Call sign of the ship
4. The Global Navigation Satellite system ( GNSS) position of the ship in Latitude
and Longitude
5. Maritime Mobile Security Identity
6. Date and Time of alert according to the GNSS Position ( as per the current time
ship is sailing )
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 PRECAUTIONS AND LIMITATIONS:
 The SSAS setup on a ship is still considered as an additional financial burden on

ships.
 The ship owners
ners try to stick to the regulation by providing only two SSAS
switches and there can be chances that these two locations are not accessible
during the attack.
 If the number of the switch is increased, it will add to the safety of the ship and
the crew.
 The e regulation does not make it mandatory to have an independent source of
power to the ship’s SSAS. In case of failure of main power or fault in the
emergency backup power, the SSAS will not work.
 It is important for the Master to ensure the ship’s crew knoknows
ws the location of
the switches. The familiarization of the locations in every drill is still not
practised in many ships which may lead to confusion in case of a real
emergency.
 To save cost, many owners do not opt for dedicated agencies rather they prefer prefe
to keep this service in house. (CSO
(CSO- Company Security Officer).
 Missing of calls or message by the CSO in that case, regarding the safety and
security of the vessel and crew may lead to tremendous losses.
 LEGISLATIONS ON SSAS:
*************************
*******************************************************
******************************
6. INDUCED MAGNETISM IN SHIP AND MAGNETIC

COMPASS CORRECTIONS
 CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF LIQUID COMPASSES:
 PROXIMITY OF MAGNETIC MATERIAL AND

ELECTRICAL APPLIANCE:
 When the current is switched on through a wire in the electrical appliance,

compass needle kept nearby gets deflected from its N-S position due to
magnetic effect of electric current around the wire.
 When magnetic material is present in the vicinity the compass needle points
towards the magnetic material as it gets magnetized. The closer the magnetic
material to the compass, the more powerful the effect.
 HEELING ERROR EFFECT AND METHOD OF

CORRECTION:
 Deviation of a compass due to a ship’s heel which causes vertical magnetic

forces to have a horizontal component and transverse horizontal magnetic
forces to have a vertical component.
 An error in a ship’s magnetic compass which can be caused when she heels.
 CORRECTION:
 Contemporary binnacles correct the vertical field by a magnet called the

heeling error magnet. The accepted practice of correcting the vertical field is to
place the heeling error magnet at a position and orientation to bring the
vertical field at the compass to an equal multiplier to the horizontal field.
 The ideal magnetic correctors would allow for the correction of the compass to
be valid for a vessel’s voyage and in all geographic areas of operation. The
improved binnacle design achieves this.
 The heeling magnet is the only corrector that corrects for both permanent and
induced effects, and consequently must be readjusted occasionally with radical
changes in the latitude of the ship.
 METHOD OF OBTAINING A TABLE OF DEVIATIONS:

Deviation is the angle contained between the N-S line of ship’s magnetic compass
and Earth’s magnetic pole.
Compass deviation is caused by magnetism in ship structure.
o We know that Earth’s magnetic effect is least at the equator and increases as
we proceed towards the pole so ideally ship should be at the equator.
o Ship is then steered to every 100 interval starting from 0000 to 3600.
o Corresponding magnetic course was noted for that every 10 0 interval.
o We get variation from chart of that place in which we are sailing.
o Deviation calculated from it is tabulated.
This is how we obtain deviation table.
 EFFECTS OF SHIP’S MAGNETIC FIELD ON

MAGNETIC COMPASS:
 Steel being ferro magnetic are magnetized in the process of ship construction.
 Magnetic Compass should be ideally placed in a place far away from all
ferromagnetic material so that only forces affecting it are the earth’s magnetic
lines of forces.
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 It is not possible in a modern ship which is mainly built of steel which due to its
Permanent, Sub permanent & Induced magnetism disturbs the earth’s magnetic
lines of forces, thus causing an error in the compass.
 These errors are not fixed, thus if not adjusted/corrected, the compass headings
and bearings cannot be relied upon.
 Ship’s magnetic conditions create deviations of the magnetic compass as well as
sectors of sluggishness and unsteadiness.
 Deviation is defined as a deflection of the card (needles) to the right or left of the
magnetic meridian.
 Adjustment of the compass is the arranging of magnetic and soft iron correctors
about the binnacle so that their effects are equal and opposite to the effects of the
magnetic material in the ship, thus reducing the deviations and eliminating the
sectors of sluggishness and unsteadiness.
*****************************************************
GPS & DGPS
 INTRODUCTION:
 GPS or Global Positioning System is a satellite navigation system that furnishes

location and time information in all climate conditions to the user.
 GPS (global positioning system) was originally developed by the US Department
of Defence for military purposes.
 It is a satellite-based navigation system consisting of 24 orbiting satellites in 6
different orbit paths. This system is more accurate than any other existing
system with worldwide coverage in all weather conditions.
 GPS provides continuous real-time, 3-dimensional positioning, navigation and
timing worldwide.
 WORKING PRINCIPLE:
 The working/operation of the Global positioning system is based on the

