Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Smart Cities What Value Do They Bring To
Smart Cities What Value Do They Bring To
SHELTER
Theme Paper Policy Review Case Studies
Publication
Theme
Dr. M. Ravi Kanth has also held several positions in the State
Government of Kerala and Government of Delhi. These include
District Collector & District Magistrate of Kannur (Cannanore);
Managing Director of Cashew Export Development Corporation,
Kollam (Quilon); General Manager, KSCSC and Director of Food &
Supplies Department; Sub Collector & Sub Divisional Magistrate,
Tellicherry in Kerala and as Secretary, Delhi Minorities Commission,
Controller of Weights & Measures (Legal Metrology) and Food &
Supplies in Government of Delhi.
Dr. M. Ravi Kanth has travelled widely in India and abroad, and
brings with him unique vision and commitments of his own.
Summoned up they are as follows : 1. Help the poor and the
downtrodden, by preventing wastage of resources. 2. Promote and
practise Health, Happiness, Honesty, Harmony and Humanity. 3.
Uplift the Underprivileged, by advocating for Social Justice and
Serenity. 4. Reduce inequalities and obstacles for Growth and
Development of the Nation. 5. Inculcate egalitarianism,
vegetarianism, cleanliness and commonsense. 6. Strengthen human
relations, family bonds and child, women & old-age care. 7. Bridge
the gaps between the Rural and Urban infrastructure & distribution.
8. Provide qualitative inputs to children for quality output and bright
India. 9. ‘Live Light and Give Light’ by being close to the nature and
down to earth.
Theme Papers
INSIDE Public Transit and Urban
01 Voices from Slums - 56 Poor - A Trade off between
To Speak and be Heard! Urban Poor Mobility Needs
- Sheela Patel and Transport Policy
October 2014 Volume 15 No. 2 ISSN 2347 - 4912
- Ankit Kathuria
SHELTER Unthinking Community - Prof. M. Parida
Theme Paper Policy Review Case Studies
Publication
is article seeks to relect on the voices of the livelihoods, have lived in the
Sheela Patel poor from the perspective of the organised and
shadow of the formal and legal city
federated communities of slum dwellers
associated with the alliance of the Society for the for centuries. Individuals seeking
Promotion of Area Resource Centers (SPARC), cash incomes, or households
Mahila Milan (MM) and National Slum expelled by disasters from rural
Dwellers Federation (NSDF). is paper will
help the readers to understand and get familiar areas and a wide spectrum of events
It is the passivity that with this alliance of professionals and slum in their environment, produce the
dwellers, their processes and mechanisms of push to compel individuals and
produces the passive yet knowledge creation, problem solving and
negotiation on the issues of land security, access
households to migrate to cities.
aggressive actions where to basic amenities and services, and their eir logical integration into the
people just walk away from demonstrated abilities to produce strategies that formal city fabric, through planned
address their own problems as well as those of locations for the migrants to stay
state provided beneits of the city.
and work, remains an ongoing
housing or livelihood or Within this framework, the concept of "voices of
slum dwellers" as a term can be seen to have a challenge and their lives remain cast
other services since they passive or active connotation depending on how in illegality and perpetual
it is interpreted. Many researchers and scholars insecurity.
never wanted them in that nationally and internationally have sought to
document “what people say” and bring these
particular form in the irst issues to the notice of policy makers and political India remains one of the few
place. Not repaying loans is leaders. countries in the world where
e article indicates that the leadership of this urbanisation even in the 21st
another form of rejection of movement has systematised tools that facilitate century is still below 35 per cent
people to develop skills, collate data and
the solution that comes information about themselves and make although many parts of India,
without community representations not only of their challenges but especially the developed and
also their strategy for change, in which they seek industrialised southern states are
engagement. an active driving role. e article concludes with
more urbanised. Yet despite the
a message that to make slum development
programmes effective, there is a need to build volume of people living informally
the capacity and conidence of senior leaders of and working in informal jobs, city
Ms. Sheela Patel cities and government officers to listen, development plans and budgetary
negotiate and produce joint ventures with
(sparcsnss@gmail.com) is the chair of articulated and empowered communities of investments do not produce scale or
the Shack/ Slum Dwellers International slum dwellers. ere joint ventures would co- volume of intervention to address
(SDI) board, as well as the founder and produce solution at a scale, needed to address their needs of secure tenure and
the challenge of slums in a city.
Director of the Society for the basic amenities. Even today 50 per
Promotion of Area Resource Centers cent of those who defecate in the
(SPARC), NGO support to the National INtroductIoN
open are in India’s villages and
Slum Dwellers Federation and Mahila Slums in cities, the face of cities. e question is, why is that
Milan in India. informality of habitat and so?
city level, state level and national itself. Aer all, for centuries, the
e national urban investment level. NSDF organises federated poor who come to cities to improve
program of JNNURM (2005-2012 communities of the urban poor and their lot have been maligned, have
extended to 2014), has done little to Mahila Milan empowers the been deemed criminal and faced
address the challenges of habitat for collectives of women by building many hardships due to the
the urban poor. Hardly 2-4 per cent their skills and capacity to manage conventional exclusion and
of households in the cities, where local settlement challenges and persistent evictions of their habitat
this investment were made, develop collective leadership. that get demolished each time the
beneitted from the subsidies and city needs the land they have
the question to be asked is: why so? Since 1996, Asian, African and encroached. e inability of the
Is it that the poor are doing nothing Latin American slum dwellers have marginalised poor to make
about the situation themselves? Is adopted the federation model demands, for decades, has made
the city and its leadership unaware developed by NSDF and MM, in them believe they have no rights
of the overarching impact of poor which the entire slum other than what their patrons
living conditions on the present and neighbourhood get organised and provide for survival, under their
future workforce of the city? Are network with each other, to build patronage.
state governments in charge of all skills and capacity to represent
urban local bodies and urban themselves to the city state. us, BackgrouNd of NSdf
development activities incapable of Shack/ Slum Dwellers International
developing a governance and (SDI) becomes their voice in the NSDF was founded in 1975 by slum
developmental response to these global discourse on urbanisation dwellers who were defending their
challenges? Can a national and the urban poor. Today SDI slums against evictions. Initially
government at the centre afford to assists local federated communities started in Bombay, this
allow this status quo to continue? Is and their national organisations to organisation, although
it a matter that no one cares, make representations to their unregistered, networked slum
including the poor, or is something governments and cities to produce dwellers from 12 -16 cities and built
really wrong in the manner in really inclusive cities where the a solidarity seeking recognition of
which this entire issue of poor beneit among others. If the the rights of slum dwellers in the
informality is being addressed? challenges don’t get resolved locally, city1. In 1984, SPARC was set up by
SDI makes representation globally professionals seeking to develop
is relection is written from the to explore changing paradigms of partnerships with slum dwellers2
perspective of a movement of slum global development investments and at that time it worked with
women’s collectives from pavement
dwellers called the National Slum and intrude them on local
slums forming a women’s
Dwellers Federation (NSDF) and engagements.
organisation called Mahila Milan.
SPARC Mahila Milan (SPARC
Together, the three organisations
MM), its sister organisation, that SDI is aware that its capacity and formed an alliance which will be
have worked since 1986 with the ability to make impact locally and almost three decades old this year.
Society for the Promotion of Area globally is dependent on the It represented some signiicant and
Resource Centres (SPARC), an production of voice at all levels- vital elements to develop a critical
NGO based in Mumbai. Today local to global. at voice, which is mass of slum dwellers agreeable to
operating in 70 cities and towns in the ability to articulate what the stay organised over long periods of
9 states, the alliance of SPARC MM poor have to face when dealing with time, to demonstrate their
and NSDF seeks to build an exclusion and how it impacts their capability to contribute to the city
organised voice and community lives and that of their and in return seek identity and
engagements that get federated at neighbourhoods, does not occur by voice in city matters.
Savings and credit managed by governments never have up to date a solution. Further, oen the
women information about slums. Surveys strategy that worked for the poor
of slums oen produce inaccurate within the constraints of what was
e most vital aspect of this data, wrongly spelt or completely feasible was oen not within the
organisational alliance was to build wrong names, and the residents norms of the regulatory framework.
knowledge and skills that the urban association never get access to the e alliance designed real time
poor could develop and utilise to data that is collected. Slum proiles output- a house, a sanitation facility,
build capacity amongst slum and household surveys form a to illustrate to the technical,
dwellers and ensure the production powerful enumeration tool that administrative and political leaders,
of insights and possibilities to demonstrates the capacity of representing city and government,
explore development that works for resident’s association and NSDF to what poor need and how it could be
the poor and the city. Having collect accurate data that residents produced. is precedent oen got
supported women’s collectives in can check and verify at any point of approval due to the apparent
the slums where NSDF was time. SPARC took on the role of common sense and logic
federating slum dwellers, the managing the digitalisation of data demonstrated in practical terms
process sought to highlight the role in such a way that the data can be rather than a contestation of policy.
and contribution of women in the aggregated or disaggregated for In many instances the residents of a
survival strategies of slum dwellers usage by different organisations and settlement got permission to
seeking to ensure households and for different purposes. explore that option, oen inanced
neighbourhoods got access to water, by the city and over time it replaced
were protected against evictions Precedent setting and strategic the non-functional policy it
and to plan safe neighbourhoods solutions contested. Communities of the poor
for children, home based economic designed, executed and managed
activities and to manage homes. Based on residents’ networks, these projects, building skills and
Women managed home inances priorities and available data, a wide capacity and livelihoods as they
but had no control over them. By range of priorities were set. Land went along this exploration.
initiating savings and creating tenure, basic amenities, sanitation,
capacity to provide loans, a simple housing, relocation due to Horizontal or Peer exchanges
inancial became the basis for infrastructure projects, safety and for solidarity and learning
creating accountability and many other priorities were set by
governance structures in the slums, the networks, and the process of Once a particular strategy worked
with both men and women getting relection amongst the leadership in one area, it was shared with slum
loans but women managing them. was to take on the challenge of not dwellers from other slums in the
Once their internal savings and loan only identifying the problem but city, with slum dwellers from other
management systems started inding a solution for it. It emerged Indian cities, and now with slum
working well, they led to external from relections that oen the dwellers from other countries. e
loans coming to the community problem may be rightly identiied horizontal peer exchanges are based
through SPARC, leading to income by a top down approach, but the on the belief that most effective
generation and housing loans with solution oen did not work for the learning is by seeing and doing and
women managing all these poor. So, while there was best learnt from peers. Both
processes. recognition that the resources and teaching and learning are powerful
skills for the solution would not all processes that will improve the
Enumeration of slum dwellers be necessarily available with slum quality of life that transform the
dwellers, they should always be self-image of people who never
Somehow city and state consulted in the process of inding considered that they could make
demonstration project showing community members presented the city or state government
how this community toilet block their problems, ranging from undertakes to participate, the scale
could be managed by the to under-age runaway of the projects grow exponentially,
communities. Mumbai marriages to kidnapping to and attract the attention of the
Municipal Corporation domestic violence, and other national government whose
subsequently developed a such problems which were dealt possibility to formulate policies that
similar project and continues to with in most parts in other states can take up lead to great
construct community toilet community discussions. If the scale and many more communities
blocks in the slums since 2000. two parties were not satisied beneiting from the program.
Many other cities are exploring with the solutions suggested by
this possibility. the panchayat, they were tHE ValuE of VoIcE VEr-
• In 2009, slum federations assisted to go to the police SuS tHE “VoIcES of SluM
affiliated to NSDF and Mahila station, register an FIR and the dwEllErS”
Milan in Pune, Nanded, panchayat ensured the problem
Bhubheshwar and Puri were was dealt with humanely, so that Many years ago, the World Bank
invited by their city to take up the slum dwellers need not fear produced a sensitive and valuable
BSUP4 projects under JNNURM the police and the law. document called “Voices of the
that represent a few community ese and many such projects have Poor”5. It was insightful from
driven and designed slum emerged from various explorations. different points of view. It helped
upgrading efforts in city While they emerge from dialogue top down decision makers to hear
projects. and negotiations with an official or what the poor had to say about their
politicians, once it begins, through circumstances. It provided insights
• In Pune and Mumbai, police into variations of what the poor
horizontal exchanges, they inspire
commissioners worked with from different regions had to say
other slum dwellers to explore such
Mahila Milan, and set up Police about their circumstances, which
possibilities. Seeing how some other
Panchayats where 7 women and generated discussions and debates
politicians or administrators have
3 men from slum community about the need to listen to what the
accepted the strategy, encourages
and a policeman from the local poor had to say. Within the alliance,
others to explore it as well. Once
police station were invited. Local however, there was not much
excitement about such a concept.
Picture 2 : a house under construction in Bhubaneswar. NSDF and Mahila Milan leaders
believed that there was a deep
difference between listening to the
voice of slum dwellers and the ability
of slum dwellers to voice their issues.
resources are available. ey also aspirations, demand accountability, undertaken for expediency, is not
believe that such a passivity where engage in possibilities for solving incidental or isolated, but seen
the poor say what their situation is, critical challenges, engagement in across large numbers which makes
with no accountability of the contestation of what should be the each individual and household
researcher who documents what right way forward, or taking risks develop collective identity. irdly,
they say to produce solution, and exploring the unknown... are all having invested in developing
represents complete lack of very difficult for most poor and solutions that breach the limitations
accountability to those who tell you marginalised individuals and of a survival solution produces
what their problems are and households whether urban and conident and positive self-image
therefore seems unethical to the rural. In urban areas it is more so and capacity. It also helps to present
poor. It also produces and deepens because development interventions the strategy devised collectively by
the passivity amongst the poor and instead of being supportive remain the community, especially when
strengthens their imagery of being largely hostile to the right of the there is internal consensus that the
recipients and beneiciaries of poor to demand this from the state. solution is acceptable to all.
whatever the elite or the state wishes Instead, oen the message is that Fourthly, the format of any dialogue
to give them, having no say in what they should be grateful for being produces impact. When an
should be prioritised. allowed to stay. Most irst individual narrates their situation
generation migrants oen claim to alone to an outsider, all the sense of
NSDF and Mahila Milan leadership be grateful that they have managed inferiority or insecurity produces
oen believe that it is this passivity to survive in the city. eir children supplication, unlike when
that produces the passive yet born in the city, however, demand professionals or administrators are
aggressive actions where people just more and have greater expectation, invited to a large assembly where in
walk away from state provided but remain in beneiciary mode the midst of their peers they present
beneits of housing or livelihood or expecting someone else to give. the strategy to the administrator or
other services since they never politician or professional. Finally,
wanted them in that particular form So once again what produces a having once breached the divide of
in the irst place. Not repaying loans voice? Our experience has shown presenting their perspective to
is another form of rejection of the that there are many crucial decision makers, they become
solution that comes without foundations on the basis of which better at it the next time, and the
engagement. ere are many voice and capacity to present their more they watch others conidently
instances of such outcomes in state aspirations, negotiate for solutions presenting their perspective to
delivered subsidies of services that etc can get deined and developed. others, it inspires them to follow
are more easily misconstrued to be Firstly, it’s collective and solidarity their new role models.
that the poor don’t like of association. rough this, the
development or by non-payment or sustained collective engagement, e challenge of being heard
selling the asset they demonstrate positive self-images and self-belief
that it’s better not to give anything that whatever the poor do to Yet it is not simple. Just as the
to the poor. survive, emerges from innovation, capacity to present and articulate
and solutions emerge within limited their position and aspiration is
what produces a voice? resources and restricted crucial and has to be developed, the
opportunity. ough such outcome ability to listen, respond and
is is a question on which there is may be limited, they demonstrate honour what the poor in slums say
a great deal of relection, discussion thoughtful decision making, requires leadership of the elite who
and debate within the federations of collective choice making and are decision makers, to be able to
the organised poor. ere is, irst of ingenuity. Secondly, seeing patterns respond. Oen, well developed
all an acknowledgement that of solutions demonstrate that what positions by the representatives of
VOICE - the ability to state one’s was considered an isolated strategy the poor get ignored or opposed or
set aside simply because it seems to important milestone for city organisational capacity, producing
be inconceivable that they (the leadership, which if suppressed or scalable solutions that will
poor) can have an opinion, a denied will produce violent demonstrate change, takes time.
position or a possible alternative. In backlash. Oen the hurry to deliver goods
other instances, it may be that produces distortions which are as
exploring the strategy developed by coNcluSIoNS bad as not providing anything.
the poor means changing policy or Sustainable change takes time, and
practice which is also considered a e big picture challenge of it is only when it is facilitated in a
risk of reputation. In some transforming cities manner that builds capacity, that
instances, it may conlict with other change is sustained and built on.
interest groups who are dominant Craing this article has further Yet, those who are exploring voices
and the capacity to arbitrate sharpened our own understanding want things in a hurry! If and when
between these interests judiciously of the value of organised the goals are to develop sustainable
may not be well developed. communities of the marginalised as and inclusive cities, programs have
a way to empower and facilitate to develop a range for action
Participation, empowerment mainstreaming the participation of learning and reining. People’s voice
and citizenship the urban poor into city facilitates this learning and helps
development processes. No longer embed new practices as projects
At the end of the day, the reality is can a city afford to focus on a few develop.
that there are more than 30-65 per and ignore the majority. Yet, these
cent of slum dwellers living in changes cannot happen easily and
informality in cities in India. A quickly. Cities demonstrate the NotES
majority of them are second most powerful interlinked and
1
generation, born in slums of the tightly networked population, all 2
NSDF
Gender and Urban Federations
city, globally connected and under interdependent on each other, 3
MUTP Article by IIED
the age of 306. ey represent a whatever may be the socio 4
BSUP Guidelines
group very different from their economic or caste or linguistic 5
World Bank Paper on Voices of the Poor
6
migrating fore fathers. ey are differences. Illness in one location Census on Slums
increasingly net savvy, connected to can impact everyone else. Be that
rEfErENcES
global knowledge and more climate linked disasters, traffic jams,
Census of India, Census 2011, 30-09-2013,
embedded in their urban identity. health challenges, all affect Primary Census Abstract for Slum.
Cities can no longer work only on everyone. Expanding urban areas Government of India, Guidelines of the Basic
iats from the top. Building capacity are swallowing villages and hamlets Services for the Urban Poor program, a part of
the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal
and support for every segment of many of which have no urban Mission, a program by GoI.
the city, building networks across services for decades. Such areas Narayan, Deepa, et. al. Voices of the poor is a 3
different sections, facilitating quickly become slums, where it part publication by the World Bank, 1999.
participation and demonstrating later becomes almost impossible to Patel Sheela and Mitlin Diana, “e work of
SPARC, the National Slum Dwellers Federation
assistance for initiates taken locally provide amenities and services. Yet and Mahila Milan”, working paper 5, Working
Paper series on poverty reduction in Urban
is a crucial way forward. Such neither the residents are Area, Dec 2001, by Human Settlements
processes will produce empowered with voice initially to Program, IIED.
empowerment and create make demands, nor is the city ready Patel Sheela and Mitlin Diana, “Gender and
Urban Federations”, Making Gender and
thousands of local initiatives which to provide amenities early on. Generation Matter for Sustainable
can be woven into a tapestry of city Development, IIED.
level development that works for all. change can’t be brought about Patel Sheela, D’Cruz Celine and Burra Sundar,
“Beyond evictions in a global city, people
is makes the challenge of in a day, a year or 5 years managed resettlement in Mumbai”. IIED
producing a voice for the Environment & Urbanization Vol 14 No 1
marginalised, a crucial and Producing voice building, April 2002.
In order to generate is article serves to contextualize the concept where every individual occupies a
of community participation by emphasizing
qualitative information, the that it is a powerful organizing ideal that
clearly deined place and that
individuals that comprise a advances the communitarian agenda. Today, people’s interactions are mostly
participatory planning is seen as an essential cooperative rather than seeped in
settlement, must be deeply part of any development agenda in order to conlict. In reality, communities are
promote sustainable change and obtain better
integrated into the data results. State governments are looking at unorganized and heterogeneous,
community participation as integral to planning comprised of spatially associated
collection process - for no processes, as those plans made without the individuals with something in
one else knows the contribution of community voices have been
unsustainable and disconnected from ground
common (Hillery, 1995) sheltering
intricacies of a realities. State machinery is more and more a multitude of varying, competing
looking towards community based plans to and oen conlicting interests.
neighbourhood better than ensure grounded planning. e main purpose of ese individuals oen lack a sense
community participation is to capture
those who occupy it. A community voices and represent them in the of community or social identity and
variety of Participatory city’s plans. is article portrays CURE’s work while the word community conveys
in this realm, illustrating it through four an impression of singularity, this is
Learning Action (PLA) different case studies across Delhi and Agra:
deceptive as communities are rarely
Community Shares in Sewer System for Home
tools can help build a Toilets Networked to Trunk Sewers; Shared clear and identiiable.
