Sec Full Notes

COMMISSIONS AFTER INDEPENDENCE – AN
INTRODUCTION
Following the transfer of power, the Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE) decided
to set up two Commissions, one to deal with university education and the other to deal with
secondary education, recognising the fact that the requirements of independent India would
be different. It became imminent that the education system in India would be restructured.
This decision came at a time, when the promises made to the people in the field of education
during the freedom struggle, were to be implemented. Provision of free and compulsory
education up to the age of 14 years was being debated in the Constituent Assembly, and these
debates ultimately found expression in the Directive Principles of State Policy of the
Constitution of India. The goal set for the country’s educational policy was to work out a
system of universal elementary education by 1960. Necessary changes were also effected in
the system of secondary and higher education in keeping with the felt needs of the country
(Saikia 1998). A new chapter in education policy began with India becoming independent. A
number of problems and challenges had surfaced in the country because of the sheer diverse
character of Indian society. The Government established education commissions in order to
address these challenges and recommend comprehensive policies for educational problems
and also for the improvement of the education system in India.
After independence India adopted the Constitution in 1950. Education became the
responsibility of both state and central governments. The Constitution makers recognised
that the stability and progress of the country which adopts a democratic course depends to a
large extent on a well educated electorate. The Constitution not only emphasised the principle
of ‘equality of educational opportunity’ but also the achievement of social justice through a
policy of ‘positive discrimination’.
In independent India education policies have been closely influenced by the Education
Commissions that were set up from time-to-time. In the section that follows the highlights
of the recommendations of these important commissions have been presented.
University Education Commission (1948)
The first Commission to be appointed in independent India was the University Education
Commission of 1948, under the chairmanship of Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, to report on the
status of Indian university education and suggest improvements and extensions that would
be desirable to suit the present and future requirements of the country (Aggarwal 1993). The
Commission, which produced a comprehensive and voluminous report, set for itself the task
of not only reorienting the education system to face the challenges emerging from a long
period of colonisation but also to increase the country’s general prosperity, create an effective
and functional democracy and reduce socio-economic inequalities. Higher education for the
next generations was envisaged as one of the principal aims of the education policy that the
country was proposing to formulate. This Commission had aimed at creating universities
which would provide knowledge and wisdom for a comprehensive development of the
personality. It considered university education as a pivotal step for higher level of learning.
The main goal of establishing a university in a particular region was to make higher education
accessible to all sections of society, irrespective of region, caste, gender and region. This report
proposed the re-construction of education system in tune with the vision of the Indian
constitution.
Secondary education commission

This commission is also known as the Secondary education commission. In 1952 Union
Government of India appointed Dr. A Laxman Swami Mudaliar as a chairman of secondary
education commission. The aim of this commission was to examine the existing system of
secondary education in the country. It aims to suggest measures to improve it. The
commission submitted its report in August 1963 on almost all aspects of secondary education.
Major recommendations of the commission were
1. installation of the higher secondary system with diversified courses
2. three language formula
3. emphasis on educational and vocational guidance
4. improvement in the system of examination
5. improvement in the methods of teaching
These recommendations were discussed by the secondary advisory board of education and
were accepted by certain modifications. A scheme of higher secondary education was
launched all over India. The scope of AICSE was widened and the National Council of
Educational Research and Training (NCERT) was founded at the center for providing
educational guidance and facilities to the states
After extensive research through a questionnaire, dealing with various aspects of secondary
education and tour of various parts of India the commission presented a report.
Organization of curriculum
(a) At middle school stage
Commission proposed the following objectives for middle school stage keeping in mind the
political emotional and social needs of the country
•
Knowledge of the physical environment
•
Development of democratic values
•
Vocational development
•
Development of intellectual and aesthetic values.
He suggested following broad outlines for middle school curriculum
(i) Language – mother tongue or original language, national language and

international language.
(ii) Subjects to be taught at the middle stage –Social studies, General science,
Mathematics, Art and music, Physical education, Craft
(b)At the higher secondary stage

At this stage, the curriculum is divided into two categories
(i) Core curriculum – It is common for all students. It includes the study of Language,
General Science, Social studies, Elementary mathematics, Craft
(ii) Higher curriculum –

In addition to the core curriculum, every student has to take three subjects out of the
following seven groups
Group I – Humanities group – history, geography, economics, psychology, maths, etc.
Group II – Science group – Physics, chemistry, maths, geography, health, and
hygiene Group II – Technical group – applied mathematics, applied science,
elements of mechanical engineering, electrical engineering.
Group IV – Commercial group – economics, bookkeeping, shorthand, typewriting, etc.
Group V – Agricultural group – genera; agriculture, horticulture, agriculture botany and
chemistry Group VI – Fine Arts group – Art, painting, music, dancing, etc.
Group VII – Home Science Group – Home economics, nutrition and cookery, mother craft
and child care, home nursing, etc.
2. Principle of curriculum construction under secondary education commission

includes the following points –
1. The totality of Experience – It means along with academic experiences pupil

get a variety of experiences through various activities in the classroom,
playground, library, workshops, etc.
2. Principle of variety and Elasticity – Commission supported flexible curriculum

which can be related to the interest, need and life of the student
3. Principle of leisure – It should be able to train the students for both work and
leisure
4. Principle of correlation – Subjects in the curriculum should be correlated to

each other. Subjects should be related to real-life experience. They should not
be narrow items of information.
5. Principle of Community-Centeredness – Curriculum must be related to
community life.
6. Importance should be on productive work
7. It should include practical knowledge along with theoretical knowledge

3. Recommendations on textbooks
1. A high power textbook committee should be constituted for selection and
reforms
2. Frequent changes in textbooks prescribed for studies should be discouraged
3. Single textbook should not be prescribed for every subject of study
4. Books should not spread hatred, enmity against any community, religion or
social customs
4. Recommendations on teaching methods
1. Teaching method should provide opportunities for students to develop clear
thinking and expression in both speech and writing
2. Teaching methods should be activity-based

3. Teaching should take care of the individual difference
4. It should inculcate desirable values and attitudes
5. There should be more focus on experimental and demonstration methods
5. Recommendations on improving exam systems
1. Number of external exams should be reduced
2. Subjectivity (essay type questions) should be minimized by introducing

objective questions
3. The nature of the test should be discouraging cramming and encourage

intelligent understanding. So test should concern with rational understanding
4. School records should be maintained for every student indicating work done
by him
5. The five-point scale of Mudaliar commission :

Students should be evaluated on 5 points A-distinction, B-credit, C-pass, D
and E-fail or re-exam. There should be a provision for the compartmental
exam, one for each subject
6. Vocationalistaion of education
1. Diversification of courses of educational programs to meet varying interests,
aptitudes, and talents
2. Committee advised on provision of agricultural and technical education
7. Guidance in education
1. There should be an appointment of guidance officer and career masters in
schools for education, personal and social guidance
8. Education of character
1. Close relationships between teachers and students for better discipline
2. NCC scout camps should be encouraged

3. Both co-curricular and extra-curricular activities should be included in school
education
4. First aid and junior red cross work should be initiated
Apart from this Mudaliar commission also advised about- Physical welfare of students,
Improvement in teacher’s status, Teachers training, Administration and finance.
INDIAN EDUCATION COMMISSION, 1964-66
Introduction:
Indian Education Commission (1964-1966), popularly known as Kothari Commission, was

an ad hoc commission set up by the Government of India to examine all aspects of the
educational sector in India, to evolve a general pattern of education and to advise guidelines
and policies for the development of education in India. It was formed on 14 July 1964 under
the chairmanship of Daulat Singh Kothari, then chairman of the University Grants
Commission. It consisted of sixteen members, eleven being Indians and five foreign experts.
In addition, the Commission had the benefit of discussion with a number of internationally
known consultants in the educational as well as scientific field. The terms of reference of the
commission was to formulate the general principles and guidelines for the development of
education from primary level to the highest and advise the government on a standardized
national pattern of education in India. However, the medical and legal studies were excluded
from the purview of the commission. The tenancy of the commission was from 1964 to 1966
and the report was submitted by the commission on 29 June 1966. The main task of the
Commission was to advise the Government on the national pattern of education and on the
general policies for the development of education at all stages-ranging from the primary to
post-graduate stage and in all its aspects besides examining a host of educational problems in
their social and economic context. Government Resolution setting up the Education
Commission, July 14, 1964. The Commission submitted its report to the Government on
June 29,1966. It was laid on the Table of the House on August 29, 1966. The main features
of the Commission's report were as follows:
Introduction of work-experience which includes manual work, production experience, etc.

and social service as integral part of general education at more or less all level of education.
Stress on moral education and inculcation of a sense of social responsibility. Schools should
recognize their responsibility in facilitating the transition of youth from the work of school
to the world of work and life.
Vocationalization of secondary education.
Strengthening of the centres of advance study and setting up of a small number of major
universities which would aim at achieving highest international standards.
Special emphasis on the training and quality of teachers for schools
Education for agriculture and research in agriculture and allied sciences should be given a
high priority in the scheme of educational reconstruction. Energetic and imaginative steps
are required to draw a reasonable proportion of talent to go in for advance study and research
in agriculture science.
Development of quality or pace-setting institutions at all stages and in all sectors.
The Commission observed that mother-tongue had a pre-eminent claim as the medium of
education at the school and college stages. Moreover, the medium of education in school and
higher education should generally be the same. The regional languages should, therefore, be
adopted as the media of education in higher education. The Commission further observed
that the public demand for secondary and higher education had increased and would continue
to increase in future. It was, therefore, necessary to adopt a policy of selective admissions to
higher secondary and university education in order to bridge the gap between the public
demand and available facilities. The Commission was of the view that the social segregation
in schools should be eliminated by the adoption of the neighbourhood social concept at the
lower primary stage under which all children in the neighbourhood will be required to attend
the school in the locality. The salient recommendations of the Committee are:
(i) The unhealthy social segregation that now takes place between the schools for the rich
and those for the poor should be ended; and the primary schools should be made the common
schools of the nation by making it obligatory on all children, irrespective of cast, creed,
community, religion, economic condition or social status, to attend the primary school in
their neighbourhood.
(ii) The development of a proper language policy can greatly assist in strengthening
national unity. The key programme will be to develop all Indian languages and to adopt them
as media of education at all stages.
(iii) At the secondary stage (classes I-X) the regional language should ordinarily be the
medium of education. Adequate safeguards should be provided for linguistic minorities. In
class XI- XII, a pupil should study at least one language of his choice in addition to the
medium of education. While facilities to study languages, on an optional basis, should be
adequately provided at the university-level, the study of no language should be made
compulsory unless such study is an essential part of a prescribed course.
(iv) Hindi is already largely in use as a link language. The educational system should
contribute to the acceleration of this progress in order to facilitate the movement of students
and teachers and to strengthen national unity.
(v) Science education and research should be developed on priority basis. Great emphasis
should be placed on the development of education for agriculture and industry. In technical
education programmes of qualitative improvement should be stressed.
(vi) Work experience should be an integral part of general education at the school stage.
Work with hands will help the young to develop insights into productive processes and use
of science and inculcate in them respect for manual labour and habits of hard and responsible
work.
(vii) There should be a broadly uniform educational structure in all parts of the country.
The first step is to create the Ten Year School providing a common pattern of general
education for all children. The national policy should be to ultimately make this period of
ten years free and compulsory for all children. The next stage, the higher secondary should
be uniformly raised to two years in all parts of the country under a phased programme. The
duration of the course for the first degree in arts, commerce and science should be three years
after the higher secondary stage.
(ix) Plans to accelerate the spread of literacy should be prepared and intensively implemented.
(x) Educational expansion should be accompanied by simultaneous efforts to raise

substantially the standards of education and to keep them continuously rising.
(xi) There is an urgent need to upgrade and improve school curricula, to increase their
knowledge content and to provide adequately for the development of skills, and the
inculcation of right interests, attitudes and values. Similar steps are also needed at the
university stage.
(xii)Regarding examination reform, attention should be concentrated on three major areas:

reduction of the dominance of external examination; introduction of reforms which
would make them more valid and realistic; and the adoption of a good system of internal
evaluation. The National Policy on Education (NPE-1968) was prepared to improve the
quality of education in the country and was focused on providing education facilities to
all the citizens of the nation. The policy has been reviewed in the subsequent years. It
was further updated in 1992 to spread knowledge and freedom of thought among the
citizens of the country. Though education is in the concurrent list of the Constitution of
India, the State Governments play an important role in the development of education
especially in the primary and the secondary levels.
NPE-1968
According to the National Policy on Education-1968, the government of India had formulated
certain principles to promote the development of education in the country. These principles
are:
Free and Compulsory Education: According to Article- 45 (Indian Constitution), education

should be free and compulsory up to the age of 14. Steps should be taken to ensure that child
who is enrolled in the school should successfully complete the course.
Education of Teachers: Teacher is the most important person to determine the quality of
education in the country. He should be honoured in the society. His emoluments and service
standard should be increased with due regards to their responsibilities and qualifications.
Proper attention should be given for teacher education. They should also get academic
freedom to write, to study and to speak on national and international issues. The constitution
of India mentions freedom of expression to all.
Language Development The policy had also emphasized on the development of Indian as
well as foreign languages in the country. The three language formula should be introduced
in which a student at the secondary level should know Hindi, English and the regional
language of his state. The language Sanskrit has been included as an optional subject in
secondary level.
Education Opportunity for all Under this policy every child of the country should get
education irrespective of caste, religion, region or whatever the case may be. Special emphasis
should be given to backward classes, minority children, girls and physically challenged
children to avail the education facilities.
Uniform Education Structure The structure of education should be uniform throughout the
country. It should be a 10+2+3 pattern from higher secondary to college level. During the
course of study each student should get an atmosphere for sports and games. He should also
develop the quality of work experience and should also participate in programmes related to
National construction and Community services.
To review the progress, the government should review the progress of education in the
country from time to time and should present guidelines for future development.
NPE-1986/92 (Revised)
The National Policy on Education-1986 was modified in 1992. It is a comprehensive frame

work to guide the development of education in the country. The principles included in the
NPE-1968 are also included in the new policy with some modifications.
Modifications and Additions : The new education policy will give emphasis on retention of
children in the schools at primary level. The cause of the drop out of the children from the
school should be strategically handled by making plans. The network of Non-Formal
education in the country to be introduced and also the education should be made compulsory
up to the age of 14. Greater attention should be given to the backward classes, physically
challenged and minority child for their development in education. Major emphasis will be
laid on women ’s education to overcome the poor rate of illiteracy among female. They will
be given priority in various educational institutes and special provisions will be made available
for them in vocational, technical and professional education. Institutions will be provided
with resources like infrastructure, computers, libraries. Accommodation for students will be
made available especially for girls students. Teachers will have the rights to teach, learn and
research. The Central Advisory Board of Education will play an important role in reviewing
educational development and also to determine the changes required to improve the
education in the country. State government may establish State Advisory Board of Education
to look after the state’s progress in education. Nongovernment organizations will be
encouraged to facilitate the education in the country. At the same time steps will be taken to
prevent establishment of institutions for commercialization of education.
National Education Policy (NEP) 2020
The National Policy on Education was framed in 1986 and modified in 1992. Since then
several changes have taken place that calls for a revision of the Policy. The NEP 2020 is the
first education policy of the 21st century and replaces the thirty-four-year-old National Policy
on Education (NPE), 1986. Built on the foundational pillars of Access, Equity, Quality,
Affordability and Accountability, this policy is aligned to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development and aims to transform India into a vibrant knowledge society and global
knowledge superpower by making both school and college education more holistic, flexible,
multidisciplinary, suited to 21st century needs and aimed at bringing out the unique
capabilities of each student.
Salient features of the NEP 2020
School Education
Ensuring Universal Access at all levels of school education: NEP 2020 emphasizes on ensuring
universal access to school education at all levels- pre school to secondary. Infrastructure
support, innovative education centres to bring back dropouts into the mainstream, tracking
of students and their learning levels, facilitating multiple pathways to learning involving both
formal and non-formal education modes, association of counsellors or well-trained social
workers with schools, open learning for classes3,5 and 8 through NIOS and State Open
Schools, secondary education programs equivalent to Grades 10 and 12, vocational courses,
adult literacy and life-enrichment programs are some of the proposed ways for achieving this.
About 2 crores out of school children will be brought back into main stream under NEP
2020.
Early Childhood Care & Education with new Curricular and Pedagogical Structure: With
emphasis on Early Childhood Care and Education, the 10+2 structure of school curricula is
to be replaced by a 5+3+3+4 curricular structure corresponding to ages 3-8, 8-11, 11-14, and
14-18 years respectively. This will bring the hitherto uncovered age group of 3-6 years under
school curriculum, which has been recognized globally as the crucial stage for development
of mental faculties of a child. The new system will have 12 years of schooling with three years
of Anganwadi/ pre schooling. NCERT will develop a National Curricular and Pedagogical
Framework for Early Childhood Care and Education (NCPFECCE) for children up to the
age of 8. ECCE will be delivered through a significantly expanded and strengthened system
of institutions including Anganwadis and pre-schools that will have teachers and Anganwadi
workers trained in the ECCE pedagogy and curriculum. The planning and implementation
of ECCE will be carried out jointly by the Ministries of HRD, Women and Child
Development (WCD), Health and Family Welfare (HFW), and Tribal Affairs.
Attaining Foundational Literacy and Numeracy: Recognizing Foundational Literacy and
Numeracy as an urgent and necessary prerequisite to learning, NEP 2020 calls for setting up
of a National Mission on Foundational Literacy and Numeracy by MHRD. States will prepare
an implementation plan for attaining universal foundational literacy and numeracy in all
primary schools for all learners by grade 3 by 2025.A National Book Promotion Policy is to
be formulated.
Reforms in school curricula and pedagogy: The school curricula and pedagogy will aim for
holistic development of learners by equipping them with the key 21st century skills, reduction
in curricular content to enhance essential learning and critical thinking and greater focus on
experiential learning. Students will have increased flexibility and choice of subjects. There
will be no rigid separations between arts and sciences, between curricular and extra-curricular
activities, between vocational and academic streams. Vocational education will start in schools
from the 6th grade, and will include internships. A new and comprehensive National
Curricular Framework for School Education, NCFSE 2020-21, will be developed by the
NCERT.
Multilingualism and the power of language: The policy has emphasized mother tongue/local
language/regional language as the medium of instruction at least till Grade 5, but preferably
till Grade 8 and beyond. Sanskrit to be offered at all levels of school and higher education as
an option for students, including in the three-language formula. Other classical languages
and literatures of India also to be available as options. No language will be imposed on any
student. Students to participate in a fun project/activity on ‘The Languages of India’,
sometime in Grades 6-8, such as, under the ‘Ek Bharat Shrestha Bharat’ initiative. Several
foreign languages will also be offered at the secondary level. Indian Sign Language (ISL) will
be standardized across the country, and National and State curriculum materials developed,
for use by students with hearing impairment.
Assessment Reforms: NEP 2020 envisages a shift from summative assessment to regular and
formative assessment, which is more competency-based, promotes learning and development,
and tests higherorder skills, such as analysis, critical thinking, and conceptual clarity. All
students will take school examinations in Grades 3, 5, and 8 which will be conducted by the
appropriate authority. Board exams for Grades 10 and 12 will be continued, but redesigned
with holistic development as the aim. A new National Assessment Centre, PARAKH
(Performance Assessment, Review, and Analysis of Knowledge for Holistic Development),
will be set up as a standard-setting body.
Equitable and Inclusive Education: NEP 2020 aims to ensure that no child loses any
opportunity to learn and excel because of the circumstances of birth or background. Special
emphasis will be given on Socially and Economically Disadvantaged Groups(SEDGs) which
include gender, socio-cultural, and geographical identities and disabilities. This includes
setting up of Gender Inclusion Fund and also Special Education Zones for disadvantaged
regions and groups. Children with disabilities will be enabled to fully participate in the regular
schooling process from the foundational stage to higher education, with support of educators
with cross disability training, resource centres, accommodations, assistive devices, appropriate
technology-based tools and other support mechanisms tailored to suit their needs. Every
state/district will be encouraged to establish “Bal Bhavans” as a special daytime boarding
school, to participate in art-related, career-related, and play-related activities. Free school
infrastructure can be used as Samajik Chetna Kendras
Robust Teacher Recruitment and Career Path: Teachers will be recruited through robust,
transparent processes. Promotions will be merit-based, with a mechanism for multi-source
periodic performance appraisals and available progression paths to become educational
administrators or teacher educators. A common National Professional Standards for Teachers
(NPST) will be developed by the National Council for Teacher Education by 2022, in
consultation with NCERT, SCERTs, teachers and expert organizations from across levels and
regions.
School Governance: Schools can be organized into complexes or clusters which will be the
basic unit of governance and ensure availability of all resources including infrastructure,
academic libraries and a strong professional teacher community.
Standard-setting and Accreditation for School Education: NEP 2020 envisages clear, separate
systems for policy making, regulation, operations and academic matters. States/UTs will set
up independent State School Standards Authority (SSSA). Transparent public self-disclosure
of all the basic regulatory information, as laid down by the SSSA, will be used extensively for
public oversight and accountability. The SCERT will develop a School Quality Assessment
and Accreditation Framework (SQAAF) through consultations with all stakeholders.
Outcomes of NEP 2020
Universalization from ECCE to Secondary Education by 2030, aligning with SDG 4

