Course name: Engineering Mechanics III (Machines)

Course code: MEC 2102

Course level: Level 2
Credit unit: 4 CU
Instructor: Ibrahim Male

Course Description
This course introduces students to the analysis of the kinematics and kinetics of machine
elements. It covers planar linkages, gears and cams as well as balancing of rotating mechanical
components.

Objectives/ Learning outcomes

At the end of this course, a student will be able to:
 Identify basic and functional linkage systems in machines and describe their function
 Analyze the kinematics of a linkage mathematically to determine position, velocity
and acceleration variation throughout its range of motion.
 Analyze and design of cams and gear trains.
 Analyze and design of flywheels.
 Determine the static and dynamic forces acting on a moving linkage.
 Determine the specification of balance masses for mechanisms.
Course content
 Basic concepts in mechanisms and machines
 Mathematical Analysis of linkages and mechanisms: Crank-slide, four bar pin jointed,
quick return, Hooke’s joint, indexing, etc
 Gears
 Cams
 Determination of static and dynamic forces in mechanisms
 Flywheels
 Balancing of rotating and reciprocating masses
 Laboratories

Mode of Delivery
The course will be taught by using lectures, tutorials, practical sessions involving hands-on
project work and laboratories.
Mode of Assessment
This shall be by course work (practicals, assignments, student projects and tests) and final
examination. The relative contribution to the final grade will be as shown below:
Assessment Percentage Contribution
Course work 40%
Final Examinations 60%
Total 100%

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Recommended references
1. J.S.Rao and R.V.Dukkipati ,Mechanism and Machine Theory, New Age International.
2. J.J.Shigley and J.J.Uicker ,Theory of Machines and Mechanisms, McGrawhill.
3. S.S.Rattan, Theory of Machines, TMH.

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 CHAPTER 1 (INTRODUCTION)

A) Introduction to Theory of Machines

The subject Theory of Machines may be defined as that branch of Engineering-

science, which deals with the study of relative motion between the various parts of
a machine, and forces which act on them. The knowledge of this subject is very
essential for an engineer in designing the various parts of a machine.
The knowledge of this subject is very essential for an engineer in designing the
various parts of a machine.

Basic Concepts
Mechanisms and Simple Machines
Machine: an assemblage of parts that transmit forces, motion and energy in a
predetermined manner.

Simple Machine: any of various elementary mechanisms having the elements of

which all machines are composed. Included in this category are the lever, wheel
and axle, pulley, inclined plane, wedge and the screw.

A machine is a combination of rigid or resistant bodies, formed and connected so

that they move with definite relative motions and transmit force from the source of
power to the resistance to be overcome. A machine has two functions: transmitting
definite relative motion and transmitting force. These functions require strength
and rigidity to transmit the forces.

Machines are mechanical devices used to accomplish work. A mechanism is a

heart of a machine. It is the mechanical portion of the machine that has the
function of transferring motion and forces from a power source to an output.

The term mechanism is applied to the combination of geometrical bodies which

constitute a machine or part of a machine. A mechanism may therefore be defined
as a combination of rigid or resistant bodies, formed and connected so that they
move with definite relative motions with respect to one another.

A Mechanism is a system of rigid elements (linkages) arranged and connected to

transmit motion in a predetermined fashion. Mechanisms consist of linkages and
joints.

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The similarity between machines and mechanisms is that

 They are both combinations of rigid bodies

 The relative motion among the rigid bodies are definite.

The difference between machine and mechanism is that machines transform energy
to do work, while mechanisms do not necessarily perform this function. The term
machinery generally means machines and mechanisms. Figure 2-1 shows a picture
of the main part of a diesel engine. The mechanism of its cylinder-link-crank parts
is a slider-crank mechanism, as shown in Figure 2-2.

Figure 2-1 Cross section of a power cylinder in a diesel engine

Figure 2-2 Skeleton outline

Application of mechanisms
1. Domestic appliances (e.g: Washing machines, refrigerators, mixers, washing
machines, air coolers, door locks/latches)
2. Toys (e.g: Peddling cars for kids, walking toys)
3. Agricultural implements (e.g: sprinkler mechanism, tractors, corn drills,
ploughs, cultivators, mowers, forage harvesters, potato diggers, etc.),
4. Transport vehicles (on air, land and sea, incorporating steering, braking and
transmission mechanism, I.C. engine mechanism, etc.),

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 5. Construction equipment (e.g., concrete mixers, cranes, excavators, rock-
crushers, bulldozers, etc.),
6. Manufacturing machines and machines used in production processes (e.g.,
lathe, shaping, drilling, milling and grinding machines, lifting tackles,
overhead cranes, conveyors, press, rivet and punching machines, robots and
manipulators, etc).

Planar and Spatial Mechanisms

Mechanisms can be divided into planar mechanisms and spatial mechanisms,
according to the relative motion of the rigid bodies. In planar mechanisms, all of
the relative motions of the rigid bodies are in one plane or in parallel planes. If
there is any relative motion that is not in the same plane or in parallel planes, the
mechanism is called the spatial mechanism. In other words, planar mechanisms
are essentially two dimensional while spatial mechanisms are three dimensional.
This tutorial only covers planar mechanisms.

Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanisms

Kinematics of mechanisms is concerned with the motion of the parts without
considering how the influencing factors (force and mass) affect the motion.
Therefore, kinematics deals with the fundamental concepts of space and time and
the quantities velocity and acceleration derived there from.

Kinetics deals with action of forces on bodies. This is where the effects of gravity
come into play.

Dynamics is the combination of kinematics and kinetics.

Dynamics of mechanisms concerns the forces that act on the parts -- both balanced
and unbalanced forces, taking into account the masses and accelerations of the
parts as well as the external forces.

Links, Frames and Kinematic Chains

A link is defined as a rigid body having two or more pairing elements which
connect it to other bodies for the purpose of transmitting force or motion

In every machine, at least one link either occupies a fixed position relative to the
earth or carries the machine as a whole along with it during motion. This link is the
frame of the machine and is called the fixed link.

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Kinematic chain

This is an assemblage of links which are inter-connected through pairs, permitting

relative motion between links.

Common weighing scale (an example of an open chain)

Structure

Geometric considerations sometimes prevent relative motion between links of a

chain after closure. In such a situation the chain is called a structure. The structure
can be statically determinate or indeterminate

Skeleton Outline

Figure 3-1 Skeleton outline

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For the purpose of kinematic analysis, a mechanism may be represented in an
abbreviated, or skeleton, form called the skeleton outline of the mechanism. The
skeleton outline gives all the geometrical information necessary for determining
the relative motions of the links. In Figure 3-1, the skeleton outline has been drawn
for the engine shown in Figure 2-1. This skeleton contains all necessary
information to determine the relative motions of the main links, namely, the length
AB of the crank; the length BC of the connecting rod; A the location of the axis of
the main bearing; and the path AC of point C, which represents the wrist-pin axis.

A resistant body or group of resistant bodies with rigid connections preventing

their relative movement is known as a link. The links are classified depending on
number of joints.

Classification of links
A link can be called singular (unitary), binary, ternary, quaternary (etc.) link
depending on the number of elements it has for pairing with other links.

Singular Link: 1 node (can be connected to one other link)

Binary link: 2 nodes (can be connected to two other links)
Ternary link: 3 nodes (can be connected to three other link)
Quaternary link: 4 nodes (can be connected to four other links)

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Joint: connection between two or more links (at their nodes) which allows motion;
(Joints also called kinematic pairs)

PAIRS
A pair is a joint between the surfaces of two rigid bodies that keeps them in
contact and relatively movable.

Classification of pairs

Kinematic pairs are classified on the basis of any of the following characteristics:

1. Type of relative motion between contacting elements

2. Type of contact between contacting elements
3. Number of degrees of freedom
4. Type of closure (i.e. whether self-closed or force-closed)

1. Classification of Pairs Based on Type of Relative Motion

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2. Classification of Pairs Based on Type of Contact

This is the best known classification of kinematic pairs on the basis of nature of
contact.

i) Lower Pair. Kinematic pairs in which there is a surface (area) contact

between the contacting elements. All revolute pairs, sliding pairs, screw
pairs, globular pairs, cylindrical pairs and flat pairs fall in this category.
ii) Higher Pair. Kinematic pairs in which there is a point or line contact
between the contacting elements. Meshing gear-teeth, cam follower pair,
wheel rolling on a surface, ball and roller bearings and pawl and ratchet are a
few examples of higher pairs.

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3. Classification of Pairs Based on Degrees of Freedom

d.o.f. of a pair = 6 - (Number of restraints).

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4. Classification of Pairs Based on Type of Closure

Another important way of classifying pairs is to group them as

i) Closed kinematic pairs

ii) Open kinematic pairs

B) CONSTRAINED MOTION AND DEGREE OF FREEDOM

Constrained motion is defined as that motion in which all points move in
predetermined paths, irrespective of the directions and magnitudes of the applied
forces.

Mobility/Degree of Freedom of Mechanisms

In the design or analysis of a mechanism, one of the prime concerns is the number
of degrees of freedom or mobility of the mechanism. The number of independent
input parameters which must be controlled independently so that a mechanism
fulfills its useful engineering purpose is called its degree of freedom or mobility.

Degree of freedom equal to 1 (d.o.f. = 1) implies that when any point on the
mechanism is moved in a prescribed way, all other points have uniquely
determined (constrained) motions.

Expression for d.o.f. of chains and mechanisms

A rigid body free to move anywhere in space has six degrees of freedom; three of
translation parallel to x, y and z directions and three of rotations about these axes.
As against this, when a rigid body is restrained to have planar motion, it has only
three degree of freedom; two of translation along x and y axes and third of rotation
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about third axis. Thus, if there are unconnected n links, they possess a total of 3n
degrees of freedom.