Septic Tank in Savda Ghevra Resettlement
nuanced understanding of Colony; Spot Fixing the Drainage in Nursery
Basti; and Social Coherence to Recharge In this context, the idea of
people, their problems, Ground Water and Revive City Wells in Agra.
community participation holds a
resources, assets and In conclusion it is clear that voices for planning
must come from within the community. By central place in any development
challenges. enabling communities to be part of the actual agenda as it aims to involve people
decision-making process, CURE helps them to
make that fundamental leap - from voiceless in developmental processes by
beneiciaries to vocal owners. identifying common goals and
interests, and enabling them to take
Ms. Ila Bose (ibose@cureindia.org) is CONTEXTUALIZING COM- collective decisions to overcome
Project Associate with CURE, New MUNITY PARTICIPATION their collective and individual
Delhi and Dr. Renu Khosla is Director concerns and to improve their
It is a common misunderstanding
of the Centre for Urban and Regional quality of lives. It is about mining
Excellence (CURE), New Delhi.
that a community is a social whole
local information, recognizing
in way that the planners and NURTURING COMMUNITY shared basis. In most families, all
engineers of the government are PARTNERSHIPS members work as skilled/unskilled
able to analyse and fold these within labour, locally or from home, and
their plans. By overlaying e Centre for Urban and Regional have a combined monthly average
community plans on formal Excellence (CURE) is a income of Rs. 15,000. CURE has
settlement maps, and using development organization, whose been working with this settlement
Geographic Information System core strength is working with low- since 2011 on improving people’s
(GIS) platforms, the data across income and poor communities. access to basic water and sanitation
communities can be stitched Communities are where CURE’s facilities. Community interactions
together, spatially analysed and home is. From these communities have been at the core of CURE’s
merged into grand plans for many emerges the new imagination and work in this settlement and have
more communities. ese vision for change that CURE uses to been used as a mechanism to
community based information curate an enabling environment for identify the core issues, the
systems help governments to make pro-poor urban and social policy residents of this area face. During its
this leap from one-size-its-all and the notion of an inclusive and work with the community, a key
planning mode to planning that is equal city. CURE helps to amplify concern that was repeatedly cited by
more granulated with localized, the ‘voices of people’ giving them the people was the poor quality of
contextualized and customized the strength and weight of collective the public toilet – deeming it to be
solutions. action, in particular those that may an insufficient, unsanitary and
be excluded by virtue of being very unhealthy option. Residents
Women, young people and inter- poor, women, disabled, or dreamed of having private toilets,
ested groups, who will be part of the marginalized for reasons of caste, recognizing these to be safe,
implementation of these plans are class and religion. By enabling digniied and healthy solutions.
encouraged to form street and user communities to be part of the actual ey voiced their concerns over the
groups, nurturing their local lead- decision-making process, CURE risk women and girls faced in using
ership and empowering them, helps make that fundamental leap - the community toilet or when
crowd sourcing their talents and in- from beneiciaries to owners. defecating in the open, when the
cluding them in the process of toilet closed up. ey also
planned upgrading (Khosla, R. CURE’s close work with the
community is being traced here recognized, that it was through the
2014). e most productive way to toilet that diseases were spreading,
through four examples of its
involve people systematically in the and that illness kept men and
community-led initiatives in Delhi
process of planning is to organize women out of work and
and Agra.
them into various groups responsi- unproductive, and the families
ble for achieving speciic goals– Toi- Sewer System for Home Toilets poor. e residents offered to share
let Groups (for monitoring commu- the cost of a regular system. ey
Networked to Trunk Sewers
nity toilet management), Youth organized themselves into an O &
Groups (responsible for all youth Sapheda Basti, is an illegal slum M committee and set up a bank
related activities and involvement), community in the Geeta Colony account to which households
Women’s Health Clubs (functioning area in East Delhi. It has 650 started contributing their
as health monitoring bodies and families - mostly migrants, yet investment, they took charge of all
self-help facilities) etc. By organiz- many who have been living here for liaisoning with engineers and
ing people into groupings with clear over 30 years. e settlement is an contractors and also over the actual
responsibilities, implementation encroachment on Delhi construction process. In addition to
plans of the community get drawn Development Authority land and this the residents became more
up. has minimal basic services, on active in their engagement with the
local sanitary committee members in control, an attribute that is of an option, people were recognizing
and ensured regular cleaning of essence to the vulnerable poor. that their poorly constructed tanks
their streets and drains. were leaching into ground water
Shared Septic Tank in Savda and creeping up the house walls,
is was an idea that came from the Ghevra Resettlement Colony, besides creating a dangerous hole
people, who were helped with Delhi underneath, precipitating collapse.
making the choice – aer discussing Numerous discussions with the
the good and the bad of each. Savda Ghevra is the largest recently
community, predominantly women,
CURE converted the idea into an planned resettlement colony in New
resulted in the idea of home toilets
engineering design and assisted the Delhi without the planned basic
connected to a shared septic tank,
community in the meetings and services that must go with any
away from individual homes.
interactions with government planned development - piped water
officials. supply, underground sewerage for To identify the required technical
home toilets, roads etc. In resettling aspects for the construction
e community-led sanitation slum dwellers in Savda Ghevra, the process, leaders were identiied
solution has enhanced the social plan has been for community toilets from each street who worked with
capital of Safeda Basti by – even as there was secure land CURE to search for the contractor,
encouraging collective action, tenure here. Toilets became a address resident issues, oversee the
association, decision-making, primary need once livelihoods were building etc. ese leaders enabled
consensus building and resource re-established in the new site. CURE to work on the technical
sharing. It has also strengthened Despite plentiful lands, open portion of the initiative while taking
community leadership by helping defecation was common as the into account the social aspect of the
the poor understand their community toilets were un- settlement and its individuals. e
Figure 1 : Development of Design Plan with Residents for a Slum Networking System in Sapheda Basti
Source: Energy Statistics 2011, Central Statistics Office, Government of India; India Energy Handbook 2011; Kumar, S (2011) Benchmarking Energy Use in
Buildings and Cleanrooms, ISA Vision Summit, Bangalore
entitlements and building their operational. It was proving street leaders also collected the
ability to negotiate for their dangerous – fears of sexual and money for de-sludging and regular
entitlements. An important physical assault were paramount. maintenance and deposited it into the
outcome of this participative Houses were small, self-built and bank account of the O&M committee.
process is the sustainability of the structurally weak and while making During the construction process, the
initiative, as the community is now home toilets with septic tanks was poorest also got to work on the
Figure 2 : Mobilization of Street Leaders for implementation of Shared Septic Tank Initiative in Savda Ghevra
project and earn money. sanitation solution capable of wastewater, looding the road
providing in-house services in the everyday. Besides the deteriorating
A design solution was engineered,
city’s unplanned urban fringe. state of the road, the stagnating
that was capable of being built,
water on the road was resulting in
managed, and maintained by the
Spot Fixing the Drainage in high incidence of illnesses. With the
people - a community-based
Nursery Basti, Delhi help of the community, CURE studied
sanitation system connecting 322
the drain and discussed possible
household toilets to a shared septic
Nursery basti, with a population of solutions. e plan was to make the
tank and an up-low ilter that
approximately 210 households, is last mile connection to the slum drain,
forms a decentralized wastewater
situated in East Delhi. CURE began intercept and convey the school
treatment system (DEWAT) to treat
its community engagement by wastewater through an underground
the black and grey waters in Savda
trying to understand the context pipe into the drain, deepen and de-
Ghevra for reuse.
and form an initial rapport using silt the existing drain and connect it
From its inception, the process PLA tools. People were involved in to the city’s main drain through the
accounted for sustainability through mapping their settlement, identifying community toilet.
informally chosen street leaders the hotspots and prioritizing their
representing the residents who were needs. e community angst related A sanitation monitoring committee
trained in the long-term O&M of to the uninished drainage system was mobilized. Group members
the community septic tank and in the settlement. One particular came up with a system to monitor
DEWAT. Households connecting spot that was the most troublesome the construction process. Local
into the system also decided to was where all the water from one labour and masons were identiied
contribute a small fee, to inance part of the settlement drained to, for the construction even as the
long-term O&M expenses - with nowhere to go. Adding to the group oversaw the process.
engendering local responsibility chaos was the school in the Simultaneously, awareness meetings
and accountability. A community neighbourhood that had made an were held with the community to
led solution has de-engineered a opening in its wall to let out its build a sense of responsibility – to
Figure 3 : Spot Fixing with Sanitation Monitoring Committee in Nursery Basti for Repairing Drainage System
Social Coherence to Recharge Development of Design Plan with Residents for a Slum
Figure 4 :
Networking System in Sapheda Basti
Ground Water and Revive City
Wells in Agra Traditional fairs and festivals, time is spent in understanding the
Agra has over the years lost many of associated rituals and cras of these various social, psychological and
its natural and social foundations, communities are being revived – cultural facets that make up the
especially with regard to water. e evening temple prayers, kite lying individuals that inhabit
collapse of the water system of Agra festivals, monsoon festivals (Sawan communities in urban settings –
is the result of a fragmented society ke Somwar), pigeon lying contests, that come from different areas, lack
and the unsustainable environmental henna, sanjhi art, etc.; rebuilding cohesion or a common notion of
actions and decisions of its the inherent knowledge of people of their community or city.
communities. Tajganj is a group of 13 their area, crowdsourcing their
Voices for planning must come
settlements in the neighbourhood of particular wisdom and designing
from within the community. With
the Taj Mahal. ey are slummy, solutions for nudging the ecological
technical solutions these can be
lack water and have poor sanitation. cycle back to its natural state.
converted into plans and designs.
Ground water tables in the area CONCLUSIONS Accompanied by a rhythmic
were rapidly dropping. Because the capacity building and behavioural
area was not fully networked to Conceptualizing and implementing exercises, communities can become
piped water and/or had erratic engineering and technological coherent partners, taking
supplies, people were drawing water solutions for the betterment of a responsibility for their living
from individual bore wells without community through an umbrella environments, upgrading and
realizing the damage to the approach, makes up one end of the management. is process takes
environment. Over the years the developmental spectrum. e other time to be nurtured and skills to
ground water quality had elements that constitute this manage.
deteriorated and the numerous spectrum and must be tapped
water wells that traditionally served include retroitting designs CURE works closely with
the water needs of people in the area originating from the communities communities, oen for years,
had dried up. CURE is working with and targeting behaviour change. building rapport, mutual
the residents of these settlements to Without including the ideas of understanding and trust. ere is
do four things; conserve water, people on the ground and in the no work that can begin without
harvest rainwater, recharge water absence of awareness and understanding the differing
into the ground and treat and reuse knowledge building, investments by parameters set by the individuals
wastewater. Neighbourhood groups the city in infrastructural that make up a settlement. CURE
are coming together to map their improvement and physical believes in un-thinking, re-
areas, generate a water footprint, upgradation may just happen to fall imagining and re-socializing a
discuss options and solutions etc. by the wayside. It is imperative that settlement’s planning narrative,
complete with de-engineered poor into city level planning. It is facilitators and ield staff. In this regard it is
important to acknowledge the work of – Manish
solutions. e foundation of this important for the State to make real Kumar, Pranav Singh, Rajesh Kumar, Shahena
approach is to do away with ixed space for community voices. CURE Khan, Siddharth S. Pandey and Sukant Shukla in
notions and old templates and begins its work with a community the successful implementation of the initiatives.
approaching a group of people imagined as a tabularasa, a clean
without presuppositions and slate. REFERENCES
Hillery, G. A. (1955). Deinitions of Community:
assumptions and to use the Areas of Agreement Rural Sociology, Vol. 20,
opportunity to de-complex and de- 111-123
engineer systems and solutions. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Khosla, R. (2014), Community Participation:
Deconstructing the Challenge
It is the work of NGO’s to assimilate e mentioned projects have been carried out by Khosla, R. (2014), Agra’s Street Culture, Seminar
and try to absorb the needs of the CURE’s dedicated team of project coordinators, Magazine
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As the Government of India has set the then1. We need to question our
GEETA MEHTA goal of providing ‘affordable housing for commitment to this goal. Only
all by 2022’, this paper suggests revisiting when we have the courage to ask
the social housing priorities in India and fundamental questions such as this
learning from the precedents that have that are at the core of our society,
proven successful in India and abroad. can we achieve the results worthy of
Arguing through a set of eight our nation. It is with this intention
fundamental questions posed to all
that the questions below are posed
In 2012-13, 95 per cent of stakeholders in affordable housing, the
for, and to all the stakeholders in af-
paper calls for according housing a
the inancing in the housing fundamental right status and concludes
fordable housing in India.
sector lowed to middle and that given the huge shortage of urban
high-income group housing housing in India, especially for the Q1: Is speculative urbanism a
economically weaker sections and lower threat to affordable housing and
from the public sector
income groups of the society, major social equity in India today?
banks and housing inance intervention is needed now in affordable
companies, where the housing before the problem gets worse, Following the neo-liberal model of
shortage is a mere 4 per due to projected increases in urban economic development that has
cent. Compared to this, population. increasingly gained popularity in
only 5 per cent of the many countries in the past two
IntroduCtIon decades, Indian governmental
inancing lowed to the organizations at the state as well as
economically weaker Housing impacts every indicator of city level have become brokers
section and low-income human development. Homeless- rather than providers of social
group housing from these ness, housing poverty and illegality good, with a goal to monetize and
sources, where the unmet negatively impact economic oppor- capitalize on public and urban land
tunities, water supply, sanitation, rather than regulate and guard
need is of the order of 95
health, education as well as psycho- against market failure and
per cent. logical and social wellbeing of peo- exclusions. Inadequate access to
ple. However, even aer 67 years of housing adversely affects not only
Independence, housing is still not a the quality of life for the majority of
fundamental right in India, just like our people, but also the quality of
the Right to Education or the Right the human resources available to
Ms. Geeta Mehta (mehta@gol.com) is to Information. Efforts in the mid the private sector players, who
adjunct professor at the Graduate 1980s to enshrine the Right to lobby for the neo-liberal model, in
School of Architecture, Planning &
Housing in the constitution failed turn affecting their own growth and
Preservation, Columbia University, New
and have not been attempted since prosperity in the long run.
York.
While market forces can ensure that throwaway prices, who then go on reaped the beneits of India’s robust
housing is made in the most to develop these lands for middle or GDP growth over the past two
efficient way, these forces cannot high income housing, reaping decades, the informal sector has
ensure that every one gets at least proits in the range of 100~400 per been marginalized further.
minimum acceptable shelter. is cent on their investments. ese Outdated concepts of legality leave
has been well illustrated in the case proits are multiples of those for real a large number of people in India
of Bangalore, where illegality, estate developments in any other outside the proverbial bell jar,
housing poverty and homelessness country, including China. e city articulated by the economist
has increased in tandem with or state governments in India rarely Hernando De Soto in his famous
economic development and impose obligations on developers to book “e Mystery of Capital”.4
liberalization since 1990s. It has contribute adequately to the Intermediate forms of legality,
been argued that such economic building of equitable social and transitional housing and
development not only stimulates physical infrastructure outside their progressive building codes need to
homelessness but is actually properties. Capacity building of be devised to protect the most
dependent upon it.2 town planning offices, so that they vulnerable people whose housing
can adequately negotiate public needs are not being met under the
good from private developers, and current policy frameworks.
Current policy frameworks have an make the land sales, permission and Redeinition of legality must
increasing emphasis on private inspection systems more include various forms of housing
actors and developers, and the role transparent, can help this situation. ownership and rentals to enable all
of housing as an economic good urban residents to enter the legal
seems to outweigh its role as a State and city governments have housing market.
component of welfare and social also failed to enforce the mandatory
security. In 2012-13, 95 per cent3 of reservation of land for low-income Individual residents can also be
the inancing in the housing sector housing. Delhi set for itself a very illegal within a legal settlement.
lowed to middle and high-income low quota for low-income housing, Resettlement colonies, where
group housing from the public and even failed to meet that. In people evicted from squatted land
sector banks and housing inance order for adequate amount of are given legal plots are intended to
companies, where the shortage is a affordable housing to be provided, be the sole owner-occupiers,
mere 4 per cent. Compared to this, mandating reservation of land for making resale and renting illegal.
only 5 per cent of the inancing such housing can prove useful. However, rental housing comprises
lowed to the economically weaker Lease instead of sale of land must anywhere from one-third to one-
section and low-income group also be considered to ensure that half of all resettlement colonies but
housing from these sources, where the spirit of the law is protected in the renters are deemed illegal,
the unmet need is of the order of 95 the long term. is has been reducing the urban poor to the
per cent. is was despite the fact effective in Singapore, where land is status of an illegal encroacher who
that affordable housing is a sector given only on lease, and 80 per cent can be evicted. It has been shown
marked for priority lending by the of the population lives in social that families thus evicted rarely
Reserve Bank of India. housing. recover from this shock, due to loss
of assets built with hard earned
A major factor for increasing social Q2: Informality and legality in savings, loss of livelihoods or
inequality in India in recent years housing additional burden of commuting,
has been the sale of large tracts of increased violence, and large-scale
farm land to developers at While the formal sector in India has dropouts from schools.5
Q3: Whom is affordable housing e post-war Japan did not have and high-income communities is a
for? resources to build individual homes fact of life in India, so proximity of
for the workers who were needed to the two income classes should be
Affordable housing should not be power its industrial rise, so micro- expressed in shared infrastructure
just for those who can afford it, but housing and dormitories for men and social spaces. Japan’s very
for improving living conditions in and women were built in all hierarchical pre-modern society
the entire spectrum of housing industrial cities. However, such was turned into a modern, mostly
poverty. is includes homeless minimal housing was supported by homogenous middle class, within
people on the street, squatters near strong social and physical one generation by creating shared
water bodies, and squatters on infrastructure that greatly helped in social housing, schools and other
prime urban land. ere are also overall societal development. social institutions for all. While
hierarchies among squatters, with Better regional and urban Japan’s success of engineering
women headed households who are transportation to enable national pride and communal
renters and sub-renters, being the commuting from distant affordable harmony is difficult to emulate,
most vulnerable and deprived. housing to places of employment lessons can be learnt from it. When
While 53 per cent of all houses should also be considered during cities with more social segregation
nationally do not have a latrine the planning stages. in USA were bustling with race riots
within the premises, the igure rises in 1980s, such unrest was limited in
to 66 per cent and 77 per cent for Q4: Are mixed-use mixed-income New York due to the various social
Scheduled Caste and Scheduled housing developments better for classes rubbing shoulders on the
Tribe households and within them the city? subway and other public places,
to 78 per cent and 88 per cent for reducing the level of distrust and
female-headed SC and ST Zoning laws from the post war resentment.
households. However, in every slum period that sought to segregate
redevelopment project, these are the cities into industrial, residential and e power of mixed income
groups most likely to be evicted commercial zones did not learn developments to reduce social
without compensation. from the many vibrant traditional tensions is also evident in Mumbai,
towns around the world. In trying the most socially integrated and
to protect residential areas from therefore, more vibrant and tolerant
Migrants, who come to the city for industrial pollution, they also of all Indian cities, despite the
seasonal work, do not perhaps even segregated non-polluting industries political rhetoric. e quintessential
want a permanent house. and commercial uses that were image of Mumbai is that of luxury
Dormitory housing for them, such compatible with residential uses, in sky- scrapers with informal housing
as was built for mill workers in turn making the city more and urban villages right next door.
chawls in Mumbai, is a good inefficient for its users. Newer While it may surprise a visitor, it is
solution and should not be planning systems are moving away a healthy solution till enough
overlooked. Affordable housing from this paradigm by promoting affordable housing is built to give
needs to be conceptualized as a mixed-use development. everyone a step on the formal
continuum of achievable steps that housing ladder.
poor and vulnerable families can Mixed-income developments make
embark on- improving their a city more socially equitable, Mayor De Blasio of New York City
condition as they climb up the steps allowing various income groups to is following the example of many
devised by policy, and aided by interact, thus reducing mutual cities that are realizing the power of
social programs and people’s own distrust that can lead to insecurity mixing income groups. While
efforts. and fear. Interdependence of low developers could get additional
Picture 1: Street based urbanism helps improve lifestyles, a feeling of social solidarity, and economic opportunities.
loor space index as an incentive for governance, but much harder to lifestyles and incomes of poor
building affordable housing, it will achieve where top down state communities. e unkempt le
now be made mandatory for all new governments are hard to hold over spaces in between the towers
housing developments. Roosevelt accountable for local city matters in Gautam Nagar in Mumbai are a
Island in New York built in the . good example of bad urban design.
1960s is a good example of market Q5: Is street-based urban design Traditional Indian cities were built
rate and subsidized housing along a better for housing than “towers in along streets, which are the ultimate
street that serves as a common the park”? public spaces open to all. ey are
transport and commercial spine. spaces for socializing, trade and
Via Verde in Bronx, built in 2012, is People in low-income fun.
an award-winning example of neighborhoods depend upon each
mixed income, multi-generational other to meet their daily needs, but ‘Tower in the park urbanism’ in
and mixed-use development, where good neighborliness beneits rich higher-income new developments
the commercial spaces, low-income and poor alike. Eyes on the street in Gurgaon and other such place is
rentals and ownership apartments and a feeling of togetherness, that also sterile and uncomfortable for
are all built to the same high Jane Jacobs wrote so passionately long-term living. It prioritizes cars
standard of design and materiality, about, enriches public life. e and makes walking or biking
but inanced and regulated “tower in the park” housing unpleasant, or even dangerous.
separately in one complex. Such typology propagated by Modernists While the most developed
local policies and results are easier like Le Corbusier hampers Northern European cities are trying
to institute in New York due to the possibilities of such sharing and hard to encourage walking and
strong Mayoral system of city adversely affects the social capital, cycles, Gurgaon is repeating all the
relocating people from vibrant informal communities into poorly designed high-rise housing blocks
Picture 2 :
destroys social capital and adversely effects people’s lives and livelihoods.
mistakes of Modernism. It is no creation is also popular in suburban resulting in loss of building cra
surprise that Gurgaon leads in the housing in United States of traditions.
number of incidents of violence America, where owners add equity
against women. to their homes by building Q7: Can affordable housing
additional parking or bedrooms. inspire pride among residents?