‘trilateration’ mathematical principle.
 When the receiver sends the signal to locate itself, it finds out three nearest
satellites of known positions. The receiver then calculates the distance between
one satellite and the receiver. If the distance is “X”, then it draws an imaginary
sphere with “X” as the radius from the receiver to the satellite and also the
satellite as the centre. Similarly, the same process is repeated for the next two
satellites.Thus, three spheres are drawn with just two possible positions. Out of
these, one point will be in space and the other will be the location of the
receiver.Thus, the exact position of the receiver is found out.
 Usually, the receivers try to locate more than four satellites so as to increase the
accuracy of the location. The Earth is made as the fourth sphere so that two
points converge with the imaginary spheres of the other three satellites. This
method is commonly called 3-D Trilateration method.
 LIMITATIONS:
 GPS SIGNAL RECEPTION: proper functioning of a GPS receiver requires the

undisturbed reception of signals from at least 4 GPS satellites. These signals
propagate from the satellites to the receiver antenna along the line of sight and
cannot penetrate water, therefore it cannot be used for subsurface marine
navigation, nor for underground positioning and surveying.
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 GPS SIGNAL INTEGRITY: with one measurement to each of 4 satellites there will
usually be a unique receiver position solution. Wrong satellite positions or
wrong range measurements will result in an incorrect calculation of receiver
position.
 GPS SIGNAL ACCURACY: the accuracy may be limited to how the system is
constructed, the laws of physics and how the system is used. Any error that is
not removed from the range measurements will lead to errors of similar or even
larger size in the computed receiver positions.
#SEGMENTS OF GPS:
 GROUND BASED SEGMENT: it consists of four land-based monitoring stations

located at Atlantic area, Pacific area, Diego Suarez and Indian ocean. It also has a
master control station and upload station located at Colorado Springs in USA.
The monitoring stations track the satellites, obtain the data from these satellites
and pass the information to master control station.
 SPACE SEGMENT: it consists of 24 operational satellites evenly placed in 6
different orbits. All the satellites have a propulsion system to maintain their
orbital path and can be remotely controlled. These satellites are so launched in
the orbit that a receiver placed anywhere on the surface of the earth can
receive signals from minimum 4 satellites with an elevation of more than 9.5 0.
 USER’S SEGMENT: it consists of a receiving antenna, receiver with built in
computer and display unit.The receiver locks on to one satellite and from this
satellite it obtains the almanac of all other satellites and thereby selects the 4
most suitable satellites for position fixing.
#ERRORS:
 USERS CLOCK ERROR: if the user clock is not perfectly synchronized with the
satellite’s clock, the range measurement will not be accurate and the range
measurement along with clock error is known as pseudo range. This error can
be eliminated within the receiver on board by obtaining the pseudo range from
three satellites and it’s done automatically within the receiver.
 SATELLITE CLOCK ERROR: this error is caused due to the error in the satellite’s
clock w.r.t., GPS time. This is monitored by the ground-based segments and any
error in the satellite’s clock forms part of the 30 seconds navigational message.
 GEOMETRIC DILUTION OF PRECISION (GDOP): the geometry of the position of
the satellite determines the angle of cut which in turns governs the quality of
the position obtained. Wider the angular separation between the satellites,
more accurate is the fix as the intersection will be almost at right angles. The
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lower the GDOP value higher the accuracy of the fix and this GDOP value is
indicated on the display unit.
 MULTIPATH ERROR: this error is caused by satellite signals arriving at the ship’s
antenna both directly from the satellite and having been reflected by some
other objects. Thus,the two signals are received simultaneously which will cause
the distortion of the signal from which range measurement is obtained. Siting
the antenna at a suitable place can minimize this error.
 DEVIATION OF THE SATELLITE FROM THE PREDICTED PATH: the satellites are
monitored and their path are predicted by ground-based segment. However,
between two consecutive monitoring of the same satellites, there may be minor
drifts from their predicted paths resulting in small position inaccuracy.
 IONOSPHERIC AND TROPOSPHERIC DELAY: the radio waves radiated by the
satellite when passing through the different layers of the ionosphere and
troposphere, the velocity of the waves vary which affects the time difference
measurement and the fix will not be accurate.
#ALARMS OF GPS ON SHIPS:
There are seven alarm conditions which generate both audible and visual alarms.
When an alarm setting is violated, the buzzer sounds and the name of the offending
alarm appears on the display. The alarm icon also appears on the Plotter 1, Plotter 2
and Highway displays.
ARRIVAL ALARM, ANCHOR WATCH ALARM:
 Arrival alarm: The arrival alarm informs you that own ship is approaching a
destination waypoint. The area that defines an arrival zone is that of a circle
which you approach from the outside of the circle.
 Anchor watch alarm: The anchor watch alarm sounds to warn you that own ship
is moving when it should be at rest.
Cross Track Error (XTE) Alarm: The XTE alarm warns you when own ship is off its
intended course.
Ship’s Speed Alarm: The ship’s speed alarm sounds when ship’s speed is lower or
higher (or within) the alarm range set.
Trip Alarm:The trip alarm sounds when the distance run is greater than the trip alarm
setting.
Water Temperature Alarm: The water temperature alarm sounds when the water
temperature is higher or lower (or within) the pre-set temperature. This alarm
requires temperature signal from external equipment.
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Depth Alarm: The depth temperature alarm sounds when the depth is higher or lower
(or within) the pre-set depth. This alarm requires video sounder connection.
WAAS/DGPS Alarm:The WAAS/DGPS alarm sounds when the WAAS/DGPS signal is
lost.
 DIFFERENTIAL GPS:
 The differential GPS system is used to enhance the accuracy of the normal GPS
system so that it can be used for survey, drilling, oceanography etc. where
higher accuracy of position fixing is required.
 The DGPS reference station is situated at a fixed location and from this position
the GPS receiver tracks all the satellites within its site, obtains data from them,
and computes the correction based on the position obtained from the GPS and
its actual position. These corrections are then broadcast to GPS users to
improve their positional accuracy.
 There are two methods by which the DGPS station can transmit the corrections:
 Computing and transmitting a position correction in terms of latitude,
longitude and altitude i.e., x, y and z coordinates.
 Computing pseudo range correction to each satellite which is then
broadcast to the user and applied to the user’s pseudo range
measurement before the position is calculated by the onboard receiver
resulting in a higher accuracy of position fix.
#HOW DGPS CALCULATE EVEN MORE ACCURATE