Attaining Foundational Learning & Numeracy Skills through National Mission by 2025
100% GER in Pre-School to Secondary Level by 2030
Bring Back 2 Cr Out of School Children
Teachers to be prepared for assessment reforms by 2023
Inclusive & Equitable Education System by 2030
Board Exams to test core concepts and application of
knowledge Every Child will come out of School adept in at
least one Skill Common Standards of Learning in Public &
Private Schools.
Secondary education in five year plans
Introduction
(Since 1947, the Indian economy has been premised on the
concept of planning. This has been carried through the Five-
Year Plans, developed, executed, and monitored by the
Planning Commission. With the Prime Minister as the ex-officio
Chairman, the commission has a nominated Deputy Chairman,
who holds the rank of a Cabinet Minister. (The Planning
Commission was set up in March, 1950. The draft of the first
five-year plan was published in July 1951 and it was approved
in December 1951.The policy at present is to make secondary
education of good quality available, accessible and affordable
to all young persons in the age group of 14-18. (The Eleventh
Plan completed its term in March 2012 and the Twelfth Plan is
currently underway.
1st FIVE YEAR PLAN (1951-1956) ( In the first place, secondary
education must be closely related to the psychological needs of
the adolescents. ( It is necessary to give secondary education a
vocational bias ( Secondary education should grow from the
education that is being given at the primary stage, ( Suitable
types of multilateral or unilateral schools offering parallel
courses should be provided and the personnel for vocational
guidance, should be trained
2nd FIVE YEAR PLAN (1956-1961) ( Problems of secondary
education were reviewed by the Secondary Education
Commission. ( The Secondary Education Commission which
would include both general and vocational subjects. ( A
proportion of the existing high schools are to be converted into
higher secondary schools and multipurpose schools. ( At the
secondary stage, the education of girls lags seriously behind.
3rd FIVE YEAR PLAN (1961-1966) ( Development of the
economy and the large increase in the number of secondary
schools and in the number of students of the age-group 14—17
enrolled in them have altered the character of the demands
which secondary education is called upon to meet. New social
groups are seeking education and are coming within its
influence. Higher secondary schools.: One of the principal
recommendations of the Secondary Education Commission was
that high schools should be upgraded to higher secondary
schools ( Science education: The Second Plan gave high priority
to the expansion and improvement of science education at the
secondary stage. ( Multipurpose schools. : One of the main
defects in the secondary education system was its unilateral
character, only one type of academic course being provided for
all students irrespective of their individual aptitudes and
abilities Educational and vocational guidance. The successful
organization of secondary education requires the provision of a
well-planned programme of educational and vocational
guidance ( Educational and vocational guidance. The successful
organization of secondary education requires the provision of a
well-planned programme of educational and vocational
guidance
4th FIVE YEAR PLAN (1969-1974) ( Secondary Education.—In
the Fourth Plan, it is expected to enrol 3.1 million additional
pupils in classes IX—XI. The trend of expansion of facilities at
the secondary stage ( The location of new schools will be
determined according to the requirements of each area as spelt
out in detailed district plans. ( The main effort in the Fourth
Plan will be to enrich the content and improve the quality of
secondary education.
5th FIVE YEAR PLAN (1974-1978) ( There was no focus on
secondary education
6th secondary and higher secondary education are important
terminal stages in the system of general education and provide
a first stage for linking education with the world of work. ( The
importance of secondary education to prepare man power for
economic development would stress the need to pay special
attention to the quality of education at this stage. Science
teaching would be strengthened and laboratory equipment
provided, both for experimentation and demonstration. One of
the important links between education and development is
provided by manpower development through vocationalization
of secondary education related to employment. This has to be
carefully designed, based on detailed surveys of existing and
potential work opportunities and of available educational and
training facilities
7th FIVE YEAR PLAN (1985-1990) ( The demand for secondary
education has been growing. Provision has been made for this
purpose and for promoting distance learning techniques and
open school systems ( Girls education will be free up to the
higher secondary stage. ( The teaching of science and
mathematics at high/higher secondary stage of education will
be strengthened and made universal. Environment education
will form an important aspect of science education. Facilities
for production of the requisite audio-visual material including
educational software for broadcasting and telecasting will be
augmented substantially in the Seventh Plan. ( One of the
essential conditions for continuous improvement in the quality
of secondary education is an effective system of in-service
training of teachers. The existing facilities will be assessed,
additional requirements identified and steps taken to meet
them. The opportunity provided by the new communication
technology will be explored for this purpose
8 FIVE YEAR PLAN(1992-1997) ( Students have been diverted
into vocational stream ( As part of NPE, new CSSs for
vocationalisation of higher secondary stage, improvement of
science education and environmental orientation to school
education were started.
9th FIVE YEAR PLAN (1997-2002) ( More importantly, there are
disparities in educational access as between the urban, rural
and tribal areas. Gender disparities also exist. ( The Ninth Plan
will lay emphasis on the revision of curricula so as to relate
these to work opportunities. ( Pre-vocational training at the
secondary level ( The Open Learning system will be expanded
and a wide variety of courses offered.
10th FIVE YEAR PLAN (2002-2007) ( Secondary education serves
as a bridge between elementary and higher education and
prepares young people between the age group of 14-18 for
entry into higher education. ( The impact of recent initiatives
undertaken for the Universalisation of Elementary Education is
resulting in an increased demand for the expansion of
secondary education
11th FIVE YEAR PLAN (2007-2012) ( The success of SSA in
achieving large scale enrolment of children in regular and
alternate schools has thrown open the challenge of expanding
access to secondary education. Rapid changes in technology
and the demand for skills also make it necessary that young
people acquire more than eight years of elementary education
to acquire the necessary skills to compete successfully in the
labour market. Moreover, secondary education serves as a
bridge between elementary and higher education.
12th FIVE YEAR PLAN (2012-2017) ( •Ensure quality secondary
education with relevant skills including basic competency in
mathematics, science, languages and communication (
•Implement common curricula and syllabi of nationally
acceptable standards for Science, Maths and English in all
schools in the country ( •Develop life skills including skills of
critical and constructive thinking, use of ICT, organisation and
leadership, and community services
12th Plan Expected Outcomes India achieving a MYS of seven
years. Regional, Gender and Social gaps in
Elementary Education enrolment bridged & that in Secondary
Education substantially reduced. GERs in Secondary and Sr.
Secondary levels exceeding 90% and 65%, respectively. Gender
gap in Literacy reduced to 10%age points. A significant
improvement in quality and standards of education in
Government Schools ( •Extend RMSA gradually to Higher
Secondary stage and cover all Government and Aided Schools (
•Set national norms of secondary schooling for Universalization
of Secondary Education.
Conclusion Each five year plan aims to achieving certain target.
Five year plan constitute steps toward the fulfilment of
objectives of secondary education planning.
Decentralization of administration and management of secondary
education
In India, since 1993, responsibilities and authorities in many democratic sphere, including
education, have been devolved to local bodies i.e. Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs).
rd
According to 73 Constitutional Amendment Act 1992, tasks in following areas devolved to
PRIs: Education, including primary and secondary schools, Technical training and vocational
education, Adult and non-formal education, Libraries and Cultural activities.
This decentralization in education is a complex process as it can result in substantial changes
in educational system, in educational management, teacher -training, designing curriculum
etc. Changes in education system indisputably cause changes in social system because
education is potential sub-social system responsible for socialization and social change. This
can directly promote social democracy.
In the whole country PRIs, the local level political bodies are established to manage many
economic, academic and administrative tasks in educational management along with their
other socio-political responsibilities. This is a reestablishment, (as education never was
centralized in India) is sought to redress historical inequalities by explicitly identifying the
representation of traditionally underserved groups, women, schedule castes and scheduled
tribes. Unlike other countries of the world, India is facing multiple problems such as
geographical one, as many regions are hard to reach with reference to providing educational
services. Some sociological phenomena such as caste, religion, ethnicity, gender etc., which
also transform social status into educational status in the long run. Rural-urban division also
affects the delivery of educational services and causes multiple inequalities in the society.
Considering all these problems of inequality, decentralization becomes imperative in the
quest for equality. This system has been considered as a way to social justice. In decentralized
system local communities can manage the educational services delivery according to their
local needs. Local level problems can be identified without delay and quick solution can be
provided in their own way which might never have been understood by the authorities in the
center. Central and state government and their administrative machinery facilitates in the
terms of resources, monitor their management as well as provide technical support to these
bodies.
This increased capacity of decision making at the local level has been hoped to improve the
educational delivery system and its quality directly by increasing the amount of input and
its quality in the schooling. Programmes designed at this level are guaranteed to be relevant
and also can reduce inequalities in access to education of quality. This territorial
decentralization benefits the central and state governments by relieving them of political
and financial problems. It is now necessary to deliberate over the issues of inequality in
education which was thought to be solved by decentralization of education system.
Article 40C of the constitution states that “The state shall take steps to
organize village Panchayats and endow them with such powers and authority
as may be necessary to enable them to function as units of self-development. As far as
the education of children is concerned, this means an important stake for parents,
community representatives, teachers and others in the decision
of various processes that comprisethe education of children – the articultion of its aims, r
elated to knowledge and curriculum, the teaching-
learning process and so on. Locali n s t i t u t i o n s o f s e l f g o v e r n m e n t
such as the Panchayats, can then be seen as being
representative of the voices of this collective.
Commissions such as the Kothari Commission reiterated national commitment to
it,while the various National Curriculum Framework(NCF) documents
since the 70’sinvoked or implied decentralization in terms of creating s
pace for local knowledge andexperience to be weaved into the
curriculum, to give the ‘local’ element its due in the education of the child.
Though the three-tier Panchayati Raj system was introduced soon
after independence in the context of political decentralization, the block level (consisting of
100-150
villages) was considered to be the unit of development administration.
The Block Development Office was established as a result. The district
, created during the British period, remained as it is. For many years, the district w
as the centre from which educationwas governed in the entire district. Given the continuous
expansion or primary education, the Block Education Office was established around the 70’s.
Thus, a ‘de-concentration’ of power was effected in education, though the
Panchayats as elected institutions of people, were nowhere in the picture with
respect to these developments. Even with this de-concentration, it has been pointed out that
considerable authority was still vested at the district and state levels, especially concerning
teacher appointments, transfers, development of textbooks, planning location of
new schools, etc. The nineteen eighties’ revival in Panchayati Raj did result in
some gains for education but by and large, decentralization of authority did not move beyond
the district levels. The NPE of 1986 was a significant development in the education landscape
of the country. It was a comprehensive attempt to review the education scenario and suggest
future directions. The NPE has articulated grassroots level involvement through micro-
planning. The Program of Action (POA) of 1992 was prepared to work out the specific details
needed to take forward the NPE. However, the policy or its POA did not consider the
devolution of powers to local self-governing institutions. NPE essentially talked about de-
concentration – streamlining the bureaucracy, decongesting the higher level education offices
and creating a district board of education vested with authority and autonomy.
These apart, village education committees were formed through government
orders in most states. In
many cases, these committees were seen as a subset of the local
P a n c h a y a t ( w i t h t h e Panchayat president often being the chairman o
f the committee), though they were not autonomous in any real sense. Local
education governance therefore was as such not on the radar of the NPE though at
that time there were efforts at the revival of the discourse on
decentralization. A clearer articulation of the link between education and
decentralization had to wait till the73rda n d 7 4 th
constitutional amendments which provide a mandate for the control an
d governance of education by the elected Panchayat bodies. The delineation of specific
powers and responsibilities to be transferred from the state to the local bodies is
featured in these amendments. “At the primary stage, it is required to organize the program
to bring the school close to the community with an accent on serving the
community in different ways…” Further, “School education is predominantly a local-
state partnership and higher education is a center-state partnership.
It is this basic principle that should guide the evolution of delicate bal
ance between centralization and decentralization which our planning.
The constitutional amendments envisaged that Panchayats would be given the responsibility
(at various levels within the three-
tier system) of primary, elementary and secondary education, technical
training and vocational education, adult and non-formal education, as
well as cultural activities. Education has been mentioned at different p
laces in the Act.Specifically, as far as education is concerned:
•The Gramasabha (council of all villagers) will be responsible for adult education
•T h e G r a m a P a n c h a y a t ( l o c a l s e l f g o v e r n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n a t t h e v
i l l a g e l e v e l ) i s responsible for formal education through primary and
elementary school, ensuring enrolment, mobilizing local communities/parents on
their children’s education, and undertaking school construction and maintenance.
•The Panchayat Samiti (at the block level) has the general functions of promoting
education including construction, maintenance of school buildings, hostels, provision of
support to marginalized children in the form of scholarships, supply of books, T-L materials,
etc.
•T h e Z i l l a P a r i s h a d ( D i s t r i c t P a n c h a y a t ) i s e x p e c
t e d t o l o o k a t s c h o o l infrastructure/basic facilities (up to seco
ndary/higher secondary level, includingAshram Shalas or residential sc
hools), improvement in physical access, hostelconstruction, support through
scholarships and teaching-learning materials for SC, ST and other backward caste children.
The constitutional amendment also specifies that ‘standing committees’ consisting of elected
members could be formed for different areas/subjects, at all the levels within the
three tier system. Such committees for education, if they were formed,
would be expected to be responsible for all the functions with respect to the
education of children/adults in the areas under their jurisdiction. With the
liberalization and opening up of India’s economy in the early nineties, the Indian
government sought external funding for universalizing primary educati
on. As centrallys p o n s o r e d s c h e m e s l i k e D P E P c a m e i n t o b e i n g i n
t h e m i d n i n e t i e s , t h e p r a c t i c e o f constituting or re-constituting committees at
the village level for education, variously named as Village Education Committees (VECs),
School Management Committee (SMC), or School Development and Management
Committee (SDMC) was followed in many states. In most cases, these committees
existed at that time (as residue of other interventions in the past), but were more or less
defunct. The newly formed or re-constituted committees also were deemed to have links
with the local Panchayat. The common practice was to have the Panchayat
President as the Chairman of this committee, and the teacher as its Secretary. Other members
included selected community representatives (from
various sections of the community), parents, teachers etc. Membership was also reserv
ed for women. On the whole, these committees or groups were expected to play the role of
a vigilante – see if teachers were coming on time or check if all children were in school
among other such tasks. The actual process of education, of teaching and learning, were
never really on the radar of these interventions. These were deemed to be under
the control of the education department.
The explanation of three tier panchayati raj, PTA, SDMC and all is
mentioned above.
Administration responsibility of different levels of central and state govt
The Organizational Structure: Education as indicated above, is the joint responsibility of States and the
Centre. The organizational structure has been developed to manage education at different levels i.e.,
Centre, State, District, Block and at village level.
a) Central Level
At the Central level, the Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD) is the main governmental
agency. Earlier designated as the Ministry of Education, it was renamed as MHRD in 1985 in view of
the variety of activities which it undertakes for human resource development. At the Central level, the
Department of Education in the MHRD is responsible for all matters pertaining to education, including
overall planning of programmes and providing guidance for their implementation. The MHRD, is
headed by a Cabinet Minister of the Union Government. The Department of Education, under the
MHRD, is under the charge of a Minister of State who is advised at the official level by the Secretary to
the Department, assisted by an additional secretary and Educational Advisor on academic and policy
matters of Education. The Department of Education consists of several bureaus, each of which is headed
by a Joint Secretary or Joint Educational Advisor. These officials are assisted by Directors, Deputy
Secretaries or Deputy Educational Advisors, who are the divisional heads. In terms, they are assisted by
Under Secretaries or Assistant Educational Advisors, who have one or more sub-divisions under them.
These divisions form part of different bureaus. The Central Government has created a number of
specialized institutions and organizations to help and advise the Government in the matter of
formulation and implementation of policies and programmes in the field of education, particularly
school education. The following is the list of such institutions and organizations which assist and advise
the Central Government:
1. Central Board of Secondary Education, New Delhi.
2. Central Hindi Directorate, New Delhi.
3. Central Institute of Indian Languages, Mysore.
4. Central Institute of English and Foreign Languages, Hyderabad.
5. Educational Consultants of India Ltd., New Delhi.
6. Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathana, New Delhi.
7. National Council of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi.
8. National Council of Teacher Education, New Delhi.
9. National Institute of Adult Education, New Delhi.
10. National Institute of Public Co-operation and Child Development, New Delhi.
11. National Open School, New Delhi.
12. Navodaya Vidyalaya Samiti, New Delhi.
13. All India Council for Technical Education, New Delhi.
14. University Grants Conunission, New Delhi.
15. National Institute of Educational Planning and Adnlinistration, New Delhi.
16. National Sports Authority of India, New Delhi.
17. National Literacy Mission, New Delhi.
Administrative Structure of School Education at the State Level
At the State level, the position varies. In some States there is the State Ministry of Education headed
by a Minister of Education which looks after the entire sector of education in the States. There might
be separate ministries for different sectors such as Higher Education, Technical Education etc. The
Minister or Ministers is/ are member(s) of the State Legislative Assembly. The Minister is responsible
to the State Legislature. There are a number of Directorates which functions under the respective
Ministries of Education. The Minister controls the formulation of educational policies, directs their
execution and supervises their implementation. Other Ministers and departments control other types
of education like technical, agricultural, medical, and industrial etc. Under the Education Minister,
there is a Secretariat. The Secretary is the administrative head of the Secretariat. He is directly
responsible to the Minister for policy making and its execution at the school level. He generally
belongs to the Indian Administrative Service and is assisted by Joint Deputy Under Secretaries. States
have established Directorates of Education for different sectors such as Elementary, Secondary and
Higher Secondary. In the Directorate, the Director is the executive head. He /She is assisted by Joint
Directors, Deputy Directors, Assistant Directors etc. States are generally divided into educational
circles on the basis of geographical proximity of the districts. Each circle is under the charge of a
Circle Inspector or Circle Education Officer. He looks after schools in his / her circle with the help of
District Education Officers /District Inspectors of States; Block Education Officers and School
Inspectors are in charge of specific geographical regions. It is important to note that all States do not
have the same ‘administrative structure. In some States, there is only a two-tier administrative set up
viz., the State Department of Education and the Zonal or District Education Officer. In others there
might be an intermediary set up between the Department and the District level arrangement. There
are, therefore, variations in the administrative structure of school education at the State level.
CABE ON USE
1)The guiding Principles of Universal Secondary Education should be universal Access, Equality and
Social Justice, Relevance and Development, and Structural and Curricular Considerations.
2. Enrolling all children through lateral expansion of facilities in secondary education will not play to
meaningful universalization of secondary education. For effectiveness, it will require a paradigm shift
in the conceptualization of secondary education. The new generation secondary education should be
education of the adolescence for nurturing multiple intelligence in order to fructify full potential of
each child. Accordingly, curriculum has to be flexible offering interest and capability based choices,
supported by constructivist approach to learning and the flexible scientifically designed student
assessment system.
3. There has to be in norm for schooling. Such norms should be developed for each state with
common national parameters as well as state specific parameters.
4. The national level projections of enrolment as well as requirement of teachers, classrooms and
finance should be treated as indicative. Similar projections and estimations should be done for each
state separately.
5. Each state should develop a perspective plan for a universal secondary education. In order to
develop perspective, plan a comprehensive Secondary Education Management Information System
(SEMIS) should be developed as early as possible. The SEMIS must specially provide for capturing
data on girls, SC/ST, OBC, minorities and disabled children.
6. Decentralized micro-level planning to be the main approach to planning and implementation of
Universal Secondary Education. Block should be the unit for such micro-level planning.
7. For universal quality secondary education, the states must avoid softer options of para teachers;
fully qualified teachers with full salary and benefit must be the only option.
8. The present system of teacher education requires drastic reforms and expansion, in view of the fact
that demand for professionally qualified teachers is going to increase rapidly with the spread of
elementary education in the coming years. The present teacher education system is rooted in a
behavioristic theory of pedagogy and knowledge, and most of the teacher training institutes lack
proper infrastructure and a sense of responsibility towards the goal of educational policy as articulated
in 1986. The recently issued National Curriculum Framework proposes a constructivist orientation
towards knowledge and teaching, which would imply a serious effort to train all teachers in classroom
methods which might permit children to gain personal experience as a basis of understanding in all
areas of the curriculum. The implications of the new National Curriculum Framework for pre-service
education of teachers need to be worked out, both in terms of course revision and financial
investments to be made. Equally serious are the implications for in-service 55 teacher education which
will have to expand quite considerably and also become a lot more academically substantial activity
than it is at present in many parts of the country.
9. Heads of schools must be trained, preferably through a six-month diploma programme with three
months of practice and practical exercises.
10. Financial requirements for covering the cost of universal elementary and secondary education will
form approximately 5.1 percent of the GDP. Hence with the immediate allocation of 6 percent of the
GDP for education and progressive increase in this proportion will be necessary to move towards
universalization of secondary education.
11. Commercialization of school education as well as teacher education institutions must be curbed in
line with the policy of education which treats the running of educational institutions as a state and
social responsibility. This is especially important in the current context in which a large number of
private institutions, some of them receiving investment from abroad, are being set up. Even private
institutions have a social responsibility in the context of the Constitutional amendment which has
made elementary education a fundamental right of every child. The same can be said for the goal of
universalization of secondary education. Under no circumstance can anyone be allowed to exploit our
society’s need for a credible system of school education. The question of quality needs to be seen as a
dimension of systemic reform, and not as a basis for either acceptance of the presently entrenched
divisive systems of education or for further increase in its divisiveness. Instead, future expansion of the
school system should be accomplished along with systemic reforms which would make admission and
curriculum policies capable of enhancing the inclusive character of the education system.
12. The pressure on secondary education is already being perceived. It will not be wise to wait for 2010
when the pressure may become unbearable. Investment towards the goal of universal secondary
education must be made as early as possible, not later than 2006-07, preferably at the RE stage in the
current financial year, 2005-06.
Role of authority and civil society groups in programme implementation
Civil society organizations are important actors in social accountability processes that
follow up on the equality generating effect and on the effectiveness of public education
policies. The value of the knowledge, analysis and voice that CSOs can mobilize in
representation of marginalized groups should not be underestimated.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that education is a human right
and most countries have committed to guarantee the right to universal, free and
compulsory education, through the ratification of at least the United Nations
Convention on the Rights of the Child.
Most countries have also ratified other international legal instruments such as the
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, the International Covenant on
Economic and Cultural Rights, and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms
of Discrimination against Women and other ratified conventions, that oblige the
respective government to take measures to assure the right to education for all without
any kind of discrimination. Unfortunately, there is a huge gap between the countries´
international legal commitments to provide universal free and quality education and
the reality of ensuring such quality education for all. This is where Civil Society plays
a crucial role and in the best of worlds can be seen – also by governments – as
someone offering support, constructive critique and knowledge for the government to
become more in tune with the establishment of a society based on human rights
principles and the rule of law. Including ensuring education for all.
It is particularly poor and marginalized groups that are denied quality education, such
as children whose families live in poverty; girls due to gender discrimination; ethnic
or linguistic minorities; children with disabilities or those who are forced to work.
Children that live in fragile and conflict affected countries (FCAC) or who are refugees
are particularly in risk of being denied their right to education.
The situation in many countries demonstrates that many children and adolescents at
the age of being in secondary school have not come further than primary school, and
the % of secondary school age population in school is in general very low. It is also
of great concern that being enrolled in school does not guarantee learning.
There are many causes for this, such as lack of trained teachers, inadequate learning
materials, poor school facilities or the lack of social policies for the poorest families
which means that children risk to meet up in school sick, tired from child labor or
hungry, which impede them to pay attention in class and to actually learn.
It is not uncommon either that discrimination takes place inside the schools that
directly exclude or indirectly pushes marginalized or discriminated children and
adolescents out of school: This may impact on groups such as pregnant adolescent
girls, refugees, certain ethnic groups, homosexual adolescents, or those children or
adolescents that come from families that do not have the minimum amount of money
available to buy i.e. obligatory school uniforms and that end up expelled from school.
There is also a tremendous inequality problem among the richest and poorest groups
of the population when it comes to receive quality education. It is not uncommon that
education systems invest more funds in the education of the children and adolescents
from richer families than in those coming from families with lower income.
Yet all these children and adolescents have the right to education independently of
their status, individual situation or background. And therefore it is essential to have
civil society organizations that can amplify the voice of underprivileged and
marginalized groups in order to address structures and policies that reproduce or even
deepen societal inequality.
What civil society can contribute with
There is a spectrum of reasons why governments have difficulty in complying with
their obligation to guarantee free and quality education for all, from lack of political
will or conditions to prioritize the education system, institutional incapacity or a
general difficult economic situation or conflict situation of the specific country. There
is also a spectrum of reasons why civil society should play a role.
1. When Civil society organizations are participating in policy dialogues they
have the possibility to receive information about the advances and
shortcomings in the implementation of the education policies. They might also
have the possibility to raise concerns related to the impact of the policies on
the marginalized groups´ education situation in the country.
2. The CSOs are particularly important when they have representation of the
marginalized groups in their own organizations and can talk on their behalf.
They can contribute with valuable information and arguments for shaping the
education policies in favor of the poorest and most marginalized population
groups.
3. Civil society organizations can also advocate for monitoring that the learning
goes beyond traditional reading and writing skills and to promote that the
children and adolescents are also taught diverse life skills, such as
communication, problem-solving, critical thinking and reflection.
4. CSOs often have closer contacts with communities, and they can be the bridge
so that student, parent or teacher concerns about the quality of education
services reach policy makers. CSOs are also well placed to generate data and
evidence through data collection from communities and analysis, research and
evaluation activities in their respective countries and at the regional and global
level.
5. With the help of government, they can also participate in providing the needy
children with study materials, nutritious food, scholarships, hostel facilities etc.
The World Bank has adopted a definition of civil society that was developed by a
number of leading research centers, “the term civil society refers to a wide array of
non-governmental and not-for-profit organizations that have a presence in public life,
expressing the interests and values of their members or others, based on ethical,
cultural, political, scientific, religious, or philanthropic considerations. Civil society
organizations (CSOs) therefore refer to a wide of array of organizations: community
groups, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), labor unions, indigenous groups,
charitable organizations, faith-based organizations, professional associations, and
foundations.”
1) Policy Advocacy CSOs are engaged in policy dialogues with government in areas
of poverty alleviation and empowerment of the disadvantaged sections. These
organizations help the government in not only framing the policies in these areas but
also help policy execution and policy monitoring and review. ‘Save the Children India’
is a NGO that works towards the restoration of the rights of children.
2) Protection Role Association for Protection of Democratic Rights helps provide
legal aid to those who have no access to courts of law. Usually such types of CSOs
enable legal services and protect the citizens against the repressive attitudes. 144
Concept and Role of Civil Society
3) Promotion of Transparency The CSOs have enabled the enactment of RTI Act,
2005 and Lokpal and Lokayukta Act, 2013.
4) Mobilization of the Citizens and Resources These organizations involve
communities in development works by engaging them in planning and designing the
same. This even helps the government to back track some of its policies that are not
people friendly. They have used community resources to undertake initiatives like
building community infrastructure, houses, toilets, and in providing basic services like
water, electricity etc.
5) As an Active Partners in development NGOs like ‘Asha,’ ‘Pratham’ are actively
involved in providing education to the children in rural areas and slums in the country.
NGO like ‘Rural Health Care Foundation’ is providing health care services to the
people in rural and remote areas.
Centrally sponsored schemes and state projects and programmes- the changes it
brought in secondary education
1. SSA was approved by the Government of India in 2000 for achieving the goal of
universal elementary education in a time-bound manner. It aims to provide useful and
relevant elementary education for all children in the 6-14 age groups by 2010. It lays
emphasis on bridging school, regional and gender gaps with the active participation
of the community in the management of schools.
The scheme is administered by the Department of School Education and Literacy.
2. National Program of Mid-Day Meal (MDM) was launched in 1995 with a view to
enhancing enrollment, retention and attendance and simultaneously improving
nutritional levels among children. The objectives of the scheme are: (a) improving the
nutritional status of children studying in Classes I-VIII in government local body and
government aided school and EGS /AIE centers; (b) encouraging poor children
belonging to disadvantaged sections to attend school more regularly and help them
concentrate on classroom activities; (c) providing nutritional support to children of
primary stage in drought-affected areas during the summer vacation.
The scheme is administered by the Department of School Education and Literacy.
3. Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) was approved by the Government
of India in 2008 for universalization of access to and improvement of quality of
secondary education. It aims to provide useful and relevant secondary education for
all children in the 15-16 age groups by 2015. The scheme envisages: (i) provision of
infrastructure and resources for secondary education to improve the quality of
learning; (ii) provision for filling the missing gaps in the existing secondary school
system and (iii) provision for extra support for education of girls, rural children and
students belonging to SC / ST, minority and other weaker sections of the society and
(iv) a holistic convergent framework for implementation of various schemes in
secondary education. The scheme is administered by the Department of School
Education and Literacy.
4. Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) was launched in 1975 as a pilot scheme
in 33 selected blocks but now is a centrally sponsored flagship scheme for early
childhood care and pre-school education. The scheme has expanded nationwide
covering 10.53 lakh anganwadi centers. The objectives of ICDS are envisaged to be
achieved through a package of six basic services viz. supplementary nutrition,
immunization, health check-up, referral; services, pre-school non-formal education
and nutritional and health education.
The scheme is administered by the Ministry of Women and Child Development.
5. Central Rural Sanitation Program (CRSP) was launched in 1986. The Total Sanitation
Campaign was launched in 1999 as a flagship program under CRSP covering 578 rural
districts. The scheme proposes to bring about an improvement in the general quality
of life through accelerated sanitation coverage in the rural areas.
6. Integrated Watershed Development Programs aims at an integrated approach to
wastelands development based on village / micro watershed plans. The program also
aims at rural employment besides enhancing the contents of people’s participation in
the wastelands development programs at all stages, which is ensured by providing
modalities for equitable and sustainable sharing of benefits and arising from such
programs.
The scheme is administered by the Department of Land Resources of the Ministry of
Rural Development.
7. Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojna (PMGSY) was launched in 2000 as a fully funded
Centrally Sponsored Scheme to provide road connectivity in rural areas of the country.
The program envisages connecting all habitations with a population of 500 persons
and above (250 persons and above in respect of hill States, the tribal and desert areas).
About 1.67 lakhs unconnected eligible habitations need to be taken up with 3.65 lakh
km of new rural roads under the program. It also aims at upgrading 3.68 lakh km of
existing though routes / major link routes.
