Powder Technology 310 (2017) 17–23

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Powder Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/powtec

Experimental and numerical studies on the explosion severities of coal

dust/air mixtures in a 20-L spherical vessel
Weiguo Cao a,b,⁎, Qingfeng Qin a, Wei Cao c, Yanhua Lan a, Teng Chen b, Sen Xu b, Xiong Cao a,⁎⁎
a
School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, North University of China, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030051, PR China
b
School of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210094, PR China
c
Institute of Chemical Materials, China Academy of Engineering Physics, Mianyang, Sichuan 621900, PR China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Severity parameters are critical for safety management and risk assessment of coal dust explosions. We evaluated
Received 16 May 2016 explosion severity parameters using a 20-L spherical vessel and numerical simulation by the program FLUENT to
Received in revised form 30 August 2016 reveal the explosion mechanism of coal dusts. The explosion pressure and the rate of explosion pressure in-
Accepted 6 January 2017
creased with coal dust concentration and the ignition delay up to a concentration of 250 g/m3 coal dust and an
Available online 07 January 2017
ignition delay of 60 ms for a maximum explosion pressure of 0.67 MPa and a rate of explosion pressure rise of
Keywords:
68.89 MPa/s. Comparison of the numerical and experimental explosion pressure profiles showed reasonable
Coal dust explosions quantitative and qualitative agreement. Additionally, the numerical simulation was used to address the technical
Severity parameters difficulties of understanding the mechanisms of dust explosion, it suggested that the airflow of the dust explosion
Numerical simulation played a more important role in the secondary explosion of dusts in a closed chamber than in a half-closed one.
Explosion pressure © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Airflow velocity