POSITION THAN GPS:
 Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS) is an enhancement to Global

Positioning System that provides improved location accuracy, from the 15-
meter nominal GPS accuracy to about 10 cm in case of the best
implementations.
 DGPS uses a network of fixed ground-based reference stations to broadcast the
difference between the positions indicated by the GPS satellite systems and the
known fixed positions.
 These stations broadcast the difference between the measured satellite pseudo
ranges and actual (internally computed) pseudo ranges, and receiver stations
may correct their pseudo ranges by the same amount.
 The digital correction signal is typically broadcast locally over ground-based
transmitters of shorter range.
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#LIMITATIONS AND ERRORS OF DGPS:
 International Limitation of Accuracy.

 Receiver Independent Exchange Format.
 Reference System Co-ordinates.
GLOBAL ORBITING NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEM

(GLONASS):
 The Russian Federation’s GLONASS was developed in parallel with GPS to serve
the same primary function, i.e., as a weapons navigation and guidance system.
 GLONASS is owned and operated by a Military Special Forces team at the
Russian Ministry of Defence.
 The system possesses similar architecture to the GPS and is equally capable of
highly accurate position fixing.
A. SPACE SEGMENT: the space segment is based on 24 SVs, eight in each of three,
almost circular orbital planes spaced at 1200 intervals and inclined at 64.80. Each
SV completes one earth orbit in 11 h 25 min and two orbits in 22 h 50 min real
time.
B. GROUND SEGMENT: all ground control stations are located in former Soviet
Union territory. The Ground Control and Operations Centre and Time Standard
Centre are in Moscow.
C. SIGNAL PARAMETERS: initially all SVs were designed to transmit on different
carrier frequencies, but in 1992, following the World Administrative Radio
Conference (WARC-92) frequencies were grouped. Then in 1998 they were
again changed. As in the GPS, the GLONASS navigation message contains timing,
SV position and tracking data.
D. POSITION FIXING: GLONASS navigation fixes are obtained in precisely the same
way as those for GPS. Pseudo-range calculations are made and then corrected in
the receiver to obtain the user location in 3-dimensions. Precise timing is also
available.
E. USER EQUIPMENT: because of the initial secrecy surrounding the system and
the scarcity of detailed parameters, it is to be expected that there is little user
equipment available. In the past, western manufacturers have had little
incentive to invest heavily in the development of receivers when the GPS has
been freely available. However, this situation could well change in the future.
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GNSS- GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEM:
 GNSS include constellations of Earth-orbiting satellites that broadcast their

