NCM 111: NURSING RESEARCH 1

THE DESIGN AND PLANNING PHASE

1nd SEMESTER, SY: 2022-2023 OUTLINE BY: SHAMERA M. BUAH
LECTURER: MRS. HAIFA M. ANDILING, RN, MN, LPT PRE-FINALS

RESEARCH DESIGN TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

 Is a blueprint that delineates the factors that would  The TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS are those in which
interfere with a study’s desired outcome. the researcher has a greater manage over the study
 The choice of the research design depends upon: condition.
a) The problem  Threats to the internal validity of the findings were
b) The purpose of the study minimized.
c) The Researcher’s expertise  Only with the use of authentic experimental designs can
d) The desire to generalize the findings also causality be inferred with any degree of confidence.
 The type of design directs the selection of a population  With these sorts of designs, the researcher confidently
sampling procedure, methods of assessment, and a plan believes that the unbiased variable used to be the
for data collection and analysis. purpose of the exchange in the established variable.
CRITERIA FOR CHOICE OF RESEARCH DESIGN  A real experimental plan has three (3) CRITERIA:
1. Logically sound o The researcher manipulates the experimental
2. Comprehensive variable(s).
3. Reasonable clear and precise o At least one experimental and one contrast crew
4. Clearly spelled out is covered in the study.
5. Free from weakness o Subjects are randomly assigned to both the
MAJOR CATEGORIES OF RESEARCH DESIGN experimental or the contrast group.
1. Experimental  The first criterion for a true experimental sketch is the
o True Experiment manipulation of the unbiased variable. Sometimes, there
o Quasi Experiments is a misunderstanding of the time period manipulation as
2. Non-Experimental it is used in experimental studies.
o Basic Research
o Applied Research The researcher subjects the
Manipulation or respondents of the study to a unique
3. Combined experimental and non-Experimental or
Intervention situation.
Mixed method
4. Quantitative
The researcher imposes sure
o Survey Control conditions over the experimental
o Methodological situation.
o Evaluative Assigns topics to a control or
o Content experimental team on a random
o Clinical Randomization basis, each topic has an equal chance
5. Qualitative of being assigned to any group.
o Phenomenological
o Ethnographic The researcher is interested in
o Grounded Theory controlling, putting off extraneous
o Historical Studies Validity variables that may additionally
o Case Studies create spurious results.
o Field Studies
o Biographies
TYPES OF VALIDITY IN RESEARCH
o Critical theory
 The degree to which modifications in the structured
o Feminist
variable (effects) can be attributed to the independent
o Participatory action research
variable (cause).
o Focus groups
 Making sure that the cause-effect relationship identified
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
in the study is really there and there are no other
 The researcher structures the situation so there will be a
explanations for the result.
sound basis for determining the effect of the dependent
THREATS TO INTERNAL VALIDITY
variable in relation to the independent variable and how
a) Selection Bias
much is due to chance.
b) History
 In experimental research, the study subjects belong
c) Maturation
either to the control group or the experimental group.
d) Testing
 The CONTROL GROUP is the subject or group of
e) Instrumental Change
elements not subjected or exposed to the experimental
f) Mortality
treatment, while the EXPERIMENTAL GROUP is the
subject exposed to the experiment or intervention.
SELECTION BIAS
 Exists when study results are attributed to the
experimental treatment when in fact results are due to
"Success is not final; failure is not fatal: It is the courage to continue that counts." — Winston S. Churchill
 NCM 111: NURSING RESEARCH 1
THE DESIGN AND PLANNING PHASE
1nd SEMESTER, SY: 2022-2023
LECTURER: MRS. HAIFA M. ANDILING, RN, MN, LPT
differences among the subjects even before the
treatment.
 In the case which aims to help people stop smoking using
a “smoking cessation intervention”, (new treatment)
there were 20 volunteers who offered to stop smoking
(experimental group), and 20 volunteers refused to stop
smoking (control group). However, the experimental
group may have had already decided to stop smoking
even before the treatment started, hence, the selection
process may have a biased effect on the result of the
study.
HISTORY
 This occurs when some event besides the experimental
treatment takes place during the study and effects or
influences the dependent variable.
 “The incidence of prenatal training among pregnant
women after 2 weeks of the teaching program, but
during the teaching process, an article is published on the
rise of maternal complications. The “history” factor could
result in the increased incidence of prenatal training
among pregnant women.”
 Unplanned events between measurements.
MATURATION
 This takes place when changes within the subjects occur
during the experimental study, thus may influence study
results.
 “The subjects may have gained in height and weight
during the time when the pretest and posttest were
conducted. If the nurse is interested in a gain in weight
and height of malnourished children, she will keep in
mind that change in their size may occur during the
treatment course of the study.”
TESTING
 Possible testing chance in research in which a pretest is
a requisite. This refers to the have an impact on the
pretest, already tasks the outcomes of the post test
scores.
 “Test rankings of the actual content might also be
modified in the posttest as a result of their understanding
of the pretest results.”
INSTRUMENTATION CHANGE
 Existence of distinction between pretest and publish test
consequences brought on with the aid of exchange in the
accuracy of the instrument or the ratings, instead than
the result of the experimental treatment.
 “A threat in the breakdown of a mechanical instrument
such as sphygmomanometer used in taking blood strain
impacts the accuracy of studying at some stage in the
study.”
MORTALITY
 This occurs when a difference exists between the
subject’s dropout quotes of either the experimental
crew and the manipulate group.
 “If a massive experimental team or manipulate group
scored very low in a pretest, some of the topics may have
dropped out of the study. Thus, the common scores in the
"Success is not final; failure is not fatal: It is the courage to continue that counts." — Winston S. Churchill
OUTLINE BY: SHAMERA M. BUAH
PRE-FINALS
publish test of both the experimental group or
manipulate group would be correspondingly low.”
EXTERNAL VALIDITY IN RESEARCH
 This is the degree to which learn about results can be
influenced or affected via external elements or
populations and settings.
THREATS TO EXTERNAL VALIDITY
a) Hawthorne Effect
b) Experimenter Effect
c) Reactive Effect of the Pretest
d) Halo Effect
HAWTHORNE EFFECT
 ‘’Observer Effect’’
 Suggest subjects may change their behavior as a result of
being observed as much because of other experimental
variables.
EXPERIMENTER EFFECTS
 Conscious or unconscious actions of the researchers
affect participants’ performance and responses.
 Example: Differences in which the different researchers
give different instructions to the different groups.
 Age, gender, attractiveness also makes a difference.
 Solution: Double blind experiments
REACTIVE EFFECT OF THE PRETEST
 This occurs when the subjects have been sensitized to
the treatment by asking the pretest and thereafter
influence the posttest results.
HALO EFFECT
 This is the tendency of the researcher to rate the subject
high or low because of the impression he has on the
subject.
 DOUBLE-BLIND METHOD may be used to remove the
observer’s Bias, neither the subject not the observer
knows the specific research objectives, hence the
observer cannot distort the data.
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
 Are those research that has no comparison group or
subjects that aren’t randomly assigned to groups.
 The researcher uses available, or intact groups for the
experimental and comparison groups.
 Although the researcher doesn’t have the maximum
amount of control during a quasi-experimental study as
during a true experiment, there are some advantages to
the utilization of quasi-experimental designs.
TYPES OFQUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
1. The Non-equivalent Control Group Design
 Commonly used when random assignment is not
possible.
 Similar to pretest post-test control group design
 Selection bias is a threat to validity
Participants Protest Treatment Post-Test
assigned to
the
experimental
group
 NCM 111: NURSING RESEARCH 1
THE DESIGN AND PLANNING PHASE
1nd SEMESTER, SY: 2022-2023 OUTLINE BY: SHAMERA M. BUAH
LECTURER: MRS. HAIFA M. ANDILING, RN, MN, LPT PRE-FINALS

