Essay questions.

8. a.) What is ATP? What is the importance of ATP in metabolism? (6m)

ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is an energy-carrying molecule found in the cells of all living
things. ATP consists of an adenine, phosphate group and a ribose bonded to each other. ATP is a
nucleotide with unstable phosphate bonds. Phosphate bonds of ATP consist of very high energy.
When ATP is hydrolyzed, the unstable phosphate bonds will break and release energy. This is an
exergonic reaction. Importance of ATP in metabolism is to provide energy to the cell activity. For
example, the process of transmission of nerve impulse required ATP to provide energy for the
process to occur.

b.) With the aid of diagram, describe the steps in glycolysis that produced high energy molecules.
Oxidation and phosphorylation.

9.) link reaction

Pyruvate produced from the glycolysis enter the intermembrane of the mitochondria.
Pyruvate undergoes decarboxylation. Carbon dioxide is produced. The number of carbons in
pyruvate decrease from 3 carbons to 2 carbons. Then the remaining two-carbon fragment
undergoes oxidation and form acetate. The oxidizing agent is NAD+. Electrons is transferred to NAD+
and NAD+ is reduced to NADH and H+. Then coenzyme A is attached to the two-carbon fragment
and form Acetyl CoA. The net yield of link reaction which is also called as pyruvate oxidation is
2acetyl CoA, 2NADH + H+ and 2CO2 per 1 glucose molecule.

10. a.) Explain the steps involved in Krebs cycle.

The acetyl CoA from link reaction enter the Krebs cycle which happens in the matrix of
mitochondria. Acetate group from acetyl CoA attach to the oxaloacetate and form citrate. Citrate
undergoes isomerization and form isocitrate. Isocitrate undergoes oxidative decarboxylation. NAD+
is oxidizing agent. It would undergo reduction and form NADH + H+. Carbon dioxide is produced and
isocitrate is oxidized into α-ketoglutarate. α-ketoglutarate is then undergone oxidative
decarboxylation. Carbon dioxide is produced. NAD+ is oxidizing agent. It would undergo reduction
and form NADH + H+. Coenzyme A is added to α-ketoglutarate and form succinyl CoA. The bond in
succinyl CoA break and inorganic cytoplasmic phosphate group replace the CoA. Then, the
phosphate group is then transferred to the GDP and form GTP by substrate-level phosphorylation.
GTP then generate ATP by substrate-level phosphorylation which involve the transfer of inorganic
phosphate group. The succinyl CoA is converted into succinate. Succinate then undergoes oxidation
with the presence of oxidizing agent FAD. FAD undergoes reduction and form FADH2. Succinate is
converted into fumarate. Fumarate undergoes hydration. Water is added to 4C fumarate which
arrange the chemical bonds and form 4C fumarate. Fumarate then undergoes oxidation with the
presence of oxidizing agent NADH and form oxaloacetate.
10. b.) Compare between aerobic respiration and fermentation.

Aerobic respiration occurs with the presence of oxygen while fermentation occurs with the
absence of oxygen. Aerobic respiration would produce carbon dioxide and water whereas
fermentation would yield lactic acid in lactic fermentation and ethanol and water in alcoholic
fermentation. Aerobic respiration happens in mitochondria while fermentation happens in
cytoplasm. Aerobic respiration produces 38ATP while fermentation only produce 2ATP. Aerobic
respiration is complete oxidation of glucose while fermentation is incomplete oxidation of glucose.
Aerobic respiration involves glycolysis, link reaction, Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation
whereas fermentation only involve glycolysis. The final electron acceptor in aerobic respiration is
oxygen molecule while in fermentation is pyruvate in lactic fermentation and acetaldehyde in
alcoholic fermentation.

11. Describe how one molecule of glucose is able to produce 38ATP in active cell.

By cellular respiration which involve glycolysis, link reaction, Krebs cycle and oxidative
phosphorylation. Glycolysis produce 2pyruvate, 2 net ATP and 2NADH + 2H +. The 2pyruvate undergo
link reaction and form 2 acetyl CoA. Link reaction produce 2NADH + 2H+, 2CO2 and 2acetyl CoA. The
2 acetyl CoA enter the Krebs cycle and the acetate group bind to the oxaloacetate and form citrate.
Krebs cycle yield 2ATP, 6NADH + 6H+, 2FADH2 and 4CO2. All of the NADH and FADH2 yield from the
reaction above would enter oxidative phosphorylation. 1 NADH would produce 3ATP while 1 FADH
would produce 2ATP in oxidative phosphorylation. NADH undergoes reduction and transfer the
electron to the NADH dehydrogenase while FADH2 undergoes reduction and transfer the electrons
to the succinate dehydrogenase. The electron is transfer through the electron transport chain (ETC)
which include NADH dehydrogenase, succinate dehydrogenase, ubiquinone, cytochrome C
reductase, cytochrome C and cytochrome C oxidase and finally reach the oxygen molecule. Energy is
produced when there is electron flow in the ETC. Hydrogen in the mitochondrial matrix is pumped
by the proton-pump to the intermembrane space of mitochondria. Then the proton-motive force
drive the H+ ion flow from the intermembrane of mitochondria to the mitochondrial matrix via the
ATP synthase and produce ATP.