locations in space and time, of networks of ground control stations, and of
receivers that calculate ground positions by trilateration.
 The performance of GNSS is assessed using four criteria:
I. ACCURACY: the difference between a receiver’s measured and real
position, speed or time.
II. INTEGRITY: a system’s capacity to provide a threshold of confidence and,
in the event of an anomaly in the positioning data, an alarm.
III. CONTINUITY: a system’s ability to function without interruption.
IV. AVAILABILITY: the percentage of time a signal fulfils the above accuracy,
integrity and continuity criteria.
At present GNSS include two fully operational global systems:
1. UNITED STATES’ GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS):
 GPS is the oldest GNSS system.
 It initiated its operations in 1978 and was available for global use from
1994.
 In 1964 the Transit system was deployed, which was also known as
NAVSAT which worked on the Doppler Effect to provide information of
surface ships, hydrographic survey and missile submarines.
 Till date GPS has launched 72 satellites.
2. THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION’S GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEM
(GLONASS):
 GLONASS became operational in 1993 with 12 satellites in 2 orbits at
height of 19,130 km.
 At present there are total 27 satellites in orbit and all are operational.
 It is operated by Russian Aerospace Defence Forces and is the second
alternative navigational system in operation.
As well as the developing global and regional systems like:
INDIA’S REGIONAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEM (IRNSS):
 IRNSS is an independent regional navigation satellite system being developed by
India.
 It is designed to provide accurate position information service to users in India
as well as the region extending up to 1500 km from its boundary.
 IRNSS provides two types of services:
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 STANDARD POSITIONING SERVICE (SPS): which is provided to all the
users.
 RESTRICTED SERVICE (RS): which is an encrypted service provided only to
authorised users.
 Some applications of IRNSS are:
o Terrestrial, Aerial and Marine Navigation.
o Disaster Management.
o Vehicle tracking and fleet management.
o Precise Timing.
o Mapping and Geodetic data capture.
WORLD GEODETIC SYSTEM 1984 (WGS 84):
 WGS 84 is an Earth-centered, Earth-fixed terrestrial reference system and

geodetic datum which is used by the GPS satellites for position fixing.
 WGS 84 is based on a consistent set of constants and model parameters that
describe the Earth’s size, shape, gravity and geomagnetic fields.
 WGS 84 is the standard U.S. Department of Defence definition of a global
reference system for geospatial information.
 GPS uses WGS84 as its reference coordinate system.
 It is made up of a reference ellipsoid, a standard coordinate system, altitude
data, and a geoid.
 It uses the Earth’s centre mass as the coordinate origin.
AUGMENTED SATELLITE SYSTEMS:
 Satellite Based Augmentation System (SBAS) are geosynchronous satellite

systems that provide services for improving the accuracy, integrity, and
availability of basic GNSS signals.
 SBAS may be more appropriate for enhancing position accuracy.
 Accuracy is enhanced through the transmission of wide-area corrections
for GNSS range errors.
 Integrity is enhanced by the SBAS network quickly detecting satellite
signal errors and sending alerts to receivers that they should not track the
failed satellite.
 Signal availability can be improved if the SBAS transmits ranging signals
from its satellites.
Some satellite-based augmentation systems are:
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 WIDE-AREA AUGMENTATION SYSTEM (WAAS): the US Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) has developed the WAAS to provide GPS corrections and a
certified level of integrity to the aviation industry.WAAS broadcasts correction
data on the same frequency as GPS, which allows for the use of the same
receiver and antenna equipment as that used for GPS.
 THE INDIAN GPS AIDED GEO AUGMENTED NAVIGATION (GAGAN): GAGAN is an
SBAS that supports flight navigation over Indian airspace. The system is based
on 3 geostationary satellites, 15 reference stations installed throughout India, 3
uplink stations and 2 control centres. GAGAN is compatible with other SBAS
systems, such as WAAS, EGNOS and MSAS.
 MTSAT SATELLITE BASED AUGMENTATION NAVIGATION SYSTEM (MSAS): MSAS
is an SBAS that provides augmentation services to Japan. It uses two Multi-
functional Transport Satellites (MTSAT) and a network of ground stations to
augment GPS signals in Japan.
 EUROPEAN GEOSTATIONARY NAVIGATION OVERLAY SERVICE (EGNOS): The
European Space Agency, in cooperation with the European Commission (EC) and
EUROCONTROL (European Organization for the Safety of Air Navigation) has
developed EGNOS, an augmentation system that improves the accuracy of
positions derived from GPS signals and alerts users about the reliability of the
GPS signals.
Three EGNOS satellites cover European Union member nations and several
other countries in Europe.
 SYSTEM FOR DIFFERENTIAL CORRECTIONS AND MONITORING (SDCM): The
Russian Federation is developing SDCM to provide Russia with accuracy
improvements and integrity monitoring for both the GLONASS and GPS
navigation systems.
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AUTOMATIC IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM (AIS)
 Automatic Identification System (AIS) is an automated tracking system that displays