Q6: Can incremental affordable Adequate infrastructure and basic Social housing is oen built with
housing help in wealth creation urban services are the key to such poor design and cheap materials, as
for homeowners? transformation. a visual symbol of poverty. is is
particularly true of high-rise
Owner-built incremental housing For reasons sited above, a inished resettlement colonies. Tower in
was the norm in housing in India as house built of permanent (pucca) park type of social housing in
well as most other countries till just material, should not be the only Pruitt–Igoe in Saint Louis in USA
a few decades ago. Such housing, in form of affordable housing. was so hated by its residents that it
slums and higher income Traditional mud, bamboo and had to be dynamited down in 1972.
neighborhoods, could be adapted to thatched houses were not only e stigma attached to living in
families as they grew or changed. climatically suited to their apartments, in an environment
Even very-low income sites and environment, but were also 100 per where people had been conditioned
services scheme such as Hai El cent recyclable and comfortable. by the real estate market to desire
Salam in Egypt, Orangi Project in is was empowering for the people individual homes on a private lot,
Pakistan and Aranya Township in as they could build, repair and added to the residents’ sense of
India have shown that incremental expand houses by themselves. e alienation. However, similar social
housing helps in wealth creation of new ixation on pucca houses is housing in Japan proved quite
owners. Incremental wealth rendering such homes illegal, also successful as people considered
them symbols of the rise of middle plans for a relocation project in ConCluSIonS
class and of national pride and Mumbai in 2000. URBZ7 , another
progress. community based organization in Overall, there is a need to revisit our
Mumbai helps communities social housing priorities and learn
Ideally, social housing should be in- envision and improve individual from the precedents that have
tegrated into other neighborhoods. homes and neighborhoods.
proven successful in India and
Singapore is a good example of high However, the real challenge of
abroad. Major intervention is
standards in design and materials in affordable housing is in operation
needed now in affordable housing
social housing, where a variety of and maintenance. While individual
families can maintain and repair a before the problem gets worse due
housing typologies and budgets are
small single-family house, the to projected increase in urban
also provided in close proximity to
systems to maintain multi-family population. Access to affordable
each other to facilitate an integrated
affordable housing in India are not and appropriate housing must be
society.
yet in place. is is evident from seen as a public good, the
the dilapidated condition of even protection and provision of which
e new Social Urbanism in
the recently built high-rise requires a strong public
Medellin is a good recent example
affordable housing projects. commitment; and a recognition of
of what strong and positive
buildings can do for the self- housing as a right and an
SoCCs or Social Capital Credits8 is entitlement. Such commitment can
conidence and social development
a system of exchange for social result in beneits across all sectors
of neighborhoods. Libraries
good, designed to incentivize
designed by world famous and all parts of our nation.
communities to be involved in their
architects placed in the poorest
neighborhoods and multi-family referenCeS
areas of Medellin have become hubs
buildings in rich as well as poor 1 India Exclusion Report 2013-14, Action
of learning, community action and
neighborhoods. Communities are Enterprise, Bangalore, India. First Edition.
hope. Cable cars that are bringing ISBN 987-81-926907-0-4
helped to develop SoCC Earning
public transport access to 2 Graham Tipple and Suzanne Speak. e
and SoCC Spending menus related relationship between economic development
neighborhoods on most difficult
to the design, construction, and homelessness in South East Asia.
terrains are integrating the city and University of Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.
operation and maintenance of Accessed at
reducing crime at a remarkable rate.
housing. SoCCs can be earned for http://r4d.did.gov.uk/PDF/Outputs/Human
participation in building related Security/ConfPapereRelationshipBetwee
Q8: How best can communities nEconomicDevelopmentAndHomelessnessi
activities, waste management, nSouthEastAsia.pdf.
participate in affordable housing?
maintaining public areas and 3 Trends & Progress of Housing in India,
While the importance of user- streets, improving neighborhood Published by National Housing Bank, 2013
4 Hernando De Soto, e Mystery of Capital:
participation in affordable housing safety etc. Earned SoCCs can then Why Capitalism Triumphs in the West and
is understood, it is not easy and be redeemed for products and Fails Everywhere Else, 2000
oen not undertaken. ere are services such as telephone talk time, 5 India Exclusion Report 2013-14. Action
Enterprise, Bangalore, India. First Edition.
successful examples of NGOs such skill building courses, healthcare ISBN 987-81-926907-0-4
as Slum Dwellers Internatonal and school scholarships. e system 6 https://strikingpoverty.worldbank.org/
(SDI)6 helping18,000 households also nurtures the social capital of c130103
participate in the design and communities, developing local 7 https://urbz.net
8 www.asiainitiatives.org/soccs/
execution of their own relocation leadership and pride.
itself naturally to the social reality households. Many of these relationships. In many cases,
of the extended Indian family. observations emerge from a homeowners are able to lower the
Moreover, incrementally built workshop on ‘Informality and cost of construction by availing
neighbourhoods are capable of Incremental Housing’ co-hosted by second hand materials and
attaining the low-rise high-density micro Home Solutions (mHS) with contributing their own labour or
form that is now, in the wake of a the Centre for Policy Research contracting skills. Self-help housing
global awareness about (CPR) in June 2013. promotes recycling of building
environmental sustainability, materials and contributes to
considered desirable due to better WHY SUPPORT INCREMEN- sustainability.
thermal comfort and low carbon TAL HOUSING?
footprint. Affordability
e paper takes the position that
e government policy has focussed incremental housing is the only Incremental investment makes
on supply-side interventions i.e viable and scalable model for improved housing and increased
creation of contractor-delivered delivering affordable housing in spaces affordable to homeowners
formal sector housing for the urban India today and in the future, over a period of time.
poor, whether by the public or primarily because it decentralises
the construction-process and offers It leverages government investment
private sector. Citing high land
more decision-making power to and scarce resources in
prices and unavailability of urban
households. Moreover, self-built infrastructure with household
land as the prime reasons, this
housing is progressive housing. By efforts in inance, home building
supply is usually in the form of
nature, it improves over time with and improvement. A quick
apartments ranging from 25 square
further savings and investments, estimation of the government
metres to 60 square metres located
unlike developer-built apartment resettlement colonies in Delhi,
in high-rise energy inefficient
housing that is at the risk of home to 2.1 million people, reveals
buildings, away from city centres
dilapidation and poor maintenance that over USD 1.3 billion have been
adding to transportation costs as
in the long run. invested by low income households
well as impacting livelihood
over a period of 30 years (at today’s
opportunities. Socio-economic advantages prices)1 . ese investments have
is paper argues for a favourable largely been made with the
e urban form of high-density
policy environment for incremental households’ own savings and
low-rise neighbourhoods respects
housing that ensures adequate borrowings and access to expensive
the livelihood, socio-cultural ethos
quality of affordable homes by informal credit. e numbers
and lifestyle choices of low-income
leveraging the existing investments clearly indicate that once given
segments. Mixed-income and
on the ground in low-income access to serviced land in well-
mixed-use neighbourhoods add to
settlements. Cognizant of the huge networked urban development
economic vitality, safety on streets
impediments posed by the issue of areas, low-income households have
and multi-functional use of space.
tenure and legality, the article shall the ability and capacity to
focus on highlighting the value Self-help housing supports local undertake home construction. New
generated by incremental housing, businesses and entrepreneurship. and innovative inancial products
identifying the signiicant Construction activity in these are being designed and offered by
complexities associated with this neighbourhoods employ local housing inance companies such as
typology of housing. Further, the masons and contractors and gives Swarna Pragati, India Shelter
paper proposes techno-inancial business to local material suppliers. Housing Finance, SEWA2 Grih Rin
policy solutions to deliver scalable Beyond business transactions, the etc. to address the issues of tenure
impact for urban low-income market reinforces social and mortgage inance for the low
income households with average better quality spaces for rent and be able to reconcile urbanization in
loans sizes of Rs 2 lakhs. reduce the prevalence of the context of climate change.
overcrowding, squatting and
Supply of affordable rental ere are some critical barriers that
creation of new slums.
housing need to be understood and
SIGNIfICANT COMPLExI- addressed by multi-stakeholder
At present, between 30-60 per cent efforts and coordination.
TIES
of housing units in low income
settlements are on rent3 . India’s Despite several advantages, self- Legality and tenure
rental housing is being successfully help housing is associated with
It has been a stumbling block for
and efficiently supplied by limited urban planning, poor
governments as well as inanciers to
homeowners making it entry point infrastructure, over-crowding and
recognise the positive aspects of
for migrants that are moving into illegality. Rather than embrace the
incremental housing and to think
the city for better economic Indian-ness and ingenuity of
beyond the barriers of legality and
opportunity. Government programs homegrown neighbourhoods,
tenure.
to directly own and manage rental several policy documents in the
stock have failed in this regard- they past have classiied such areas as Many incrementally built
are over regulated, over subsidised slums. Planners have rejected the neighbourhoods are formalised
and few and far between. Mass possibility of high-density, low-rise over-time. e settlements usually
housing schemes do not address the living and promoted development possess some security of tenure,
large-scale demand for a diverse set norms that embrace the idea of however, complications exist. Either
of rental options- dormitories, single use zoning. e international the land use is not residential by
shared rooms, family etc. view is, however, changing due to master plan or settlers have
Supporting incremental housing concerns on social unrest and the squatted on land owned by
through policy measures will, environment and, therefore, high government or private individuals.
therefore, encourage current density is being encouraged. Oen a monetary transaction is
homeowners to offer more and Indeed, it is a necessity in order to involved, which is not registered or
documented. Some informal
settlements come up on
MORE ExPERIMENTATION REqUIRED fOR WORKABLE IN-SITU
UPGRADATION MODELS, ESPECIALLY IN SMALL CITIES environmentally unsuitable land
such as loodplains and along
e Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) and Rajiv Awas
Yojana (RAY) have been the most ambitious steps taken by the government in canals. It is important to admit that
addressing the issue of low-income housing. RAY, in particular, seeks to replace slums while all informal settlements may
with more liveable neighbourhoods through the strategy of (preferably in-situ) slum not be tenable and may require
rehabilitation and redevelopment. However, the RAY scheme is largely limited to the other thoughtful interventions and
provision of 25 square metre lats in multi-storey buildings. As mentioned before,
relocation, over 50 per cent of the
apartments fail to solve the problem of crowding. A review of BSUP projects has also
suggested that many of these are poorly designed and exhibit poor quality of self-built settlements are on plotted
construction. lands, with opportunity for home-
While high densities make in-situ slum upgrades unfeasible in metro cities, it might improvements4 .
be meaningful to explore this model in small and medium sized towns across India,
where slums are typically single storey homes. Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation’s Households that do possess security
scheme to provide seven basic services to slum households and offer them a 10-year of tenure ind that formal
no eviction warranty, is a case in point. institutions do not acknowledge
ere is also a need to explore efficient and varied models for in-situ rehabilitation, informal evidence of tenure. ey
especially the creation of alternates to the high-rise, focusing instead on low-rise high- are thus excluded from accessing
density formats. inance from formal sources and
resort to expensive informal unable to work because the water Low quality building materials
inancing for home improvements supply tanker arrives in the middle
e majority of self-built homes in
at over 5 per cent per month. is of the day5 .
India use brick for walls, in itself a
pushes them further into the debt
Non-engineered design and material that offers poor insulation
and reinforces a poverty cycle.
construction or protection from dampness.
Rooing materials for single loor
Basic services Incremental housing, despite all the homes range from temporary
beneits, has also become materials like thermocol, cardboard
In the absence of registered synonymous with poor quality of
ownership and titles, informal and tarpaulin to asbestos cement or
dwelling. ere is scant regard for iron rooing sheets.
settlements are not covered by the safety among the urban poor largely
city’s basic services like water and because of lack of awareness of Poor construction practices and
sanitation, though interestingly homeowners as well as construction structural issues
electricity is no longer contingent workers. Fieldwork shows that two
on legality. While electricity Poorly mixed mortar, incorrect
other factors contribute to the low masonry work and lack of adequate
connections have reached priority for safety in incremental
settlements (irrespective of security reinforcement are some of the
construction—the perception that a common problems in self-built
of tenure), toilets and other ‘designed’ structure is unnecessary
provisions that will impact health, structures.
and far more expensive and a
child mortality and women’s safety fatalistic attitude that assumes that Weak or no foundations, owing to
among other issues, are still found harm will not come to their home poor knowledge of structural
wanting. Other than the inability of in the event of a disaster. design mean that self-built
city governments to provide structures are likely to be damaged
services to these areas, narrow lanes Only 2 per cent of India’s masons or collapse in the event of a natural
and dense urban form make and labour workforce are trained calamity such as earthquake or
retroitting in these areas difficult. while the majority learns the trade lood. Owing to small plot sizes,
e lack of sewage lines prohibits on the job, by trial and error. homeowners want to maximise
homeowners from putting in Despite this fact, the majority of living space. is means that, in
separate household toilets even if government and NGO schemes multi-storey structures built out of
they are willing to spend on one. work on training masons and brick and reinforced cement
Decentralised systems for water contractors from the perspective of concrete structures, column sizes
supply and sewage that are being skill improvement, livelihoods and are of the same thickness as the
piloted in different locations of job creation. As a result, the mason walls, which renders the building
India are required to tackle this is trained to be absorbed into the weak and prone to collapse.
issue. Lack of basic amenities puts formal construction industry, but
households in these areas of the city trained masons do not serve self- With growing vertical densities this
at a severe disadvantage. Not only is built neighbourhoods. e requires investigation. Further, the
health adversely impacted, but construction workforce in self-built seismic guidelines and building
precious time is spent in activities areas lack the technical know-how code is not adapted in low income
like collecting and storing water. to construct vertical buildings in settlements and thus there is very
is in turn impacts their earning RCC and this is the primary reason little technological innovation in
capacity. For instance, in Delhi’s for the building collapses in recent non-engineered structures.
Savda Ghevra resettlement colony, years (ane in Mumbai, multiple
Layout and Design
a socio-economic survey of 500 collapses in Savda Ghevra and
households found that women were Laxmi Nagar in East Delhi)6 . Space maximisation is the highest
priority for the urban poor. Aspects plentiful housing in low-income Rs 100 water connection scheme
like light and ventilation that are neighbourhoods. e illustrates that applications for
necessary for good health take a interdisciplinary nature of government subsidy schemes
backseat. e problem is more participants evolved clear positions are tedious and complex to
acute in the case of multi-storey and the expertise being shared in understand and come with
structures in dense settlements. the two-day workshop resulted in a unrealistic requirements. ey
rich and nuanced discussion on include hidden costs such as
SUPPORTING INCREMEN- supporting incremental housing. requiring the installation of
TAL HOUSING THROUGH Importantly, government rainwater harvesting systems
POLICY representatives from the Planning and the purchase of hand
Policy interventions are an effective Commission as well as city-level pumps, which cannot be met by
way to facilitate design of a diverse urban bodies in Delhi and Chennai the urban poor and remain un-
portfolio of affordable housing assured practitioners that the enforced even among the upper
solutions instead of prescribing government’s stand is rapidly income groups. Schemes for
certain implementation models. shiing from the position of
low-income households are
Besides this aim, integration of ignoring or rejecting informality to
oen not rationalised with those
housing related policy with other inding ways and means to support
that the larger population can
measures to target urban poverty it, although they are oen
avail of and the paperwork is
such as the National Urban overwhelmed with the task at hand.
generic and not tailor-made.
Livelihood Mission (NULM) is e challenge remains to bridge the
important. gaps between intention and • Title and building plan
implementation; and between the approvals are still required to
Many organisations in India such as ideas propagated at central access services such as a water
SEWA, Mahila Housing SEWA government level and the adoption connection.
Trust, Transparent Chennai, of these ideas by states and urban
Habitat for Humanity, Aga Khan • Applying for access to one
local bodies. e following
Planning and Building Services, service oen requires further
suggestions address practical areas
Housing and Urban Development hurdles that are not clear at the
where governments can make
Corporation Ltd. (HUDCO), impact. outset, for example, in Chennai,
URBZ, Centre for Urban and a sewage connection is
Regional Excellence (CURE), e Improving access to basic mandatory in order to access an
Society for the Promotion of Area services individual water connection.
Resource Centres (SPARC) and
Shelter Associates have been e foremost policy intervention in Successful interventions
working on various inter-related self-built settlements is to facilitate
residents’ access to services such as In cities where intermediary
aspects of urban poverty like
individual connections for drinking agencies such as NGOs and urban
shelter, basic services and inance,
water, toilet facilities, and sewage professionals work, they have
each from their own unique
and waste disposal. lobbied with municipalities and
positions of strength.
created a framework for bottom-up
Issues
In June 2013, mHS and Centre for access to services. Mahila Housing
Policy Research co-hosted a • Despite the unrolling of several SEWA Trust (MHT), for instance,
workshop to delve deep into the schemes to facilitate access, acts as an aggregator and lobbies
above-mentioned barriers that there are several issues. e with service providers, as their work
inhibit the creation of safe and experience in Chennai with the in Ahmedabad and other cities has
shown. e organization creates • Allow for intermediate Finance for home improvements,
and empowers low income Resident services, through private and however, is a huge barrier and the
Welfare Associations (RWA) to be community solutions that are lack of tenure adds to this problem,
the formal interface with the ‘future proof ’ i.e can graduate as discussed earlier. Innovative
government. It also provides small into long-term government inance solutions are the need of the
loans for purchasing equipment for schemes. For instance, delivery hour.
toilets and water connections. On via community organisations
Issues
the other hand CURE, an NGO and NGOs is oen effective;
working in Delhi, constructed a • Developing a housing inance
• Facilitation through NGO to
private decentralized solution for scheme for low income that is
generate awareness by holding
individual toilets in resettlement rigid on tenure, is designed to
subscriber camps and access to have no off-take. Majority of
colonies of Delhi by mobilizing the
inance for purchase of India’s low-income population
community and through grant
equipment; live with diverse tenure
funds. ey are working
independently of the municipality • Rationalise the application arrangements. Government
and government service providers, forms (Forms are not schemes that have this
but have created provision for a comprehensible even to an requirement will not be able to
future linkage into government informed educated audience serve the majority of this
sewage systems. Oen, in the such as the one present in the
absence of an NGO working in the workshop); and
area, communities in informal
• Ensure transparency but
settlements access services through
provide lexibility to
informal and political channels
states/cities in the application
such as appealing to their local
and allotment process.
MLA or Councillor. If the
settlement is not large enough or Access to Construction/
not politically activated, they do not Housing finance
have any formal recourse to address
the absence of access to services. e microinance industry has been
providing loans to residents in
Suggested policy actions settlements through innovative
mechanisms that ascertain the
• Mandate access to services
creditworthiness of the client for
irrespective of tenure status;
livelihood generation purposes.
• Evaluate decentralized Little did MFI agencies know that
infrastructure solutions that 20-30 per cent7 of the loans
can be retroitted into existing disbursed were deployed for
settlements. Governmental housing-related investments and
Many in Delhi’s Man-
agencies such as NEERI and improvements. It can be argued that golpuri resettlement
other social enterprises have investment in housing promotes colony, created in the
developed low-cost livelihood stability as the homes are ‘70s to relocate slum
Picture 1 :
dwellers, still live like
interventions suited for these used as workspaces and additional this because they do not
settlements; rooms fetch rental income. have the money to built
a better home
Successful experiments
In 2009-10, some of the larger MFIs
(SKS, Equitas, Ujjivan, BASIX,
MIMO Finance) had designed
speciic products for housing that
were of longer duration than a
typical product (up to 7 years), with
loans up to Rs 3 lakh9 and relied on
Despite the poverty and crowding, residents of informal communities like
Picture 2 :
Mangolpuri take pride in their homes
third party social collateral and
tenure security to provide the loans.
segment. work with the inancial International Finance Corporation
institutions. (IFC) is working with National
• e issue of tenure is complex Housing Bank to develop a Housing
and a binary understanding of • Microinance regulation Micro Finance (HMF) toolkit for
title/no title on property or prevents MFIs from lending the sector to encourage lending for
land is not the right way to above Rs 50,000, thus missing housing inance.
address the issue. the incremental housing
demand To tackle the issue of tenure, a
• Traditional city planning that commendable application of the
• Housing Finance Companies whole slum approach was seen in
relies largely on land-use
will not be reinanced by NHB the case of Sangli-Miraj-Kupwad,
planning and is rigid in nature
if primary security (i.e title) is where the corporation worked with
falls short in supporting home-
not available. NGO, Shelter Associates, to create
grown neighbourhoods;
however, several lexible citywide maps of slums and land
• e National Disaster
approaches including the ‘whole ownership patterns. A collaborative
Management Authority
slum’ approach taken up during approach was used to identify slums
(NDMA) guidelines,
the JNNURM project period by that need to be relocated and those
circulated through National
some municipalities, show that can be redeveloped in-situ.
Housing Bank, mandate a
promise in looking at housing building plan approval process Suggested actions
and city planning holistically. that is top-down and leads to
corrupt practices without • National Housing Bank to
• Accessing schemes such as ensuring compliance on continue lending for
ISHUP8 is practically structural safety; this does not incremental housing through
impossible because of current work for informal areas where the pre-inancing channel that
eligibility conditions- it incremental housing is the offers lexibility, in order to
requires building plan norm and these homes are le develop portfolio and
approvals, minimum carpet out of the ambit of safety conidence in this segment.
area and a cap on subsidy regulations
amount plus eligibility • A ladder of property rights
approval through nodal • Lack of conidence in the low- must be constructed to allow
agencies that are not equipped income market and for lending where there is a
to aggregate the demand and apprehensions that the NPA minimal security of tenure (i.e
Before and aer of Manjesh’s home looked like when mHS began working with Mangolpuri residents in
Picture 4 :
association with microinance players BASIx.
