JAWAHAR NAVODAYA VIDYALAYA

- AMRELI,GUJARAT -

INVESTIGATORY PROJECT ON PHYSICS

TOPIC - Semiconductors
Prepared by :- Parmar Devansh B.
Class :- 12th Science (PCM)
Roll no. :- 04
 CERTIfICATE

This is certify that “Parmar Devansh” Student of Class 12th

science (PCM) has successfully completed their physics
project on “semiconductors” under guidance of
“Mast. Sanjay pitale”.

External examiner Mast. Sanjay pitale

(PGT Physics)

Principal Sir
(Jnv amreli)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my sincere thanks and gratitude to my physics

teacher Mast. Sanjay Pitale for his sincere guidance and advice to
complete my project successfully. Also, I am thankful to him for
providing such an interesting topic for our physics project.

I am also grateful to my parents and friends for their constant support

and help throughout the project, without their encouragement and
support this project could not have been completed on time.

Lastly, I would like to thank all the accessories and every single person
who helped me to complete this physics project successfully.
 INDEX

1. Certificate
2. Acknowledgement
3. Introduction to semiconductors
4. Theory and definitions
5. Effect of temperature on
conductivity of Semiconductor
6. Intrinsic Semiconductors
7. Extrinsic Semiconductors
8. N-type Semiconductor
9. P-type Semiconductor
 Introduction
to semiconductors

Semiconductors :- Most of the solids can be placed in one of the two classes:
Metals and insulators. Metals are those through which electric charge can easily
flow, while insulators are those through which electric charge is difficult to
flow. This distinction between the metals and the insulators can be explained on
the basis of the number of free electrons in them. Metals have a large number of
free electrons which act as charge carriers, while insulators have practically no
free electrons.

There are however, certain solids whose electrical conductivity is intermediate

between metals and insulators. They are called ‘Semiconductors’. Carbon, silicon
and germanium are examples of semi-conductors. In semiconductors the outer
most electrons are neither so rigidly bound with the atom as in an insulator, nor so
loosely bound as in metal. At absolute zero a semiconductor becomes an ideal
insulator.

___________________________________________________
semiconductors - Theory and
Definition

Semiconductors are the materials whose electrical conductivity lies in

between metals and insulator. The energy band structure of the semiconductors is
similar to the insulators but in their case, the size of the forbidden energy gap is
much smaller than that of the insulator. In this class of crystals, the forbidden
gap is of the order of about 1ev, and the two energy bands are distinctly separate
with no overlapping. At absolute oo, no electron has any energy even to jump the
forbidden gap and reach the conduction band. Therefore the substance is an
insulator. But when we heat the crystal and thus provide some energy to the
 atoms and their electrons, it becomes an easy matter for some electrons to jump
the small (» 1 ev) energy gap and go to conduction band. Thus at higher
temperatures, the crystal becomes a conductors. This is the specific property of
the crystal which is known as a semiconductor.

_________________________________________________________________

Effect of temperature on
conductivity of Semiconductor
At 0K, all semiconductors are insulators. The valence band at absolute zero
is completely filled and there are no free electrons in conduction band. At room
temperature the electrons jump to the conduction band due to the thermal
energy. When the temperature increases, a large number of electrons cross over
the forbidden gap and jump from valence to conduction band. Hence conductivity
of semiconductor increases with temperature.

_________________________________________________________________

Intrinsic Semiconductors

Pure semiconductors are called intrinsic semi-conductors. In a pure

semiconductor, each atom behaves as if there are 8 electrons in its valence shell
and therefore the entire material behaves as an insulator at low temperatures.
A semiconductor atom needs energy of the order of 1.1ev to shake off the valence
electron. This energy becomes available to it even at room temperature. Due to
thermal agitation of crystal structure, electrons from a few covalent bonds come
out. The bond from which electron is freed, a vacancy is created there. The
vacancy in the covalent bond is called a hole.

This hole can be filled by some other electron in a covalent bond. As an electron
from covalent bond moves to fill the hole, the hole is created in the covalent bond
from which the electron has moved. Since the direction of movement of the hole is
opposite to that of the negative electron, a hole behaves as a positive charge
carrier. Thus, at room temperature, a pure semiconductor will have electrons and
holes wandering in random directions. These electrons and holes are called
intrinsic carriers.

As the crystal is neutral, the number of free electrons will be equal to the number
of holes. In an intrinsic semiconductor, if ne denotes the electron number density
in conduction band, nh the hole number density in valence band and ni the number
density or concentration of charge carriers, then
ne = nh = ni
 Extrinsic Semiconductors
As the conductivity of intrinsic semi-conductors is poor, so intrinsic semi-
conductors are of little practical importance. The conductivity of pure semi-
conductor can, however be enormously increased by addition of some pentavalent or
a trivalent impurity in a very small amount (about 1 to 106 parts of the semi-
conductor). The process of adding an impurity to a pure semiconductor so as to
improve its conductivity is called doping. Such semi-conductors are called extrinsic
semi-conductors. Extrinsic semiconductors are of two types :
i) n-type semiconductor
ii) p-type semiconductor

_________________________________________________________________

N-type Semiconductor

When an impurity atom belonging to group V of the periodic table like

Arsenic is added to the pure semi-conductor, then four of the five impurity
electrons form covalent bonds by sharing one electron with each of the four
nearest silicon atoms, and fifth electron from each impurity atom is almost free to
conduct electricity. As the pentavalent impurity increases the number of free
electrons, it is called donor impurity. The electrons so set free in the silicon
crystal are called extrinsic carriers and the n-type Si-crystal is called n-type
extrinsic semiconductor. Therefore n-type Si-crystal will have a large number of
free electrons (majority carriers) and have a small number of holes (minority
carriers).

In terms of valence and conduction band one can think that all such electrons
create a donor energy level just below the conduction band as shown in figure. As
the energy gap between donor energy level and the conduction band is very small,
the electrons can easily raise themselves to conduction band even at room
temperature. Hence, the conductivity of n-type extrinsic semiconductor is
markedly increased.

In a doped or extrinsic semiconductor, the number density of the conduction band

(ne) and the number density of holes in the valence band (nh) differ from that in
a pure semiconductor. If ni is the number density of electrons is conduction band,
then it is proved that

ne nh = ni2
 P-type Semiconductor
If a trivalent impurity like indium is added in pure semi-conductor, the
impurity atom can provide only three valence electrons for covalent bond
formation. Thus a gap is left in one of the covalent bonds. The gap acts as a hole
that tends to accept electrons. As the trivalent impurity atoms accept electrons
from the silicon crystal, it is called acceptor impurity. The holes so created are
extrinsic carriers and the p-type Si-crystal so obtained is called p-type extrinsic
semiconductor. Again, as the pure Si-crystal also possesses a few electrons and
holes, therefore, the p-type si-crystal will have a large number of holes (majority
carriers) and a small number of electrons (minority carriers).

It terms of valence and conduction band one can think that all such holes create
an accepter energy level just above the top of the valance band as shown in
figure. The electrons from valence band can raise themselves to the accepter
energy level by absorbing thermal energy at room temperature and in turn create
holes in the valence band.

Number density of valence band holes (nh) in p-type semiconductor is

approximately equal to that of the acceptor atoms (Na) and is very large as
compared to the number density of conduction band electrons (ne). Thus,
nh» Na > > ne