Expression for degree of freedom of a planar kinematic chain, consisting of lower

pairs (of d.o.f. = 1) only, is given by

F = 3n-2(l)

Where

F= degree of freedom

n= number of links (including the frame)

l= total number of lower pairs. (1 degree of freedom)

In case of a mechanism which is obtained from a chain by fixing one link, number
of mobile links reduces to (n -1) and therefore, expression for degrees of freedom
of a mechanism, consisting of lower pairs only, is given by

F = 3(n-1)-2(l)

Effect of Higher Pair

Just as a lower pair (linear motion lower pair) cuts down 2 d.o.f., a higher pair cuts
only 1 d.o.f. (this is because invariably rolling is associated with slipping,
permitting 2 d.o.f.).

F = 3(n -1) -2(/) – h (This equation is also known as Gruebler's equation)

Where,

/ = total number of lower pair (1 degree of freedom)

h = total number of higher pairs. (2 degrees of freedom)

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Example 1:
Find out degrees of freedom of mechanism shown below

Here n = 9; / = 11, h= 0

Therefore:
F = 3(n -1) -2(/) – h

F = 3(9 -1) -2(11) - 0

F= 2Ans.

Example 2:
Look at the transom above the door in Figure 4-13a. The opening and closing
mechanism is shown in Figure 4-13b. Let's calculate its degree of freedom.

Figure 4-13 Transom mechanism

n = 4 (link 1, 3, 3 and frame 4), l = 4 (at A, B, C, D), h = 0

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F = 3(n -1) -2(/) – h

F = 3(4 – 1) – 2(4) – (0)

F = 1Ans

Note: D and E function as a same prismatic pair, so they only count as one lower
pair.

Kutzbach Criterion
The number of degrees of freedom of a mechanism is also called the mobility of
the device. The mobility is the number of input parameters (usually pair variables)
that must be independently controlled to bring the device into a particular position.
The Kutzbach criterion, which is similar to Gruebler's equation, calculates the
mobility.

In order to control a mechanism, the number of independent input motions must

equal the number of degrees of freedom of the mechanism. For example, the
transom in Figure 4-13a has a single degree of freedom, so it needs one
independent input motion to open or close the window. That is, you just push or
pull rod 3 to operate the window.

C) INVERSIONS
A mechanism is formed by fixing one of the links of a chain. Clearly, when
different links of the same chain are chosen to become frame-link, different
mechanisms will result. The process of choosing different links of a kinematic
chain for becoming frame is known as kinematic inversion
Properties of Inversion
1. Number of inversions possible for a kinematic chain equals the number of
links in the parent kinematic chain.
2. Relative motion (displacement, velocity and acceleration) between any two
links does not change with inversion. This is simply because relative motion
between different links is a property of parent kinematic chain.

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 3. Absolute motion of points on various links (measured with respect to the
frame-link)may, however, change drastically from one inversion to the
other, even in direct inversion

Quadric cycle chain and its inversions

A kinematic chain consisting of turning pairs only (i.e., a linkage) must have a
minimum of four links and four pairs. It is customary to call a fully rotating link a
'crank', an oscillating link a 'Rocker/lever' and the connecting link a 'coupler' or
'connecting rod'. The coupler is the link which is not connected to the frame.
For a four-bar linkage, Grashof's law provides a very simple test to check whether
any of the links in the chain can be a crank.
Grashof's Law
Grashof's law states that for a planar four-bar linkage, sum of the shortest and
longest link-lengths must be less than or equal to the sum of the remaining two
link-lengths, if there is to be a continuous relative rotation between two members.
Thus, if we let s and l be the lengths of shortest and longest links respectively and
p and q be the remaining two link-lengths, then one of the links, in particular the
shortest link, will rotate continuously relative to the other three links, if and only if,

s+l<p+q

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Example
The figure below shows a planar mechanism with link-lengths given in some unit.
If slider A is the driver, will link CG revolve or oscillate? Justify your answer

Solution:
The loop formed by three links DE, EF and FD represents a structure. Thus the
loop can be taken to represent a ternary link.
Now in the 4-link loop CDEB,
s = 2; l = 4; and p+ q = 7.
Thus the 4-link loop portion CDEB satisfies Grashof's criterion.
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And as the shortest link CD is fixed, link CB is capable of complete revolution.
Also, 4-link loop CDFG satisfies Grashof's criterion
(l + s = p + q) and the shortest link CD is fixed.
Thus whether we considered a part of 4-link loop CDEB or that of CDFG, link
BCG is capable of full revolution.
Trial example:
In a 4-bar mechanism, the lengths of driver crank, coupler and follower link are
150 mm, 250 mm and 300 mm respectively. The fixed link-length is L0. Find the
range of values for L0, so as to make it a —
a) Crank-rocker mechanism
b) Crank-crank mechanism.

MUST DO
Research, read and make notes about the following
1) Inversions of four bar mechanism
2) Inversions of Slider Crank chain
3) Inversions of Double Slider Crank Chain

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