• Encourage participation of
community in disaster
preparedness plans for
informal areas;
• Building centres must become
hubs that promote and
strengthen the idea of
community architects and
community builders, who will
advocate and ensure safety of
construction. It must be noted
here that the idea is not to
enforce a system of sanctions
and approvals on informal
settlements, but rather to build
skills and awareness so that
there is a bottom-up demand
for safety and improved
structural design. is has
been amply demonstrated in
mHS pilot projects as well as in
CODI’s work across the south
east Asian region; and
• Community building centres
A page from mHS-designed graphic manual to train masons
can pull together a variety of Picture 5 :
for informal sector self-help housing.
resources for working on suit-
able local building materials, government schemes like the there is “an urge and impatience to
technologies, the adaptation of JNNURM and RAY has been tricky, do something world class and
local skills and building prac- essentially due to an inability or grand13 ” that disallows nuanced
tices to urban built environ- unwillingness of professionals and and insightful work, being
ments; all of which can be ef- bureaucrats to delve into the undertaken by practitioners to
fectively used to support the complexity of the issues on ground. inform policy.
self-help housing market that Moreover, measures to support
functions through people’s incremental housing can only be e paradigm can be shied only
own investments and does not implemented by an appropriate through policy that offers incentives
rely on government subsidy combination of stakeholders, in a for state and local governments to
alone. decentralized model and this take on the work of providing
requires far more patience (10-20 services, delivering technical
GOING fORWARD years perhaps) than is acceptable in assistance and creating conditions
Even with the best intentions, the current economic and political for better access to inance. At the
supporting informality through climate. Ever so oen, therefore, same time, policy needs to refrain
community organisations to adapt the city level that consolidates 5 Survey component, mHS’ DHS pilot project
in Delhi’s resettlement colonies
for local conditions and context. experiences of state and local
Moreover, this approach requires an governments, as well as private 6 mHS, 2013, ‘Built to Collapse’, unpublished
research study
essential shi from subsidized practitioners, across the country
7 Statistics from SEWA Bank
housing to market-based solutions. with regard to incremental housing.
In this way, instead of creating Based on these experiences, it 8 Interest Subsidy Scheme for Housing the
Urban Poor
perverse incentives for large private would be possible to create
9 Rates of interest were effectively 19-21% per
developers to cash in on free land or materials and empower a panel of annum that poses a high monthly burden
for the poor to sell free housing, experts to advise governments on largely due to the short tenure.
government would be able to speciic projects as well as on 10 Small Industries Development Bank of India
encourage self-investments in national and state policy. 11 National Bank for Agriculture & Rural
housing by the LIG and middle Development
income groups as well as rental rough this paradigm shi, the 12 e Community Organizations Development
Institute (CODI) is a ai government agency
housing within self-built Government of India through the formed in 2000 through the merging of the
communities for the urban poor. Ministry of Housing and Urban Urban Community Development Office
(UCDO) and the Rural Development Fund.
ere is also a place in this scenario Poverty Alleviation (HUPA) has the
for catalysing private informal opportunity to drastically upgrade 13 Quoting K C Sivaramakrishnan, former
bureaucrat and currently Visiting Professor
rentals. the quality of living for low- and with Centre for Policy Research, New Delhi.
AfforDAblE HoUsing
Dr. M. Ravi Kanth, IAS (r) 1. How do you see the housing
Chairman & Managing Director (CMD) scenario in the country?
Housing and Urban Development Corporation Limited (HUDCO)
As per the Census 2011, the total
urban households were estimated as
78.86 million and the total urban
housing stock was estimated as
78.48 million for residential and
residence-cum-other uses,
including non-serviceable kutcha.
e number of vacant houses in
urban areas were estimated as 11.06
million in 2011. e Report of the
Technical Group on Urban Housing
Shortage during the 12th Plan
period (2012-17) has assessed the
urban housing shortage to be 18.78
million in 2012. Most of this
shortage is due to households living
in congested houses & requiring
new houses (14.99 million) and
households living in obsolescent
houses (2.27 million). Signiicantly,
95.62% of the shortage assessed
pertains to Economically Weaker
Sections (10.55 million) and Low
Income Groups (7.41 million) of
the society. e funds requirement
and urban development Own’ scheme of HUDCO; and as loan, and with a relatively longer
requirements in the country with Retail inancing to individuals repayment period, HUDCO makes
special focus on the housing and through HUDCO nIWAS. houses affordable for the urban and
urban service delivery for the rural poor segments. HUDCO
Economically Weaker Sections Till end July 2014, cumulatively, cross-subsidises the interest rates
(EWS) and Lower Income Groups HUDCO has sanctioned 16.5 for loans for housing of poor and
(LIG) of the society. HUDCO today million houses under 14,850 this rate is even below our average
has emerged as the leading national schemes, with a loan component of cost of borrowing. e above
techno-inancing CPSE with the Rs. 45,971 crore for housing affordable terms of inance and
major objective of projects in the country, out of which other efforts of HUDCO have
inancing/encouraging the housing about 15.36 million units (95%) are resulted in over 95% of the dwelling
activity in the country and for the EWS/LIG beneiciaries. units supported by HUDCO
alleviating housing shortage for all Besides, HUDCO has also inanced beneiting the EWS & LIG groups.
groups in rural and urban areas as Rs. 5127 crore directly to Further, towards cost reduction of
well as the development of individuals through its retail housing units, HUDCO has been
infrastructure in human inancing window of HUDCO promoting technology advocacy
settlements. nIWAS. through the network of Building
Centres/ nirmithi Kendras, which
HUDCO has many special schemes 3. ‘Affordability’ is important encourage the use of local building
to promote affordable housing and when we talk of buying a house materials and adoption of cost
they are quite successful. HUDCO's and this becomes very important effective construction practices that
support for a variety of housing for urban poor. What are the are environment friendly,
options include: Housing projects means by which HUDCO can aesthetically pleasing and yet
both in urban and rural areas for all promote houses which are economically affordable.
sections of the society taken up by affordable to the urban poor?
State Governments, Urban Local 4. HUDCO has stopped funding
Bodies, Housing Boards/ Since inception, HUDCO has been to Private Sector. Do you think
Corporations / Agencies, Parastatal promoting affordable housing that this will restrain the delivery
Institutions, Development which is very important for the of housing stock?
Authorities, etc.; Housing projects socio-economic development of the
for employees by State country. HUDCO is the largest It is recognised that private sector
Governments/public Institutions; Housing Finance Company (HFC) would have to step in a big way for
Land acquisition projects for in India addressing the housing and provision of affordable housing in
housing; Housing projects under housing-related infrastructural the country. HUDCO has not
JnnURM for meeting the needs of the poor. With an stopped inancing private sector for
State/ULB contribution (Viability allocation of signiicant quantum of affordable housing segment. In fact,
Gap Funding); Take-out inancing its housing funds for the HUDCO has very special and
of earlier borrowed loans from Economically Weaker Sections and competitive terms of inance for
other lenders as per HUDCO Low Income Groups of the society, private sector, constructing
norms; Employee housing through with a relatively lower interest rate, affordable housing projects that
the recently launched ‘Rent-to- higher extent of unit cost extended have been approved by the
Dr. Binayak It is but obvious that a sound urban infrastructural of the country’s urban club. Till
base is not only critical to urban living, it is equally 1971 the level of urbanization of
ChouDhury crucial to infuse and sustain the urban growth
North Eastern India was at an
momentum. Urban North East has been a new
entrant of the country’s urban club. Urban North abysmal low of ive percent. Urban
East started growing only aer the bifurcation of North East started moving since
Assam and the attainment of Statehood by
A major part of the North Arunachal Pradesh. 2011 census shows half of
late seventies with the bifurcation of
Assam in 1972 to create the
East region has been catego- Mizoram becoming urban with Assam still
remaining the lowest urbanized state of North East. independent states of Mizoram,
rized as Scheduled Area and However, Assam accounts for more than iy
percent of the region’s urban population. While the
Meghalaya and Arunachal Pradesh,
is being largely adminis- intercensal growth in the level of urbanization has attaining statehood in 1987. e
been highest in Tripura, Mizoram recorded the prime factor behind the
tered under the special pro- lowest growth. Historically the urban governance
urbanization of North East has been
structure across North East has been the
visions of the Indian coexistence of formal municipal government the proliferation of service sector
(designed by Lord Ripon) and the traditional tribal across the North Eastern states.
Constitution. While the councils. A major part of the region has been
categorized as Scheduled Areas and is being largely Although the economy of all the
Fih Schedule of the Indian administered under the Schedule V and VI of the seven north eastern states is
Indian Constitution. Not to speak of availability of
Constitution looks aer the formal rental housing or intracity mass transit
predominantly agrarian, the share
of service (tertiary) sector in the
administration and control system or sewerage network, even iy percent of
urban North East is not blessed with the provision States’ Gross Domestic Product has
of the Scheduled Areas of of three basic urban services, - water, electricity and
latrine. Given a rich demographic dividend
been rising over the years. In view
Manipur, Nagaland, and awaiting the region by the later part of this decade of the growing service sector, the
and a number of schemes generously being importance of the urban
Arunachal Pradesh, the sponsored by the Central government, urban North
settlements across the North
East is replete with a sea of opportunities for its
Sixth Schedule of the Indian urban settlements to strengthen their Eastern states hardly needs to be
infrastructure, address the poverty issue and at the highlighted. But the all important
Constitution takes care of same time, revitalize their administrative system.
However such an intervention should be preceded
question is – are the urban
the Schedule Areas of by and followed with a series of reforms aimed at settlements of North East India in a
the structural, inancial and iscal domain of urban
Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura governance.
position to shoulder the growing
demand of urban services? How
and Mizoram. can we sustain the growth of these
ProloguE
urban centers? e present paper
It is but obvious that a sound urban therefore tries to seek answers to
Dr. Binayak Choudhury infrastructural base is not only these queries by referring to the
(binayak@spabhopal.ac.in) is Profes- critical to urban living, it is equally scope of different urban
sor and Head in the Department of crucial to infuse and sustain the development programmes and
Planning at School of Planning and urban growth momentum. Urban urban management tools across the
Architecture, Bhopal. North East has been a new entrant urban North East.
METhodology having their settlements receiving the reason behind the quantum
an urban status. e growth in the jump in the urbanization level of
e present paper begins with an urbanization level across the north Arunachal Pradesh during the
analysis of the urbanization pattern eastern states could be traced back decade of 1981 – 1991 and 1991 –
of the north eastern states. It is then to three time periods – post 2001 has been due to its attaining
followed by an examination of the independence period (1950 –1970), full statehood in 1987. With the
level of urban services,- state wise post Statehood period(creation of natural increase in urban
and then by a reference to the urban independent states by bifurcating population slowing down and the
governance system across the north Assam), post liberalisation period urban pull factor getting weakened,
eastern states. e emerging tools in (1990 onwards). the plausible factor behind
urban planning and management, urbanization of NE could be the net
especially those related to e growth of urban North East, rural – urban migration.
infrastructure inance and planning since 1971 could be discerned from
Table 1. It is seen that except e growth of towns ( Table 3 )
shall be dwelt upon thereaer. is
Manipur and Sikkim, the during the intercensal period (2001
section is followed by a reference to
urbanization level has been on a – 11) across the north eastern states
urban demographic dividend of NE
States and then by the provisions secular rise across the north eastern clearly substantiates the pace of
under different urban development states. e reason behind Manipur urbanization in North East (NE).
schemes across urban North East. experiencing a marginal fall in its e growth in the number of urban
Finally, the paper dras an agenda urbanization level during the centers have been spectacular in all
decade of 1991 – 2001 could be the the north eastern states except
towards the renewal of urban North
stagnating urban economy of the Mizoram, which already has a well
East through a holistic approach.
four hill districts of Manipur. Again distributed urban spaces across the
urbANISATIoN IN NorTh
EAST – A PréCIS Table 1: urbanisation Proile of North East India
Table 2 : Projected urban Population (2026) ere has been no million plus
cities in North East as per 2011
census. Out of 468 one lakh plus
Name of the State Population in ‘000 Name of the State Population in ‘000
cities across the country, North East
Assam 6600 Mizoram 680 has only 12 cities with Assam
Arunachal Pradesh 762 Nagaland 453 having 7 out of them and rest are
Manipur 690 Sikkim 127
ive capital cities of other NE States,
except Gangtok and Itanagar
Meghalaya 678 Tripura 929
On density parameter, Manipur is
Source: Census of India, Population projection for India and States 2001 - 2026
having the highest urban density
state. Sikkim has been an exception accounts for iy three percent of with Mizoram at the bottom. It thus
in not adding a single town to its the urban population of North East, becomes clear that not a single
geography probably because its Arunachal Pradesh’s share is as low north eastern state on its own could
existing urban centres retaining the as four percent. e intercensal claim the top position on all the
growth momentum and its spatio demographic features. One
(2001 – 11) growth in the level of
economy not experiencing a may capture the salient features of
urbanization has been highest in
structural change. urban North East as follows :
Sikkim (153.43) followed by
Although Mizoram is the most Tripura (76.08) and Nagaland • Urban features not uniform
urbanized state in North East, its (67.38) while it has been lowest in across the states
contribution to the urban case of Mizoram (27.43) with • Mizoram is the most urbanized
population of North East is about Assam registering the second lowest state
seven per cent. While Assam spot (27.61).
• Absolute urban population
Table 3 : growth of urban Centres Across North Eastern States highest in Assam
growth in number of Statutory and Census Towns • Urban Area largest in Assam
Name of the 2001 2011 • Decadal increase in
State Total Total urbanization level highest in
Statutory Census Statutory Census
Towns Towns Towns Towns Tripura, lowest in Mizoram
214 • Density of urban population
Assam 80 45 125 88 126
(71.2)
51
highest in Manipur and lowest
Manipur 28 5 33 28 23 in Mizoram
(54.5)
22 • Urbanisation highly concentric
Meghalaya 10 6 16 10 12
(37.5)
around the State capital
23
Mizoram 22 0 22 23 0
(4.5) Although many NE States reported
26
Nagaland 8 1 9 19 7
(188.90)
no slums in 2001 census and the
42 slum data of 2011 census not yet
Tripura 13 10 23 16 26 published, we can rely on the
(82.6)
Arunachal 27 Report of the Committee on Slum
0 17 17 26 1
Pradesh (58.8) Statistics of Registrar General of
Sikkim 8 1 9 8 1 9(0.0) India (RGI), which has projected
Source: TCPO, Ministry of Urban Development, Govt of India, 2012
the slum population till 2017. It is
N.B.: Figures in parentheses indicate the percentage growth in the number of towns across NE States evident from Table 4 that all the
eight NE States shall have a Advisory Council which looks aer e urban governance structure in
substantial number of slum the development of the area and is North East is given in Table 5.
population which calls for timely answerable to the Governor of the
intervention following a holistic State. Under the provisions of the Urban governance across North
approach. Sixth Schedule, the tribal areas in East assumes special signiicance in
the states of Assam, Meghalaya, the face of reform driven approach
Projected Slum Population Tripura and Mizoram are declared of most of the centrally sponsored
Table 4 : schemes, namely, Jawaharlal Nehru
(2017) as autonomous areas and the
development of the autonomous National Urban Renewal Mission
Name of the State Population districts rests with the Autonomous (JNNURM), Urban Infrastructure
Assam 1253798 District Councils. With the Development Scheme for Small and
Arunachal Pradesh 131494 enactment of the Seventy Fourth Medium Towns (UIDSSMT),
Manipur 78789 Constitution Amendment Act, Integrated Housing and Slum
1992 (CAA), Government of India Development Programme
Meghalaya 226415
constituted a Committee of the (IHSDP), Rajiv Awas Yojana (RAY),
Mizoram 117599 Integrated Low Cost Sanitation
Members of Parliament in 1995 to
Nagaland 89226 Scheme (ILCS). While JNNURM
settle the confusion regarding the
Sikkim 15729 applicability of provisions under takes care of the capital cities only,
Tripura 149232 CAA to the Scheduled Areas of the the rest of the programmes are
Source: Report of the Committee on Slum North East. As such, the urban meant for all statutory towns.
Statistics, RGI centres in the Scheduled Areas have
been grouped under three But despite the existence of formal
urbAN govErNANCE IN categories, viz. urban government, parastatal
agencies still trespass the domain of
NorTh EAST INdIA (i) Transitional areas having urban local bodies. Alongwith the
urban and rural character to be parastatals, several State
Historically North East India is governed by Nagar Panchayats; government departments also look
largely inhabited by numerous (ii) Larger urban centers to be aer the urban affairs as indicated
tribes, each being an atomized governed by Municipal in Table 6.
group and is characterised by a Councils; and
nearly total absence of secondary e inancial governance in the
(iii) Industrial and mining
interface with others. A major part urban governments across North
townships having a special
of the region has been categorized East has also been in totters. Rev-
character to be treated under a
as Scheduled Areas and is being enue deicit plagues almost all the
special category.
largely administered under the urban local bodies across North
special provisions of the Indian e Committee further suggested East. e dependence of urban local
Constitution. While the Fih that the Autonomous District bodies on higher level governments
Schedule of the Indian Constitution Council should have an Urban for capital expenditure is a normal
looks aer the administration and Affairs Committee to coordinate phenomenon. Most of the urban
control of the Scheduled Areas of the activities of local bodies at local bodies are yet to switch over to
Manipur, Nagaland, and Arunachal different levels for a harmonious double entry accrual based ac-
Pradesh, the Sixth Schedule of the urban development. However, the counting system and none of them
Indian Constitution takes care of implementation of the provisions publishes the balance sheet. e
the Schedule Areas of Assam, under the CAA across the north municipal iscal regime still follows
Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram. eastern states has been only the age old Annual Rental Value
Under the provisions of the Fih cosmetic by way of granting Method (ARV) for the estimation of
Schedule, the executive power of marginal iscal and functional property tax. Not only do the ULBs
the State rests with the Tribal autonomy to the urban local bodies. have a low tax base, the administration
of municipal tax is also highly lack- cieties, Neighbourhood Committees / ere is no single agency to take
adaisical across the ULBs (it is not Groups. care of respective urban services.
at all imposed in many States!). For example, in Guwahati, there are
Most of the urban services are offered urbAN INFrASTruCTurE three agencies involved in the
free. Community participation in IN NE INdIA – AN INvEN- provision of water supply and
urban governance is almost negligible, Tory drainage and two agencies for
despite the constitutional provisions of roads.
having Ward(s) Committee and the Urban infrastructure across North
mandatory requirement for Area Sab- East is not only highly deicient in It has been a sad commentary that
has and Community Development So- supply but also poor, qualitatively. none of the north eastern town has
got a sewerage network except a
Table 6 : Functional domain of urban Institutions across NE States
very small part of Guwahati. Intra
Name of the department /
city mass public transport is non -
urban functions existent in as many as six capital
institution
Permission to land use, execution of infrastructure towns (out of eight). Intermediate
Development Authority public transport, in the form low
schemes
Preparation of land use plan and zoning regulations, capacity passenger vehicles, auto
Town & Country Planning formulation, execution and evaluation of different rickshaw, cycle rickshaw etc., rules
urban development schemes the roost in intra-city commuting.
Public Works Roads, drains, bridges etc Although banking and insurance
Public Health Engineering Water supply & sanitation network is well laid across urban
Source: Tabulated by the author
North East, there has hardly been followed by Meghalaya with other to 15 – 29 age group with formal
any governmental rental housing in States having varying degrees of training is a mere 0.6 per cent. Not
the urban areas of North East. e accessibility to different services. It only this, the percentage of persons
tele-density across urban north east further reveals that water still in the 15 – 29 age group with formal
appears signiicant but power remains the irst priority in the training in the respective total
scenario offers a bleak story. e planning for the provision of urban population of NE States is also a
Alpha Wise City Vibrancy Index for services. paltry 1.4 percent against the
Guwahati prepared by Morgan country’s at 3.9 per cent. To add
Stanley corroborates the miserable urbAN dEMogrAPhIC woes to it, the share of NE States in
infrastructure scenario across the dIvIdENd oF NorTh EAST the seating capacity of ITI1 and
urban North East. ITC2 of the country is also a meager
Although the urban population of
0.5 per cent. However, the only
Table 7 : urban Amenities in North East India (2001) silver lining in this dismal scenario
is the increase in NE States’ share in
Name of Percentage Percentage Percentage Percentage the young labour force during 2006
the States distribution of distribution distribution distribution – 17 at 3.4 per cent.
household of household of household of household
having tap with no latrine with electricity with pucca Coming to the State-wise
water house percentage distribution of labour
force by sex and sector across NE
Arunachal
87.2 0.1 98.5 62 States (Table 9), it is found that NE
Pradesh
Assam 36.6 0.9 94.6 75.5 State’s share has been much below
the national average with the only
Manipur 65.6 0 99.3 29.1
exception that urban female share
Meghalaya 95.6 0.2 99.3 88.3
in other NE States is better than that
Mizoram 72 0 99.8 92.1 of the national average.