1. Introduction
Superfine powder is widely used in civil, mining and food
manufacturing applications. Owing to the high surface energy of super-
fine powder, the potential risk of dust explosions is increased when the
powder diameter increases to micrometer size. Dust explosions present
a continuing threat to the coal, food, chemical, metallurgy, and textile
industries, leading to injuries, deaths, and property damage [1]. Accord-
ing to the CSB Investigation Report [2,3], 281 major combustible dust ac-
cidents occurred between 1980 and 2005, resulting in 119 people killed,
718 people injured, and significant damage to industrial facilities. Re-
cently, in the period of 2001–2015, the coal industry had significant
problems resulting from dust explosions [4,5]. Thus, improved under-
standing of coal dust explosions is important for the prevention and
control of these industrial disasters and thus has important practical
value for the protection of human life and property.
To understand the parameters that determine the severity of dust
explosions, many recent studies have focused on the characteristics of
dust explosions. For example, Medina [6,7] investigated the dust explo-
sion parameters of coal samples including the deflagration index, max-
imum explosion pressure, and minimum explosible concentration using
a 1 m3 ISO explosion vessel test apparatus. They found that the dust
⁎ Correspondence to: W. Cao, School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering,
North University of China, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030051, PR China.
⁎⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: caoweiguoiem@nuc.edu.cn (W. Cao), cx92rl@163.com (X. Cao).
explosion reactivity was increased for higher surface area coal due to
the greater oxygen diffusion facilitated by the higher porosity of the
char. Li [8–10] analyzed the explosion parameters of coal dust/air mix-
tures using a 20-L spherical explosion test apparatus and demonstrated
that the presence of combustible gases significantly increased the max-
imum explosion pressure and rate of pressure rise and that the mini-
mum explosible concentration of mixture decreased with increased
combustible gases content. Their findings that combustible gases great-
ly increased the risk of coal dust explosion suggest that the storage safe-
ty of coal dusts would be effectively improved by reducing the oxygen
concentration. Cashdollar [11,12] studied the explosibility of coal
dusts of varying volatility and particle size, and evaluated the minimum
explosible concentration and limiting oxygen concentrations of differ-
ent dusts using a 20-L spherical explosion test apparatus. Xin [13–17]
designed an in-situ diffuse reflection FTIR system to test the real-time
chemical variations during coal reaction and concluded the presence
of aliphatic groups on the coal varied with temperature. In our previous
study [18–20], we also investigated explosion parameters including the
maximum explosion pressure, the maximum rate of pressure rise, the
flame propagation behavior, the thermal-radiation effects, and the def-
lagration index of coal dust/air mixtures, which indicated that airflow
velocity is an important factor in dust re-entrainment and consistent
explosion.
However, due to the scarcity of experimental data and the complex-
ity in the selection of multiple safety-related parameters, analytical esti-
mations remain insufficient and difficult. Additional data and the
development of numerical tools are required to solve this difficulty.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2017.01.019
0032-5910/© 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
18 W. Cao et al. / Powder Technology 310 (2017) 17–23
Table 1
Proximate and ultimate analysis of the coal.
Proximate analyses (%) Ultimate analyses (%)
Mad Aad Vad FCad C H
3.54 14.46 41.75 40.25 57.05 4.43
Mad: moisture content; Vad: volatile matters; Aad: ash; FCad: fixed carbon.
Fortunately, with the recent development of improved computational
resources, a three-dimensional numerical simulation technology based
on computational fluid dynamics (CFD) was developed [21–26]. This
technology may become a powerful tool for the design of safeguard
measures and could gradually replace use of common empirical equa-
tions and charts. In this study, a coal dust/air mixture was used for sys-
tematic research of explosion severity behaviors by both experimental
and numerical simulation using a 20-L spherical explosion test appara-
tus. The numerical simulation tool FLUENT was used to address the
technical difficulties of understanding the mechanisms of dust
explosion.
2. Experimental
2.1. Experimental materials
The proximate and ultimate analyses of the coal particles are sum-
marized in Table 1. The coal particles were sifted in a 200 mesh vibrating
sieve and were desiccated in a vacuum drying oven at 30 °C for 24 h be-
fore the experiments. The diameter distribution of coal particles given in
Fig. 1 was characterized using a laser particle size analyzer and the mor-
phology of the coal particles as shown in Fig. 2 was characterized using a
scanning electronic microscopy (SEM). As shown in Fig. 1, the particle
size distributions of most coal particles were (10− 100) μm and the me-
dian diameter was 34 μm. As shown in Fig. 2, the coal particle size was
non-uniform and was irregular in shape. The diameters of coal particles
were all less than 100 μm, in agreement with the laser analysis result.
TG and DTG curves of the coal particles are depicted in Fig. 3. As
shown in Fig. 3, the coal particles start to lose weight at a very low tem-
perature of approximately 30 °C. When the temperature increased to
(100− 300) °C, the TG curve became flat and the weight loss decreased
slowly. The weight loss rate of the sample increased significantly upon
heating at 300 °C. The DTG curve exhibited two steps, corresponding
to the low-temperature combustion stage and the high-temperature
combustion stage. A weak peak appeared at temperatures below
150 °C, which is mainly caused by the loss of moisture and volatile mat-
ters in the coal particles during the low-temperature combustion stage.
As the temperature increased, the weight loss rate of coal particles de-
creased, mainly due to complete volatilization of the moisture in the
Fig. 1. Diameter distribution of the coal particles.
O N
37.4 1.12
Fig. 2. Scanning electron microscopy of the coal particles.
coal dust, decreasing the release of light volatile matter. When the tem-
perature of the sample was in the range of 100–300 °C, the weight loss
rate was low. When the temperature went beyond 300 °C, the weight
loss rate increased gradually, and the maximum weight loss rate oc-
curred at approximately 400 °C, due to the burning of some nonvolatile
organic matter in the coal particles, which released a lot of heat and
caused fixed carbon burning. The combustion process was terminated
when the sample mass no longer changed. The mass fraction for resid-
uals or the ash in the coal particles was about 15% of the total weight,
which is consistent with the industrial analysis presented in Table 1.
2.2. Experimental apparatus
The experimental apparatus was comprised of a 20-L spherical ex-
plosion chamber, a dispersion system, an ignition system, and a control
and data acquisition system that is shown schematically in Fig. 4. A py-
rotechnical igniter of 10 kJ energy was prepared according to the stan-
dard ASTM E1226 [27] and was located in the center of the explosion
chamber. The chamber was vacuumed to −0.06 MPa (gauge pressure).
A two-phase valve was mounted under the bottom of the vessel, and
driven by compressed gas. A dust chamber of 0.6-L was connected to
the two-phase valve and pressurized to 2 MPa. After opening the two-
phase valve, the coal particles were dispersed into the explosion cham-
ber to form dust/air mixtures by compressed gas through the dispersion
nozzle. When the pressure in the explosion chamber increased to 0 MPa
(a standard atmospheric pressure), the pyrotechnical igniter was deto-
nated to ignite the dust/air mixtures. A high-speed camera captured the
process of coal dust explosion through a sight glass mounted in the front
Fig. 3. TG and DTG curves of the coal particles.
 W. Cao et al. / Powder Technology 310 (2017) 17–23 19