The scheme is administered by the Ministry of Rural Development.
8. Indira Awas Yojna (IAY) is in operation since 1985-86 with the basic aim to provide
assistance for the construction / up gradation of dwelling units for below poverty line
(BPL) rural households of SCs, STs and freed bonded laborer categories. Since 1993-
94 the scope of the scheme was extended to non-SC/ST category of the rural BPL
subject to the condition that the benefits to the non-SC/ST poor would not be more
than 40% of the total IAY allocation.
9. National Rural Employment Guarantee Program (NREGP) was launched in 2006 with
200 districts being covered in its first year of operation. The program has been
subsequently extended to cover 330 districts (2007-08) and aims to cover the entire
country in (2008-09) well before the target date for full coverage under the Act. The
primary objective is to provide guaranteed work for 100 days for any household
wishing to have such employment. Although all households are eligible the
expectation is that only the poorest sections, i.e., landless labor and marginal farmers
would actually seek work. The secondary objective is to ensure that employment
generated was from works that raise farm productivity and thus increase farm
productivity and incomes and employment over time.
10. National Food Security Mission was launched in 2007 to address the stagnating food
grain production and an increasing need of the growing population. The major
objective of the scheme is to increase production and productivity of wheat, rice and
pulses on a sustainable basis so as to ensure food security of the country. The approach
is to bridge the yield gap in respect of these crops through dissemination of improved
technologies and farm management practices. The Scheme covers 133 districts in 12
States of the country.
The Scheme is administered by the Department of Agriculture and Cooperation.
11. Swaranjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojna was launched in 1999 with the objective of
bringing the assisted poor families above the Poverty Line through self-employment.
The Scheme works through organizing the rural poor into Self Help Groups through
the process of social mobilization, their training and capacity building and provision
of income generating assets.
The Scheme is administered by the Ministry of Rural Development.
12. DRDA Administration was launched as a centrally sponsored scheme in 1999 to
strengthen and professionalize the DRDA administration that is responsible for
implementing the anti-poverty programs. This Scheme is funded in the ration of 75:25
by the central and state government.
The Scheme is administered by the Ministry of Rural Development.
13. National Means cum Merit Scholarship Scheme was launched in 2008 to award
100,000 scholarships to the gifted or meritorious students whose parental income is
not more than Rs. 1, 50,000 per annum from all sources. Each State / UT shall have
a fixed quota to scholarship which will be decided on the basis on enrolment of
students in Class VII and VIII in the State / UT concerned and population of children
of concerned age group of Class VII and VIII. The scheme would provide reservation
to different categories as the per the State / UT norms.
The Scheme is administered by the Department of School Education and Literacy.
14. Strengthening of Teachers Training Institutions was launched in 1987-88 to create a
strong infrastructure and institutionalized training system for both elementary and
secondary school teachers. The scheme also provides for strengthening of the State
Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT).
15. Scheme for setting up of 6000 Model Schools at Block level as Benchmarks of
Excellence was launched in 2007 towards fulfillment of the overall objective of
universalizing secondary education. The model school is expected to have the same
infrastructure and facilities as a Kendriya Vidyalaya with stipulations on the pupil-
teacher ratio, ICT usage, holistic educational environment, appropriate curriculum
and emphasis on output and outcome.
16. Adult Education and Skill Development Program
17. Information and Communication Technology in Schools was launched in 2004 to
provide opportunities to secondary stage students to develop ICT skills and also for
ICT aided learning process. The Scheme is a major catalyst to bridge the digital divide
amongst students of various socio-economic and other geographical barriers.
18. National Mission in Education through ICT aims to leverage the potential of ICT in
teaching and learning process for the benefit of all teachers in Higher Education
Institutions in any time anywhere mode. The objective is to extend computer
infrastructure and connectivity to over 18000 colleges in the country including each
of the departments of nearly 400 universities and institutions of national importance
as a part of its motto to provide connectivity up to the last mile.
The Scheme is administered by the Department of Higher Education.
19. Setting up of New Polytechnics & Strengthening of Existing Polytechnics was
launched in 2008 to encourage vocational education and skill development. The
scheme provides for setting up of 1000 polytechnics, strengthening of 500 existing
polytechnics, construction of women’s hostel in 500 polytechnics and revamping of
community polytechnic scheme and increasing their number from 669 to 1000.
The Scheme is administered by the Department of Higher Education
20. National AIDS Control Program including STD Control aims to provide every person
living with HIV access to quality care and a dignified life. It is recognition of the
epidemic as a developmental problem rather than a mere public health issue.
The Scheme is administered by the Ministry of Health.
21. Post-Matric Scholarship & Book Banks for SC Students was launched in 2003 with
the objective of providing financial assistance to the Scheduled Caste Students
studying at post matriculation or post-secondary stage to enable them to complete
their education. These scholarships are available for studies in India only and are
awarded by the government of the State / UT to which the applicant actually belongs.
Students whose parents / guardians’ income from all sources does not exceed Rs.10,
000 per annum.
The Scheme is administered by the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment.
22. Scheme of PMS, Book Bank and Upgradation of Merit of ST Students aims to provide
financial assistance to students belonging to Scheduled tribes pursuing Post-
Matriculation recognized institutions. The Scheme covers professional, technical as
well as non-professional and non-technical courses at various levels and the scheme
also includes correspondence courses including distance learning and continuing
education.
The Scheme is administered by the Ministry of Tribal Affairs.
UNIT 3
CURRICULUM PEDAGOGY AND EVALUATION IN SECONDARY
EDUCATION
Principles of curriculum development at secondary level:
Curriculum refers both organized and informal activities of school life. School life
need not imply life of the child within the four walls of the school alone, but extent
beyond that. The place and importance of the curriculum in the educative process
needs no reemphasis. The following are the basic principles of curriculum
construction.
Principle of Totality of Experiences: In the first place, it must be clearly understood
that, according to the best modern educational thought, curriculum in this context
does not mean only the academic subjects traditionally taught in the school but it
includes the totality of experiences that pupil receives through the manifold curricular,
co-curricular and extracurricular activities.
Principle of Child-Centeredness: Child’s nature, concern, motive and need should
be of primary consideration in the construction of curriculum. Child is the central
point round which all the curricular activities in school involve and develop.
Curriculum should be adjusted to bring nearer to the child rather than the child
bringing nearer to the pre-determined curriculum.
Principle of Conservation and Creativity: An effective curriculum must be based on
the principle of conservation and creativity. While framing the curriculum we should
include those subjects and experiences which help in the conservation of cultural
heritage. There should be scope for their further modification in light of the changing
needs and situations. A modern curriculum cannot be static. Subjects should be
included in the curriculum, which will enable the child to exercise his constructive
and creative powers.
Principle of Integration: The curriculum should not split up into watertight academic
subjects. Various subjects included in the curriculum at a particular stage of education
should be integrated and correlated with many other as well as with the real life of
pupils. The school curriculum should promote unified studies which have direct
connection with life.
Principle of Flexibility: In order to serve the varying needs and concerns of individual
on the one hand and society on the other, curriculum should follow the principle of
flexibility and dynamism. It should allow desirable changes and modifications of its
contents from time to time in order to keep it up to date.
The Principle of Utility: It is a very important principle that at the time of curriculum
construction utility instead of ‘special knowledge’ or logical sequence should be the
base. Only that which is useful to the individual and society should be included in the
curriculum, and that which is not useful should be excluded, however, important
mater it may be. Nunn rightly says, “While the plain man generally likes his children
to 3 pick up some scraps of useless learning for purely decorative purposes, he
requires, on the whole, that they shall be taught what will be useful to them in later
life”.
Principle of Character Formation: Aim of curriculum identifies itself with
development of character and personality in the students. It should train their
desirable traits and qualities of character through the program of rules, regulations
and routines. Affective education should form part of curriculum for this character
training.
Principle of Mental Discipline: One major task of curriculum is to train the various
mental faculties or powers of the learner for their efficiency and precision. Mental
powers of individual are to be developed through the cognitive training and practice.
The Principle of Social Fulfillment: The curriculum should be connected with the
social life of the people. Since man is a social being, he cannot be isolated from the
society. Therefore, while constructing of the curriculum we cannot ignore the areas of
aspects of social life of the people. The social principle of curriculum construction will
help for training in citizenship. Curriculum should be constructed according to the
social context of the children.
Principle of Relating to Community Life: The curriculum should be vitally and
organically related to community life. It should allow to child to come into close
contact with the life around him. In fact, the curriculum should grow out of
community life. This means due importance should be given to social function and
productive work which is the backbone of organized human life.
Principle of Training for Leisure: The curriculum should be so designed as to train
the students not only for work but also for leisure. Attempts should be made to include
variety of co-curricular and extracurricular activities - social, athletic sports and games
and dramatics, etc. Such a curriculum will help the adolescence to release their pent
up emotions in a socially desirable channel.
Principle of Correlation: Curriculum should not ignore the natural 4 affinity that
exists in between the subjects. It should aim at giving a correlative view of knowledge
to students instead of compartmentalizing the subjects. For this, it should combine
and correlate between theory and practice of knowledge.
National curriculum framework of secondary education
National Curriculum Framework, 2005, published by NCERT, is quite significant for
bringing contemporary changes in school and teacher education curriculum. Keeping
in view the changing perspectives and contexts of school 45 Curricular Issues and
Quality Concerns in Secondary Education across the globe, necessary curricular
changes have been recommended in NCF, 2005. The major features of NCF, 2005 has
been articulated in five different areas of School Curriculum, they are ‘Perspectives of
Education’; ‘Learning and Knowledge’; ‘Curricular Areas, School Stages and
Assessment’; ‘School and Classroom Environment’; and ‘Systemic Reforms’. Let us
focus on the major concerns of NCF, 2005, for Secondary Education.
Perspectives of Education:
1) To strengthen a national system of education for a pluralistic society like India.
2) To integrate examination into classroom learning and also to make it more
informal, alternative, and flexible.
3) Reducing the curriculum load based on insights provided in ‘Learning Without
Burden’.
4) To practice curriculum based on enshrined values and caring concerns within
the democratic policy of India.
5) To ensure quality education for all levels of School Education.
6) To ensure that irrespective of caste, creed, religion and sex, all are provided with
a standard curriculum.
Learning and Knowledge:
1) To focus on holistic development of the students to enhance their physical and
mental development.
2) To create an inclusive environment in the schools and classrooms for all
students.
3) To provide ample opportunity in the school for children voicing their thoughts,
curiosity, and questions in curricular practices.
4) Bringing children to connect their knowledge across disciplinary boundaries
and to help them construct their knowledge.
5) Engaging learners in observation, exploration, discovery, analyzing, critical
reflection, inquiry etc. with the content knowledge.
6) Connecting children’s experiences and local knowledge with the content
presented in the textbooks and practice of pedagogy.
7) Encouraging students to interact with peers, teachers and other people which
would open up many richer learning opportunities.
Curricular Areas, School Stages and Assessment:
1) Language: (a) Skills of language such as speech and listening, reading and
writing across the school subjects and disciplines need to be practiced. (b)
Discussing the functions of language across the curriculum. (c) To implement
three languages formula including mother tongue as the medium of instruction
at the elementary level. (d) English needs to 46 Issues and Concerns in
Secondary Education find its place along with other Indian languages. (e) The
multilingual character of Indian society should be seen as a resource for the
enrichment of school life.
2) Mathematics: (a) Provide scope to students about Mathematics as a discipline,
because at the secondary stage, students begin to perceive the structure of
Mathematics as a discipline. (b) Make familiar the students with Mathematical
communication such as: defining terms and concepts; use of symbols; stating
propositions and providing justifications. (c) Consolidating Mathematical
modeling, data analysis, and interpretation. (d) Individual and group
exploration of connections and patterns, visualization and generalization, and
making and proving conjectures. (e) Use of appropriate tools that include
concrete models as in Mathematics laboratories and computers. (f) Teaching
Mathematics should enhance children’s ability to think and reason, to visualize
and handle abstractions, to formulate and solve problems.
3) Science: (a) The language of Science teaching along with the content and
process needs to commensurate with the age and cognitive abilities of the
learners. (b) To engage learners in acquiring scientific methods and processes
that will help to nurture curiosity and creativity of the children particularly in
relation to the environment. (c) To make the learners acquainted with their
environment, to equip them with the requisite knowledge and skills to enter
into the world of work. (d) Systematic experimentation for verifying theoretical
principles and working on locally significant projects are to be an important
part of the science curriculum at the Secondary stage.
4) Social Science: (a) To focus on interdisciplinary approach of learning History,
Geography, Economics, Sociology, and Political Science and dealing with the
key national concerns such as gender, justice, human rights, and sensitivity
towards the marginalized groups and minorities. (b) Contemporary Indian
issues including deeper understanding of the social and economic challenges
needs to be initiated. (c) Social Science content needs to be focused on
conceptual understanding rather than linking up facts to memorize for
examination. (d) Work, Art, Peace, Health and Physical Education, and
Habitat and Learning needs to be properly represented in the Secondary
curriculum not only in Social Science but also in other subjects.
School and Classroom Environment: (a) Physical environment in the School has to
be maintained favorable in terms of infrastructure, adequate light and ventilation, ratio
of students and teacher, hygiene and safe environment. (b) School should treat
students with equality, justice, respect and dignity. (c) Implementation of inclusive
education policy where the differently-abled and children from marginalized sections
get equal opportunities. (d) School should also be well equipped with libraries,
laboratories, and educational technology laboratory.
Systemic Reforms: (a) Ensuring quality at every sphere of school education including
curricular activities, teaching-learning processes, examination, and development of
overall personality of the learners. (b) Meaningful academic planning has to be done
in a participatory manner by the head master/principal and the teachers. (c) Suggested
reforms for 47 Curricular Issues and Quality Concerns in Secondary Education
teacher education programmes. (d) Enhancing participation of the local government
in school activities so that the democratic participation in development can be realized.
(e) Reducing stress and enhancing success in examination. (f) Availability of multiple
textbooks to widen teacher’s choices and provide for the diversity in children’s need
and interest. (g) Sharing of teaching experiences and diverse classroom practices to
generate new ideas and facilitate innovation and experimentation. (h) Development
of syllabi, textbooks, and teaching-learning resources could be carried out in a
decentralized and participatory manner involving teachers, experts from Universities,
NGOs and teachers’ organizations.
Common core curriculum incorporating work centered pedagogy
The Common Core State Standards Initiative, also known as simply Common Core,
is an educational initiative from 2010 that details what K–12 students throughout
the United States should know in English language arts and mathematics at the
conclusion of each school grade. The initiative is sponsored by the National
Governors Association and Council of Chief State School Officers.
The initiative also seeks to establish consistent educational standards across the states
as well as ensure that students graduating from high school are prepared to enter
credit-bearing courses at two- or four-year college programs or to enter the workforce
The Common Core State Standards for Mathematics shifted the way the United States
teaches math in three core ways. They built on the pre-existing standards to emphasize
the skills and knowledge students will not only need in college, but in their career and
in life as well.[35] The key shifts are:[35]
1. Greater focus on fewer topics
2. Coherence: Linking topics and thinking across grades
3. Rigor: Pursue conceptual understanding, procedural skills and fluency, and
application with equal intensity
As an example, here is the description of one of the key shifts, a greater focus on fewer
topics:[35]
The Common Core calls for greater focus in mathematics. Rather than racing to cover
many topics in a mile-wide, inch deep curriculum, the standards ask math teachers to
significantly narrow and deepen the way time and energy are spent in the classroom.
This means focusing deeply on the major work of each grade as follows:
 In grades K-2: Concepts, skills, and problem solving related to addition and
subtraction
 In grades 3-5: Concepts, skills, and problem solving related to multiplication and
division of whole numbers and fractions
 In grade 6: Ratios and proportional relationships, and early algebraic expressions
and equations
 In grade 7: Ratios and proportional relationships, and arithmetic of rational
numbers
 In grade 8: Linear algebra and linear functions
This focus will help students gain strong foundations, including a solid understanding
of concepts, a high degree of procedural skill and fluency, and the ability to apply the
math they know to solve problems inside and outside the classroom.
Definition: Core curriculum is a set of school or college courses in subjects considered
essential to a suitable education, as providing necessary skills or common cultural
knowledge. Core curriculum is a set of courses that are considered basic and essential
for future classwork or graduation. In core-curriculum, there exists a set of common
learning, including knowledge, skills, and values. The common learning usually
consists of the following compulsory subjects like social science, geography, biology,
history, etc. In core curriculum, along with compulsory subjects optional subjects like
Fine Arts, Home Economics, Language, Music, etc. are also included. This general
education is considered necessary for students, irrespective of their choices in major
subjects. Maths, science, arts, music, visual arts, English, history, geography are
examples of core curriculum in a Middle School or High School.
Characteristics of Core Curriculum • Core courses emphasize discussion and group
problem solving; • Learning is not restricted to the classroom; • Students’ needs and
learning experiences take precedence over subject matter. 95 • Courses form a
coherent whole, integrated either through disciplines, themes, content, or a
combination of these; • Offers the study of many types of original materials, and not
only great books; • Core course emphasizes practice over subject matter in disciplinary
arts as they are applied to original sources; • Core programmes weave common
elements together for common reflection and discussion; • It utilizes the problems of
personal and social development common to all; • It encourages the use of the
problem-solving technique to face and solve problems; • It provides means for
developing social competence.
Relevance, integration, flexibility, contextuality and plurality determinants of
curriculum
Relevance: A curriculum is said to be relevant when it fulfills the needs of the child,
the society and the nation. A curriculum may appear to be relevant at one period of
time but may not be so relevant at some future period of time. Relevance also implies
that the curriculum is useful and appropriate in the particular social context and time
period. The criteria for relevance are based on the accepted philosophy of education
the goals of education, socio-cultural ethos of the society, background of the learners,
resources and materials available and needs of the individuals. A relevant curriculum
must answer questions such as : i) Does it help in achieving the goals of education?
ii) Can it be adapted and used by different schools under diverse learning situations?
iii) Is it in agreement with the educational policies of the country? iv) Does it fit into
the socio-cultural milleu of the learners.? v) Does it address itself to students with
different background? vi) Have the field realities been taken into consideration? vii)
Does it make use of available resources and materials? viii) How it taken it to account
the development status of the disciplines i.e. growth of knowledge in each discipline?
Curriculum Curriculum and Educational Opportunity 16 A relevant curriculum
should meet the needs and aspirations of the individuals. Knowledge is continuously
growing, the socio-economic status of society is also changing and the demand on
educational system are changing and increasing. To be relevant, the curriculum should
be dynamic. The curriculum should also be reviewed every 3-5 years to judge its
relevance. Curriculum should also be broad and diversified in order to be relevant to
a large number of individuals and to different sections of the society. Research
evidence based on empirical data should also be considered while reviewing the
curriculum for its relevance. 10.6.2 Flexibility: In India, we have diverse learning
conditions in different regions and schools. The curriculum, therefore, should be
flexible enough to be adopted in diverse learning situations and contexts by different
schools. Flexibility is in fact one of the conditions for curriculum to be relevant. The
curriculum should be flexible enough so that it can be tailored to meet the
requirements of all categories of children such as rural children, childeren with lower
class background; bilingual children, children of migratory workers and also
exceptional children. The school curriculum is usually based on the concepts,
meanings, value patterns and cultural backgrounds familiar to the middle and the
upper class children. The children from lower classes, therefore, are handicapped in
terms of their experiential and conceptual background. It has also been pointed out
that curriculum is generally based on urban concepts and experiences. A flexible
curriculum one is that is broad, diversified and which provides learning experience to
suit all categories of children. Schools can select or develop their own activities and
learning situations based on a broad curriculum framework. India is a multilingual
country. Children come to schools from homes where different languages are used.
The curriculum should be flexible to allow such choices of language and should
provide for smooth transition from the home language to the school language.
Children living in remote and geographically isolated areas have limited experience
compared to children in big cities. The curriculum should not only cater to the needs
of city children, it should provide relevant learning experience to children of isolated
areas according to their needs, experience and environment. Children of migratory
workers move from one place to another and frequently change their schools. Only a
flexible curriculum can meet the educational needs of these children. To be flexible
the curriculum should contain a variety of subject/disciplines to cater to interests and
aptitude of students. A curriculum should also have wide range of difficulty level for
students of different ability groups. It should also contain programmes for exceptional
children as well.
Contextuality : curriculum is defined as a planned, purposeful, progressive, and
systematic process of creating positive inputs to reach the goals of education. When
changes and alterations occur in society, consequently the curriculum is expected to
be modified. The curriculum needs to be updated according to the needs of individuals
and society. Take the example of the emergence and development of information and
communication technology in our context. As this trend became more popular, society
demanded related skills from individuals and naturally, the curriculum was modified
to focus on the development of new skills required of individuals. As we became more
conscious of the importance of catering to women’s needs, new subjects of study like
‘women studies’ emerged in the curriculum. The curriculum has a wide scope to
include much more than just studying subjects and moving up the ladder of education.
It has wider goals. Society looks at schools to prepare individuals according to its
needs. The school has to update children to address the needs of the contemporary
and future society. The school is a miniature society. It needs to find answers to the
problems faced by the society in areas like poverty, protection of environment, politics,
economics as well as sustainable development. The aspects that need to be considered
in a curriculum from the societal point of view are social change, transmission of
culture, social problems and issues, economic issues, technological aspects,
home/family, diversity, environment, politics, and religion. 144 Preparing members
according to Social Change Science and technology have brought enormous changes
in society. Technology has changed the world. The influence of mobile technology is
evident at all levels and in all places. The positive and negative results of technology
have changed the lifestyles of people to a large extent. Today people can connect to
anyone at any time in a very economical way. Every individual has access to knowledge
and information. These advantages require people to use technology extensively. At
the same time, its negative effects also have to be considered. It has come in the way
of human aspects like inter- personal communication, concern for others, and
empathy and has resulted in waste of time and misuse or disuse of human energy.
This has to be addressed by the curriculum at all levels. This is one example. The
results of social changes like this need to be considered by the curriculum. Curriculum
should prepare students not only for the present, but also for future. Hence, through
curriculum, students should be equipped with competencies and knowledge required
in contemporary society. Transmitting Culture Education is said to be the process of
consumption, transmission, and enrichment of culture. Culture is the totality of
knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, customs, and other human aspects. We have
experienced that each of these aspects keep changing. Until recently, women were
forced to live within the four walls of a home. That was the expectation of society and
was considered good for humanity. But today our thinking and beliefs have changed.
Women are progressing on par with men. The present society cherishes this aspect.
Accordingly, people have to change. Parents should be educated to send their
daughters to schools. Illiteracy of girls is considered as a serious problem. The
curriculum has to address issues like this. Today we are promoting inclusive education,
which is very relevant in a country, where diversity is one of the basic features of the
society. This naturally implies that educational experiences should be diverse,
according to their needs. Empowerment of women, education of the disadvantaged,
and mainstreaming the education of backward children are all the results of modern
ways of thinking. The curriculum should be framed with this perspective.
Plurality: the curriculum designed should be in favor of all disadvantaged groups
which in a way helps in the integration of all despite of all the disparities. Diversified
knowledge provision in vision of the needs of the society should be a good
characteristic of the curriculum. Further enhancement of the knowledge, diversified
learning activities, should be taken into account.
Integration: integration of various disciplines, integration of various concept so as to
make a whole one, integration of different experiences, correlation with the
community life, integration of previous knowledge to construct new knowledge,
application of various knowledge in real life experiences.
Pedagogical content knowledge for different subjects
Definitions
 Pedagogical content knowledge is a special combination of content and pedagogy that
is uniquely constructed by teachers and thus is the “special” form of an educator’s
professional knowing and understanding.
 Pedagogical content knowledge also is known as craft knowledge. It comprises
integrated knowledge representing teachers’ accumulated wisdom with respect to their
teaching practice: pedagogy, students, subject matter, and the curriculum.
 Pedagogical content knowledge must be addressed within the context of a diverse
pedagogy.
How PCK is Developed
 Pedagogical content knowledge is deeply rooted in a teacher’s everyday work.
However, it is not opposite to theoretical knowledge. It encompasses both theory
learned during teacher preparation as well as experiences gained from ongoing
schooling activities.
 The development of pedagogical content knowledge is influenced by factors related to
the teacher’s personal background and by the context in which he or she works.
 Pedagogical content knowledge is deeply rooted in the experiences and assets of
students, their families and communities.
Impact of PCK
 When teaching subject matter, teachers’ actions will be determined to a large extent
by the depth of their pedagogical content knowledge, making this an essential
component of their ongoing learning.
 Pedagogical content knowledge research links knowledge on teaching with knowledge
about learning, a powerful knowledge base on which to build teaching expertise.
Pedagogical Content Knowledge in Core Content Areas
As noted above, PCK illustrates how the subject matter of a particular discipline is
transformed for communication with learners. It includes recognition of what makes
specific topics difficult to learn, the conceptions students bring to the learning of these
concepts, and teaching strategies tailored to this specific teaching situation. To teach
all students according to today’s standards, teachers indeed need to understand subject
matter deeply and flexibly so they can help students map their own ideas, relate one
idea to another, and re-direct their thinking to create powerful learning. Teachers also
need to see how ideas connect across fields and to everyday life. These are the building
blocks of pedagogical content knowledge.
It is critical, however, that pedagogical content knowledge be subject-specific. What
are some examples PCK in the core subject areas of language, science, mathematics
and social studies? And how does this knowledge compare with other knowledge that
teachers traditionally master? The box on the next page shows a comparative view of
teaching standards that demonstrate differences in teaching expectations pertinent to
content knowledge, knowledge of general pedagogy, and pedagogical content
knowledge. Standards organized in this manner are a ready-made guide for
practitioners to use in directing the specialized learning of their content teachers.
Further, this distinction in knowledge bases can serve to assess the overall planning
and delivery of content teacher professional development.
Professional Development that Supports Development of PCK
It is not uncommon for professional development leaders to work with schools that
have concentrated all of their professional development efforts in only one area, such
as subject matter knowledge or with schools that have designed professional
development plans around only pedagogical concerns, such as effective instructional
techniques. Yet, they have not netted the hoped-for results in student learning as
evidenced in poor performance on achievement tests.
PCK theory questions the value of knowing everything about a subject if one does not
understand how students learn it or the value of being the very best at instructional
strategies if those strategies cannot deliver high quality subject matter knowledge.
What is needed instead is to orchestrate teacher learning opportunities that are
centered on the specific ways of knowing and doing within a given subject or, on
pedagogical content knowledge.
Fortunately, current professional development principles do guide the process of
teacher learning in ways that support PCK. We have best practices research that
delineates the best overall approach, context, strategies, and content of professional
development.
In addition to teachers' subject matter (content) knowledge and their general
knowledge of instructional methods (pedagogical knowledge), pedagogical
content knowledge was originally suggested as a third major component of teaching
expertise, by Lee Shulman and his colleagues and students. This idea represents a new,
broader perspective in our understanding of teaching and learning, and a special issue
of the Journal of Teacher Education was devoted to this topic.
Pedagogical content knowledge is a type of knowledge that is unique to teachers, and
is based on the manner in which teachers relate their pedagogical knowledge (what
they know about teaching) to their subject matter knowledge (what they know about
what they teach). It is the integration or the synthesis of teachers' pedagogical
knowledge and their subject matter knowledge that comprises pedagogical content
knowledge. According to Shulman (1986) pedagogical content knowledge
. . . embodies the aspects of content most germane to its teachability. Within the
category of pedagogical content knowledge, I include, for the most regularly taught
topics in one's subject area, the most useful forms of representation of those ideas, the
most powerful analogies, illustrations, examples, explanations, and demonstrations -
in a word, the ways of representing and formulating the subject that make it
comprehensible to others . . . [It] also includes an understanding of what makes the
learning of specific concepts easy or difficult: the conceptions and preconceptions that
students of different ages and backgrounds bring with them to the learning (p. 9).
Pedagogical content knowledge is a form of knowledge that makes science teachers
teachers rather than scientists. Teachers differ from scientists, not necessarily in the
quality or quantity of their subject matter knowledge, but in how that knowledge is
organized and used. In other words, an experienced science teacher's knowledge of
science is organized from a teaching perspective and is used as a basis for helping
students to understand specific concepts. A scientist's knowledge, on the other hand,
is organized from a research perspective and is used as a basis for developing new
knowledge in the field. This idea has been documented in Biology by Hauslein, Good,
& Cummins (1992), in a comparison of the organization of subject matter knowledge
among groups of experienced science teachers, experienced research scientists, novice
science teachers, subject area science majors, and preservice science teachers. Hauslein
et al. found that science majors and preservice teachers both showed similar, loosely
organized subject matter knowledge; and that the subject matter knowledge of the
novice and experienced teachers and the research scientists was much deeper and more
complex. However, compared to the researchers (who showed a flexible subject matter
structure), the teachers showed a more fixed structure, hypothesized to result from
curriculum constraints.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR TEACHERS
1. The first recommendation that can be made for teachers is for them to begin
to more often reflect on or think about why they teach specific ideas the way
they do. Teachers know much more about teaching subject matter concepts to
students than they are aware. This is pedagogical content knowledge; and many
teachers don't think about this knowledge as important. It is important,
though, because it determines what a teacher does from minute to minute in
the classroom, as well as influencing long term planning.
To become more aware of this knowledge and to be able to more clearly think
about it, teachers can find ways to keep track of this information, just as they
ask students to do with the data collected in lab assignments. One way is to
keep a personal notebook describing their teaching, even just once a week or
so for a few difficult concepts. Another strategy is to videotape or audiotape a
few class periods just to help see what's happening in the classroom. (It's not
necessary to have anyone but the teacher see or listen to the tape.) Then
teachers can start to think about the following types of questions. Which ideas
need the most explanation? Why are those ideas more difficult for the students?
What examples, demonstrations, and analogies seemed to work the best? Why
did they work or not work? Which students did they work best for?
2. Teachers can try new ways of exploring how the students are thinking about
the concepts being taught. Ask students about how and what they understand
(not in the sense of a test, but in the sense of an interview). Ask students what
"real life" personal situations they think science relates to. Try to get inside
their heads and see the ideas from their point of view.
3. Start discussions with other teachers about teaching. Take the time to find
someone you can share ideas with and take the time to learn to trust each
other. Exchange strategies for teaching difficult concepts or dealing with
specific types of students. Get involved in a peer coaching project in your
school or district. District faculty development staff or people at a local
university can help you get one started and may be able to provide substitute
support. Ask about telephone hot-lines and computer networks for teachers,
and explore the world wide web.
4. Get involved in action research projects. Much of the newest and most
important research is being conducted by teachers. Take a class at your nearest
university and find out what is going on. Get involved with a mentor teacher
program or a teacher on special assignment program. Join organizations and
go to conferences such as the national or regional National Science Teachers
Association or the NARST meetings. There are also often summer workshops
and institutes in specific fields in science at many universities and colleges.
CCE and school based evaluation at secondary stage

Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) was a procedure of assessment,
directed by the Right to Education Act, of India in 2009. This assessment proposal
was introduced by state governments in India, as well as by the Central Board of
Secondary Education in India, for students of sixth to tenth class and twelfth in some
schools.
Meaning:
Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) refers to a system of school-based
evaluation of students that covers all features of students’ development. It is a
developmental process of assessment that stresses two-fold objectives i.e. on
continuousness in evaluation and assessment of broad-based learning and behavioral
outcomes on the other.
According to this scheme, the term `continuous’ is meant to accentuate that
evaluation of identified aspects of students’ growth and development is a continuous
process rather than an incident, built into the total teaching-learning process and
spread over the whole duration of the academic session.
The second term `comprehensive’ means that the scheme tries to cover both the
scholastic and the co-scholastic aspects of students’ growth and development.
 The main aim of CCE was to assess every aspect of the child during their
presence at the school.
 CCE helps in minimizing the stress on children.
 Make assessment comprehensive & regular.
 Provide space for the teacher for prolific teaching.
 Provide a tool for detection & corrections.
 Produce learners with greater skill
Objectives of Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation:
Various are the objectives of Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation:
 It makes the process of teaching and learning a learner-centred activity.
 To make the assessment process an essential part of the teaching-learning
process.
 To make a fair judgment and take timely decisions for learner’s growth,
learning process, learning pace, and learning environment.
 To provide scope for learners for self-assessment.
 To use the evaluation process for improving students’ achievement through
detection and correction.
Features of Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation:
 The ‘continuous’ aspect of CCE takes care of ‘continual’ and ‘periodicity’
features of assessment.
 The ‘comprehensive’ elements of CCE takes care of the assessment of the all-
round development of the child’s personality.
 The continuous and comprehensive evaluation includes both Scholastic as well
as Co-Scholastic aspects of the pupil’s growth. Scholastic aspects cover
curricular areas or subject-specific areas, while co-scholastic aspects consist of
Life Skills, Co-Curricular Activities, Attitudes, and Values.
 Assessment in Co-Scholastic areas is done using several techniques based on
recognized criteria, while assessment in Life Skills is done based on indicators
of Assessment and checklists.
Functions of Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation:
 CCE helps the teacher to systematize efficacious teaching strategies.
 Continuous evaluation serves to detect weaknesses and permits the teacher to
ascertain certain individual learners.
 Through continuous assessments, students can know their strengths and
weaknesses.
 CCE helps in identifying changes in attitudes and value systems.
 CCE provides information on the progress of students in scholastic and co-
scholastic areas which results in forecasting the future success of the learners.
Aspects of CCE:
Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation considers both the scholastic and co-
scholastic aspects.
Scholastic assessment: Scholastic aspects include curricular areas or subject-specific
areas. These areas focus on oral and written class tests, cycle tests, activity tests, and
daily class performances of all subjects to improve writing and speaking skills.
Scholastic assessment should be both Formative and Summative.
Formative Assessment:
The formative assessment consists of diagnostic testing, which is the extent of formal
and informal assessment procedures conducted by teachers during the learning
process to alter teaching and learning activities to improve student achievement. It
typically involves qualitative feedback for both student and teacher that is the basis of
the details of content and performance. It is commonly compared with summative
assessment, which attempts to monitor educational outcomes, often for purposes of
external responsibility.
Features of Formative Assessment:
 It makes provision for effective feedback.
 It provides a plan for the active involvement of students in their learning
 It helps the student to support their peers’ group and vice-versa.
 It helps in integrating diverse learning styles to decide how and what to teach.
 co-scholastic aspects include Life Skills, Co-Curricular Activities, Attitudes, and
Values.
 It provides the student with a chance to improve their scores after they get
feedback.
 It helps in the detection and correction of the assessment process.
Summative Assessment:
Summative assessment is an assessment of students where the focus is on the
consequences of a program. The goal of summative assessment is to assess student
learning at the end of an instructional unit by comparing it against a norm.
Features of Summative assessment:
 It can be done at the end of a unit or semester to display the sum of what they
learn or whatnot.
 This is the contrast with formative assessment, which summarizes the
participants' development at a particular time.
 It is a conventional way of assessing students' work.
Co-scholastic assessment:
Co-Scholastic Areas of Assessment: The areas of Co-scholastic assessment focus on