Nagaland 25.7 1.3 100 72.7
Sikkim 98.2 0 99.4 99.9 However, in this entire scenario,
Tripura 60.6 0.9 95.3 57.6
North East edge past the rest of the
country as far as educational
Source : NSS Report 535, Housing Conditions and Amenities,2008 - 09
attainment is concerned, as revealed
ere seems to be an utter lack of the respective NE States accounts in Table 10. We ind that NE States
coordination between the different for a modest proportion of their fare well as far as the number of
departments and organizations respective total population, it illiterates, having education upto
involved in the provision of urban certainly holds a key to expedite primary and below primary and
services. For example, while the and strengthen the States’ urban higher secondary and secondary
Public Health Engineering base. Given the projected aggregate level amongst the labour force is
department (PHED) provides water population in the 15 – 59 age group concerned.
in the urban areas , the urban local (Table 8) in NE States by 2017 and rENEWAl oF urbAN
body collects the water tax or assuming the urbanisation level of NorTh EAST
charges but seldom do they pay the North East at 21 per cent around
dues to PHED in time and in full. that period, we can roughly Urban development has always
e level of urban services across estimate that by 2017, there would been a cyclical phenomenon. With
the urban centers of the north be a sizable 15 million urbanites in urbanization, there has been a
eastern states, as given in Table 7, 414 urban settlements across entire spontaneous urban decline of the
reveals that Sikkim tops the list in North East. But sadly enough, the core areas because of its exploitation
the provision of services on account percentage share of NE States in the beyond the threshold limit. Urban
of water, sanitation and electricity total country population belonging North East has been no exception to
Name of Projected Projected Percentage share Percentage of State’s share in the State’s Share in
the State percentage popula- of States of per- Persons with increase in young seating capaci-
of popula- tion of 15- sons in 15-29 age Training in the labour force (15- ty in ITI and
tion in 15- 59 age group with formal Age group 29) during 2006 – ITC against
59 age group by training against (15-29) 2017 against the the country to-
group by 2017 in the country total country total tal
2017 million
Assam 65.10 21.4 0.8 1.4 4.8 0.6
Other NE
68.30 10.1 0.4 1.3 2.0 0.5
States
India 63.90 820.6 ---- 3.9 ----- -------
Source: NCEUS Report, 2009
State wise percentage distribution State wise distribution of Name of Illiterates Primary Secondary graduates
of labour force by sector and sex, labour force in million the State and and and
below higher
2005 by sector and sex, 2005 Primary Secondary above
Name of Urban Urban Urban Urban
State Male Female Male Female Assam 18.89 28.32 21.56 10.14
Assam 10.72 1.89 1.19 0.21
Other NE
Other NE 19.64 30.35 20.03 8.02
12.84 5.88 0.75 0.34 States
States
India 20.13 5.52 93.96 25.75 India 22.14 25.64 16.99 17.45
urban decline. ere had been therefore takes care of two issues – banning non conforming use; and
occasional deliberate attempt to functionality of the urban services rehabilitating the slum dwellers.
arrest this decline through urban and optimality in the use of urban
renewal. Urban decline and urban infrastructures. e road map to INFrASTruCTurE dEvEl-
renewal being the inevitable urban renewal across the urban oPMENT IN urbAN NorTh
processes, balancing factor has been settlements of NE includes – EAST
the pace of change. Urban growth making an inventory of the areas
A stream of opportunities are
infected with economic decline, needing interventions and the
physical decay and adverse social prioritization of the interventions; available before the urban
conditions leads to physical and relocating urban activities (city level governments across north east in
economic deterioration of land and functions) to ensure required the form of different urban
buildings and dilapidated services density and commensurating development schemes sponsored by
and utilities. Urban renewal is thus services; changing land use to fully the central government. It is high
the revitalization of the derelict utilize the potential land values by time that ULBs across North East
areas of an urban settlement and introducing Transferable make best of these opportunities.
consists of redevelopment or Development Rights, Land Pooling Table 11 lists the schemes available
reconstruction, rehabilitation and and Redistribution, Accommodation for urban infrastructure
conservation. Urban renewal Reservation, Incentive Zoning and development and eradication of
community into conidence; permissible from the standpoint enable an urban area to act as the
• Rain water harvesting should of disaster vulnerability; prime mover of the whole socio-
not be conined in the building • e – municipal governance and economic operational system. All
bye-laws but practised in the single window service should be the aforesaid schemes appear to be
right earnest; introduced; the enabler. But in order to reap the
• In view of very poor score against • State-wise uniform municipal fruits of these schemes, urban
Fiscal Autonomy Ratio (FAR), staffing should be ensured with North East must be courageous
Revenue Decentralization Ratio a dedicated municipal cadre; enough to undertake the reforms
(RDR) and Expenditure Decen- • Land use change should be within the given time line. If North
tralization Ratio (EDR), munic- permissible in selective cases on East has the will, the aforesaid
ipalities should be strengthened payment of heavy premium; schemes are the way. Let us
iscally by taking recourse to • Public Private Partnership(PPP) combine these two and wait for a
property tax, other civic taxes, mode should be followed in the prosperous urban North East.
user charges etc. Unit area provision of all urban services;
method should be adhered to • Infrastructure gap analysis ENd NoTES
for estimating property tax. Mu- should be meticulously done to 1
Industrial Training Institute
nicipal Tax tribunal should be assess infrastructure needs; 2
Industrial Training Centre
constituted to settle disputes; • Credit worthiness of ULBs 3
Floor Area Ratio
• Municipal accounts through should be enhanced;
4
Community Development Society
5
double entry accrual based • Municipal ombudsman should Neighbourhood Group
accounting and regular audit by be appointed for all states; 6
Neighbourhood Committee
C&AG or local audit must be • Property title certiication must
ensured; NoTES
be introduced;
• Any asset creation must be • Community participation e deprivation index {DI = 0.5 X + 0.25 (Y+Z)},
where X, Y, and Z are respectively the percentages
supported by asset management; through formal structures (area of household fetching water from a distance,
• Universalisation of urban sabhas, CDS4 , NG5 / NC6 ) must without latrine, and without drainage prepared
by Twelh Finance Commission by deriving the
services should be ensured; be ensured; distance of each State from the minimum
• Formula based grants – in – aid • Maintenance and periodic deprived state and weighing it by 2001
population. It also corroborates the
should be adhered to even if a updating of municipal data base, infrastructural backwardness of NE States.
number of NE States are following uniform format e decentralization index calculated by the
exempted from the constitution should be made mandatory for Eleventh Finance Commission also substantiates
of State Finance Commission the all the ULBs; and the poor governance infrastructure across urban
North East. No perceptible governance reform is
under Article 243 M; • Skill formation and upgradation visible to suggest any departure from the decade
• Timely utilization of fund of the vast milieu of urban gone by.
should be ensured to expedite labour force should be planned e iscal health of ULBs across North East is in
timely release of subsequent for, to cash in the demographic a wretched condition as is evident (Twelh
Finance Commission) from their revenue effort
fund besides plugging cost dividend to be had by all the NE with respect to own revenue of the respective
overrun; States by 2017. States and GSDP (net of primary sector). While
Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram draws a blank,
• GIS – MIS integration of all Assam scores a mere 0.434 and 0.374 and the
urban information should be EPIloguE rests relegated to second decimal. No iscal
ensured; reform has yet been undertaken to reverse the
situation.
• For bigger towns, additional Urban development requires
serious attention in its own right. e district infrastructure index, deined as DIIi
loor space index and = ∑wixij , where DIIi is the composite index for
Transferable Development However, urban development ought the ith infrastructure, wi is the weight assigned
Rights (TDR) may be granted, if not to be superluous. It should to the ith infrastructure and xij is the value of the
ith infrastructure for the jth district and where Kundu, Amitabh (2007), Infrastructure Financing Mohanty, P. K. (2001), Strategic Issues in
xij of equation is further deined as xij = and Emerging Pattern of Urbanisation: A Municipal Infrastructure Development,
100*(yij/yiA), where yij is the value of the ith Perspective, NIUA, New Delhi. Infrastructure Forum organised by the World
infrastructure for the jth district and yiA is the Bank at Washington D C.
value of the ith indicator for whole of North East Mathur, M. P. (2004), Municipal Finance and
calculated by the Planning Commission also Municipal Services in India: Present Status and Mohanty, P. K. (2003), Financing Urban Infrastructure:
suggest uneven position of the State across the Future Prospectus, Second International Some Innovative Practices of Resource Mobilisation,
different infrastructure although it does not Conference on Financing Municipalities & CGG Working Paper.
differentiate between urban & rural space. Sub-National Governments, Washington DC.
Nallathiga, Ramakrishna (2007), Off-budget
Mathur, O. P. and S. akur (2004), India’s
rEFErENCES Municipal Sector, A Study for the Twelh
Approaches to the Delivery of Urban Services:
the Potential of Public-Private Partnerships,
Assam Development Report 2002 , Planning Finance Commission, National Institute of
ICFAI Journal of Public Finance, Volume V (2):
Commission, Government of India. Public Finance and Policy, New Delhi.
53-64.
India Infrastructure Report 2008, Oxford Mohanty, P. K. (2000), City Development Strategy
University Press, New Delhi. and Comprehensive Municipal Reforms: e Pethe A.M. and M. Godke (2002), Funding
Kundu, A. (2005), Handbook of Urbansation in Approach of Hyderabad City in India, Asian Urban Infrastructure - From Government to
India, Oxford University Press, New Delhi. City Development Conference, Japan. Markets, Economic and Political Weekly.
hudCo AWArdS
HUDCO’s contribution as the premier appreciate sensible and sensitive design – categories - Urban Governance; Housing;
techno-inancial institution in the country not just grandeur. Urban Poverty & Infrastructure; Urban
is not limited to housing inance but For more information on Design Awards Transport; Sanitation; Environment
includes various other pertinent initiatives and copies of publication, please contact Management, Energy Conservation &
to contribute to the cause of sustainable Executive Director (DD/ URP Wing), Green Building; Urban Design & Regional
urban development. In keeping with this HUDCO, New Delhi Planning/ Inner City Revitalization &
tradition, HUDCO launched the HUDCO (designawards@hudco.org). Conservation and Disaster Preparedness,
DESIGN AWARDS and HUDCO Best Mitigation & Rehabilitation.
Practice Award. A Committee comprising of eminent
hudCo design Awards professionals with diverse background
selects the winning entries. is criterion is
e HUDCO Design Awards were
based on planning implementation/ process
launched on World Habitat Day in 2012 to
applied, innovativeness/application of
give recognition and felicitate innovative
technology, stakeholder’s participation,
ideas and initiatives that contribute to
impact, sustainability and replicability. e
making our cites inclusive, livable and
Awardee is given, a commemorative plaque,
environmentally sustainable. e award has
and a certiicate and prize money of Rs 1.00
5 categories viz. Cost Effective Rural /
Lakh (one lakh).
Urban Housing including Disaster Resistant
Housing, New and Innovative Town Design For more information and details on
Solutions / Eco-cities, Conservation of hudCo Awards for best Practices submission of Best Practices please contact
Heritage, Green Buildings and Landscape Executive Director (Training), HUDCO’s
HUDCO has institutionalized the HUDCO HSMI, New Delhi
Planning and Design. A three member
Awards for Best Practices to Improve the (edthsmi2013@gmail.com)
independent jury, consisting of an eminent
Living Environment in 2011-12. e irst
architect, a planner and a landscape e winning entries of HUDCO Design
HUDCO Best Practice Awards for the year
specialist, decides the winners. It includes a Awards and Best Practices Award are
2011-12 were presented on the HUDCO
trophy, a certiicate and prize of Rs. 4.00 compiled and published by HUDCO and
Annual Day held on 25th April 2012.
lakh (four lakh) and Rs. 2.00 lakh each for widely circulated among various
irst and second Prize winners respectively Since then every year, HUDCO has stakeholders including urban local bodies
in each category. e hallmark of the awarded many organizations for their and policy makers to inform and sensitize
HUDCO Design Awards is that through its successful initiatives and practices across them in matters of complex urban
5 categories it tries to capture the India for the improvement of living challenges and innovative solutions being
multidimensional challenges of sustainable environment. practiced across the country.
urbanization and its approach is to Entries can be submitted in the seven
is paper has estimated the urban housing (AHIP), Interest Subsidy Scheme
Arjun KumAr shortages in India in 2012 by Caste and Ethnic
for Housing the Urban Poor
group following the methodology of the
Technical Group on Urban Housing Shortage, (ISHUP) and Rajiv Awas Yojana
2012-17 (TG-12) using data from Census 2001 (RAY), etc. RAY envisages a ‘Slum-
and 2011 and NSS Housing Condition Rounds free India’ with inclusive and
unit record data 2008-09. e TG-12 estimated
equitable cities in which every
e issue of housing poverty number of urban households to be 81.35 million
and urban housing shortage to be 18.78 million citizen has access to basic civic and
and deprivation remains in 2012, majority of which belongs to social services and decent shelter. It
close to the weaker Economically Weaker Section and Low Income aims to provide the support to
Group households. Households living in
economic category such as enable states to redevelop all
congested conditions were found to be the main
EWS and LIG households as factors leading to these housing shortages. existing slums in a holistic and
Among Caste and Ethnic Groups, housing integrated way and to create new
well as caste and ethnic shortages were found high for Scheduled Caste affordable housing stock.
groups. Among caste and households as compared to Scheduled Tribe and
Other households. Results suggest the need for
ethnic groups, SC attention on urban housing with targeted group
e Technical Group on Urban
households were found to speciic policies (economic and social), to Housing Shortage, 2012-17 (TG-12)
have high urban housing
eradicate shelter deprivation and enhancement constituted by the Ministry of
of the quality of life in urban India. Housing and Urban Poverty
shortages as compared to
Alleviation, Government of India
ST and Other households. INTRODUCTION has estimated the urban housing
Several policies and programmes shortages for 2012 to be 18.78
are being implemented in urban million, out of which 95.62 per cent
Keywords: Urban Housing, Housing Shortages, Right India to tackle the housing problem pertains to economically weaker
to Shelter, Quality of Life, Twelve Five Year Plan, Rajiv
Awaas Yojana, Economic Category, Caste, Ethnicity with the mission of providing sections and low income groups of
affordable housing for all, especially the society. ese shortages were
shelter and basic services to all arrived at by putting together
Shri Arjun Kumar slum-dwellers and urban poor such factors such as excess of households
(arjun40_ssf@jnu.ac.in) is a Doctoral as National Urban Housing and over housing stock, household
Fellow at Indian Council of Social Sci- Habitat Policy 2007, Jawaharlal living in congested conditions, non-
ence Research and PhD Scholar (Eco-
Nehru National Urban Renewal serviceable temporary houses,
nomics) at Centre for the Study of
Regional Development, Jawaharlal Mission (JNNURM), Affordable obsolete houses and households
Nehru University, New Delhi. Housing in Partnership Scheme living in homeless conditions.
Micro level studies have shown that areas were 110.1 million of which
the Scheduled Castes have e Twelh Plan recognises the 11.1 million were vacant and
experienced caste-based inclusive growth approach as the another 0.7 million were occupied
discrimination in accessing basic means to an end that would but kept as locked. ere were 76.1
public services and common public demand outcomes which yield million houses used for only
resources. e failure of beneits for all and particularly to residential purposes and 2.4 million
entitlements due to caste based the marginalised sections of society houses used for residential-cum-
exclusion is signiicant. is calls (orat & Dubey, 2012). As per the other uses, the two together giving
for corrective measures preferably Approach Paper of the Planning the housing stock3 of 78.5 million.
through legal procedures, to bring Commission, “inclusive growth ere were 78.9 million
about equality across social groups should result in lower incidence of households4 (excluding
5
in all the spheres. Fighting poverty, improvement in health institutional households). e
discrimination calls for additional outcomes, universal access to growth rates of housing stocks were
policies, complementing anti- school education, increased access found to be higher than households,
poverty and economic development to higher education, including skill which resulted in narrowing the gap
programmes. ‘Inclusive policies’ and education, better opportunities between households and housing
must include interventions and for both wage employment and stocks over the period of time and
positive steps to overcome social livelihoods and improvement in eased the housing situation.
exclusion and discrimination in provision of basic amenities like
water, electricity, roads, sanitation ere has been a massive rise of 4.6
various market and non-market
and housing. Particular attention million vacant census houses, from
institutions from where people
needs to be paid to the needs of the 6.5 million in 2001 to 11.1 million
access source of livelihood and
SC, ST and OBC population, in 2011 (Table 1). e TG-12 noted
social needs (orat & Sabharwal,
women and children as also that- “Applying the proportion of
2011).
minorities and other excluded 79.82 per cent of urban houses used
groups” (Planning Commission, for residential purposes (excluding
e insights from the experience of 2011). the locked and vacant houses) as
poverty and consumption per Census 2011, it can be inferred
expenditure changes during the is paper estimates the urban that around 9.43 million residential
periods 1994-2005 to 2005-10, housing shortages in India in 2012 units were lying physically
particularly during the latter period, by caste and ethnic group (social unutilized that could meet a large
need to be kept in mind in groups1) following the part of housing needs.” However,
developing a pro-poor inclusive methodology of TG-12, using data the TG-12 categorically stated the
growth strategy during the Twelh from Census 2001 and 2011 and unavailability of information
Plan. e results imply that a broad- NSS Housing Condition Rounds pertaining to the characteristics of
based pro-poor policy needs to be unit record data 2008-09. these vacant and locked houses
supplemented by group speciic such as size, physical conditions,
policy (social, religious and URBAN HOUSING SHORT- reason for the non-occupancy and
economic groups) and this must be AGES – 2012 AS PER TG-12 being locked.
made an integral part of the overall
planning strategy (orat & Dubey, As per the Census 2011, the total e increase in the number of
2012). number of Census houses2 in urban households is understandably due
Table 1 : Levels and Changes in the Census Houses and Households in Urban India during 2001 and 2011
requiring new houses; and (d) 7.47 million by TG-11 in 2007, 80 per cent of the households have
homeless condition. e excess of whereas this gap reduced to 0.4 expenditure equal to or below the
households (that do not include million in 2011 which has eased the LIG category. According to TG-12,
homeless) over housing stock has housing situation. us, TG-12 did the households from EWS, LIG,
been marginal in 2011 and the gap not incorporate this factor in the middle and high income group
was found to be narrowing over
time as discussed before. us, the Summary of Households having Housing Shortages in Urban India,
TG-12 has not incorporated excess Table 2 : 2012 by the Technical Group on Urban Housing Shortage (TG-12)
(2012-17)
of households over housing stock
while estimating the housing Shortage (in millions)
shortage and also added that this Total Households 81.35
phenomenon may not be Households living in Non-Serviceable
0.99
considered as housing shortage. Katcha/Temporary Houses
With regard to estimation of Households living in Obsolescent houses (excluding
2.27
houseless condition, the TG-12 non-serviceable katcha/ temporary houses)
Households living in Congested houses requiring new
considered that half of the total 14.99
houses
homeless population of 0.8 million, Homeless Households 0.53
as per Census 2011, were single Total Housing Shortages 18.78
migrants whereas the other half had Source: e Technical Group on Urban Housing Shortage (TG-12) (2012-17), Ministry of Housing and
an average household size of 3. By Urban Poverty Alleviation, Government of India
this estimate, the housing need for
the homeless should be roughly 0.4 estimation of urban housing category accounted for 56.18 per
million for single male migrants shortages in 2012. cent, 39.44 per cent and 4.38 per
and 0.13 million for those with cent respectively of the total
families, taking the total to 0.53 URBAN HOUSING SHORT- estimated urban housing shortage.
million in 2012. AGES – 2012 BY ECONOMIC ese igures were arrived at by the
CATEGORIES estimation of total housing shortage
e total urban housing shortage in in 2012 by consumption
2012 was estimated to be 18.78 e classiication of various expenditure deciles classes using
million, out of which 5 per cent, 12 economic category households such NSS 65th Round (housing condition
per cent, 80 per cent and 3 per cent as economically weaker section round) for 2008-09.
were on the account of households (EWS), low income group (LIG),
living in non-serviceable temporary middle and high income group ESTIMATION OF URBAN
houses, obsolete houses, congestion were based on household income HOUSING SHORTAGES –
conditions and homeless conditions criteria prevalent in 2012. EWS 2012 BY CASTE AND
respectively (Table-2). e urban households are those with income ETHNIC GROUPS
housing shortage in 2007 was up to Rupees 5000 per month and
estimated at 24.71 million by TG- LIG households are those with e shares of households in urban
11. ere was decline of almost 6 income between Rupees 5000 and India during 2011 were 4.04 per
million housing shortage between 10000 per month. e TG-12 using cent, 14.34 per cent and 81.62 per
2007 and 2011. is was mainly on the consumption expenditure data cent for STs, SCs and Others
account of excess of households from NSS 66th Round for 2009-10, respectively (Table 3). Out of 81.35
over housing stock which narrowed found that EWS category million estimated urban households
over time. e excess of households households comprise one third of in 2012, the number of estimated
over housing stock was estimated at the households in urban area and
ST SC Others Total
Households living in 40-80 years old dwelling unit having bad condition of structure of the
house excluding non-serviceable temporary/katcha houses during 2008-09 1.11 1.72 1.34 1.39
(as proportion of households in %)
Households living in 80 and more years old dwelling unit excluding non-serviceable
0.53 0.95 1.55 1.43
temporary/katcha houses during 2008-09 (as proportion of households in %)
Summary of Process of Estimating Households living in Congestion and requiring a New Dwelling Unit
Table 6 :
across Social Groups in Urban India during 2012 (in millions)
ST SC Others Total
Estimation of Households requiring a separate dwelling unit to take care of congestion in
C 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
non-serviceable katcha/temporary houses during 2008-09
B + C Dwelling units required on account of Congestion during 2008-09 0.37 2.62 9.86 12.85
No. of households with married couple not having a separate room, living in bad
D structures aged 40-80 years excluding non-serviceable katcha/temporary houses 0.01 0.06 0.28 0.34
during 2008-09
No. of households with married couple not having a separate room, living in 80 year
E 0.00 0.02 0.25 0.27
old houses excluding non-serviceable katcha/ temporary houses during 2008-09
2
compared to ST and Other 'House' was deined 'as a building or part of a REFERENCES
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were also found lagging in the Used or recognised as a separate unit. It may Census Houses, Household Amenities and
be inhabited or vacant. It may be used for a Assets, 2011, Registrar General and Census
attainment of housing amenities as Commissioner, India, Ministry of Home
residential or non-residential purpose or both'.
compared to Other households. 3
Housing Stocks includes occupied census
Affairs, New Delhi.
is calls for the need of houses used as residential and residential cum Kumar, Arjun (2013), "Access to Basic Amenities
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4 Ethnicity, Religion, Livelihood Categories and
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normally live together and take their meals Poverty in Various Class Sizes of Towns and
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TG-12 such as declaration of A group of unrelated persons who live in an Rural and Urban India—1993 to 2008–2009”,
institution and take their meals from a Journal of Land and Rural Studies, January
housing to be made part of common kitchen is called an Institutional 2014, Vol. 2, No. 1, pages 127-148, Sage
infrastructure sector or declared to Household. Examples of Institutional Publication.
