MATH F111- Mathematics I

Saranya G. Nair
Department of Mathematics

BITS Pilani

November 3, 2022

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 1 / 12

In this section we discuss series whose terms can be positive or negative.

When some of the terms of a series are positive and others are negative,
the series may or may not converge.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 2 / 12

In this section we discuss series whose terms can be positive or negative.

When some of the terms of a series are positive and others are negative,
the series may or may not converge.
X  −1 n 1 1 1
= 1 − + 2 − 3 + · · · converges.
4 4 4 4

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 2 / 12

In this section we discuss series whose terms can be positive or negative.

When some of the terms of a series are positive and others are negative,
the series may or may not converge.
X  −1 n 1 1 1
= 1 − + 2 − 3 + · · · converges.
4 4 4 4
X  −5 n 5 52 53
= 1 − + 2 − 3 + · · · diverges.
4 4 4 4

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 2 / 12

In this section we discuss series whose terms can be positive or negative.

When some of the terms of a series are positive and others are negative,
the series may or may not converge.
X  −1 n 1 1 1
= 1 − + 2 − 3 + · · · converges.
4 4 4 4
X  −5 n 5 52 53
= 1 − + 2 − 3 + · · · diverges.
4 4 4 4
For a general series with both positive and negative terms, we can apply
the tests for convergence studied before to the series of absolute values of
its terms.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 2 / 12

Absolute convergence

Definition
X
A series an converges absolutely (is absolutely convergent) if the
X
corresponding series of absolute values, |an | converges.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 3 / 12

Absolute convergence

Definition
X
A series an converges absolutely (is absolutely convergent) if the
X
corresponding series of absolute values, |an | converges.

X  −1 n X  1 n
converges absolutely as converges.
4 4

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 3 / 12

Absolute convergence

Definition
X
A series an converges absolutely (is absolutely convergent) if the
X
corresponding series of absolute values, |an | converges.

X  −1 n X  1 n
converges absolutely as converges.
4 4

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 3 / 12

Theorem
X X
Absolute convergent test: If |an | converges, then an converges.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 4 / 12

Theorem
X X
Absolute convergent test: If |an | converges, then an converges.

−|an | ≤ an ≤ |an | =⇒ 0 ≤ an + |an | ≤ 2|an |.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 4 / 12

Theorem
X X
Absolute convergent test: If |an | converges, then an converges.

−|an | ≤ an ≤ |an | =⇒ 0 ≤ an + |an | ≤ 2|an |.

∞
X ∞
X
|an | converges =⇒ 2|an | converges.
n=1 n=1

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 4 / 12

Theorem
X X
Absolute convergent test: If |an | converges, then an converges.

−|an | ≤ an ≤ |an | =⇒ 0 ≤ an + |an | ≤ 2|an |.

∞
X ∞
X
|an | converges =⇒ 2|an | converges. Thus By direct comparison
n=1 n=1
∞
X
test, an + |an | converges.
n=1

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 4 / 12

Theorem
X X
Absolute convergent test: If |an | converges, then an converges.

−|an | ≤ an ≤ |an | =⇒ 0 ≤ an + |an | ≤ 2|an |.

∞
X ∞
X
|an | converges =⇒ 2|an | converges. Thus By direct comparison
n=1 n=1
∞
X
test, an + |an | converges.
n=1
∞
X ∞
X ∞
X
Now an = (an + |an | − |an |) and an = (an + |an |) − |an |.
X n=1 n=1 n=1
Thus an converges.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 4 / 12

∞ ∞
X (−1)n+1 X (−1)n+1
converges absolutely and hence converges by
n2 n2
n=1 n=1
the absolute convergent theorem.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 5 / 12

∞ ∞
X (−1)n+1 X (−1)n+1
converges absolutely and hence converges by
n2 n2
n=1 n=1
the absolute convergent theorem.
∞ ∞
X sin n X sin n
converges absolutely and hence converges.
n2 n2
n=1 n=1

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 5 / 12

∞ ∞
X (−1)n+1 X (−1)n+1
converges absolutely and hence converges by
n2 n2
n=1 n=1
the absolute convergent theorem.
∞ ∞
X sin n X sin n
converges absolutely and hence converges.
n2 n2
n=1 n=1

Remark
Series is absolute convergent =⇒ series is convergent
∞ ∞
X (−1)n+1 X 1
Converse not true: converges, but doesn’t converge,
n n
n=1 n=1
∞
X (−1)n+1
hence doesn’t converge absolutely.
n
n=1

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 5 / 12

Ratio test
The Ratio
 a Test
 measures the rate of growth of a series by examining the
 n+1 
ratio  .
an

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 6 / 12

Ratio test
The Ratio
 a Test
 measures the rate of growth of a series by examining the
 n+1 
ratio  .
an
 ar n+1 
For a geometric series ar n , this rate is a constant   = |r | and we
 
ar n
know that the series converges if and only if |r | < 1. The Ratio Test is a
powerful rule extending that result.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 6 / 12