increasing the skills of a student in general knowledge, environmental education,
physical education, art, music and dance, and computers. These are evaluated through
quizzes, competitions, and activities.
A school-based continuous and comprehensive evaluation system helps a learner in the
following ways:
 It reduces stress on children.
 It makes evaluation comprehensive and regular.
 It provides a tool for the detection and correction of action.
 It provides space for the teacher for creative teaching.
 It produces learners with greater skills.
Paradigms/Criterion of Assessments:
Assessment of Learning: The ‘assessment of learning is defined as a process whereby

someone tries to describe and measure the quantity of the knowledge, attitudes, or
skills organized by another. In this type of learning teachers’ directions is most
important and the student has meagre involvement in the design or execution of the
assessment process in these situations. In this assessment teacher designs learning and
collect proofs. A teacher also judges what has been learned by students or whatnot.
Assessment for learning: The assessment for learning involves an increased level of
student freedom, but not without teacher instructions and cooperation. The
assessment for learning is sometimes seen as having a relation to ‘formative
assessment. More emphasis is laid on giving useful advice to the student and less
emphasis on the giving marks and grading function. In this assessment teacher designs
learning and designs an evaluation process with feedback to the student.
Assessment as learning: This assessment may be more connected with diagnostics
assessment and can be constructed with more importance on peer learning. It
generates chances for self-assessment and peer assessment. Students take increased
responsibility in producing quality information about their learning and of others.
Teachers and students construct together learning, assessment, and learning progress.
Tools and Techniques of Learning:
There are two main purposes of evaluation. The first is to provide developmental
feedback to the learner, secondly, it is to qualitatively classify a learner based on their
learning outcome against a set of norms.
Multiple tools can be used for assessment. Similarly, more than one assessment tool
can be used in various assessment techniques. Assessment tools can be of two types
i.e. standardized and non-standardized.
Standardized tools of assessment:
These tools have the characteristics of objectivity, reliability, validity, and quality of
discerning between a high performer. Different types of validates, e.g. construct,
content and concurrent validity take care of balance and pertinence. Speed is a factor
in some tests, but not a common element in all tests. Psychological tests and
inventories like intelligence and aptitude tests, interests and study habits inventories,
attitudes scales, etc have those properties.
Non-standardized tools:
Non- standardized tests are teacher-made tests, rating scales, observation schedules,
interview schedules, questionnaires, opinionnaires, checklists, etc. Now we will deal
primarily with the tools of assessment set in the context of techniques. Some of the
tools and techniques of evaluation are:
Portfolio: A student portfolio is a collection of academic work and other forms of
educational proofs assembled to evaluate coursework quality, learning progress, and
academic achievement and determine whether students have met learning standards
or other academic requirements for courses, grade-level.
Anecdotal Records: An anecdotal record is an examination that is written like a short
story. They are the explanation of occasions or events that are important to the person
perceiving. Anecdotal records are short, objective, and as correct as possible.
Checklists: Checklists usually offer a yes/no format concerning student illustration of
particular criteria. This is similar to a light switch; the light is either on or off. They
may be used in recording observations of an individual, a group, or a whole class.
Rating Scales: Rating Scales allows teachers to show the degree or frequency of the
behaviors, skills, and strategies displayed by the learner. To continue the light switch
analogy, a rating scale is like a feeble switch that provides scope for performance levels.
Assignment: Assignments are a type of refinement to a variable. It is a task given to
students by their teachers to be completed out of class time.
Observation: In observation information about a child is collected in a natural setting
in and outside the classes with the help of observation.
Questions: Questions are the frequently applied tool for finding out what children
know, think, imagine, and feel. A teacher, in the course of teaching, comes to know
of learning difficulties in children by asking questions. Questions may be of various
types like essay type questions, short answer type questions, very short answer type
questions, objective type questions.
Document analysis: Document analysis is a type of qualitative research in which
documents are appraised by the analyst to evaluate an estimation theme.
The term school based assessment may be defined as: • Assessment that facilitates
attainment of competencies specified in terms of learning outcomes in a holistic
manner during teaching learning process. • Assessment embedded in the teaching
and learning process within the broader educational philosophy of ‘assessment for
learning’. • Assessment of school students by school teachers in the schools. 4.1 Salient
features of SBA • Integrate teaching-learning and assessment • No load on teachers
of documentation- recording, reporting • Child-centered and activity based pedagogy
• Focus on (learning-outcome based) competency development rather than content
memorization • Broadening the scope of assessment by way of including self-
assessment, peer-assessment besides teacher assessment • Non-threatening, stress free
and enhanced participation/ interaction • Focus on assessment of/and/as learning
rather than evaluation of achievement • Reposing faith on teacher and the system •
Enhancing self confidence in children
The purpose of the SBA is to empower the teachers to improve the learning levels of
the students.
A framework to improve the quality of learning through SBA in the schools is being
prepared which would focus on bringing in its ambit school leaders, teachers and the
whole network of officials at blocks, DIETs, SCERT and the Directorates of Education
in different States ad UTs. The key features of the School Based Assessment are:
 It is proposed to be a decentralised test where the preparation of the test papers
will be done at District level for which training will be given by NCERT and
administration of the test will be at the school level.
 Non standardized assessment would be used to link to individual learning
styles of each child. Emphasis will be on portfolio, self and peer assessment
used in conjunction with teacher assessment. Assessment of personal social
qualities along with cognitive competencies will be encouraged. A strong and
relevant feedback mechanism will be inbuilt allowing the teacher to give
immediate and constructive feedback to students.
 SBA would have an online reporting system of both school and teacher level
performance which can be monitored at the District, State and National level.
 Guidelines, handbook, videos, e-books and e-learning materials will be
developed for conduct of SBA and shared with the States and UTs.
 SBA would involve in its framework ‘a whole school approach’ which involves
the participation of the community in the learning process. Students’ progress
would be discussed with the parents and shared with the SMCs and
suggestions would be sought.
 In implementing the SBA, emphasis will be on on-site mentoring by the
Cluster Resource Center Coordinator (CRCC). The CRCCs would nurture
and support the teachers on a regular basis. Teachers would be encouraged to
participate in quality circles within the clusters.
 Sample checking by an external agency will be done to validate the data from
the schools.
Formative and summative assessment