Households are boarding houses, messes,
be an industry (so that it is possible hostels, hotels, rescue homes, jails, ashrams, Kundu, Amitabh (2006): “Trends and Patterns of
to incentivise the construction orphanages, etc. Urbanisation and their Economic Implication”
6 (Chapter 2) in India Infrastructure Report on
activities to deliver an appropriate An urban agglomeration is a continuous urban
Urban Infrastructure 2006 by Infrastructure
spread constituting a town and its adjoining
mix of dwelling units to meet the outgrowths (OGs), or two or more physically
Development Finance Company, Oxford
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contiguous towns together with or without
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Agglomeration must consist of at least a of Urban Growth”, Economic and Political
into the housing market through statutory town and its total population (i.e. all Weekly, Vol - XLVI No. 20, May 14, 2011.
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less than 20,000 as per the 2001 Census. In Kundu, Debolina, and Dibyendu Samanta,
create extra space or build extra varying local conditions, there were similar (2011), “Redeining the Inclusive Urban
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urban agglomerations satisfying the basic Weekly, Vol - XLVI No. 05, January 29, 2011.
agencies to tackle the problem of
condition of contiguity. Examples: Greater Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty
congestion and shi the households Mumbai UA, Delhi UA, etc. Alleviation (2007), Report of the Technical
living in houses more than 80 year 7
Katcha/Temporary Houses: Houses in which Group [11th ive year plan: 2007-12] on
old to new units, will act as both the walls and roof are made up of Estimation of Urban Housing Shortage,
materials that needs to be replaced frequently Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty
complimentary measures to reduce and made up of straw, cloth, etc (grass / straw Alleviation, National Buildings Organisation,
the estimated urban housing / leaves / reeds / bamboo, etc). Non-Serviceable Government of India, New Delhi.
shortage of 18.78 million. ese Temporary House: Temporary houses in which
wall is made of Grass, atch, Bamboo, etc. National Sample Survey Organisation (2010):
additional and alternate measures Plastic or Polythene. “Housing Condition and Amenities in India:
2008-09”, Report No 535, National Sample
will also help to achieve the targets 8
Obsolescent houses comprised of households Survey Organisation, Ministry of Statistics and
effectively and reduces dependency living in 40-80 years old dwelling units having Programme Implementation, Government of
bad conditions of structure. e TG-12
on single remedy of supply of estimated this to be 2.82% of all dwelling units.
India, New Delhi.
affordable housing by the state 9
A married couple sharing a living room with Planning Commission (2011), “Faster,
which may have concerns like high an adult is considered as congestion. is Sustainable and More Inclusive Growth: An
estimated by TG-12 to be 18.42% of the total Approach to 12th Five Year Plan”, Planning
gestation periods among others. households. Commission, Government of India, New
Measures like these would help in Delhi.
the attainment of the Twelh Five ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS orat, Sukhadeo and Nidhi S. Sabharwal (2011),
Year Plan’s objective of ‘Faster, “Social Exclusion and Commons” in
is paper is an abridged version of a research “Vocabulary of Commons” book by
Sustainable and More Inclusive Foundation for Ecological Security, printed at
study undertaken by Indian Institute of Dalit
Growth’ in urban India. Studies under ink Tank Initiative program,
WQ Judge Press, Bangalore, India.
IDRC. e author would like to acknowledge orat, Sukhdeo and Amaresh Dubey (2012),
NOTES Prof. Amitabh Kundu, Prof. Sukhadeo orat, “Has Growth Been Socially Inclusive during
1 1993-94 – 2009-10?”, Economic and Political
Scheduled Tribes (STs), Scheduled Castes (SCs) P.C. Mohanan and IIDS Research team for their
and Others. helpful comments. Weekly, Vol - XLVII No. 10, March 10, 2012.
Amidst a milieu of burgeoning socio-legal e Shelter is housed in a Kolkata e shelter is managed as per the
concerns and interventions for ‘Homeless’ Municipal Corporation owned building, in institutional norms of the ‘Scheme of
in India, the ‘CSR and Sustainability Policy’ the southern end of KMC area. It is set off Shelter for Homeless’ of the West Bengal
of HUDCO appreciably enlists among other from the main Chetla Hat road and has a Government. e NGO has a team of 42
activity thrust areas, the following: walled boundary, hence ideally suited to the regular and 6 consulting officials including
‘Initiatives for slum redevelopment shelter type. e building was originally social workers, medical and paramedical
including environmental improvement in meant to be a ‘vagrant home’ under the personnel especially in the area of mental
low income habitats, sanitation West Bengal Vagrancy Act. It’s a Ground +1 health. A seven member Board involving
infrastructure and support; Projects of RCC structure; the shelter operates only on doctors and paramedical professionals are
day/night shelters, children homes, senior the ground loor. ere are clear spatial at the helm of running the Shelter. e
citizens/poor citizens home etc. and to units for rest and sleep; for psycho-social shelter has enabled mentally ill homeless
provide support for the projects of barrier recovery activities; livelihood activities; women to shi from being treated as ‘law
free amenities/accessible facilities for doctors’ unit; Special Care unit, breakers’ and arrested under the Anti-
physically challenged as well as to provide administrative unit; Community Kitchen, Beggary Act to people who need care; need
equipment for support’. HUDCO has verandahs and an open courtyard. e a place to heal from the wounds inlicted by
extended grant assistance to several Urban NGO runs a community-based outreach family, state and society and a place that
Local Bodies (ULBs) for construction of program called ‘Naya Daur’ for homeless would enable them to redeine their
Night Shelters/ Shelter facilities, besides persons with psycho-social disability within identity, ind new skills and start rebuilding
undertaking activities like supporting skill the Kolkata metropolitan area. e ield life.
building initiatives, construction of Pay & officials bring mentally ill destitute women
Use toilets and health care needs like to the shelter for rehabilitation, resettlement It is herein accentuated for readers to
purchase of ambulance, under its “CSR and and restitution. Initially when a woman is internalise that ‘Night Shelters’ or ‘Shelters for
sustainability policy”. identiied as homeless and having mental homeless’ are more than places for the
SARBARI, 19 B, Chetla Hat Road, illness through the Outreach program or homeless people to rest in the night. ere are
Ward No. 82, Kolkata through Kolkata Police and consequently several causes and conditions that
agrees to be brought in the shelter, the characterise ‘homelessness’, hence there are
‘Sarbari’, is a shelter for Homeless and primary emphasis is on basic hygiene,
mentally ill women run by ISHWAR ‘homeless types’. Homeless people may be
physical and mental health care and young or old, men or women, families or
SHANKALP, an NGO working with symptom reduction. Once the women
homeless and mental health in the Kolkata destitute, orphans or run-away kids, able
become stable and functional, they are bodied or inirm, beggars or workers and
metropolitan area. e institution was born gradually involved in the routine household
in April 2010, propelled with the realisation migrants or natives. Homelessness may be
activities of the shelter which act as basic life transient or perpetual. Each homeless type
that homeless women with mental illness skill therapies. Counsellors and therapists
who live on the streets are extremely has associated conditions and concomitant
identify their interest and aptitude and relief, recovery or rehabilitation needs.
vulnerable to different kinds of abuses: the accordingly occupational and vocational
gang-rape of a homeless woman in the city erefore every project intervention to
therapy training programs begin. Having address ‘homelessness’ must take the inherent
who was under the NGO’s treatment for identiied their employment options, effort
mental health and was recovering, was the heterogeneity of the homeless population
is made to resettle the women for self- construct as their point of departure’ and
catalyst owing to her recovery from mental sustenance. Wherever possible, they are
illness and consequential improved create and nurture institutional mechanisms
restored back to their families of origin. for meaningful outreach, this of-course leaves
hygiene and physical appearance, ironically Women leave the shelter only aer they are
she became more susceptible to the the debate of structural frameworks within
restored or rehabilitated. From the year which ‘Homelessness’ posits and perpetuates.
incidence of rape. e subsequent ‘Shelter 2012-13, the Shelter is also emphasizing on
for Urban Homeless’ scheme of West Bengal providing entitlements to the residents. Documented by Sangeeta Maunav, Senior
and grant assistance from HUDCO to Several bank accounts have been opened. Manager, HUDCO’s Human Settlement
renovate the shelter building has been more e process of applying for UID cards has Management Institute, New Delhi
than enabling. begun.
Urban poor are deprived of basic necessities of cities are now becoming incapable
Ankit kAthuriA life like secure housing, livelihood and easy
of meeting the requirements of
access to adequate health facilities. eir
Prof. M. PAridA mobility needs have to be evidently understood these migrants and hence
so that they don't spend more on travel than increasing the difficulty level for
what they can afford. In past years many new urban poor to survive in cities.
initiatives towards public transportation have
e challenge is to frame a been taken, but a study by UNEP has revealed According to World bank, urban
that these initiatives have not been able to meet
transport policy to fulil the needs of the urban poor. erefore, it's a poor is a person or a family who is
mass mobility needs, challenge now for the decision makers to frame "deprived of employment
a transport policy that is able to fulil the mass opportunity, income, inadequate
keeping in mind the large mobility needs of riders who constitute this
and insecure housing and services,
vulnerable group. Few issues that should be kept
share of riders who are in mind while attempting policy formulation, to little or no social protection
urban poor. For this, maintain a trade-off between transport policies mechanism and limited access to
and urban mobility needs are: irstly, adequate health and education
relationship between implementing a differential fare structure so
facility". e urban poor are most
that urban poor can afford the transportation
transport infrastructure and cost. Secondly, resettlement of this group along vulnerable and susceptible to
transit corridors will help by increasing the various risks like rise in fuel price,
urban poor has to be clearly accessibility to transit systems. Further, strong
implementation of national urban transport rise in public transit fare, etc., which
understood as to how policy will make the transport system socially make it difficult for them to access
people are getting affected inclusive and equitable. Finally, providing good public transport, thereby affecting
pedestrian facilities to access the public transit
their employment opportunity.
by a lack of access to system will help in increasing the ridership by
reducing the overall travel cost.
transport services and what e challenge to the decision
INTRODUCTION makers now is to frame a transport
makes them likely to fall policy to fulil mass mobility needs,
into “transport poverty”. Indian cities are in the midst of a keeping in mind the large share of
considerable wave of urbanization riders who are urban poor. For this,
as approximately 10 million people relationship between transport
Shri Ankit Kathuria move to towns and cities in India in infrastructure and urban poor has
(writetokathuria@gmail.com) is a Doc- search of jobs and opportunities to be clearly understood as to how
toral student in Transportation Engi- according to the World Bank people are getting affected by a lack
neering Group, Department of Civil overview 2013. ese people of access to transport services and
Engineering, Indian Institute of Tech- moving into cities require shelter to what makes them likely to fall into
nology Roorkee & Prof. M. Parida is live and also fast and cheap transit “transport poverty”. Transport
Professor in Civil Engineering & Head, system to access jobs. e physical poverty is reached when a
Centre for Transportation Systems at In-
infrastructure services like water, household is forced to pay more in
dian Institute of Technology Roorkee.
sanitation and public transport in travel costs than it can reasonably
afford. For example, the poor are transportation. understand where, why and how
generally rehabilitated on the these squatter settlements occur.
Following results were claimed by
outskirts of cities, thus increasing e old and run-down conditions
the Report aer a survey of 580 low
their cost on travel. ey rely on of houses in the inner city areas
income household in Ahmedabad
private vehicles, which again means compel and pull the urban poor to
(Table-1):
that lower income groups and rent them out. From herein the
urban poor spend more time on
travel, than other income groups. Table 1 : Implication of lack of affordable travel choice in Ahmedabad
persist, are still not served by proper fare structure with variable rates. In more parameters are listed in Table-
transit services hence causing a some countries differential fare 2.
mobility issue to the urban poor3. structure is seen on the basis of
Resettlement of urban poor along
distance of travel or time of day in
Urban sprawl, urban poor and Transit Corridors
which a person is travelling. On the
public transport aforesaid fare structure an To increase the mobility of urban
innovation can be worked out by poor, rehabilitation of poor should
e expansion of the urban areas
and the multiple facilities it has to Table 2 : Different types of differential fare structures in world
offer, is a very alluring affair for the
rural masses. ese rural masses
migrate into the urban areas and ill Continent Country System Variable Fare system
into the little gaps and cavities of the Asia
Hong Kong,
Hong Kong (MTR) Distance based
intricate urban fabric, making it all China
the more complex. is migrant Asia Japan Tokyo Metro Distance based
population forms the urban poor
Asia Singapore Singapore (SMRT) Distance based
segment of the society. For them
travel to different parts of a city, Europe Great Britain London Underground Zone based
looking for opportunities of North
USA Amtrak Distance & demand based
livelihood, reinforces the fact that America
city needs to provide transportation North Greater Seattle Area (King
USA Zone and peak based
America County Metro)
facility, which is affordable. e
reason why public transit should be North Puget Sound Region
USA Zone & distance based
America (Sound Transit)
encouraged is because it supports
accessibility to the important civic Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/, retrieved on 28th August 2014
services like education and health.
Restriction to mobility tends to linking the fare structure to the take place along transit corridors, so
limit the job opportunities to urban economic status of the person. An as to increase their accessibility to
poor and hence they tend to resettle innovative way to achieve a good the public transit modes. It can be
themselves around job centres, even fare structure is by carrying out a included as a policy initiative under
in slums or dilapidated housing. reliable life cycle analysis of "transit oriented development
different transport systems and then (TOD)". On the other hand
Strategies to maintain a trade-off testing various policy options,
between urban poor mobility and wherever space permits, the transit
considering different fare corridors should be planned in a
policies structures. way that it becomes more accessible
Society needs a socially equitable to the urban poor living in squatter
growth, which can be achieved by Differential fare structure is more
settlements. Integrated land-use
including the growth of urban poor complicated than the conventional
planning and TOD should go hand
in the economic structure. A trade- lat fare system but with the
in hand. Cities like Guatemala,
off between urban poor mobility upcoming of smart card like
Curitiba in Brazil and Arlington
and transport policy can be "MORE- India's common mobility
County, Virginia are examples of
achieved by the following policy card", it will be easier to implement.
good TODs.
initiatives: Few examples of countries
A report on "Working Group on
Differential fare structure: A implementing differential fare
Urban Strategic Planning-2011" by
model can be developed to form a structure on the basis of one or
e National Sample Survey Office (NSSO), slums, 40% were estimated to be • e phenomenon of absence of
Ministry of Statistics and Programme present in Maharashtra and 9% each in electricity in slums appeared to be
Implementation has released the key Gujarat and West Bengal. largely conined to non-notiied slums.
indicators of urban slums in India, At all-India level only 6.5% of all slums
generated from the data collected in its 69th Average Slum Size had no electricity – the corresponding
Round survey during July 2012 to • At the all-India level the average slum igures being 11% for non-notiied
December 2012. e last survey on slums size was estimated at 263 households. slums but only 0.1% for notiied slums.
was conducted as part of the 65th Round of e average notiied slum had 404
NSS (July 2008- June 2009). Some of the • In about 66% of all slums, the road
households and the average non- within the slum used by the dwellers as
salient indings of the survey are as follows: notiied slum had only 165. main thoroughfare was a pucca road.
Number of Slums • For notiied and non-notiied slums e proportion was 83% for notiied
taken together, average slum size was slums and 55% for non-notiied slums.
• A total of 33,510 slums were estimated highest in Maharashtra (433), followed
to be present in the urban areas of by Karnataka (392) and Andhra • At the all-India level 31% of slums had
India. About 41% of these were notiied Pradesh (352). no latrine facility, the igure being 42%
and 59% non-notiied. for non-notiied and 16% for notiied
• State-level average slum sizes of notiied slums.
• Maharashtra, with an estimated 7723 slums varied widely. For Maharashtra
slums, accounted for about 23% of all the average was over 1000 households • About 31% of all slums had no drainage
slums in urban India, followed by whereas for Chhattisgarh, it was only facility – the igure being considerably
Andhra Pradesh, accounting for 13.5%, 84. higher for non-notiied slums (45%)
and West Bengal, which had a share of than for notiied slums (11%).
about 12%. • About 56% of slums in the million-plus
cities and 58% of those in other urban • At the all-India level, 27% of all slums
• Of the 19,749 non-notiied slums areas had less than 150 households.
estimated to exist in urban India, had no garbage disposal arrangement –
Maharashtra accounted for about 29%, • About three-quarters of non-notiied the igures being about 38% for non-
West Bengal for about 14%, and Gujarat slums (77% in the million-plus cities notiied slums and about 11% for
for about 10%. and 74% in other urban areas) had less notiied slums.
than 150 households. About 40% of the • In an estimated 32% of all slums, the
• Out of an estimated 13,761 notiied notiied slums, both in million– plus
slums in urban India, Andhra Pradesh approach road to the slum usually
cities and also in other urban areas, had remained waterlogged due to rainfall.
had about 23%, Maharashtra about 150-450 households.
14%, and Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal e igure was 35% for notiied slums
and Tamil Nadu about 9% each. and 29% for non-notiied slums.
Characteristics of Slums
Number of Slum Households • At the all-India level 24% of slums
• At all-India level 44% of slums – 48% of beneited from welfare schemes such as
• An estimated 8.8 million households notiied slums and 41% of non-notiied Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban
lived in urban slums, about 5.6 million slums – were located on private land. Renewal Mission (JNNURM), Rajiv
in notiied and 3.2 million in non- Awas Yojana (RAY), or any other
notiied slums. • In about 60% of all slums, the majority
of houses had pucca structures. e schemes run by the central government
• e notiied slums formed 41% of all proportion of such slums was 85% or state government or any local body.
slums but housed 63% of all slum- among notiied slums but only 42% of e proportion beneiting from such
dwelling households in India. non-notiied slums. schemes was 32% among notiied and
18% among non-notiied slums.
• As many as 38% of slum households of • Tap water was the major source of
urban India were estimated to be living drinking water in 71% of all slums at the Compiled by Akash Sharma, Research
in Maharashtra, and 18% in Andhra all India level. e igure was 82% in Associate, HUDCO’s Human Settlement
Pradesh. notiied slums and 64% in non-notiied Management Institute, New Delhi.