Ratio test
The Ratio
 a Test
 measures the rate of growth of a series by examining the
 n+1 
ratio  .
an
 ar n+1 
For a geometric series ar n , this rate is a constant   = |r | and we
 
ar n
know that the series converges if and only if |r | < 1. The Ratio Test is a
powerful rule extending that result.
Theorem
∞ a 
X  n+1 
Let an be any series and suppose that lim   = r . Then
n→∞ an
n=0

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 6 / 12

Ratio test
The Ratio
 a Test
 measures the rate of growth of a series by examining the
 n+1 
ratio  .
an
 ar n+1 
For a geometric series ar n , this rate is a constant   = |r | and we
 
ar n
know that the series converges if and only if |r | < 1. The Ratio Test is a
powerful rule extending that result.
Theorem
∞ a 
X  n+1 
Let an be any series and suppose that lim   = r . Then
n→∞ an
n=0
• (a) the series converges absolutely if r < 1,

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 6 / 12

Ratio test
The Ratio
 a Test
 measures the rate of growth of a series by examining the
 n+1 
ratio  .
an
 ar n+1 
For a geometric series ar n , this rate is a constant   = |r | and we
 
ar n
know that the series converges if and only if |r | < 1. The Ratio Test is a
powerful rule extending that result.
Theorem
∞ a 
X  n+1 
Let an be any series and suppose that lim   = r . Then
n→∞ an
n=0
• (a) the series converges absolutely if r < 1,
• (b) the series diverges if r > 1 or r is infinite,

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 6 / 12

Ratio test
The Ratio
 a Test
 measures the rate of growth of a series by examining the
 n+1 
ratio  .
an
 ar n+1 
For a geometric series ar n , this rate is a constant   = |r | and we
 
ar n
know that the series converges if and only if |r | < 1. The Ratio Test is a
powerful rule extending that result.
Theorem
∞ a 
X  n+1 
Let an be any series and suppose that lim   = r . Then
n→∞ an
n=0
• (a) the series converges absolutely if r < 1,
• (b) the series diverges if r > 1 or r is infinite,
• (c) the test is inconclusive if r = 1.
Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 6 / 12
 ∞ ∞
X 1 X 1
If we apply ratio test for (diverges) and(converges), both
n n2
n=0 n=0
cases r = 1. This shows that some other test for convergence must be
used when r = 1.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 7 / 12

 ∞ ∞
X 1 X 1
If we apply ratio test for (diverges) and(converges), both
n n2
n=0 n=0
cases r = 1. This shows that some other test for convergence must be
used when r = 1.

Investigate the convergence of the following series:

∞
X 2n + 5
• ,
3n
n=0

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 7 / 12

 ∞ ∞
X 1 X 1
If we apply ratio test for (diverges) and(converges), both
n n2
n=0 n=0
cases r = 1. This shows that some other test for convergence must be
used when r = 1.

Investigate the convergence of the following series:

∞
X 2n + 5 an+1
• , | an | → 23 , so converges.
3n
n=0
∞
X (2n)!
• ,
(n!)2
n=0

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 7 / 12

 ∞ ∞
X 1 X 1
If we apply ratio test for (diverges) and(converges), both
n n2
n=0 n=0
cases r = 1. This shows that some other test for convergence must be
used when r = 1.

Investigate the convergence of the following series:

∞
X 2n + 5 an+1
• , | an | → 23 , so converges.
3n
n=0
∞
X (2n)! an+1
• , | an | → 4, so diverges.
(n!)2
n=0
∞
X 4n (n!)2
• ,
(2n!)
n=0

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 7 / 12

 ∞ ∞
X 1 X 1
If we apply ratio test for (diverges) and(converges), both
n n2
n=0 n=0
cases r = 1. This shows that some other test for convergence must be
used when r = 1.

Investigate the convergence of the following series:

∞
X 2n + 5 an+1
• , | an | → 23 , so converges.
3n
n=0
∞
X (2n)! an+1
• , | an | → 4, so diverges.
(n!)2
n=0
∞
X 4n (n!)2 an+1
• , | an | → 1, so ratio test is inconclusive. Can you apply
(2n!)
n=0
any other test to conclude?

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 7 / 12

 ∞ ∞
X 1 X 1
If we apply ratio test for (diverges) and(converges), both
n n2
n=0 n=0
cases r = 1. This shows that some other test for convergence must be
used when r = 1.

Investigate the convergence of the following series:

∞
X 2n + 5 an+1
• , | an | → 23 , so converges.
3n
n=0
∞
X (2n)! an+1
• , | an | → 4, so diverges.
(n!)2
n=0
∞
X 4n (n!)2 an+1
• , | an | → 1, so ratio test is inconclusive. Can you apply
(2n!)
n=0
any other test to conclude?