Fig. 4. Schematic diagram of the 20-L spherical vessel explosion test system.

of the 20-L spherical vessel. At the same time, the dynamic pressure eddy-dissipation model in FLUENT was used and the ignition energy
during the explosions was recorded by a pressure sensor, allowing the was set as 10 kJ in the three-dimensional numerical simulation.
determination of the explosion pressure and rate of pressure rise by
analysis of the dynamic pressure history. 4. Results and discussion

3. Numerical simulation 4.1. Severity behaviors of coal dust/air mixtures

3.1. Model description The dust explosion causes a rapid increase in pressure when it is
confined in a 20-L spherical vessel. The maximum explosion pressure
The CFD software FLUENT was used to simulate the coal dust explo- (Pmax) and the maximum rate of pressure rise ((dP/dt)max) are impor-
sions. In the three-dimensional numerical simulation, the coal particle tant severity parameters in dust explosion mitigation including venting
was assumed to be a regular spherical particle. Based on chemical reac- and suppression. The maximum values of Pex and (dP/dt)ex in different
tion kinetics and fluid mechanics, the governing equations were concentrations are regarded as Pmax and (dP/dt)max, respectively. A typ-
established under mass conservation, energy conservation, momentum ical explosion pressure history and a rate of pressure rise history for a
conservation, and chemical reaction balance. These equations were single coal dust explosion test obtained in the 20-L spherical vessel at
used with the coal dust combustion model in FLUENT to simulate the 250 g/m3 dust concentration is shown in Fig. 6. The pressure increased
entire combustion process. More details about this model are presented after dust dispersion (starting from t1) and ignition (at t2) until the max-
in our previous work [18], and the main governing equations are listed imum value (at t3) is reached. The pressure increased to a maximum
in Table 2.

3.2. Simulation model

As shown in Fig. 5, a 20-L spherical vessel was modeled. Thermal ex-

change between the coal particles and the environment were not taken
into account due to the short duration of coal particle combustion. The

Table 2
Governing equations.

Mass ∂ρ
∂t
þ ∂ρu
∂x
i
¼0
conservation i

Energy ∂ρh
∂t
þ ∂x∂ ðρu j h− σμ eh ∂x
∂h
Þ ¼ dP
dt
þ Sh
conservation j j

Momentum ∂u
∂ρui
∂t
þ ∂
∂xi
∂ui
ðρui u j −μ e ∂x Þ ∂ρ
¼ − ∂x þ ∂x∂ ðμ e ∂x j Þ− 23 ∂x∂ ½δij ðρk þ μ e ∂u
∂x
k
Þ
conservation j i j j j k

Chemical reaction ∂ðρY fu Þ μ ∂Y fu

∂t
þ ∂x∂ ðρu j Y fu − σ fue ∂x j
Þ ¼ Rfu
balance i

∂ μ t ∂k
Dt ¼ ∂x ½ðμ þ σ k Þ ∂x  þ Gk þ Gb −ρε−Y M
ρ Dk
i i
Turbulence model μ
∂ ∂ε ε ε 2
ρ Dε
Dt ¼ ∂x ½ðμ þ σ ε Þ ∂x  þ C 1ε k ðGk þ C 3ε Gb Þ−C 2ε ρ k
t
i i