other vessels in the vicinityand is used by Vessel Traffic Services (VTS).
 AIS information supplements marine radar, which continues to be the primary
method of collision avoidance for water transport.
 It is a ship born transponder system capable of broadcasting continuously using the
VHF Marine band, information about the ship.
 Objectives:
 Safety of life at sea.
 Safety and efficiency of navigation.
 Coastal surveillance.
 The protection of the marine environment.
 Range: 20-50 NM depending on antenna height.
 AIS operates principally on two dedicated frequencies or VHF channels:
 AIS 1: works on 161.975 MHz – Channel 87B (simplex for ship to ship).
 AIS 2: works on 162.025 MHz - Channel 88B (duplex for ship to shore).
 It uses self-organization time division multiple (STDMA) access technology to meet
the high broadcast rate. This frequency has a limitation of line of sight which is
about 40 miles or so.
 SOLAS REQUIREMENTS: The IMO Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS)
Regulation V/19.2.4 requires all vessels of 300 GT and above engaged on
international voyages and all passenger ships irrespective of size to carry AIS
onboard.
 TYPES OF AIS:
o Class A: Mandated for all vessels 300 GT and above engaged on international
voyages as well as all passenger ships.
o Class B: Provides limited functionality and intended for non SOLAS vessels.
Primarily used for vessels such as pleasure crafts.
LIMITATIONS OF AIS:
 The accuracy of information received is only as good as the accuracy the AIS
information transmitted.
 Position received on the AIS display might not be referenced to the WGS 8 datum.
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 Over reliance on the AIS can cause complacency on the part of the OOW.
 Users must be aware that erroneous information might be transmitted by the AIS
from another ship.
 Not all ships are fitted with AIS.
 The officer of the watch must be aware that AIS if fitted, might be switched off by a
certain vessel thereby negating information that might have been received from
ship.
 It could not be prudent for the OOW to assume that the information received from
other ships might not be fully accurate and of precision that might be available on
own vessel.
 Some vessels like fishing vessels, leisure craft and vessels below 500 GRT may not be
fitted with AIS.
 The information received from the AIS can be misinterpreted.
 Errors resulting from improper equipment settings may lead to an accident.
ADVANTAGES OF AIS OVER RADAR:
 No target swapping.
 No Blind Sector.
 Not affected by weather.
 Real time data (no delay for data in radar).
 Identification of target with additional detail.
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION/ ADVANTAGES OF AIS:
 COLLISION AVOIDANCE:
 AIS was developed by the IMO technical committees as a technology to avoid
collisions among large vessels at sea that are not within range of shore-based
systems.
 The technology identifies every vessel individually, along with its specific position
and movements, enabling a virtual picture to be created in real time.
 The AIS standards include a variety of automatic calculations based on these
position reports such as CPA (Closest Point of Approach) and collision alarms.
 FISHING FLEET MONITORING AND CONTROL:
 AIS is widely used by national authorities to track and monitor the activities of
their national fishing fleets.
 AIS enables authorities to reliably and cost-effectively monitor fishing vessel
activities along their coast line, typically out to a range of 100 km, depending on
location and quality of coast-based receivers/base stations with supplementary
data from satellite-based networks.
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 MARITIME SECURITY:
 AIS enables authorities to identify specific vessels and their activity within or near
a nation’s Exclusive Economic Zone.
 When AIS data is fused with existing radar systems, authorities are able to
differentiate between vessels more easily.
 AIS data can be automatically processed to create normalized activity patterns for
individual vessels, which when breached, create an alert, thus highlighting
potential threats for more efficient use of security assets.
 AIS improves maritime domain awareness and allows for heightened security and
control.
 AIDS TO NAVIGATION(AtoN):
 The AIS aids to navigation product standard was developed with the ability to
broadcast the positions and names of objects other than vessels, such as
navigational aid and marker positions and dynamic data reflecting the marker’s
environment (e.g., currents and climatic conditions).
 This enables the authorities to remotely monitor the status of a buoy, as well as
transmit live data from sensors (such as weather and sea state) located on the
buoy, back to vessels fitted with AIS transceivers or local authorities.
 SEARCH AND RESCUE:
 For coordinating on-scene resources of a marine search and rescue (SAR)
operation, it is imperative to have data on the position and navigation status of
other ships in the vicinity.
 AIS can provide additional information and enhance awareness of available
resources, even if the AIS range is limited to VHF radio range.
 FLEET AND CARGO TRACKING:
 Internet disseminated AIS can be used by fleet or ship managers to keep track of
the global location of their ships.
 Cargo dispatchers or the owners of goods in transit can track the progress of cargo
and anticipate arrival times in port.
 INFRASTRUCTURE PROTECTION:
 AIS information can be used by owners of marine seabed infrastructures such as
cables or pipelines, to monitor the activities of vessels close to their assets in close
to real time.
 This information can then be used to trigger alerts to inform the owner and
potentially avoid an incident where damage to the asset might occur.
 OCEAN CURRENT ESTIMATES:
 Ocean surface current estimates based on the analysis of AIS data have been
available from French company, e-Odyn, since December 2015.
 ACCIDENT INVESTIGATIONS:
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 AIS information received by VTS is important for accident investigation since it
provides accurate historical data on time, identity, GPS-based position, compass
heading, course over ground and rates of turn.
DATA TRANSMITTED:
1. Static Information (Every 6 minutes and on request):