• Of slum households in non-notiied slums.
as a whole’ (CRRID, 1999). from legal housing and near the Defence Area/ Army
According to Kalia (1987) ‘a major employment. Kalia (1987) has Transit Camp and in close
factor contributing to the growth of highlighted that ‘Chandigarh’s proximity to the Industrial Area,
unauthorized squatter colonies in planners had paid little attention to Phase II (Refer Picture-1). e
Chandigarh was the city’s poor urban labour and had discouraged colony was rehabilitated in two
economic base. e informal activities’. In 1971, 11 per stages, irst in 1974 and second in
administration’s efforts at providing cent of the population was living in 1979. ere were about 1,500
housing failed to keep pace with the partially or totally illegal houses in Phase-I and 2,500 houses
phenomenal growth rate of the city. settlements. A recent Study by in Phase-II but number of
e administration’s efforts to solve Teotia (2013) shows the poor state households have grown
the slum problem by setting up of affairs in the context of planning considerably. e population base
transit colonies have not been for the poor in Chandigarh. e of Ramdarbar has been growing
effective because these efforts have participation of people and and in 2001 Ramdarbar had a
ignored the related issues of beneiciaries has been negligible in population of 29,384 persons
income, jobs, security of tenure, most of the housing programmes comprising of 16,833 males (57.28
land and development policy, supported by government including per cent) and 12,551 females (24.71
health and above all, education. JNNURM, leaving multiple per cent). Out of the total
Planned as transit colonies, they deiciencies in the implementation population, about 39 per cent
have acquired a permanent of initiatives for housing the urban belonged to the category of
character, but without the necessary poor. Scheduled Castes (SCs), which was
infrastructure.’ In an excellent work much higher than the city average
on ‘Urban Planning in the ird PooR envIRonmentaL of 17.28 per cent.Ramdarbar was
World: e Chandigarh Experience’, InfRastRuctuRe In short of civic infrastructure and had
Sarin (1982) describes the RamdaRbaR In PRe-InI- appalling living conditions prior to
development of the city, showing tIatIve PeRIod 1997. e parks, as the one shown
how concepts inherent in the in Picture-2, were in poor
master plan and the policies Ramdarbar, one of the oldest condition. e irst picture (far le)
pursued in its implementation not rehabilitated colonies of shows parks encroached by slum
merely ignored, but totally excluded Chandigarh, is situated in southeast dwellers. A major road adjoining
a major section of the population periphery of Chandigarh (Ward 23) the colony (picture in the centre)
Ramdarbar prior to Revitalisation Initiative From le to right. Far le: Illegal construction of slums in a
Picture 2 : park; Centre: Dumping of garbage on a major road adjoining to the colony; Far right: One of the site with
scattered garbage/ waste.
became a dumpsite for the ere were many outbreaks of by rehabilitating slum dwellers from
residents. e scenes of scattered diarrhea and malaria, resulting in Ramdarbar, shiing people with
garbage were very common (picture many deaths. ere were no domestic animals to Mauli Jagran,
in the far right) due to poor waste parking facilities and no electricity and augmentation of local
collection. But things are quite was provided in the markets of infrastructure and services. e
different now. e transformation Ramdarbar. A general view about slum rehabilitation and other
has come up with the active support the pathetic condition in the colony development initiatives garnered
of people under the dynamic was evident from the fact that considerable support of people for
leadership of the elected ward several residents used to recite other local initiatives i.e., removal of
member from this locality. e “Ram Darbar to Sirf Naam Ka Hi encroachments from parks and the
ward member was later elected as Ramdarbar Hai, Lekin Yeh Narak roads for green growth. e
Mayor of the city of Chandigarh, Ka Dwar Hai”, (Ramdarbar was message of her genuine efforts went
twice. named only for name’s sake, but to the people living in Ramdarbar
actually it is a gateway to Hell ! ). who promised to support her in
In the pre-initiative period, carrying local initiatives for
Ramdarbar was deicient in water PaRtIcIPatoRy InItIa- regeneration of environment. With
supply, sewerage, solid waste tIves foR envIRonmen- this a local champion was born to
management, roads, parking and taL RevItaLIzatIon work for the development of the
civic services like health, education local area.
etc., coupled with the e situation started changing aer
unprecedented population pressure 1997. Some of the development e Ward Councillor conducted an
of migrants. e colony received activities in Ramdarbarwere started assessment survey and discussed
negligible attention from the aer the irst elections of Municipal the priorities of people. She further
Administration for environmental Corporation of Chandigarh. e linked these improvements with the
improvement and upgradation of local Municipal Councillor, Mrs. government programmes. A brief
municipal infrastructure/services. Kamlesh was from the same locality analysis of measures initiated for
ere were about 90 parks/ open and fully conversant with its urban environmental revitalization
spaces planned in Phase-I and II, problems. She initiated several in Ramdarbar has been discussed
but in actual these spaces were development activities for below:
encroached by the residents for environmental revitalization of
rearing pigs, buffaloes, cows, goats, Ramdarbar by mobilizing local Removal of encroachments and
hens etc. Some of these places were people. e irst initiative was taken development of Parks
used by local houseless people as towards upgradation of water
temporary shelters, huts and stores supply system in the slum colony. Removal of encroachment from
for unused/old household articles. Subsequently, projects for about 90 parks was a gigantic task.
is made the colony very dirty and construction of toilets, installation e administration tried to remove
congested. Absence / poor of streetlights, etc. were taken up. encroachments by using bulldozers
conditions of services like play But the improvement in Ramdarbar but failed due to stiff opposition by
grounds, community center, was not visible and residents were the encroachers. e Councillor
dharamshala and schools was stark depressed and not coming forward along with her husband and several
in 1980s and early 1990s. People to participate. To improve situation like-minded residents started a
used to drink water collected in 4-5 and make a visible improvement, drive to convince encroachers to
feet deep pits near their houses. the Councillor started a campaign remove their encroachments
development of Parks in Ramdarbar From le to right: Far le: An encroached park; Second from le:
Picture 3 : beginning of removal of encroachments; ird from le: Local people working for development of a park;
Far right: A fully developed lush green park.
willingly. ey contacted each Councillor also got the local between Ramdarbar and Industrial
household and persuaded them for dharamshala vacated from the Area Phase-II. It acted as a virtual
removing encroachments. In unauthorised possession of Central dumping ground for industrial/
several cases when male head of the Reserve Police Force (CRPF) and factory waste. e place used to
household was not convinced, the got it repaired, so that it can be used stink due to decay of garbage and
female counterparts were by local residents for organising accumulation of ilthy water. It was
approached for the purpose. e their social functions. also a health hazard for Ramdarbar
result was that residents, led by and the community living in nearby
Plantation and Greening of areas. Taking cognizance of this
women, came forward and
built-up area problem the Ward Councillor, with
voluntarily removed their
encroachments. is changed the e local Ward Councillor, Mrs. a team of local residents, met the
face of the colony and Ramdarbar then Advisor of the Union
Kamlesh took the challenge of
Territory, Chandigarh, with a
got back its breathing space (see the bringing greenery to Ramdarbar on
proposal to develop this land as a
transition of an encroached park in the lines of Chandigarh. She
green area. e Administration
Picture-3). mobilized local community for an
initially had reservations to convert
extensive plantation drive. e irst
prime land into the green area. But
Residents of the area contributed plantation drive was started from aer a lot of persuasion and
towards construction of boundary the local dharamshala. Next target pressure of local residents, it was
walls and railings of the parks. was the local government school of clariied that being in close
Councillor sourced the balance Ramdarbar, where about 200 plants proximity to the air force station no
inances from Councillor‘s Ward were planted. en about 250 plants construction can be done on this
Development Fund and MP’s were planted in the Government land and the only option is to plant
Constituency Development Fund. Model Senior Secondary School trees and keep this area green and
About 90 parks have been and thousands of plants were also free from future
developed in Ramdarbar which has planted in all the 90 parks of encroachments, by the slum
enhanced greenery and beauty in Ramdarbar. dwellers. e Government
the area. Similarly, people removed supported this idea and instructed
encroachments voluntarily from use of derelict Land the forest department to take
their houses on repeated appeal of possession of this land and plant
the Councillor, which resulted in A large parcel of land was lying trees. e forest department planted
widening of streets and roads. e unused in the area sandwiched about 20,000 trees in the vacant
development of Greens in vacant Land From le to right: Far le: UT Advisor and Local Ward Councillor
Picture 4 : planting trees on vacant land; Second from le: Enhanced greenery on vacant land; ird from le: A green
park; Far right: Children playing in the park.
land, resulting in further value door to door Waste collection MSC recruited 32 part time sanitary
addition to the green initiatives of workers and 4 supervisors for the
e work of garbage collection was
Ramdarbar and its people (Picture- work of collection and segregation
contracted out to a private
4 shows enhanced greenery on of household waste from
contractor but the services were
vacant land). Ramdarbar itself. Of the total staff
inadequate and residents were
strength, half of the workers were
development of cactus Park dissatisied. e Ward Councillor
female. Municipal Corporation of
took the challenge to improve this
Another dirty and ilthy land parcel Chandigarh (MCC) extended
service and met the municipal
adjoining Ramdarbar has been inancial support of Rs.1,500/- per
officials several times but nothing
transformed into a Cactus Park employee through MSC constituted
concrete was done and deiciencies
(Picture-5). e area where people for the purpose and another Rs 500
in sanitation activities continued.
used to throw garbage and debris, is per employee was contributed by
She then prepared an action plan
today one of the most beautiful the residents in the form of monthly
and met the Commissioner for
parks of Chandigarh and many user charge. Initially, collection of
support to the idea of undertaking
people come here for a walk. It has user charge from the residents was
sanitary work in Ramdarbar, with
become a centre of attraction not a difficult task but aer getting
the help of locally employed male
only for the residents of Ramdarbar convinced about the beneits, the
and female sanitary workers. e
but also for outside visitors. A visit Councillor could make them agree
Commissioner agreed and a Society
to this park by UT Advisor and to participate in this process. To
with the name Mohalla Sudhar
Commissioner le them impressed purchase essential equipment and
Committee (MSC) was constituted
and they praised the efforts of the manual-carts etc. required for the
for the purpose of undertaking
Ward Councillor and residents of purpose of collection and
sanitation related works in
Ramdarbar.
Ramdarbar. transportation of waste/garbage and
to provide sanitation services, MCC
agreed to pay a grant of Rs. 51,000/-
per annum. Since this amount was
also inadequate to meet the
expenses on sanitation work, it was
decided to collect an additional
amount of Rs. 10/- per household
per month. e work of door to
cactus Park in Ramdarbar Le: Before initiative; Right: Aer door household waste collection
Picture 5 :
initiative.
newpaper clippings on Ramdarbar From le to right: Far le: Showing voluntary initiatives by people for
removal of encroachments; Second from le: Residents of Ramdarbar show MC the way; ird from le:
Picture 7 :
MSC makes Ramdarbar from Hell to Heaven; Far right: Author in a separate study highlights Ramdarbar as
model of urban regeneration.
encroached and polluted habitation Teotia, Manoj Kumar (2013), Planning for the
distribution of resources from MCC
Urban Poor in Northwestern India: Emerging
and Chandigarh Administration. to open, clean and green settlement. Policies, Practices and Issues (A Case Study of
e environmental infrastructure of Chandigarh), an Unpublished report carried
e environmental condition in under HUDCO Research Grant: Chandigarh
the colony has improved CRRID.
Ramdarbar has improved considerably aer voluntary ----------------------- (2003) Urban Regeneration
considerably. e colony has removal of encroachments, through Environmental Revitalization in
Rehabilitated Colonies of Chandigarh: Ram
virtually been transformed from development of 90 parks, plantation Darbar Shows the Way, an unpublished report,
‘Narak ka dwar! (Gateway to Hell!) drives and the neighborhood Chandigarh: CRRID.
WhiSpeRS to voiceS
Meeting the Aspirations of Slum Communities
December 2013. the engineering standards and pose strong ties with location, which
risk to the nearby structures. bring a sense of security, and unites
Savda Ghevra, Delhi them to ight for a common cause.
Bawana, Delhi is sense of community feeling is
Savda Ghevra (SG) was developed missing in the relocated sites.
by the Delhi Urban Shelter Bawana, located about 35 km Moreover, children and elderly are
Improvement Board (DUSIB), north-west of New Delhi, was unable to utilise their time
about 40 km west of New Delhi to developed by Delhi Urban Shelter productively, in the relocated
re-house the families evicted from Improvement Board (DUSIB) and pockets. Some of the issues which
slums in Lakshmi Nagar (East has two types of settlements. e emerged during interactions with
Delhi), in 2006. ere are currently irst phase started in 2004 and the community, are explained in the
about 8,500 families with 42,500 largely housed people evicted from context of the two projects:
people living in plots allotted by the Yamuna Pushta and some other
Municipal Corporation of Delhi slum settlements from north-east Savda Ghevra
(MCD). Each family was allotted a Delhi. In this phase, plots were
semi-serviced plot on the basis of given to the beneiciaries on the e process of relocation in Savda
eligibility- 18 square meters to same criteria as Savda Ghevra. e Ghevra is not complete and has
squatter families who could prove, second phase which started in 2010 been faced with lot of problems, as
on the basis of their ration and voter comprises of resettlement of people described below:
cards, to have lived in Delhi pre- from slums settlements in south • e civic services were not
1990, and 12.5 square meters to Delhi, in 1184 lats constructed as developed as per norms, thus
families possessing ration cards G+3 structures by the Delhi State causing hardship to the lives of
post January 1990 up to December Industrial and Infrastructure relocated families.
1998. Despite formal planning, the Development Corporation • e livelihood opportunities
site has not developed in a (DSIIDC). However, less than 300 had reduced aer relocation.
consistent manner–partly because lats have been occupied so far. Women in the household, girls,
the infrastructure provisioned by young boys and elderly now do
the government remains un-built or not have the opportunity to
incomplete, but also because the THE RELOCATION NIGHT- participate in income generation
relocated families have mostly built MARE activities.
the houses themselves • Water was supplied through
incrementally– a process e problems due to relocation are tankers and collection of water
characterized by individual manifested in terms of living has become a daily chore of life,
decisions. e area is characterized conditions, distance from their which results in loss of
by poor quality housing ranging place of work, if employed or livelihood/ absenteeism from
from one-storey chattai or chadar engaged in vending activities, school/ unpleasant incidents of
houses to consolidated two-level employability in the relocated site, ight for collection of water at
reinforced concrete construction, loss of income due to home based the tanker site.
built incrementally over time. is economic activities etc. e • Sanitation was through septic
process is in response to available emotional attachment and tanks and community toilets,
skills, economic capabilities, accessibility to quality civic services although open defecation also
materials and resources occurring at the previous site cannot be prevails. e condition of drains
with little or no external assistance quantiied but has a serious bearing was bad and water stagnates in
or intervention. e housing stock on the decision to relocate. Most front of houses.
thus created does not conform to oen, the community develops • ere was no system of solid
…the area is also unsecured for women
especially, for working women. Isolated
area is the threat for anyone..” Seema
working in an IT irm in North Delhi.
“Connectivity is not good. Buses are few and
overcrowded during rush hours...” a resident
from Savda Ghevra
“….the facilities are not enough and those exists, are not in good
We
condition. W e are helpless to live in this condition because no other
option is available…” owners of spice shop from SavdaGhevra
waste disposal and residents material and poor quality address the problems. e NGO
throw their waste in open land/ construction technology is used, felt the need of community
parks. as they feel that designed integration and community
• Poor street lighting and road structures are far more participation before undertaking
conditions make the area unsafe expensive. any improvement scheme. So,
aer sunset. • Moreover, incremental housing resident’s awareness workshops
• e transportation connectivity was preferred for which they were conducted and members
between Savda Ghevra and borrow money from relatives participated in these workshops to
earlier site is not good and about and private lenders at 18-20 per outline their problems, as well as
3-4 hours is spent in travelling. cent interest rate. solutions.
As a result, people have stopped • People are looking at their
commuting to the earlier site homes as an asset to contribute Bawana
regularly. to increase their income through
• Civic services like education and rental and home based economc e area had fully developed lats
health facilities are inadequate. activities. with facilities like water supply,
ere are no parks and children sewerage, electricity, drainage,
play areas and community Savda Ghevra has been able to neighbourhood park, circulation
centres in the locality. tackle many problems area and street lights. e area was
• People are constructing houses incrementally, starting with few in the neighbourhood of Bawana
without technical knowledge pockets. is has been made Industrial area, thus providing job
and through local contractor. possible with the intervention of an opportunities to the relocated
e result is unsafe NGO (CURE- Centre for Urban families in the vicinity. However,
construction, which has resulted and Regional Excellence, New the families were not able to break
in collapse of a few houses. Delhi) which started working with their linkage with the earlier
• e inferior construction the community of Savda Ghevra, to location. As a result, men travel
every day to the earlier site for empower them to negotiate with by the residents.
livelihood activities, with increased the government for their own
travel time and cost due to poor well-being. PROCESS OF TRANSFOR-
public transport connectivity. e • Education and health facilities MATION
relocated families were dissatisied are not available in the vicinity
with the project and their • Public transport is inadequate, e process of transformation is
complaints could be categorised in as a result it takes many hours to very difficult, since it’s a matter of
three categories. First, is about the reach the city centre or their uprooting people from one place
location of this project, second earlier work place. and moving them to another. Such
about the civic services and third • ere is no home based a process is accompanied with
about the quality of construction. economic activity, as a result issues like emotional attachment to
Although Bawana is within an women and elderly do not ind the area, livelihood, security,
industrial area, the members of the themselves engaged during day transportation, access to civic
relocated families do not work in time. is has reduced their services and most importantly
these industries. e reasons could monthly income. uncertainty about the proile of the
be that they do not possess required • ere is no possibility of new community.
skills or they have consolidated supplementing their income
their position in the earlier through rental or vending Today, the housing condition in
settlement. ere is very little activities. Savda Ghevra is good and physical
interaction within this community, • Boys, and in some cases both infrastructure is improving. e
probably due to the lats system, boys and girls, prefer to go with area is well connected by road and
which they are not used to. their father or parents, rather public transport is available,
than going to school. although at low frequency. People
Some of the problems pertaining to • e quality of construction in are consolidating their housing
civic services in this area are: Bawana was much better than units as per their needs. Some have
• People are not used to living in Savda Ghevra, however built G+3 structures, while others
lats, they complain of having to complains of seepage, cracks, are happy in ground loor only. But,
go up and down the stairs many minor repairs etc. were reported families feel elevated. e message
times a day.
• ere is no RWA, and since
many lats are still vacant, the
process of registering a RWA
will take some time. Once the
RWA get registered, it would
“…There I used to work but here there is no work for me.. “ a street
vendor in Bawana
being that when people get all the e NGO has shown the residents had to compromise on
basic amenities, they try to adjust as importance of empowerment in services like water supply,
per the opportunities. slum community. People are now sanitation, drainage, congestion etc,
happy living in Savda Ghevra and but beneits were rated as far higher
e community could avail these know whom to approach for compared to disadvantages, by a
facilities because they came meeting their demands. Now, they majority of residents. However, the
together as a group rather than are in a position to ask the new location was also marred by
individuals. In Bawana, the government for their rights, with problems related to inadequate
housing typology being ready to dignity. However, there are still basic services and facilities.
occupy lats, the opportunity for some problems, as mentioned
expansion was limited. Although, below: e NGO- CURE, helped RWA of
the quality of construction and • Not all households are members Savda Ghevra to systematically
infrastructure was better in Bawana to RWA, so some areas are not identify the key issues in the
but satisfaction level was low. Also, covered by the programmes resettlement colony and ind a
the opportunity for people to initiated by RWA. However, the solution to these problems within
participate in the planning of their number of members is the community itself. Tools were
own well-being was limited. increasing with time. designed to capture the voice of the
• e elderly feel that they do not community, so that subsequent
Some of the lessons from these two have any activity in this area. action is taken in the right
projects are summarised below, for • e health facilities are direction. Some of the outcomes of
taking advantage in similar projects, inadequate for the number of these interactions are given below:
in future: households.
• ere is no sports and • Water supply through tanker,
Community empowerment entertainment facility for the has been streamlined by the
and engagement youth. RWA, which has made speciic
points for parking of tankers.
Improvement in quality of From these points, water is
e irst initiative was taken by
services transported inside each lane,
formulating a Resident Welfare
through lexible plastic pipes
Association (RWA), which was
e earlier settlements from where with speciic collection points.
registered under the Societies the communities were relocated e pipes are inserted in 6
Registration Act, 1860. is had a locational advantage, in terms outlets of the tanker and these
initiative has empowered the of connectivity to schools, hospitals pipes pass through 6 different
community and elevated their and livelihood activities. Although, lanes. e access to water is thus
status as a group, which could have
access to funds earmarked under
various schemes of Government of
India and Delhi Government. e
RWA are working effectively in
many other colonies of Delhi, for
the welfare of the society. ey
provide an opportunity to interface
with the government, for the
Picture 1 : Water supply system aer community initiative
prosperity of their communities.
provided to each household counts. First, increase in collapse were reported from Savda
without much inconvenience transportation cost on livelihood Ghevra. us, some intervention in
and ight. is way people get activities, education, health etc. terms of trained manpower is
more water, and get it in front of Second, loss of income due to less required for quality construction.
their house. opportunity for home based e building centres, promoted by
• e drinking water is still a economic activities, lack of HUDCO, could be involved in this
problem. is issue was brought participation of children and elderly process. e government officials
to the knowledge of the local in incremental income generation should keep a vigil on the type of
MLA and now water vending etc. As a result, the community construction and prevent any
units are being installed, which looks forward to various ways of encroachment, what so ever.
will supply RO puriied water to increasing income, especially the
the residents at a cost. Tokens use of rental income from the Micro-credit for housing and
can be purchased for use in house. erefore, a lot of emphasis
other needs
these machines and treated is given to construction of multiple
water can be collected in a loors which can be let out for rental
Communities borrow from relatives
container. purposes. e communities of
and friends for construction of
• Community septic tank, with Savda Ghevra and Bawana have lot
treatment facility of effluent, has of potential for forming Self-Help houses, health problems, marriages,
been built by residents with the Groups under the National Urban social requirements, livelihood
support of NGO-CURE, Livelihood Mission. activities etc. Since they do not have
beneitting 322 households. access to formal borrowing, they
• Local councillors and MLA have Technical advice for construc- borrow money from informal
come forward to use their tion and maintenance money lenders at exorbitant interest
development funds to repair rates. Consequently, people ind it
drains and make drains at places e construction of houses is done difficult to repay even the interest,
where they are missing. by the community on the plots as the marginal increase in income
• Street lighting has been provided by DUSIB in Savda is oen less than the interest
installed, making the area safe at Ghevra, whereas Bawana had ready liability. Majority of families
night. to move lats, thus requiring no relocated to Savda Ghevra have
• Frequency of bus service has construction. e community taken loan for construction of
been increased during peak constructs the house, either on its houses for their own living, rental
hours, thus facilitating travel to own or through local mason/ purpose or for making space for
the place of work, not a contractors. Construction is oen home based economic activities. In
nightmare. done, partly utilising material
• Government is routing its the absence of formal lending
recovered from previous house and
programmes through RWA, institutions like self-help groups,
partly by procuring new or used
thus accelerating the process of thri & credit societies, micro-
building material from the market.
overall development of this area. e greed of maximising usable inance institutions etc.,
space and lack of money oen communities face difficulty to
Addressing the issue of results in unsafe structures. e use access cheap funds. erefore, role
incremental income of cheap building material and of these institutions needs to be
untrained manpower has resulted encouraged to strengthen the
e beneiciaries feel dissatisied in poor quality of construction. As informal credit market in such
with relocated projects on two a result, some cases of house locations.