Summative Assessment
Summative assessment sums up what a student has achieved at the end of a period of time,
learning aims and the relevant state/national standards. The period of time may vary,
depending on what the teacher wants to find out. There may be an assessment at the end of
a topic, at the end of a term or mid-term, at the end of a year or, as in the case of the national
curriculum tests, at the end of a key stage. Summative assessment at the basic education
provides pupils, teachers and parents with an understanding of the pupil’s overall learning.
Most commonly thought of as formal, time-specific exams, these assessments may include
major essays, projects, presentations, art works, creative portfolios, reports or research
experiments. These assessments are designed to measure the pupil’s achievement relative
to the subject’s overall learning goals as set out in the relevant curriculum standards.
According to Lane (2018), the design and goals of summative assessments are generally
standardized so they can be applied to large numbers of pupils, multiple cohorts and time
periods. Data collected on individual pupil, cohort, school or system performance provides
schools and administrators with a tool to evaluate student knowledge relative to the
learning objectives. They can also compare them with previous cohorts and other schools.
At basic education, summative assessments are typically used to evaluate the effectiveness
of instructional programmes and services at the end of an academic term, year or at a pre-
determined intermittent time. The goal of summative assessments is to make a judgment
of pupils’ competency after an instructional phase is completed. Although information
gained from summative assessments may be used to improve future teaching performance,
but most often, it is not provided in a timely fashion to provide opportunities for revision
or modification of instructional strategies while the teaching and learning is still in
progress. Because summative assessments are usually higher-stakes than formative
assessments, it is especially important to insure that the assessment is congruent with the
goals and expected outcomes of the instruction. To achieve this, Nicol and Macfarlane-
Dick (2007) outlined five approaches that can guide instructors as follows:
 Use a Rubric or Table of Specifications - Instructors can use a rubric to lay out expected
performance criteria for a range of grades. Rubrics will describe what an ideal assignment
looks like, and “summarize” expected performance at the beginning of term, providing
students with a trajectory and sense of completion.
 Design Clear, Effective Questions - If designing essay questions, instructors can insure
that questions meet criteria while allowing students freedom to express their knowledge
creatively and in ways that honor how they digested, constructed, or mastered meaning.
 Assess Comprehensiveness - Effective summative assessments provide an opportunity

for students to consider the totality of a course’s content, making broad connections,
demonstrating synthesized skills, and exploring deeper concepts that drive a course’s ideas
and content.
 Make Parameters Clear - When approaching a final assessment, instructors can insure
that parameters are well defined (length of assessment, depth of response, time and date,
grading standards); knowledge assessed relates clearly to content covered in course; and
students with disabilities are provided required space and support.
 Consider Blind Grading - Instructors may wish to know whose work they grade, in order
to provide feedback that speaks to a student’s term-long trajectory. If instructors wish to
provide truly unbiased summative assessment, they can also consider a variety of blind
grading techniques. Summative assessments at basic education are also tools to help
evaluate the effectiveness of programs, school improvement goals, alignment of
curriculum, or student placement in specific programs. It is therefore given periodically to
determine at a particular point in time what instructional objectives pupils have achieved.
Many associate summative assessments only with standardized tests such as state
assessments, but they are also used at and are an important part of classroom continuous
assessment. Summative assessment at the zonal/classroom level is an accountability
measure that is generally used as part of the grading process. The key is to think of
summative assessment as a means to gauge, at a particular point in time, pupils learning
relative to curriculum content standards. Although the information that is gathered from
this type of assessment is important, it can only help in evaluating certain aspects of the
learning process because they are spread out and occur after instruction every few weeks,
months, or once a year. Summative assessments happen too far down the learning path to
provide information at the classroom level and to make instructional adjustments and
interventions during the learning process. It takes formative assessment to accomplish this.
Formative Assessment
Formative assessment refers to the recurrent, interactive valuation of pupil progress to

identify learning needs and shape teaching. Formative assessment at the basic education
includes a range of strategies such as classroom discussions and quizzes designed to
generate feedback on student performance. This is done so teachers can make changes in
teaching and learning based on needs of pupils. It involves the teacher using a
communicative process to finding out what pupils know and do not know, and continually
monitoring student progress during learning. Both teachers and pupils are involved in
decisions about the next steps in learning while teachers use the feedback from formative
tasks to identify what students are struggling with and adjust instruction Journal of
Education and Practice. This could necessitate the teacher re-teaching key concepts,
changing how he/she teach or modifying teaching resources to provide pupils with
additional support. Students also use feedback from formative tasks to reflect on and
improve their own work. Formative assessment takes place on a day-to-day basis during
teaching and learning, allowing teachers and pupils to assess attainment and progress more
frequently. It begins with diagnostic assessment, indicating what is already known and
what gaps may exist in skills or knowledge. If teachers and pupils understand what has
been achieved to date, it is easier to plan the next step. As the learning continues, further
formative assessments indicate whether teaching plans need to be amended to reinforce or
extend learning. Formative assessments may be questions, tasks, quizzes or more formal
assessments. Often formative assessments may not be recorded at all, except perhaps in the
lesson plans drawn up to address the next steps indicated. According to Looney (2011),
formative assessment, which emphasizes the importance of actively engaging students in
their own learning processes, resonates with countries’ goals for the development of
students’ higher-order thinking skills and skills for learning-to-learn. It also fits well with
countries’ emphasis on the use of assessment and evaluation data to shape improvements
in teaching and learning. At the basic education level, formative assessment should be seen
as an integrated part of the teaching and learning process, rather than as a separate activity
occurring after a phase of teaching. Two-way feedback - from students to teacher and
teacher to students - is an indispensable feature of it. The merit of such feedback lies in the
evidence of its effectiveness in diagnosing pupils’ difficulty to improve learning. This
denotes learning as a practice in which understanding is actively constructed by students.
But when teaching is likened to “impartation of knowledge” and learning as “being taught”,
feedback from teacher to the student is merely watered down to the price of student’s work.
Formative assessment loses its meaning in teaching and learning seen this way.
Formative and Summative Assessment
----------
Yale Center for Teaching and Learning
https://ctl.yale.edu/ / https://ctl.yale.edu/Formative-Summative-Assessments
Assessment allows both instructor and student to monitor progress towards achieving learning
objectives. Formative assessment refers to tools used throughout a class or course that identify
misconceptions, struggles, and learning gaps, while assessing ways to close such gaps. Formative
assessment can help students take ownership of their learning when they understand its goals to
be about improving learning, not raising final marks (Trumbull and Lash, 2013).
Summative assessment evaluates student learning, knowledge, proficiency, or success at the

conclusion of a unit, course, or program. Summative assessments are almost always formally
graded and often heavily weighted (though they do not need to be). Summative assessment can
be used to great effect in conjunction and alignment with formative assessment.
Examples of Formative and Summative Assessments

Formative Summative
In-class discussions Instructor-created exams
Clicker questions Standardized tests
Low-stakes group work Final projects
Weekly quizzes Final essays
1-minute reflection writing assignments Final presentations
Homework assignments Final reports
Surveys Final Grades
Both forms of assessment can vary across several dimensions (Trumbull and Lash, 2013):
• Informal / formal
• Immediate / delayed feedback
• Embedded in lesson plan / stand-alone
• Spontaneous / planned
• Individual / group
• Verbal / nonverbal
• Oral / written
• Graded / ungraded
• Open-ended response / closed/constrained response
• Teacher initiated/controlled / student initiated/controlled
• Teacher and student(s) / peers
• Process-oriented / product-oriented
• Brief / extended
• Scaffolded (teacher supported) / independently performed
Recommendations
Formative Assessment Ideally, formative assessment strategies improve teaching and learning
simultaneously. Seven principles (adapted from Nicol and Macfarlane-Dick, 2007 with
additions) can guide instructor strategies:
• Keep clear criteria for what defines good performance - Instructors can explain
criteria for A-F graded papers, and encourage student discussion and reflection about
these criteria (though office hours, rubrics, post-grade peer review, or exam / assignment
wrappers). Instructors may also hold class-wide conversations on performance criteria at
strategic moments throughout term.
• Encourage students’ self-reflection - Instructors can ask students to utilize course

criteria to evaluate their own or a peer’s work, and to share what kinds of feedback they
find most valuable. In addition, instructors can ask students to describe the qualities of
their best work, either through writing or group discussion.
• Give students detailed, actionable feedback - Instructors can consistently provide

specific feedback tied to predefined criteria, with opportunities to revise or apply
feedback before final submission. Feedback may be corrective and forward-looking,
rather than just evaluative. Examples include comments on multiple paper drafts,
criterion discussions during 1-on-1 conferences, and regular online quizzes.
• Encourage teacher and peer dialogue around learning - Instructors can invite students
to discuss the formative learning process together. This practice primarily revolves
around midterm evaluations and small group feedback sessions, where students reflect on
the course and instructors respond to student concerns. Students can also identify
examples of feedback comments they found useful and explain how they helped. A
particularly useful strategy, instructors can invite students to discuss learning goals and
assignment criteria, and weave student hopes into the syllabus.
• Promote positive motivational beliefs and self-esteem - Students will be more likely to
find motivation and engage when they are assured that an instructor cares for their
development. Instructors can allow for rewrites/resubmissions to signal that an
assignment is designed to promote development of learning. These rewrites might utilize
low-stakes assessments, or even automated online testing that is anonymous, and (if
appropriate) allows for unlimited resubmissions.
• Provide opportunities to close the gap between current and desired performance -
Related to the above, instructors can improve student motivation and engagement by
making visible any opportunities to close gaps between current and desired performance.
Examples include opportunities for resubmission, specific action points for assignments,
and sharing study or process strategies that an instructor would use in order to succeed.
Summative Assessment Because summative assessments are usually higher-stakes than
formative assessments, it is especially important to ensure that the assessment aligns with the
goals and expected outcomes of instruction.
• Use a Rubric or Table of Specifications - Instructors can use a rubric to lay out
expected performance criteria for a range of grades. Rubrics will describe what an ideal
assignment looks like, and “summarize” expected performance at the beginning of term,
providing students with a trajectory and sense of completion.
• Design Clear, Effective Questions - If designing essay questions, instructors can ensure
that questions meet criteria while allowing students freedom to express their knowledge
creatively and in ways that honor how they digested, constructed, or mastered meaning.
• Assess Comprehensiveness - Effective summative assessments provide an opportunity

for students to consider the totality of a course’s content, making broad connections,
demonstrating synthesized skills, and exploring deeper concepts that drive or found a
course’s ideas and content.
• Make Parameters Clear - When approaching a final assessment, instructors can ensure
that parameters are well defined (length of assessment, depth of response, time and date,
grading standards); knowledge assessed relates clearly to content covered in course; and
students with disabilities are provided required space and support.
• Consider Blind Grading - Instructors may wish to know whose work they grade, in
order to provide feedback that speaks to a student’s term-long trajectory. If instructors
wish to provide truly unbiased summative assessment, they can also consider blind
grading.
References
Nicol, D.J. and Macfarlane-Dick, D. (2006) Formative assessment and self-regulated learning: a
model and seven principles of good feedback practice. Studies in Higher Education 31(2): 2-19.
Trumbull, E., & Lash, A. (2013). Understanding formative assessment: Insights from learning
theory and measurement theory. San Francisco: WestEd.
Norm referenced and criterion referenced evaluation
Norm-referenced is a type of test that assesses the test taker’s ability and performance
against other test takers. Criterion-Reference is a type of test that assesses the test
taker’s ability to understand a set curriculum.
Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced testing are two of many different types of
testing methods that are employed to assess skills of a person. These tests are used to
measure performance, but they are relative to different criteria. The scores are also
reported in different formats as well as interpreted differently.
Norm-referenced is a type of test that assesses the test taker’s ability and performance
against other test takers. It could also include a group of test takers against another
group of test takers. This is done to differentiate high and low achievers. The test’s
content covers a broad area of topics that the test takers are expected to know and the
difficulty of the content varies. This test must also be administered in a standardized
format. Norm-referenced test helps determine the position of the test taker in a
predefined population. Examples of norm-referenced tests include SATs, ACTs, etc.
These tests do not have a pre-determined curriculum and the topics on the test vary
depending on the panel that sets the test.
Criterion-Reference is a type of test that assesses the test taker’s ability to understand
a set curriculum. In this test, a curriculum is set in the beginning of the class, which
is then explained by the instructor. At the end of the lesson, the test is used to
determine how much did the test taker understand. This test is commonly used to
measure the level of understanding of a test taker before and after an instruction is
given. It can also be used to determine how good the instructor is at teaching the
students. The test must have material that is covered in the class by the instructor.
The teacher or the instructor sets the test according to the curriculum that was
presented. Examples of Criterion-Reference tests include the tests that are given in
schools and colleges in classes by a teacher. This helps the teacher determine if the
student should pass the class.
Norm-Referenced Criterion-Reference
Norm-Referenced tests
Criterion-Reference tests
measure the performance of
measure the performance of
Definition one group of test takers
test takers against the criteria
against another group of test
covered in the curriculum.
takers.
To measure how much the

To measure how much a test
test taker known before and
Purpose taker knows compared to
after the instruction is
another student.
finished.
Norm-Referenced tests Criterion-Reference tests

measure broad skill areas measure the skills the test
Content
taken from a variety of taker has acquired on
textbooks and syllabi. finishing a curriculum.
Each skill is tested by at least

Each skill is tested by less
four items to obtain an
Item characteristics than four items. The items
adequate sample of the
vary in difficulty.
student.
Norm-Referenced tests must Criterion-Reference tests