 MMSI number.
 IMO number.
 Name and Call Sign.
 Length and Beam.
 Type of ship.
 Location of position fixing antenna.
2. Dynamic Information (Depends on speed and course alteration):
 Ship’s position with accuracy indication.
 Position time stamp (in UTC).
 Course Over Ground (COG).
3. Voyage Related Information (Every 6 minutes, when data is amended, or on
request):
 Ship’s draught
 Type of cargo
 Destination and ETA
 Route plan (Waypoints)
4. Short safety related messages: Free format text message addressed to one or
many destinations or to all stations in the area. This content could be such as
buoy missing, ice berg sighting etc.
AIS AS AN AID TO COLLISION AVOIDANCE:
 AIS contributes significantly to the safety of navigation.

 All the information that is transmitted and received enhances the effectiveness
of navigation and can greatly improve the situational awareness and the
decision-making process.
 As an assistant to the OOW, the tracking and monitoring of targets by the AIS as
well as determining information on the CPA and TCPA adds great value to the
safety of navigation overall.
PRECAUTIONS DURING USE OF AIS FOR COLLISION

AVOIDANCE:
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 The user should not solely rely on the information from AIS for collision
avoidance.
 AIS is only an additional source of information for the OOW and only supports in
the process of navigating the vessel.
 AIS can never replace the human expertise on bridge.
 Users must be aware that erroneous information might be transmitted by the
AIS from another ship.
 The officer of the watch must be aware that AIS if fitted, might be switched off
by a certain vessel thereby negating information that might have been received
from ship.
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VOYAGE DATA RECORDER
 The IMO defines the Voyage Data Recorder as a complete system, including any
items required to interface with the sources of input signals, their processing and
encoding, the final recording medium, the playback equipment, the power supply
and dedicated reserve power source.
 Voyage Data Recorder is an equipment fitted onboard ships that records the
various data on a ship which can be used for reconstruction of the voyage details
and vital information during an accident investigation.
 Information is stored in a secure and retrievable form, relating to the position,
movement, physical status, command and control of a ship over the period and
following an incident.
 This information is used during any subsequent safety investigation to identify the
cause(s) of the incident.
 Aside from its usage in accident investigation, it can also be used for preventive
maintenance, performance efficiency monitoring, heavy weather damage analysis,
accident avoidance and training purposes to improve safety and reduce running
costs.
 VDR is capable of withstanding heavy weather, collisions, fires and pressure
conditions even when a ship is at a depth of several meters in water.
WORKING OF VDR:
DCU DRU
o Data Collection Unit. o Data Recording Unit.
o The DCU contains the Data o Fitted on the monkey island that
Processor Unit, interface modules stores all of the data that is
and backup batteries. recorded via the unit within the
o It collects data from sensors as wheelhouse and microphones to
required by the IMO and IEC record bridge audio.
standards. o The flash memory in the DRU
o The batteries supply power to the stores the data coming from the
DCU to record bridge audio for 2 h DCU.
in case of a main ship’s power o The data can be retrieved by using
failure. playback software for
investigation after an incident.
o The DRU components are
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embodied in the protective
capsule. The capsule ensures
survival and recovery of the
recorded data after an incident.
 The data that is collected or pulled in from all the integrated sources is, as
mentioned above, kept in the storage capsule and holds information for the 12
hours (or 48 hours) preceding it and continuously refreshed as the voyage
progresses.
 There is also a record button provided in the bridge unit so that after pushing
button (say during starting of any incident like collision or grounding), the
recorder will start recording a new set of information from that period of time.
 The capsule is a very sturdy unit, capable of withstanding shock and pressures
associated with a marine mishap (collision, grounding, bad weather etc). It
might be a float-free arrangement as with the HRU or attached with the EPIRB
for simultaneous release.
MODULES OF VDR:
VDR consists of 4 modules:

 DATA RECORDING MODULE (DATA MANAGEMENT MODULE):
 The job of this unit is to acquire and process all the data so that it can be
stored in the specific format.
 Data from various sources is fed to this unit through various interfaces.
 It also has an additional hard drive that can be used for selective retrieval
of data.
 AUDIO MODULE:
 This module consists of an audio mixer for recording various audio signals
from micro phones placed in wheel house, bridge wings, engine room and
other critical places.
 The output of audio module should be protected by a password to
protect the identity of ship’s staff.
 FINAL RECORDING MODULE:
 This would be in the form of brightly coloured, protective capsule,
resistant to shock, fire, immersion and deep-sea pressure.
 The ideal location for this capsule is monkey island or bridge wing to
provide easy access from outside.
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 Also provided with HRU for automatic release.
 REMOTE ALARM MODULE:
 This consists of small panel connected to data management unit and will
generate audible and visible alarm to indicate any error status of
equipment.
 REPLAY STATION (OPTIONAL):
 This is an optional module used to download and replay the recorded
data.
DURATION OF DATA STORED:
 VDR is an instrument installed on a ship to continuously record vital information

related to the operation of the ship.
 It contains a voice recording system for a period of at least last 12 hours (for
VDRs installed post July 2014, the period of the integrated details recorded is 48
hours as per the MSC Resolution 333.90).
 This recording is recovered and made use of for investigation in events of
accidents in a compressed and digitised format.
 It stores a variety of data and that too for not less than a period of 12 hours. The
data records covering the last 12 hours are continuously overwritten by the
latest data.
DETAILS OF DATA RECORDED ON VDR:
 Date and time (SVDR)