Combustion 1
=2
C R ρgfu ε
model Rfu;T ¼ − k
Fig. 5. Computational grid of 20-L spherical vessel.
20 W. Cao et al. / Powder Technology 310 (2017) 17–23
Fig. 6. Typical pressure history of coal dust explosion.
peak in about 0.046 s after ignition and then decreased. Similar phe-
nomena were observed by Yu and Proust [28,29]. The rate of pressure
rise was also recorded during the process. Calculated according to the
definition in ASTM E 1226 [27], the maximum explosion pressure Pex
and the maximum rate of pressure rise (dP/dt)ex of 250 g/m3 were
0.67 MPa and 68.89 MPa/s, respectively.
Pex and (dP/dt)ex changed markedly with the variations of concentra-
tion and ignition delay time. In order to obtain Pmax and (dP/dt)max, ex-
periments were performed with coal dust/air mixtures for
concentrations ranging from 60 g/m3 to 1500 g/m3, and for ignition
delay times ranging from 15 ms to 150 ms.
As presented in Fig. 7, the Pex reached its peak before decreasing.
When the ignition delay time and the concentration of the coal dust/
air mixtures were 60 ms and 250 g/m3, respectively, the Pex reached
its maximum value of 0.66 MPa. On the basis of heat transfer theory,
the coal particles are ignited by heat radiation. The number of ignited
particles per unit volume and the number of effective collisions
between the reactant molecules increases with increasing coal dust
concentrations, which ultimately increases the Pex. However, at higher
concentrations, the amount of ignited particles per unit volume
becomes limited by the lack of oxygen, so the coal dust particles cannot
be completely burned. Additionally, the heat released by the combus-
tion reaction was absorbed by the unburned particles located in
the preheated zone. Thus, the Pex decreased with further increase in
Fig. 7. Relationship between the concentration of the coal dust/air mixtures and the
explosion pressure with different ignition delay times.
the concentration. Consequently, an optimum concentration was
determined.
The data in Fig. 7 indicates that the Pex increased with the ignition
delay time and reached its peak at 60 ms. The Pex decreased with a fur-
ther increase of the ignition delay time. When the ignition delay time
changed from 0 ms to 60 ms, the coal particles were dispersed more
uniformly by the turbulent airflow in the vessel and an optimal explo-
sion concentration is reached and the Pex increases continuously.
When the ignition delay time continued to increase to values higher
than 60 ms, the coal particles deposited, decreasing the concentration,
so the Pex decreased.
As shown in Fig. 8, the change in the (dP/dt)ex with coal dust concen-
tration is similar to the observed change of explosion pressure. At differ-
ent ignition delay times, the (dP/dt)ex increased with the concentration
to a certain limit before decreasing. However, the maximum of Pmax and
(dP/dt)max do not always occur at the same concentration. When the ig-
nition time was between 60 ms and 150 ms, the Pmax and the (dP/dt)max
can peak at the same concentration. However, when the ignition delay
time was lower than 60 ms, the (dP/dt)max peaked at 500 g/m3, but
Pmax peaked at 250 g/m3.
4.2. Comparison of the experimental and numerical explosion pressure
results
The explosion process of coal dust in a 20-L sphere vessel with
250 g/m3 coal and ignition delay time of 60 ms was recorded by high
speed photographs during coal dust explosion as shown in Fig. 9. The
same process simulated by FLUENT is shown Fig. 10. After the ignition,
the explosion pressure increased to the peak and remained stable
there. Fig. 11 shows the explosion pressure histories for the experimen-
tal results and the numerical simulation separately (the ignition time
corresponding to t2 in Fig. 6 was set to 0 here). The pressure histories
in Fig. 11 show that there is some deviation between the experimental
data and the simulated data, which may result from the fact that the
particle size in the simulation was assumed to be spherical and 34 μm
in size while the actual particle size of the samples used in the experi-
ment was non-uniform (though the medium size was 34 μm) and the
particle shape was irregular. Additionally, the coal particles were well-
dispersed and equally distributed in the simulation model, but disper-
sion can vary under experimental conditions. After the pressure peaked,
the pressure in simulation leveled out near the peak while the pressure
in the experiment decreased slightly. This is mainly because we do not
consider the potential for thermal loss in the simulation. However, ther-
mal exchange exists in all stages of the explosion process in the
experiment.
Fig. 8. Relationship between the concentration and the (dP/dt)ex at different ignition delay
times in the coal dust/air mixtures.
 W. Cao et al. / Powder Technology 310 (2017) 17–23 21

Fig. 9. High speed photographs in the process of coal dust explosion. Concentration: 250 g/m3; time from ignition.

Fig. 10. The simulated pressure of the coal dust explosion.