Administration be administered in a need not be administered in a
standardized format. standardized format.
Norm-Referenced test scores Criterion-Reference test
Score reporting are reported in a percentile scores are reported in
rank. categories or percentage.
In Norm-Referenced tests, if
In Criterion-Reference, the
a test taker ranks 95%, it
score determines how much
Score interpretation implies that he/she has
of the curriculum is
performed better than 95% of
understood by the test taker.
the other test takers.
What is Alternative Assessment?
This is a method of evaluation that measures a student’s level of proficiency in a

subject as opposed to the student’s level of knowledge. The overall goal of alternative
assessment is to allow students to demonstrate their knowledge and execute tasks.
Alternative assessment is also called a performance test or authentic assessment
because it is deeply rooted in one’s ability to do something by leveraging newly-gained
knowledge. As part of the assessment, the student will need to perform meaningful
tasks that reflect a clear understanding of the teaching and learning objectives.
You can ask your students to create a portfolio, work with others on specific projects
or engage in any other type of activity that shows they have a full grasp of what has
been discussed in the class or training.
Characteristics of Alternative Assessment
To better understand what alternative assessment is, let’s first look at some of the
things alternative assessment is not.
1. Alternative assessment is not a high-stake or standardized method of evaluating
students’ knowledge.
2. It is not a replacement for other methods of classroom assessment like
formative and summative assessment methods.
3. Alternative assessment does not measure the learner’s performance.
4. Results from alternative assessments are not presented as quantitative or
numerical data.
Now you know what should not be expected from alternative assessment, it’s time to
get familiar with the characteristics of alternative assessment.
1. Alternative assessment is tailored to the specific needs and abilities of
individual students. You should not think of it as a one-size-fits-all process.
2. It is an instructor-led assessment process. This means the teacher develops a
unique method to measure the student’s ability.
3. Alternative assessment methods are flexible and continuously adaptable.
4. Alternative assessment or authentic assessment explores different learning
styles and preferences in a bid to measure learners’ abilities.
5. Alternative assessment methods are seamlessly aligned with the learning goals
and objectives of the course, class, or training.
Examples of Alternative Assessment
What methods of alternative assessment should you try out in class? There are a
number of choices you can explore however, your final decision should be in line with
the unique learning needs of every student and your teaching goals. Here, we will
discuss a few examples of alternative assessments.
 Portfolio
You can ask students to build out a portfolio that demonstrates their knowledge of
what has been taught in a class or training. A portfolio is a collection of the different
tasks a student has executed in the course of the class or training.
 Performance Test
Since alternative assessment is all about putting knowledge to work, design effective
performance tests to help you rate a student's level of skill or knowledge. A
performance test requires the learners to execute complex tasks while the instructor
observes how they go about them.
As an instructor, you should have well-defined scoring criteria to effectively measure
each student's ability and arrive at a valid conclusion.
 Open Tests
An open test is a method of assessment that allows learners to refer to course materials
as they take on tasks or write tests and examinations. The questions in an open test
require the student to provide responses that show how well they understand the
course.
Instead of memorizing the content of the training guide or course materials, the
student has to apply the knowledge in the material(s) to provide the best response to
the stated questions.
 Crib Sheet
This is another form of open-book evaluation. Instead of bringing the entire course
materials to a test or examination, the student selects important information from
these materials to create some sort of abridged version called the crib sheet.
While it's up to the student to decide what makes it into the crib sheet, you should
provide some level of guidance as their instructor. You can subtly suggest the type of
information that will be helpful during the assessment but you should not impose
your ideas on the students; if you really want to know how much they know.
 Take-Home Assessment
Another way to assess your students' abilities is to give them take-home exercises.
Take-home exercises typically check 2 boxes. Firstly, they require multiple references,
and secondly, there isn't enough time for learners to do them in class.
 Collaborative Testing
This happens when you put the students in groups and get them to work together on
different tasks. Ideally, you should pair them or place the students in small groups of
3 or 4, to get the best results from this exercise.
As the name suggests, collaborative testing empowers the students to brainstorm
together, solve challenges, and execute ideas. At the end of each brainstorming session,
you can ask your students to make individual submissions or submit collective
responses as a group.
 Summaries
Instead of making students go through tests and assignments, you can ask them to
summarize class readings, lectures, and discussions. A good summary tells you 1
thing—the student has an impressive understanding of key concepts and ideas from
the classroom.
Asides from helping you track a student’s knowledge in real-time, summary writing
also does the magic for knowledge retention. Summary writing is a powerful way to
improve learning and memory in the classroom.
 Reports
Reports work just like summaries; they require the student to show how well they
understand key concepts from class discussions. However, reports take things a step
further as the student needs to communicate his or her knowledge in a way that
presents a clear picture to whoever reads the report; even if such a person wasn’t part
of the class.
 Interviews
Pair students and ask them to perform interviews about different subject matters
discussed in your class. For instance, if you had a class discussion on a historical event,
one student can role-play as a key event player while the other person becomes the
interviewer; asking questions about that event.
 Concept Maps
A concept map is a visual representation of the relationship between ideas and
concepts. To test your students’ level of understanding, ask them to build concept
maps from scratch to show their knowledge or fill out existing concept maps.
CHAPTER 4
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION AT SECONDARY LEVEL
Inclusive education is a new approach towards educating children with disabilities and
learning difficulties with that of normal ones within the same roof. It implies all
learners with or without disabilities being able to learn together through access to
common pre-school previsions, schools, and community educational settings with an
appropriate network of support services.
The Principle of inclusive education was adopted at the world conference on special
needs education. Access and Quality (Salamanca, Spain,1994) and was restarted at the
World education forum (Dakar, Senegal 2000) The idea of inclusive is further
supported by the United Nations standard rules on the equalization of opportunities
for a person with disabilities proclaiming participation and equality for all.
Concepts of Inclusive Education: -
The Term Inclusive is used to describe one option for the placement of special
education stud`s in public schools. Those inclusive programmes are sometimes
referred as maintaining which is the selective placement of students with disabilities
in regular education classroom.
The Idea behinds inclusive education is that students with special needs will be places
in the same class-room environments as other students of their age who do not have
special needs. Children with special need actually learns more in regular class-room
environments, provided they get the help and support they need in and out of the
classroom when it comes to academic subjects’ groups those who oppose inclusive
education. These children without special need will be forced to learn at a slower place,
but in practice, this is easily avoided by qualified teachers.
Meaning of Inclusive Education:
Inclusive Education means where children with and without disabilities participate
and learn together in the same classes.
Provision of inclusive education involving studies with disabilities is based on the
belief that those with disabilities should not have to depend on specialized services
alone, to benefit from educational resources, activities and practices that are otherwise
available to all.
Definition of Inclusive Education:
Inclusive Education may be defined as children with disabilities are education in the
same classes as all the other children.
“Inclusive Education implies all young learners, young people- with or without
disabilities beings able to learn together through access to common pre-school and
school with an appropriate network of support service”
 Understanding inclusive as a continuing process.
 Encouraging the participation of all students, teachers and parents.
 Making curriculum flexible, according to the needs of the disabled, while
keeping the objects of education the sane for the child’s.
 Providing support for the teachers as well as the students.
Importance of Inclusive Education:
 Children develop a positive understanding of themselves and others.

 Friendship develops
 Children learn important academic skills.
 All children learn by being together.
 All children learn in different ways.
 It is every student’s right to be inclusive.
 Greater Sensitivity
 A better understanding of strengths & weaknesses.
 More tolerance.
A- Children develop a positive understanding of themselves and others.
When children attend classroom that reflect the similarities and difference of people
in the real world . They learn to appreciate diversity. Respect and understanding grow
when children of differing abilities and culture play and learn together.
B- Friendship Develops:
Schools are important place for children to develop friendships and learn social skills.
Children with and without disabilities learn with from each other in inclusive classes.
C- Children learn important academic skills:

In inclusive classrooms, children with and without disabilities are expected to learn to
read, write and do math with higher expectations and good instruction. Children with
disabilities learn academic skills.
D- All Children learn by beings together:
The philosophy of inclusive education is aimed at helping all children learn, everyone
in the class benefits children learn at their own pace and style within nurturing
learning.
E- All children learn in different ways:
Inclusive is about providing the help, children need to learn and participate in a
meaningful way. Sometime, help from friends or teacher work best.
Features of Inclusive Education
Following are the salient features of inclusive education:
1. Inclusive education is such education under which physically handicapped

children and normal children together take education in normal class. Some more
assistance is provided to handicapped children. Thus inclusive education is a
practical solution to the anti-segregation of children with disabilities.
2. It is not a substitute for the exclusive. Inclusive education is a complement to
specialized education. Sometimes very few physically challenged children can be
admitted to an inclusive educational institution. Seriously, handicapped children
who take education in specialized educational institutions, after acquiring
communication and other talents, they can also get admission in coordinated
schools.
3. Format of this education has been given so that the handicapped child gets equal
education opportunities and they can live their life by becoming self-reliant like
other people in the society.
4. Provides less restrictive and more effective environment to the disabled children
so that they can live like normal children.
5. It is helpful at every level of the society in creating a healthy social environment
and relationship between the disabled and normal children in the society. It
minimizes the distance between each other in the society and provides a feeling
of mutual cooperation.
6. This is a system under which physically handicapped children are considered as
important as normal children.
Scope of inclusive education
Inclusive education is for all physically and mentally challenged children. It talks
about education and general teacher for every such child especially, those who are
eligible to be benefited from it.
The working area of inclusive education is to reach out to all such children and lead
them to normal living by providing joyful learning.
Inclusive education includes to –
1. physically challenged child

2. mentally retarded child
3. socially disrupted child
4. educationally challenged child
Need of inclusive education
The need for inclusive education is necessary for every country because, with the
help of inclusive education, the child takes education in a general atmosphere and
tries to make himself like a normal child, even though it includes gifted children,
special children, and disabled children.
There are many such children who are different from the normal child, they are
given education together because the ability of learning can be increased in those
children.
We can read about the needs of inclusive education in the below –
1. Inclusive education through inclusive education system provides an opportunity

for children in which disabled children get opportunity to progress mentally
along with normal children.
2. It is such an education in which the principle of equality of education is followed,
as well as educational integration is also possible through this education
framework.
3. As mentioned above, both normal and handicapped children take education
together normally, due to which a natural environment is created between them,
which develops a sense of unity, brotherhood and equality among the children.
4. Where normal children and special children take education together, there is less
expenditure in education as it optimizes the resources and maximizes its
productivity and utilization.
5. It is the education where small society is formed where all types of children get
education together, as a result of which qualities like morality, love, sympathy,
mutual cooperation can be easily increased in them.
6. Emotions like learning and social competition are also developed in children
through it.
7. In today’s era, it has special importance because only this education can bring
change in today’s society, so it should be encouraged more and more.
The importance of inclusive education
It is important for the following reasons –
1. First, identify and determine the special needs of various children free from
physical defects.
2. To increase the condition of physical defects before they reach a serious
condition, first of all measures should be taken for their prevention.
3. To provide education to the students through various innovative methods of
working keeping in view the learning problems of the children.
4. Rehabilitation of physically challenged children.
5. To provide information about the learning problems of physically challenged
children.
6. To provide information about the learning problems of physically challenged
children and to prepare group organization for improvement.
7. Find out the disabilities of the children and try to redress them.
Process of Inclusive Education
There are four processes –
1. Standardization – Normalization is the process which creates a normal social

environment for the talented children and youth to learn the work as far as
possible.
2. Institution less education – Institution less education is such a process in which
more and more talented boys and young girls eliminate the limitations of those
who take education in residential schools and provide them with the opportunity
to get education among the general public.
3. The mainstream of education – The mainstream of education is the process in
which gifted children are related to normal children through the day to day
education.
4. Inclusion – Inclusion is the process that brings gifted children to the general
education room for their education in any case the opposite of coordinated
separation. Separation is the process in which a particular group of society is
identified separately and gradually the social and personal distance between that
group and that of the society increases.
PERSPECTIVES IN INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

The human rights model positions disability as an important dimension of human
culture, and it affirms that all human beings irrespective of their disabilities have
certain rights which are inalienable. By emphasizing that the persons with disabilities
are equally entitled to rights as others, this model builds upon the spirit of the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948, according to which, ‘all human beings
are born free and equal in rights and dignity.’ The Human Rights model essentially
implies the following ideals towards the inclusion of persons with disability at an equal
footing within the societal frame work. It affirms that all human beings are born with
certain inalienable rights. The relevant concepts in this model are:
Diversity: The Greek philosopher, Aristotle, once said that “things that are alike
should be treated alike, whereas things that are unalike should be treated unalike in
proportion to their un-alikeness.” The principle of respect for difference and
acceptance of disability as part of human diversity and humanity is important, as
disability is a universal feature of the human condition.
Breaking down barriers: Policies that are ideologically based on the human rights
model start with identifying the barriers that restrict participation of persons with
disabilities in the society. This has shifted the focus in the way environments are
arranged. In education, for example, where individuals were formerly labelled as not
educable, the human rights model examines the accessibility of schools in terms of
both physical access (ramps, etc.) and pedagogical strategies.
Equality and Non-Discrimination: In international human rights law, equality is