 Ship’s position (SVDR)
 Speed and heading (SVDR)
 Bridge audio (SVDR)
 Communication audio (radio) (SVDR)
 Radar data (SVDR)
 ECDIS data (SVDR)
 Echo sounder
 Main alarms
 Rudder order and response
 Hull opening (doors) status
 Watertight and fire door status
 Speed and acceleration
 Hull stresses
 Wind speed and direction
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S-VDR:
 SIMPLIFIED VOYAGE DATA RECORDER, as defined by the requirements of IMO

Performance Standard MSC.163(78), is a lower cost simplified version VDR for
small ships with only basic ship’s data recorded.
 It is not required to store the same level of detailed data as a standard VDR, but
nonetheless should maintain a store, in a secure and retrievable form, of
information concerning the position, movement, physical status, command and
control of a vessel over the period leading up to and following an incident.
 The SVDR is nothing but a simplified VDR, that records information that is only
absolutely necessary and does not record information as extensive as the VDR.
 Naturally, it is more cost effective and more in usage on board merchant ships.
**********************************************************************
Page 64
BRIDGE NAVIGATIONAL WATCH AND

ALARM SYSTEM
 BRIDGE NAVIGATIONAL WATCH AND ALARM SYSTEM is a monitoring and alarm
system which monitors bridge activity and OOW awareness and can detect
operator disability which could lead to marine accidents.
 The system monitors the awareness of the OOW and automatically alerts the
master or another qualified OOW for any reason the OOW becomes incapable of
performing his duties.
 BNWAS warnings are given in the case of incapacity of the watchkeeping officer
due to accident, sickness or in the event of a security breach, e.g., piracy and/or
hijacking.
 Unless decided by the Master only, the BNWAS shall remain operational at all
times.
 BNWAS is aims to detect the inability of the watchkeeping crew on the bridge.
 The OOW should ensure that the BNWAS is operational and set correctly in
accordance with the SMS and Master’s Standing orders.
PRECAUTIONS AND LIMITATIONS:
 Operational Mode and the duration of the Dormant Period setting shall be
restricted to the Master only.
 Accuracy of the BNWAS should be within the window of 5% or 5 seconds, whichever
is lesser.
 To be powered from the main power supply.
 Constant activation of the dormant period vis a vis the reset button should not
extend the dormant period to more than that is set or bring about any suppression
of the alarms/indications.
 Reset can only be done from physically located areas of the bridge, providing proper
look out.
 Reset can only be done with a single operator action which starts the dormant
period further, cancelling the alarms/indications.
OPERATIONAL MODES OF BNWAS:
Page 65
LRIT (LONG RANGE IDENTIFICATION AND

TRACKING)
# PURPOSE OF LRIT
 The Long-Range Identification and Tracking (LRIT) system provides for the global
identification and tracking of ships.
 The Long Range Identification and Tracking (LRIT) system is a designated
International Maritime Organization (IMO) system designed to collect and
disseminate vessel position information received from IMO member States ships.
 The main purpose of the LRIT ship position reports is to enable a Contracting
Government to obtain ship identity and location information in sufficient time to
evaluate the security risk posed by a ship off its coast and to respond, if necessary,
to reduce any risks.
 The SOLAS regulation on LRIT establishes a multilateral agreement for sharingLRIT
information between SOLAS contracting governments for security and search and
rescue purposes. It maintains the right of flag states to protect information about
the ships entitled to fly their flag, where appropriate, while allowing coastal states
access to information about ships navigating off theircoasts.
 LRIT has also become an essential component of SAR operations and marine
environment protection.
 It is a satellite-based, real-time reporting mechanism providing almost worldwide
coverage (Inmarsat Coverage) that allows unique visibility to position reports of
vessels that would otherwise be invisible and potentially a threat.
 The countries which fall under SOLAS convention can share the necessary marine
security information along with all other required information about the ships that
sail through the countries’ coastal boundaries.
 The vessel tracking system is a clear system that does not allow any confusion to
creep in with respect to the existing UNCLOS. In a similar manner, the tracking of
ships system does not interfere with the individual maritime operational laws of
countries where it is applicable.
#INFORMATION TRANSMITTED BY LRIT
The LRIT Information that is required to be transmitted by the ship is specified in new
SOLAS Regulation V/19-1.5 and is limited to:
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 identity of the ship
 position of the ship (latitude and longitude)
 date and time of the position provided (UTC)
#AUTHORIZED RECEIVERS/USERS OF LRIT:

#DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LRIT AND AIS:
DIFFERENCE LRIT AIS

FULL FORM Long Range Identification and Automatic Identification
Tracking. System.
WORKING LRIT works on satellite AIS works on VHF
communication. communication.
CHANNEL No fixed channel. AIS has two dedicated
channels 87B and 88B.
TRANSMISSION Identity, Position, Date and Time. Static, Voyage, Dynamic and
Safety Data.
INTERVAL Normal time interval every 6 Time interval depends upon
hours, can be changed to navigational status and speed
minimum every 15 minutes or of the vessel.
maximum once in every 24 hrs.
COVERAGE Only where AIS coverage is Global.

provided.
PURPOSE Navigation and anti – collision Maritime security and
tool. awareness.
RANGE Line of sight, up to 40NM. Unlimited range.
DATA Public data. Secure data.

DATA ACCESS Anyone can see the data. Flag state owns data.
*****************************************************
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BRIDGE EQUIPMENT AND

BRIDGE EQUIPMENT AND WATCHKEEPING - II

S. NO. TOPIC P. NO.

2. THE USE OF RADAR IN NAVIGATION 23

3. TERRESTRIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEMS 29

5. SHIP SECURITY ALERT SYSTEM (SSAS) 42

6. INDUCED MAGNETISM IN SHIP AND MAGNETIC COMPASS 44

7. GPS & DGPS 47

8. AUTOMATIC IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM (AIS) 55

9. VDR (VOYAGE DATA RECORDER) 60

10. BRIDGE NAVIGATION WATCH ALARM SYSTEM 64

11. LRIT (LONG RANGE IDENTIFICATION AND TRACKING) 66

PREPARED BY - SUMIT SAURAV

#RADIATION HAZARDS AND PRECAUTIONS

#PULSE REPETITION FREQUENCY(PRF) OR PULSE

#IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF A RADAR SET

#LIMITATIONS OF A RADAR SET:

1. RANGE DISCRIMINATION: It is the ability of a radar set to clearly distinguish two

#BASIC CONTROLS ON A TYPICAL RADAR SET:

#IMO PERFORMANCE STANDARDS FOR RADAR

The performance of a radar system can be judged by the following:

#FACTORS AFFECTING RADAR DETECTION:

An extreme form of super-refraction is known as ducting, when the radar beam

#EFFECT OF PRECIPITATION AND SEA ON RADAR

FACTORS THAT MIGHT CAUSE FAULTY

CHARACTERISTICS BY WHICH INDIRECT ECHOES MAY BE RECOGNIZED ARE

3.SECOND TRACE ECHOES

4.SIDE LOBE ECHOES

RADAR AS A RANGE MEASURING INSTRUMENT

In analogue radars, target range is measured electronically by a beam of light that is

RADAR AS A BEARING MEASURING INSTRUMENT

MARINE RADAR TYPES

Radar wavelengths are expressed in centimetres, the commonest commercial

On the negative side 10 cm radars require a larger scanner, greater

The basic controls used to tune the performance of a radar are:

2. THE USE OF RADAR IN NAVIGATION

#THE USE OF PARALLEL INDEXING TECHNIQUE IN

 TO CHECK THE DIRECTION OF THE HM USING AN OFF-CENTRE DISPLAY.

#PARALLEL INDEX TECHNIQUE:

 It is the art of manoeuvring a ship to a desired position, or along a desired

#AIS OVERLAY ON RADAR:

 They provide two independent ways of detecting targets.

 FIXING BY RADAR BEARINGS:

 FIXING BY RADAR RANGES:

#ERRORS IN RADAR BEARINGS:

 MISALIGNMENT BETWEEN HEADING MARKER AND

 DIGITAL ERROR OF EBL:

 SOME OTHER SOURCES OF ERROR:

 ERROR OF THE VRM:

3.TERRESTRIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM

 It is the method of navigation used by mariners that uses landmarks as

Proximity positioning systems are also known as signpost or beacon system.

 All E-Loran transmitters use modern solid-state transmitter (SSX) and

 E-Loran transmissions are synchronized to an identifiable, publicly-

 E-Loran transmitting stations run unattended.

MONITOR SITES/REFERENCE STATIONS

 E-Loran users’ receivers operate in an all-in-view mode

 THE PROPERTIES OF FREE GYROSCOPE:

Gyroscope having three degrees of freedom is called “FREE GYROSCOPE”.

 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN APPLIED FORCE AND

 THE EFFECTS OF EARTH’S ROTATION ON A FREE

#DRIFT AND TILT:

#PROCEDURE FOR STARTING AND STOPPING