Based on the analysis described above, it can be concluded that the

simulation results represent the varying behaviors of explosion pres-
sure during the coal dust explosion process. The errors between the ex-
periments and simulations are minor and reasonable. In addition, the
simulation results can predict the parameters in a 20-L sphere vessel,
such as temperature and air flow distribution, which are not available
under the existing experimental conditions. Figs. 12 and 13 show the
simulated results of temperature and air-flow distribution, respectively.

4.3. Temperature and flow-field analysis of numerical results

Fig. 12 shows the simulated temperature photographs of the coal

dust explosion at different times after ignition. As can be seen from
Fig. 12, there is a high-temperature area caused by the chemical ignition
near the ignition point after ignition. After that, the energy is released to
the coal dust/air mixtures system and acts to ignite the coal particles.
The 20-L spherical vessel is full of combustion at 50 ms after ignition.
It also can be seen from Fig. 12 that the flame front pushes on steadi-
ly from the ignition point to the wall of vessel in an annular shape. The
zone in the vessel can be divided into three zones: a burned zone, Fig. 11. Experimental and numerical location of the explosion pressure.
22 W. Cao et al. / Powder Technology 310 (2017) 17–23

Fig. 12. The simulated temperature of the coal dust explosion.

unburned zone, and transition zone. The transition zone is also known
as the reaction preheated zone, where the required energy comes
from the high-temperature heating and cracking process of the coal par-
ticles in the burned zone. The volatile matters in the coal particles in the
burned zone decompose into small combustible gaseous molecules that
are heated to the ignition temperature and ignited. The energy released
in the burned zone is transmitted to the transition zone where it heats
the coal particles until they burn. Finally, the temperature in the 20-L
vessel reaches 1500 K.
Fig. 13 shows a simulated airflow velocity photograph of the coal
dust explosion at different times after ignition. In the simulation, we
assume the airflow velocity is 0 m/s before ignition. After ignition,
the maximum airflow velocity reaches 200 m/s at 10 ms, mainly
due to the shock wave coming from the explosion of the igniter.
As the combustion of coal particles continues, the airflow velocity
in the center slows down and the maximum airflow velocity in-
creases and appears at the flame front. By 46 ms after ignition, the
airflow with the highest velocity (approximately 280 m/s) arrives
at the wall, and the maximum pressure also appears, but this time
is earlier than the time at which the maximum temperature reaches
the wall (50 ms). The airflow zone with high velocity mainly exists
in the sidewall due to the restriction imposed by the sidewall.
Then the airflow velocity begins to decrease, and finally decreases
to less than 100 m/s at 60 ms. Compared with the results of our pre-
vious study [18], the airflow velocity in the closed vessel is higher
than that in the half closed one, which causes secondary entrain-
ment and the Domino effect (Fig. 14). This effect will promote
more serious consistent explosion.

Fig. 13. The simulated airflow velocity of the coal dust explosion.
 W. Cao et al. / Powder Technology 310 (2017) 17–23
Fig. 14. Domino effect in dust explosion.
5. Conclusions
The aim of this study was to obtain a general understanding of the
explosion severities of coal dust/air mixtures by experimental and nu-
merical analysis. The following results were obtained.
(1) The Pex and (dP/dt)ex can simultaneously reach their maximum
values at the same concentration when the ignition time is be-
tween 60 ms and 150 ms. However, when the ignition delay
time is lower than 60 ms, the (dP/dt)ex peaked at the concentra-
tion of 500 g/m3, which is inconsistent with that of Pex
(250 g/m3).
(2) The dust explosion process was separately investigated experi-
mentally and numerically. The simulation results reflect the
changes in pressure behaviors during the coal dust explosion
process, and the results are consistent with the experimental ob-
servations. Hence, the numerical model can be applied to study
the dust explosion.
(3) Compared with a half-closed chamber, the airflow of the dust ex-
plosion in a closed chamber plays a more important role in the
secondary explosion. The highest velocity airflow appeared at
the same time as the maximum pressure, however, because of
the thermal conduct effect, this time was earlier than the time
when the maximum temperature reached the wall.
Acknowledgments
The authors appreciate the financial support from the National Sci-
ence Fund for Distinguished Young Scholars (Grant No. 21406116)
and the Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 51472119).
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