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 7 / 12

Theorem
∞
X p
n
Let an be any series and suppose that lim |an | = r .
n→∞
n=0

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 8 / 12

Theorem
∞
X p
n
Let an be any series and suppose that lim |an | = r . Then
n→∞
n=0
• (a) the series converges absolutely if r < 1,

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 8 / 12

Theorem
∞
X p
n
Let an be any series and suppose that lim |an | = r . Then
n→∞
n=0
• (a) the series converges absolutely if r < 1,
• (b) the series diverges if r > 1 or r is infinite,

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 8 / 12

Theorem
∞
X p
n
Let an be any series and suppose that lim |an | = r . Then
n→∞
n=0
• (a) the series converges absolutely if r < 1,
• (b) the series diverges if r > 1 or r is infinite,
• (c) the test is inconclusive if r = 1.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 8 / 12

Theorem
∞
X p
n
Let an be any series and suppose that lim |an | = r . Then
n→∞
n=0
• (a) the series converges absolutely if r < 1,
• (b) the series diverges if r > 1 or r is infinite,
• (c) the test is inconclusive if r = 1.

Investigate the convergence of the following series:

∞
X n2
• ,
2n
n=0

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 8 / 12

Theorem
∞
X p
n
Let an be any series and suppose that lim |an | = r . Then
n→∞
n=0
• (a) the series converges absolutely if r < 1,
• (b) the series diverges if r > 1 or r is infinite,
• (c) the test is inconclusive if r = 1.

Investigate the convergence of the following series:

∞
X n2 p 1
• , lim n
|an | = , so converges.
2n n→∞ 2
n=0
∞
X 2n
• ,
n3
n=0

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 8 / 12

Theorem
∞
X p
n
Let an be any series and suppose that lim |an | = r . Then
n→∞
n=0
• (a) the series converges absolutely if r < 1,
• (b) the series diverges if r > 1 or r is infinite,
• (c) the test is inconclusive if r = 1.

Investigate the convergence of the following series:

∞
X n2 p 1
• , lim n
|an | = , so converges.
2n n→∞ 2
n=0
∞
X 2n p
• , lim n
|an | = 2, so diverges.
n 3 n→∞
n=0

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 8 / 12

Alternating Series test

Theorem
The series
∞
X
(−1)n+1 un = u1 − u2 + u3 − u4 + · · ·
n=0

converges if the following conditions are satisfied:

1. The un > 0.
2. un ≥ un+1 for all n ≥ N, for some integer N.
3. un → 0.
∞
X (−1)n+1
converges by alternating series test.
n
n=0

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 9 / 12

Alternating Series test

Theorem
The series
∞
X
(−1)n+1 un = u1 − u2 + u3 − u4 + · · ·
n=0

converges if the following conditions are satisfied:

1. The un > 0.
2. un ≥ un+1 for all n ≥ N, for some integer N.
3. un → 0.
∞
X (−1)n+1
converges by alternating series test.
n
n=0
∞
X (−1)n+1
, p > 0 converges by alternating series test.
np
n=0
Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 9 / 12
Definition
A series that is convergent but not absolutely convergent is called
conditionally convergent.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 10 / 12

Definition
A series that is convergent but not absolutely convergent is called
conditionally convergent.
∞
X (−1)n+1
is conditionally convergent.(converges, but not absolutely
n
n=0
convergent. )

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 10 / 12

Definition
A series that is convergent but not absolutely convergent is called
conditionally convergent.
∞
X (−1)n+1
is conditionally convergent.(converges, but not absolutely
n
n=0
convergent. )
∞
X (−1)n+1
, 0 < p < 1 is conditionally convergent.
np
n=0

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 10 / 12

Rearranging terms in a series
∞
X (−1)n+1
We know converges and say it converges to L. (hence
n
n=0
conditional convergent, but not absolute convergent).

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 11 / 12

Rearranging terms in a series
∞
X (−1)n+1
We know converges and say it converges to L. (hence
n
n=0
conditional convergent, but not absolute convergent).

∞
(−1)n+1
 
X 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2L =2 =2 1− + − + − + − + − ···
n 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
n=0
2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
=2 − 1 + − + − + − + − + ···
3 2  5 3 7 4 9 5 11  
1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1
=(2 − 1) − + − − + − − + − − + ···
2 3 3 4 5 5 6 7 7 8
1 1 1 1 1
=1 − + − + − + · · ·
2 3 4 5 6
=L.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 11 / 12

This shows that we cannot rearrange the terms of a conditionally
convergent series and expect the new series to be the same as the original
one.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 12 / 12

This shows that we cannot rearrange the terms of a conditionally
convergent series and expect the new series to be the same as the original
one. Can we rearrange the terms of an absolute convergent series?
Theorem
The Rearrangement Theorem for Absolutely Convergent Series: If
∞
X
an converges absolutely, and b1 , b2 , · · · , bn , · · · is any arrangement of
n=0
∞
X ∞
X ∞
X
the sequence (an ), then bn converges absolutely and an = bn .
n=0 n=0 n=0

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 3, 2022 12 / 12