founded upon two complementary principles - non-discrimination and reasonable
differentiation. The doctrine of differentiation is of particular importance to persons
with disabilities, some of whom may require specialized services or support in order
to be placed on a basis of equality with others. Differences of treatment between
individuals are not discriminatory if they are based on “reasonable and objective
justification”. Moreover, equality not only implies preventing discrimination (for
example, the protection of individuals against unfavorable treatment by introducing
antidiscrimination laws), but goes far beyond, in remedying discrimination. In
concrete terms, it means embracing the notion of positive rights, affirmative action,
and reasonable accommodation.
Reasonable Accommodation: It is important to recognize that reasonable
accommodation is the means by which conditions for equal participation can be
achieved, and it requires the burden of accommodation to be in proportion to the
capacity of the entity. In the draft Comprehensive and Integral and International
Convention on Protection and Promotion of the Rights and Dignity of Persons with
Disabilities, “reasonable accommodation” has been defined as the “introduction of
necessary and appropriate measures to enable a person with a disability fully to enjoy
fundamental rights and freedoms and to have access without prejudice to all
structures, processes, public services, goods, information, and other systems.”
Accessibility: Accessibility has become the overriding concern in the disability rights
debate throughout the world. If access is guaranteed, persons with disabilities can use,
interact and participate in social institutions and environments to the same extent as
others. The United Nations Economic and Special Commission for Asia and the
Pacific (UNESCAP) has defined ‘accessibility’ as “the measure or condition of things
and services that can readily be reached or used (at the physical, visual, auditory
and/or cognitive levels) by people including those with disabilities”. Traditionally the
issue of access has been addressed in international human rights law from two distinct
perspectives: one that relates to affordability or cost of access, and second, in
opposition to culturally constructed norms that cause barriers to accessing public
goods and services. The discourse on disability rights has brought to fore another
dimension of accessibility namely the prevalent practice of discounting the difference
due to disability while regulating terms of access and participation.
Equal participation and inclusion: The international and regional human rights
instruments incorporate a notion of an inclusive society in which equality and respect
for the inherent dignity of all human beings is realized. A world-view inspired by this
understanding envisages an active membership that participates in all aspects of
community life, regardless of their differences. ‘Thus full inclusion is not merely about
formal acceptance by the majority but incorporates the concept of participation that
is directed both towards the majority who should allow for participation and the
minority wanting to participate actively.
Social justice: social justice is about the fair distribution of opportunities and privileges
as they apply to individuals within a society also in education. It is also about treating
all students equitably so that they feel safe and secure both physically and
psychologically. The important five principles to keep in our mind are: opportunity
and success, positive and safe environment, guidance and advocacy, diversity and
involvement, freedom and democracy.
Equity: equity is the provision of personalized resources needed for all individuals to
reach common goals. In other words, the goals and the expectations are all the same
for all students, but the support needed to achieve those goals depends on the student’s
needs.
Recommendations for inclusive education
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) On December 10, 1948 the
General Assembly of the United Nations adopted and proclaimed the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights. In this declaration, points related to education system
are narrated below: -
Article 26: Right to Education 1. Everyone has the right to education. Education shall
be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall
be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available
and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit. 2.
Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to
the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall
promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious
groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of
peace. 3. Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given
to their children.( United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948,n.d.)
(ii) The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966) The
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) is a
multilateral treaty adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 16 December
1966 through GA. Resolution 2200A (XXI), and came in force from 3 January 1976.[1]
It commits its parties to work toward the granting of economic, social, and cultural
rights (ESCR) to the Non-Self-Governing and Trust Territories and individuals, 15
including labor rights and the right to health, the right to education, and the right to
an adequate standard of living.
Right to free education Article 13 of the Covenant recognizes the right of everyone to
free education (free for the primary level and “the progressive introduction of free
education” for the secondary and higher levels). Article 13.2 lists a number of specific
steps parties are required to pursue to realize the right of education. These include the
provision of free, universal and compulsory primary education, “generally available
and accessible” secondary education in various forms (including technical and
vocational training), and equally accessible higher education. Articles 13.3 and 13.4
require parties to respect the educational freedom of parents by allowing them to
choose and establish private educational institutions for their children, also referred
to as freedom of education. It also recognizes the right of parents to “ensure the
religious and moral education of their children in conformity with their own
convictions”. The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights interpret the
Covenant as also requiring states to respect the academic freedom of staff and
students, as this is vital for the educational process. Article 14 of the Covenant requires
those parties which have not yet established a system of free compulsory primary
education, to rapidly adopt a detailed plan of action for its introduction “within a
reasonable number of years”.
(iii) World Programme of Action Concerning Disabled Persons Major Outcomes: -
Formation of World Programme of Action (WPA) for Disabled Persons which was
adopted by the General Assembly on 3 December 1982.The WPA is a Worldwide
Programme. The aim of the programme is to enhance disability prevention,
rehabilitation and equalization of opportunities. This will help the persons with
disabilities to take part in social life and national development. WPA also asks to take
care of disability from a human rights perspective. The principles, concepts and
definitions relating to disabilities have been analyzed in three chapters in WPA.
Moreover, the World situation regarding Persons with 16 Disabilities and various
recommendations for action at the national, regional and international levels have also
been provided. The main theme of WPA is –” Equalization of opportunities” for the
persons with disabilities which will help them to achieve all aspects of social and
economic life. It also emphasizes that the persons with disability should be treated
within the context of normal community services and not in isolation. (Department
of Economic and Social Affairs Disability, n.d.)
(iv) The Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) Rights of Child to education
under this convention is discussed below: Article 28 1. States Parties recognize the
right of the child to education, and with a view to achieving this right progressively
and on the basis of equal opportunity, they shall, in particular: (a) Make primary
education compulsory and available free to all; (b) Encourage the development of
different forms of secondary education, including general and vocational education,
make them available and accessible to every child, and take appropriate measures such
as the introduction of free education and offering financial assistance in case of need;
(c) Make higher education accessible to all on the basis of capacity by every
appropriate means; (d) Make educational and vocational information and guidance
available and accessible to all children; (e) Take measures to encourage regular
attendance at schools and the reduction of drop-out rates. 2. States Parties shall take
all appropriate measures to ensure that school discipline is administered in a manner
consistent with the child’s human dignity and in conformity with the present
Convention. 3. States Parties shall promote and encourage international cooperation
in matters relating to education, in particular with a view to contributing to the
elimination of ignorance and illiteracy. 17 Throughout the world and facilitating
access to scientific and technical knowledge and modern teaching methods. In this
regard, particular account shall be taken of the needs of developing countries.
(Convention on the Rights of the Child, n.d.)
(v) World Declaration on Education for All, Jomtien, Thailand (1990) “Everyone has
a right to education” –was the declaration made by the nations of the world through
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights which was made about more than 40
years ago. To ensure the Right to Education for All, though various steps were taken
by countries around the world, the following problems are still there:- - Many children
(more than 100 million children, including at least 60 million girls) are having no
scope to primary schooling; - Many adults(more than 960 million adults, two-thirds
of whom are women) are not literate which is a significant problem in all countries,
industrialized and developing; - Printed knowledge, new skills and technologies are
not accessible to more than one-third of the world’s adults which could improve the
quality of their lives and help them shape, and adapt to, social and cultural change to
more than one-third of the world’s adults; - Many child and adults(More than 100
million children and countless adults) could not finish their basic education
programmes; and - Millions children and adults do not receive essential knowledge
and skills though they fulfil their required attendance; The declaration further
committed that the participants in the World Conference on Education for All,
reaffirm the right of all people to education. This is the foundation of our
determination, singly and together, to ensure education for all. Participants also
committed to act cooperatively through our own spheres of responsibility, taking all
necessary steps to achieve the goals of education for all. The basic learning needs of
all can and must be met. (World Declaration on Education for All, Jomtien, Thailand
(1990), n.d.)
(vi) Standard Rules on the Equalizations of Opportunities for Persons with
Disabilities (1993) The adoption of the Standard Rules on the Equalization of
Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities in 1993 by the General Assembly was one
of the major outcomes of 18 the Decade of Disabled Persons. Although there was no
legal binding on the governments, a strong moral and political commitment of
Governments to take action to attain equalization of opportunities for persons with
disabilities is there in the Standard Rules. The rules serve as an instrument for policy-
making and as a basis for technical and economic cooperation. For implementation of
the World Programme of Action, Standard Rules consisting of 22 Rules were made.
Human rights perspective which had developed during the Decade was the main
consideration of the Rules. Four chapters were made to cover these 22 rules to take
care of disabled persons. The four chapters to cover all aspects of life of disabled
persons are - a) Preconditions for equal participation, b) Target areas for equal
participation, c) Implementation measures, and d) The monitoring mechanism Out
of these 22 rules, guidelines regarding education of persons with disabilities have been
given in Rule 6. Rule 6. The policy of equal primary, secondary and tertiary
educational opportunities for children, youth and adults with disabilities, in integrated
settings should be the basic principles of the Education States. They should ensure
that the education of persons with disabilities is an integral part of the educational
system. 1. It is the responsibility of the General educational authorities to provide
education to persons with disabilities in integrated settings. While making national
educational planning, curriculum development and school organization, education for
persons with disabilities should be considered as an integral part of it. 2. Sufficient
accessibility and appropriate support services including the provision of interpreter
should be provided by the main stream schools to meet the needs of persons with
different disabilities. 3. At all levels of education system, involvement of the parent
groups and organizations of persons with disabilities should be there. 19 4. Education
should be provided to girls and boys with all kinds and levels of disabilities including
the most severe one by the states where education is made compulsory. 5. The
following areas require special attention while providing education: — (a) Very young
children with disabilities; (b) Pre-school children with disabilities; (c) Adults with
disabilities, particularly women. 6. While providing cost-effective education and
training for persons with disabilities integrated education and community based
programmes should be used as a complementary approaches:- (a) Have a clearly stated
policy, understood and accepted at the school level and by the wider community; (b)
Allow for curriculum flexibility, addition and adaptation; (c) Provide for quality
materials, ongoing teacher training and support teachers. 7. While providing cost
effective education and training for persons with disabilities, integrated education and
community-based programme should be arranged as a complementary approach. 8.
Special education may be arranged for the persons with disabilities where general
school systems is unable to fulfill their needs. Aim should be there to prepare the
students for education in the general school system. While preparing the students,
care should be taken regarding the quality of such education which should reflect the
same standard and ambitions as general education. At least the students with
disabilities should be provided with the same portion of educational resources which
are provided to the general students. Gradual integration of special education services
into the main stream education services should be the aim of the states engaged in
this process. In some cases, special education has been found to be very fruitful one
for some students with disabilities. 9. The education of deaf and deaf-blind persons
may be arranged for such persons or special classes and units in mainstream schools
due to their particular communication needs. Particularly during initial stage special
care request to be taken on currently sensitive instruction which will result in effective
20 communication skills and independents for deaf or deaf-blind people
(vii) The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education
(1994) This report from the UN’s education agency calls on the international
community to endorse the approach of inclusive schools by implementing practical
and strategic changes. In June 1994 representatives of 92 governments and 25
international organizations formed the World Conference on Special Needs
Education, held in Salamanca, Spain. They agreed a dynamic new Statement on the
education of all disabled children, which called for inclusion to be the norm. In
addition, the Conference adopted a new Framework for Action, the guiding principle
of which is that ordinary schools should accommodate all children, regardless of their
physical, intellectual, social, emotional, linguistic or other conditions. All educational
policies, says the Framework, should stipulate that disabled children attend the
neighborhood school ‘that would be attended if the child did not have a disability.’
Education for all The Statement begins with a commitment to Education for All,
recognizing the necessity and urgency of providing education for all children, young
people and adults ‘within the regular education system.’ It says those children with
special educational needs ‘must have access to regular schools’ and adds: Regular
schools with this inclusive orientation are the most effective means of combating
discriminatory attitudes, creating welcoming communities, building an inclusive
society and achieving education for all; moreover, they provide an effective education
to the majority of children and improve the efficiency and ultimately the cost-
effectiveness of the entire education system.
Inclusive schooling The Statement also calls on the international community to
endorse the approach of inclusive schooling and to support the development of special
needs education as an integral part of all education programmes. In particular, it calls
on UNESCO, UNICEF, UNDP and the World Bank for this endorsement. 21 It asks
for the United Nations and its specialized agencies to ‘strengthen their inputs for
technical co-operation’ and improve their networking for more efficient support to
integrated special needs provision. Non-governmental organizations are asked to
strengthen their collaboration with official national bodies and become more involved
in all aspects of inclusive education.
Equalization of opportunity The Framework for Action says ‘inclusion and
participation are essential to human dignity and to the enjoyment and exercise of
human rights.’ In the field of education this is reflected in bringing about a ‘genuine
equalization of opportunity.’ Special needs education incorporates proven methods of
teaching from which all children can benefit; it assumes human differences are normal
and that learning must be adapted to the needs of the child, rather than the child
fitted to the process. The fundamental principle of the inclusive school, it adds, is that
all children should learn together, where possible, and that ordinary schools must
recognize and respond to the diverse needs of their students, while also having a
continuum of support and services to match these needs. Inclusive schools are the
‘most effective’ at building solidarity between children with special needs and their
peers. Countries with few or no special schools should establish inclusive – not special
– schools. (The UNESCO Salamanca Statement, 2018)
(viii) The World Education Forum, Dakar (2000) The “Dakar Framework for Action,
Education for All: Meeting our Collective Commitments” was adopted by the World
Education Forum (26-28 April 2000, Dakar).The participants collectively committed
the world community for achieving education for ‘every citizen in every society’. The
Dakar Framework for Action is based on the most extensive evaluation of education
ever undertaken, the Education for All (EFA) 2000 Assessment. The assessment
produced a detailed analysis of the state of basic education around the world. Each
country assessed its progress towards the goals of Jomtien and reported its findings at
six regional conferences in 1999 and 2000. The six regional EFA frameworks adopted
at these conferences represent an integral part of the Framework for Action, and are
therefore part of this document. The Dakar Framework for Action states that the
‘heart of EFA lies at country level’. To support the efforts made by the national
governments, UNESCO, as the lead agency in education, will work as a coordinator
and mobilize all partners at national, regional and international levels: multilateral
and bilateral funding agencies, non-governmental organizations and 22 the private
sector as well as broad-based civil society organizations. All States should strengthen
or develop national plans by 2002 to achieve EFA goals and targets by 2015. Special
attention will be given for the areas of concern such as HIV/AIDS, early childhood
education, school health, education of girls and women, adult literacy and education
in situations of crisis and emergency as identified at Dakar. (The Dakar Framework
for Action, 2000)
(ix) Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006) The Convention
on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities is an international human rights treaty of
the United Nations intended to protect the rights and dignity of people with
disabilities. Parties to the Convention are required to promote, protect, and ensure
the full enjoyment of human rights by people with disabilities and ensure that they
enjoy full equality under the law. The Convention has served as the major catalyst in
the global movement from viewing people with disabilities as objects of charity,
medical treatment and social protection towards viewing them as full and equal
members of society, with human rights. It is also the only UN human rights
instrument with an explicit sustainable development dimension. The Convention was
the first human rights treaty of the twenty-first century. The text was adopted by the
United Nations General Assembly on 13 December 2006, and opened for signature
on 30 March 2007. The Convention follows the civil law tradition, with a preamble,
in which the principle that “all human rights are universal, indivisible, interdependent
and interrelated “ of Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action is cited, followed
by 50 articles. Unlike many UN covenants and conventions, it is not formally divided
into parts. Article 1 defines the purpose of the Convention: to promote, protect and
ensure the full and equal enjoyment of all human rights and fundamental freedoms
by all persons with disabilities, and to promote respect for their inherent dignity.
Articles 2 and 3 provide definitions and general principles such as communication
including Braille, sign language, plain language and nonverbal communication,
reasonable accommodation and universal design. Articles 4–32 define the rights of
persons with disabilities and the obligations of states parties towards them. Many of
these mirror rights affirmed in other UN conventions such as the International
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, International Covenant 23 on Economic,
Social and Cultural Rights or the Convention Against Torture, but with specific
obligations ensuring that they can be fully realized by persons with disabilities. Rights
specific to this convention include the rights to accessibility including the information
technology, the rights to live independently and be included in the community (Article
19), to personal mobility (article 20), habilitation and rehabilitation (Article 26), and
to participation in political and public life, and cultural life, recreation and sport
(Articles 29 and 30). In addition, parties to the Convention must raise awareness of
the human rights of persons with disabilities (Article 8), and ensure access to roads,
buildings, and information (Article 9). Articles 33–39 govern reporting and
monitoring of the convention by national human rights institutions (Article 33) and
Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (Article 34). Articles 40–50
govern ratification, entry into force, and amendment of the Convention. Article 49
also requires that the Convention be available in accessible formats. Guiding principles
of the Convention There are eight guiding principles that underlie the Convention: 1.
Respect for inherent dignity, individual autonomy including the freedom to make
one’s own choices, and independence of persons 2. Non-discrimination 3. Full and
effective participation and inclusion in society 4. Respect for difference and acceptance
of persons with disabilities as part of human diversity and humanity 5. Equality of
opportunity 6. Accessibility 7. Equality between men and women 8. Respect for the
evolving capacities of children with disabilities and respect for the right of children
with disabilities to preserve their identities.
Indian perspective of Inclusive Education
Documentation of efforts for or against special education in India remains sparse
before India’s independence from Britain. Archeologists discovered evidence of
inclusion of people with disabilities in India from 2000 or more years ago in the form
of adapted toys made accessible for children with disabilities. These small pieces of
evidence are part of the “gurukul” system of education that existed in India for
centuries before British rule. Although there is not much documentation about
students with disabilities in this system, the structure is seemingly inclusive. India was
colonized by Great Britain until 1947, and the gurukul system ended after India was
colonized by the British. As a result of British rule, much of the education system in
India was, and still is, “British style”- very cut and dry, based on rote memorization,
with few special education services due to its inflexible nature. Pre and
postindependence, the Government of India on paper supported various version of
inclusive special education in policy. During this time period, the majority of children
with disabilities were not in school.( Kohama, A.2012) The first attempts of educating
handicapped children were made in 1823-24 by Raja Kalisankar Ghoshal at Beneras
City (in Kalisankar Ghosal Asylum) and in the last two decades of the nineteenth
century with the establishment of the first school for the hearing impaired children in
1885 in Bombay (Mumbai). After it the first school for visually impaired children was
established in 1887. Services for the physically disabled were initiated in the middle of
20th century and individuals with mental retardation were last to receive attention
and the first school for intellectually challenged was established in the first half of 20th
Century. Therefore, the education of disabled was as long back as before India
achieved independence. The Central Advisory Board of Education published Sargent
Report in 1944. In this report, for the first time provision for the handicapped (the
word used in this report) were to form an essential part of the national system of the
education administered by department of education (Julka, 2006). According to this
report handicapped children were to be sent to special schools when the nature and
extent of their defects made it necessary, institutions were to be established to prepare
the handicapped for employment and special teacher training programme be started.
In 1964, the Kothari Commission (1964-66) brought up the issue of children with
special needs in the Plan of Action (Jangira ,1995) and recommended for including 25
children with special needs into ordinary schools. It recommended experimentation
with integrated programmes in order to bring in as many children in these
programmes (Alur , 2002). Most educators believed that the children with physical,
sensory or intellectual impairments were so different that they could not participate
in the activities of a common school (Advani, 2002). Therefore, despite these early
reports, there were trends in favor of spl. Education in India. That is there is a trend
of exclusion of the challenged children. The National Policy on Education (1986)
included a full chapter on “Education of the Handicapped” and formulated guidelines
for action. The NPE (1986) strongly emphasized the need for the expansion of
integrated education. The centrally sponsored scheme of Integrated Education for
Disabled Children (IEDC) was introduced in 1974 as per the recommendations of the
NPE (1986). Thus, efforts for inclusion were persistently made. Meanwhile the
NCERT playing advisory role to the government of India, joined hand with the
UNICEF and launched the Project Integrated Education for the Disabled (PIED) in
1987. The project aimed at strengthening the integration process for learners with
disabilities into regular schools. Integrated Education for Disabled Children (IEDC)
was later amalgamated as component with other basic education project like the
District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) and Sarva Sikhsha Abhiyan, a project
taken as mission made to achieve the goal of Universalisation of Elementary Education
– UEE (Department of Education, 2000). In spite of hundred percent of financial
provisions being provided under the scheme of Integrated Education for Disabled
Children (IEDC) integrating children with special needs in the general education
system were not adequate and only 2-3 percent of the total population of these learners
were actually integrated into regular schools. In India, the linguistic shift from the
term, integration to inclusion was formally introduced in the National Curriculum
Framework for School Education – NCFSE (2000) brought out by the NCERT. It
recommended inclusive schools for all and to provide quality education to all learners
(Julka, 2006). (Panigrahi. A., 2018) India was a signatory to the Salamanca Statement.
In this perspective the Human Resource Development minister of India Sri Arjun
Singh on the 21st March 2005 assured in the Rajya Sabha that MHRD has formulated
a comprehensive action plan for the Inclusive Education of Children and Youth with
Disabilities. The government is 26 committed to provide education through
mainstream schools for children with disabilities in accordance with PWD ACT, 1995
and all the schools in the country will be made disabled friendly by 2020. Rupees 10
billion have been outlaid to fulfill the needs of disabled persons between the ages of
14 and 18 years through a revised plan for Inclusive Education of Children and Youth
with Disabilities (IECYD). In 2005-06, the Project Approval Board has allocated an
amount ofRs.187.79 crores under this component for a total 20.14 lakh Children with
Special Needs (CWSN)identified. The commitment of the Government of India to
Universalization of Elementary Education(UEE) cannot be fully achieved without
taking care of special educational needs of the physically and mentally challenged
children.
Shift from segregated and integrated education to inclusive education
Segregation
Segregate means separate, separate someone from something or one thing from
another. In this way, segregations separate, excludes and separates groups such as
women, racial minorities, religious minorities and people with disabilities from rest of
the population with arguments of a sexual, racial, religious, or ideological nature.
Integration
The idea of ” normality” is maintained, but it is considered that people who manage
to adapt will be considered part of society. The more rehabilitated and “normal” she
is, the more integrated she will be.
Inclusion
This term is sometimes confused with integration. However, inclusion goes a bit
further. Inclusion is associated with the ability of people to accept the other and live
in harmony accepting differences. If the same society promotes inclusive
environments, barriers do not exist and all people are included, since they have the
same opportunities.
Inclusion does not focus on the disability or diagnosis of the person. It focuses on
your capabilities. It is based on the principles of fairness and cooperation. Inclusion
accepts everyone as they are, recognizing each person’s individual characteristics
without trying to bring them closer to a “normalized” model of being, thinking and
acting. Heterogeneity is understood as normal. Therefore, the recognition and
appreciation of diversity as a human right is proposed.

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COMMISSIONS AFTER INDEPENDENCE – AN

Secondary education commission

(i) Language – mother tongue or original language, national language and

(b)At the higher secondary stage

(ii) Higher curriculum –

2. Principle of curriculum construction under secondary education commission

1. The totality of Experience – It means along with academic experiences pupil

2. Principle of variety and Elasticity – Commission supported flexible curriculum

4. Principle of correlation – Subjects in the curriculum should be correlated to

6. Importance should be on productive work

7. It should include practical knowledge along with theoretical knowledge

2. Frequent changes in textbooks prescribed for studies should be discouraged

3. Single textbook should not be prescribed for every subject of study

2. Teaching methods should be activity-based

2. Subjectivity (essay type questions) should be minimized by introducing

3. The nature of the test should be discouraging cramming and encourage

5. The five-point scale of Mudaliar commission :

2. NCC scout camps should be encouraged

INDIAN EDUCATION COMMISSION, 1964-66

Indian Education Commission (1964-1966), popularly known as Kothari Commission, was

Introduction of work-experience which includes manual work, production experience, etc.

Vocationalization of secondary education.

Special emphasis on the training and quality of teachers for schools

Development of quality or pace-setting institutions at all stages and in all sectors.

(x) Educational expansion should be accompanied by simultaneous efforts to raise

(xii)Regarding examination reform, attention should be concentrated on three major areas:

Free and Compulsory Education: According to Article- 45 (Indian Constitution), education

The National Policy on Education-1986 was modified in 1992. It is a comprehensive frame

National Education Policy (NEP) 2020

Outcomes of NEP 2020

Universalization from ECCE to Secondary Education by 2030, aligning with SDG 4

CCE and school based evaluation at secondary stage

Co-Scholastic Areas of Assessment: The areas of Co-scholastic assessment focus on

Assessment of Learning: The ‘assessment of learning is defined as a process whereby

Formative and summative assessment

 Assess Comprehensiveness - Effective summative assessments provide an opportunity

Formative assessment refers to the recurrent, interactive valuation of pupil progress to

Summative assessment evaluates student learning, knowledge, proficiency, or success at the

Examples of Formative and Summative Assessments

• Encourage students’ self-reflection - Instructors can ask students to utilize course

• Give students detailed, actionable feedback - Instructors can consistently provide

• Assess Comprehensiveness - Effective summative assessments provide an opportunity

To measure how much the

Norm-Referenced tests Criterion-Reference tests

Each skill is tested by at least

Norm-Referenced tests must Criterion-Reference tests

What is Alternative Assessment?

This is a method of evaluation that measures a student’s level of proficiency in a

Characteristics of Alternative Assessment

Importance of Inclusive Education:

 Children develop a positive understanding of themselves and others.

C- Children learn important academic skills:

Following are the salient features of inclusive education:

1. Inclusive education is such education under which physically handicapped

Scope of inclusive education

Inclusive education includes to –

1. physically challenged child

1. Inclusive education through inclusive education system provides an opportunity

It is important for the following reasons –

There are four processes –

1. Standardization – Normalization is the process which creates a normal social

PERSPECTIVES IN INCLUSIVE EDUCATION