SMart CItIeS
What Value will they bring to Urban Development in India?
witnessed in India (Drèze & Sen, been adopted globally. additional complexity associated
2013; Roy, 2009). As a result of this with the lack of consensus on what
e following paper examines
growing concern, in May 2014 the constitutes a ‘Smart City’, and how
Smart City discourse in theory and
Indian Prime Minister Shri these issues can be
in praxis, debating its value within
Narendra Modi outlined his applied/translated in an Indian
an Indian context, and explores
government’s proposals to fund one context.
whether the rhetoric of more
hundred new Smart Cities to help
innovative investment in smarter In short the luidity of the Smart
alleviate the chronic shortage in
ICT, environmental resource Cities concept highlights two key
housing, boost economic prosperity
management, e-governance and issues: irst, concepts such as Smart
and develop greener and more
social mobility can be applied in Cities are spatial by contextualised,
liveable cities. Shri Modi’s
India. Examples from the as a result their focus and meaning
announcement raises a number of
established Smart City users, i.e. varies between locations, and
key issues in Indian development:
Europe, North America and more secondly, Smart City discussions
1. What is the most appropriate recently the Gulf States, are used to offer a more pluralistic response to
form of investment in urban illustrate the complexity of applying urban development narratives that
environments? the concepts and principles in promotes an integration of socio-
India. economic, technological,
2. Where should investment be
environmental and political
allocated – new towns, urban INTRODUCTION TO
inluences (Datta, 2012). Although
extensions, or in retroitting SmaRT CITy CONCepTS
a number of these factors are
the existing urban settlements? aND pRINCIpleS
discussed in the explorations of
3. What should be emphasised in e research literature posits a sustainable city debates (Campbell,
urban development – number of deinitions of what 1996; Guy & Marvin, 1999;
technology/ICT, housing, Smart Cities are (Giffinger et al., Kenworthy, 2006), the central
transport or environmental 2007). Each shows variation in the assumptions implicit within Smart
resource management? terminology and focus of their Cities thinking focus irmly on
discussions, illustrating an more efficient and effective
4. How should development be
inculcation of principles which can decision-making. erefore, whilst
managed, and who should lead
be classed as being geo-politically sustainable cities provided an
this process?
speciic (Hollands, 2008). e understanding of the
Each of these issues permeates Smart City discourses developed in complementarity of social,
development debates in India, the USA, Europe and more recently economic and environmental
querying whether there is a single the Gulf States propose alternative resource management, Smart Cities
or uniied approach to investment interpretations of what the concept can be conceptualised as creating an
that could be considered as means, how they should be alternative horizontal approach to
appropriate for Indian cities (Das, developed, and, importantly, what investment that uses ICT as an
2007). Shri Modi’s declaration thus they are aiming to achieve overarching conduit for
provides a platform to assess the (Caragliu, Del Bo, & Nijkamp, 2011; development, whilst socio-
potential value of investments in Greenield, 2013). is paper does economic and environmental issues
Smart Cities in India through an not propose to take a speciic are inluences which key into the
evaluation of how the principles conceptual position on Smart effective contributing of technology
and application of the concept have Cities, rather, it assesses the (Smart Cities Council, 2013).
WhaT IS a SmaRT CITy? infrastructure to improve economic inclusive future for its citizens (BSI,
and political efficiency and enable 2013).
Deining a Smart City requires an
social, cultural, and urban
initial relection on what they are
development’. Drawing on Despite the luidity of conceptual
proposed to do. In India the growth
comparable ideas, Giffinger et discussions presented in the
of Smart Cities is seen as a
al.(2007) reported that Smart Cities research and literature, in praxis,
mechanism to bring order in a
must address key performance the main focus of Smart Cities has
dynamic urban context. As a
indicators that promote economic been to promote the use of
consequence, to fully engage with
growth, socio-cultural development technology/ICT as the key driver of
Smart Cities, the Indian
and interaction with the urban development. In each of the
government, planning professionals
environment, including improved main Smart Cities investment
and the nation’s citizens will have to
mobility, and establish a more locations, i.e. the USA and Europe,
rethink the ways they view urban
reined and accessible governance and potentially most visibly in the
development (Narain, 2014).
structure. ey, thus, highlight a Middle-East, ICT has been afforded
Although Narain’s reporting of the
lineage to the working deinition of as the most prominent feature of
development ‘bigger picture’ for the
Smart Cities proposed by the Smart City investments (Caragliu et
100 Smart Cities highlights a
European Union who state that: ‘A al., 2011; Hollands, 2008).
number of the inherent
Smart City is a city seeking to erefore, the ongoing applications
complexities of engaging with a
address public issues via ICT based of the concept in the context of
nebulous concept, it is equally
solutions on the basis of a global South have been framed by
important to identify what makes a
municipality driven multi this principle. However, there have
Smart City. Narain posits that
stakeholder partnerships’(European been calls for a more subtle
‘smart is, as smart does’
Commission, 2014). approach to Smart City
highlighting one of the key
Both Hollands and Giffinger et al. development which goes beyond
principles of the concept: raising the
can therefore be considered to technology (Narain, 2014).In such
question of who the generation of
highlight how the conceptualisation cases transport, social housing, and
knowledge and expertise is for and
of Smart Cities varies across ecological mechanisms have been
how this can be translated into
regions, especially in the Global promoted as key elements that
appropriate application.
North and in the Middle-East. provide additionality to the beneits
e label ‘smart city’ is, as a More recently the British that Smart City can deliver. us,
consequence, a fuzzy but government’s Department of within the literature there is a
fashionable concept. Loosely, Smart Business, Innovation and Skills plurality to the discussion of the
Cities are viewed as cities which (BIS) outlined what it considered network capabilities of effective
employ information and Smart Cities to be, and as the investment in Smart Cities, which
communications technology (ICT) deinition below states, they appear has not necessarily been extended
to improve the liveability, economic to have amalgamated the previous across the globe, in practice
competitiveness, workability and discussions into a clearly focussed (Greenield, 2013; Tranos &
sustainability of an urban rationale for Smart Cities. ey Gertner, 2012). Whilst this provides
environment. One of the most seethe ‘smart city’as a term denoting scope to address a range of urban
globally accepted deinitions of a the effective integration of physical, development issues, it also
Smart City is provided by Hollands digital and human systems in the illustrates the potential ambiguity of
( 2008:308), who deines them as built environment to deliver a the concept, and therefore, the
‘the utilization of networked sustainable, prosperous and problems of implementation1 .
One criticism levelled against Smart application of Smart City Cities Council, 2013). However, a
Cities has been the use of structured benchmarking may therefore be number of cities including Portland
sets of criteria, standardised limited, as methodologies that (Oregon), Philadelphia
assessments and benchmarking promote an overarching approach (Pennsylvania) and New York are
tools to evaluate whether a location to assessment cannot be universally all utilising smarter urban
can be considered smart applied. management practices to moderate
(Greenield, 2013). Whilst, the negative impacts of growth
standardised techniques can To address this issue, European (Netusil, Levin, Shandas, & Hart,
promote continuity to approaches approaches to Smart City 2014; New York City
between locations, and can be investment have discussed the need Environmental Protection, 2010;
considered to highlight effective to adapt more locally sensitive Philadelphia Water Department,
investment, the use of such forms of development. is 2011). More recently the
techniques can also lead to includes assessing the micro-scale applications of Smart Cities in the
locationally speciic application of service provision Gulf States has seen an extension of
implementation problems. ese (and management), such as water a combination of these two
include the application of and sanitation, to lower the reliance approaches to ensure that the
conceptual processes which may on external resources (Allwinkle & capacity of the environmental
not translate effectively between Cruickshank, 2011). Whilst in resource base is sufficient to support
locations or a lack of opportunities North America, the issue of scale is socio-economic and ICT led
for developers to incorporate not considered as such a central management strategies (Lazaroiu &
additional contextual criteria which driver of Smart City investment due Roscia, 2012). Discussions of Smart
may be absent from the Smart City to the alternative approaches to Cities in Europe and North
tools (Hollands, 2008). urban-suburban investment. As a America may therefore differ
Consequently, as noted above, consequence, in North America, because the criteria associated with
Smart Cities are effectively being there is a greater emphasis placed the designation of Smart Cities vary
employed within a pluralistic on the role that ICT holds in drastically between locations. As a
investment framework which may effectively managing the delivery consequence, planners need to
or may not take into account the and efficiency of services including think more critically about how the
speciic context of a location. e e-governance mechanisms (Smart various human - environmental
interactions that exist in urban parameters presented above, a pre- luidity of meaning associated with
areas, impact upon the framing of requisite for the development of the concept of Smart Cities, and the
Smart City developments. Smart Cities. ways that we choose to view future
urban development. However,
WhaT IS a SmaRT CITy From a reading of the Smart City
where there is an additionally
NOT? literature a number of themes are
strong political and inancial will to
repeatedly discussed questioning
Much of the academic and invest in Smart Cities, the outcomes
the validity of investment in the
practitioner (grey) literature only from North America and Europe
concept. ese not only include
focusses on what the authors indicate that positive collaborations
relections on the lack of
conceive Smart Cities to be. between government, industry and
consistency in the use and
However, there is less written about local communities can be
deinition of Smart Cities, as
what cannot be considered smart in developed. However, there is a need
discussed above, but also identify a
urban development discourses. for strong leadership to be
number of further investment
Whilst, there are authors who associated with this process to
issues which also need to be
criticise the assumptions made in ensure the investment is structured
addressed. ese include:
the Smart City rhetoric (Greenield, and focussed on key delivery
2013), there is a limited level of • A lack of locationally speciic principles. is interpretation
critical analysis to support these context integrated into the should also include a review of
discussions within the literature. discussions of Smart Cities. is whether the discussions of Smart
e simple retort of what a Smart limits the inclusion of an City discussions simply offer new
City isn’t would also need to relect understanding of the urban development rhetoric or a
on what they are. erefore ‘Un- development problems, and the useful approach to investment in
Smart Cities’ are less efficient, they history of urbanism within a urban areas? Given the complexity
don’t place long-term emphasis on given location. of deining what is and is not a
development goals, they approach • Smart City guidelines place too Smart City, and how they should be
investment from singular much emphasis on ‘efficiency’ invested in, the following sections
perspectives (i.e. water or sewage) and potentially offer an outline how the concept of Smart
not as an integrated process, they do inappropriate model of Cities is being applied globally and
not promote inclusivity in the optimisation of urban systems. what characteristics can
planning process. ey also lack the subsequently be applied in India. .
foresight to apply a more reined • e proposed upgrades to urban
systems could be considered to applICaTION OF The
use of systems (technological,
be exclusively for the beneit of maIN ThemeS OF SmaRT
social, economic and ecological) to
administrators, which could CITIeS glObally
support growth and they do not
lead to increased
offer a healthy and safe living to the authoritarianism within In 2011 the EU opened its ‘Smart
residents (Datta, 2014; Kenworthy, local/city government. Cities and Communities’ research
2006; Williams, 2010). Each of these programme with €420million of
issues, along with a range of others, We can therefore question whether funding. e initial focus of this
can be identiied in most urban we, as planners and developers, programme was to look at how
development contexts, including have a grounded understanding of communities and IT-enhanced
India (Das, 2007). is does not what Smart Cities are and how they governance could be integrated
though imply that all cities are un- should be planned. e discussion across Europe. is was followed by
smart, rather it identiies the presented above highlights the the launch of the European
Contd....
sustainability (Smart Cities Council, Cities Council criteria are shown in Council conceptualisations have
2013). Given this deinition, the Figure 3. It further details these become accepted norms in global
Smart Cities Council proposes a dimension through a set of forty six discussions, there are further
Smart City index constituting same measurable indicators which variations in how these principles
six dimensions i.e. smart economy, broadly align with VUT’s are being applied globally. Evolving
mobility, environment, people, conceptualisation. Smart City markets such as those in
living and governance. e Smart the Middle-East are drawing
Whilst, the VUT and Smart Cities
inspiration from the VUT and provision of high-speed ibre optic noted in Europe, the USA and in
Smart Cities Council criteria but are internet connections to citizens and the Gulf States. Dholera is being
applying more localised the use of ICT to control the quality promoted as a comprehensively
conceptions of how these should be of the urban environment planned city to ensure that citizens
used. In the United Arab Emirates (Mahizhan, 1999). To ensure the and the environment are synced
(UAE), Masdar has been success of this programme the through ICT and central command
championed as a model of Smart Singaporean government has centre management (DNA India,
City development in the Gulf States. worked with private technology 2013). e ‘smart’ branding of the
Conceived as a zero-carbon, car- providers to ensure that the ICT city has been established to set
free and 100 per cent solar powered systems they have developed Dholera apart from other
city, Masdar encapsulates a number provide sufficient scope to manage developments, such as Lavasa,
of key themes discussed previously: the city. Although the scale of through the inclusion of more
Singapore, 791km2, is relatively efficient city-wide managed
alternative approaches to energy
small, its population density systems. e scale of the
production and consumption, and
(approximately 7,669 people per development, 903 km2, would make
a more effective and efficient form
km2) indicates that more efficient the investment twice as large as
of resource management (Kirby,
governance of environmental and Mumbai (and bigger than
2014). e masterplan for Masdar social resources can, and has, Singapore), and provide scope to
also identiies that innovative ICT increased the perceived quality of test/apply a range of water,
investment in a centralised control life (Bagchi, 2014). sanitation, e-governance and ICT
system is the most effective based transportsolutions (Datta,
mechanism for managing the socio- e application of Smart City
2014). Furthermore, Dholera is
economic and environmental needs principles in the UAE and
located along the Delhi-Mumbai
of the city. is includes the Singapore, therefore, highlight that
industrial corridor and would
provision of services, and low of it is only with an effective
potentially act as a key centre of
people and transport, to establish investment arena, that innovative
economic inluence in India, hence
the most efficient use of resources forms of development can occur.
its promotion as a key Smart City
However, the politicalised nature of
by citizens, businesses and site. Currently though these
development in both these locations
government (Sennett, 2012). discussions are hypothetical, yet the
could be considered contextually
erefore, although the master support from the Indian
speciic and unlikely to be
planning of Masdar may not have government suggests that Dholera
replicated in the USA or Europe.
produced additional criteria for will become a test case in the Smart
We, therefore, need to assess how
investment in Smart Cities, they City incubator.
we rationalise the control of top-
have drawn heavily on the global down city development e wholescale investment in
discussions of what makes a Smart programmes, against the more technological solutions, as seen in
City. dynamic approaches witnessed in Masdar, may therefore enable
Singapore has also been reported as other locations. e application of planners and developers to address
being a world leader in applying Smart City ideas in India may the human-centered barriers to
Smart City ideas. e nation’s provide a lens through which to the effective management visible in
government has promoted the interactivity of these alternate India (Datta, 2012; Roy, 2009).
country as an ‘Intelligent Island’ viewpoints can be assessed. However, as the discussions of
where ICT has been used to manage Smart Cities have developed, there
In the Indian context, the proposed has been a realization within the
and monitor the island state’s
Smart City of Dholera attempts to academic and grey literature that
resources. is has included the
integrate each of the objectives the varying conceptualization of
box 1 : ISO 37120 Smart City emes(ISO, 2014) discussions (Datta, 2012; Roy,
2009). Shri Modi’s proposal can, as
eme
a consequence, be considered as an
1. Economy 10. Safety
2. Education 11. Shelter
attempt to move away from the
3. Energy 12. Solid Waste established criticisms that
4. Environment 13. Telecommunications & Innovation encapsulates development debates
5. Finance 14. Transportation in India (Das, 2007), and instead
6. Fire & Emergency Response 15. Urban Planning looks to make full use of the ICT
7. Governance 16. Waste water and systems management expertise
8. Health 17. Water & Sanitation established in India to drive growth.
9. Recreation
India’s renown as a world leader in
what can be considered a Smart 7060 crore to fund the development ICT, and the focus of Smart City
City across the globe may be of one hundred new Smart Cities. debates, shows a clear intention to
problematic to their use in India. As Although the announcement was integrate these ideas within
a response in 2014, the not accompanied by a detailed development discussions.
International Standards outline of where or how these cities Furthermore the move towards
Organization (ISO) evolved a would be developed, the universal ‘e’ and ‘m-governance’
common performance yardstick for proclamation does mark an mechanisms to empower the
Smart Cities. ISO 37120 deines 100 important stage in the development nation’s population can also be
performance indicators that shall or of India cities (Bagchi, 2014). By viewed as supporting the use of
should be measured, along with a promoting investments in Smart Smart Cities (Datta, 2014). ere is,
methodology to measure their Cities, the Indian government is though, scope within the
effectiveness (ISO, 2014). proposing an alternative approach development of Indian Smart Cities
Speciically, ISO 37120 deines to growth management, based on to ensure that societal mobility and
seventeen key themes (see Box 1), the promotion of technologically inclusivity are promoted as key
supportedby a further forty six core focussed Public- Private- delivery principles. Social inclusion
and iy-four indicators that cities Partnerships (PPPs), to manage is oen downplayed, being replaced
either “shall” (core) or “should" delivery. e Indian government by development which excludes
(supporting) track and report to be may, therefore, be limiting the some members of society. Smart
a smart city. If India is to progress potential for human interests to Cities therefore have the potential
its Smart Cities agenda, it will need dictate development debates and to rationalise the needs of all
to learn the global lessons of how to instead promote a more functional, citizens and to create more
effectively invest in Smart Cities, as sustainable and smarter form of democratic places (Caragliu et al.,
well as, showing an understanding urban expansion. Shri Modi’s 2011). However, to fully understand
of how ISO 37120 can be announcement, therefore, provides the potential of Smart Cities a
implemented in the country. scope to utilise alternative delivery speciic contextual understanding
options for decision-makers in of Indian growth is required, which
pm NaReNDRa mODI’S
India, proposed in Smart City is currently lacking.
aNNOUNCemeNT OF 100
discussions. Based on the
NeW SmaRT CITIeS
assumption that Smart Cities will ere is, however, a noticeable
Relecting once again on an Indian deliver more effective decision- caution within the discussions of
context, in his irst national budget making, efficient governance and Smart Cities, querying, whether it
as Prime Minister, Shri Narendra more appropriate investment, the would be possible to move from the
Modi announced that the Indian concept appears to be the polar rhetoric of investment into
government was allocating INR opposite of existing urban growth meaningful delivery. e
Smart Cities highlights a change in city planners defer to the status quo contemporary discussions of Smart
government understanding of then we may not see a noticeable Cities, to ensure reciprocity of ideas,
urban development. By promoting change in attitude or delivery. e delivery strategies and monitoring
a more technologically led form of promotion of Smart Cities can (Caragliu et al., 2011; Datta, 2014;
investment, the government is therefore be considered to act as a Narain, 2014). Furthermore,
engaging the country’s expertise in potential catalyst to integrate an although the USA, UK and Europe
ICT, to rethink how development added luidity to urban have developed a set of normative
should occur. Furthermore, the development debates. Over the approaches, criteria and
continual growth of innovative coming years, each of these issues benchmarking systems to establish
forms of engineering (social and will be repeatedly discussed as the the credentials of Smart City
mechanical/industrial) suggests rhetoric of investment in Smart investment, such assessments have
that a number of the key objectives Cities moves on to scoping and yet to be tested in India. As a
of Smart Cities, namely: efficiency, inally investment. Whilst it is consequence, a Smart Cities
innovation, inclusivity, and currently unclear how successful investment framework should be
mobility, can all be delivered by the promotion of the concept will adopted in India only when tests
professionals in India. e growth be, it is possible to argue that any show speciic positive avenues
of Smart City thinking thus relections on the dynamics of where the balance of investment
provides a platform where each of development will potentially lead to costs does not outweigh the
these areas can be integrated into a more sustainable forms of estimated returns. Such a
delivery process. investment. framework could be structured as
follows:
One inal question that can be
CONClUSIONS • Identiication within the central
posited is: what happens if the As urban planners, the authors government of the deinition,
proposed investment in Smart question, the validity of an scoping and objectives for Smart
Cities fails to deliver the requisite uncritical investment in Smart Cities, with the possibility of
change in the development and Cities. Although the concept can developing a government
management of Indian cities? is draw on a growing literature of portfolio for their development;
may be an INR 7060 crore question, international experiences, there is a • Identiication of a series of pilot
as the implementation of Smart need to undertake a robust sites to test the relevance and
Cities in India remains in its contextualisation of their potential utility of this framing of Smart
embryonic stages. In case of a value in India. Also, given the Cities;
failure, the choice for developers diverse agro-climatic zones, socio- • Identiication of pilot sites that
and urban planners would be to economic and politico- relect the various agro-climatic
return to the default normative administrative milieu in India, a zones, socio-economic and
approaches to investment or they one deinition-its-all approach will politico-administrative
may attempt to look for not work. Hence a loose deinition boundaries across India.
opportunities beyond the formal with broad characteristics will have Regional pilots should be
boundaries of Smart City to be conceptualised, with the included as exemplar projects to
framework. What we could suggest indicators or speciicities of which assess the structure of the
is that the promotion of Smart can be varied as per the local government’s Smart City criteria
Cities as an alternative may provide context of the cities subject to Smart in different locations;
the spark that architects, town City development.e speciic • Establishment of a relexive
planners and government need to development constraints, and process of monitoring for the
think beyond the existing legal and opportunities, that make growth in policy-practice of Smart Cities at
administrative limits that frame India a unique process, need to be all scales, which should be
investment in cities. Alternatively, if evaluated in conjunction with the independent of the private
Urban Infrastructure Services. (2011). Report networked cities? Innovation: e European and practice challenges. International Journal of
on Indian Urban Infrastructure and Services. Journal of Social Science Research, 25(2), 175– Urban Sustainable Development, 1(1-2), 128–
New Delhi. 190. doi:10.1080/13511610.2012.660327 13.
Tranos, E., & Gertner, D. (2012). Smart Williams, K. (2010). Sustainable cities: research
THE EVENT
The conference would bring together naional and internaional academicians, praciioners and policy
makers with rich experience in the designing and planning of various elements of smart city development.
Representaives from ciies that have already adopted many of the ‘smart’ iniiaives along with those
which are in the preparatory stage of taking steps to develop smart ciies would be invited to share their
experiences.
The exhibiion will provide an opportunity for many of the organizaions and service providers who have
developed products/ techniques/ technologies’ to showcase and demonstrate their offerings. This would
serve as a one stop shop for the city managers and administrators, from the various Indian ciies, to
beter assess the opions suitable to their ciies and to network with the innovators and service providers
to channelize the resources
PARTICIPANTS
About 400 paricipants are expected to atend the conference. This will include Mayors and city
administrators from ciies, policymakers and regulators, academicians, financial insituions, urban sector
professionals, real estate developers, technology soluion providers etc.