Participants Protest No Post-Test  It is easier to keep track of study subjects in their normal
assigned to Treatment setting rather than in a highly-controlled environment
the control demanded by the experimental method.
group  Translation of findings is more acceptable to consumers
2. Cohort Design of research.
 Cohort study is a type of analytical study which is DISADVANTAGES OF NON EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
undertaken to obtain additional evidence to refute or  It cannot establish causal relationships with some degree
support existence of association between suspected of confidence as the experimental method. Often,
cause and diseases. experimental research can only achieve associative
 Other names: Longitudinal Study, Incidence Study, and relationships.
Forward Looking Study  It is useful for predictive purposes but weak in diagnosis
3. Time Series Design and explanations.
 Time series design is useful when the researcher intends  The non-experimental approach cannot be easily applied
to measure the effects of a treatment over a long period to test a newly-developed product, program, or
of time. procedure.
 The researcher would continue to administer the  It is not always useful in developing new theories, ideas,
treatment and measure the effects of a number of times and principles.
during the course of the experiment.  For some researchers, only a study based on
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF EXPERIMENTAL experimental method is considered true research.
RESEARCH  It is more difficult to get financial support for this study.
Advantages Disadvantages BASIC RESEARCH
Explains and establish causal Dangerous, particularly if  It intends to augment the knowledge and information in
relationships of variables human beings are used as science for the opportunity to discover the truth.
subjects  These include reading books and literature, listening to
Increases purity of Difficult to create conditions the discussion, journal analysis, browsing articles and
observations teleconferencing.
Creates conditions in the Creates conditions in the  Purely to generate knowledge.
experimental setting that experimental setting that  Theoretical, Knowledge expansion
approximates the natural approximates the natural
APPLIED RESEARCH
setting setting
 This is for practical purposes wherein scientific
Free from the pressures of Free from the pressures of
investigation is conducted that will adopt or improve
daily life when conducted in daily life when conducted in
a controlled unit. a controlled unit. clinical practice and knowledge with evidence-based
data in an actual nurse-client work setting.
NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH TYPES OF APPLIED RESEARCH
 A study in which the researcher collects data without 1. HISTORICAL DESIGN
introducing an intervention  Critical inquiry and investigation of events,
 Also called OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH. developments, and experiences of the past.
 DESCRIPTIVE and CORRELATIONAL RESEARCHES are  Example:
non-experimental in nature.  “The evolution of nursing practice from the Crimean Era
 No manipulation of Independent variable to the 21st Century”
 High on realism, low on control  “Significant Predictors of Change and Transition from
 For example: surveys, observational studies Past to Present Practice of Nursing.”
 EXAMPLE: DESCRIPTIVE DESIGNS
o Do women use internet for managing social  Depicts the nature of the phenomenon under inquiry.
relationships more than men?  It involves a comprehensive analysis of statistical
o Do people like to shop online for books more tabulation presented and interpreted that have been
than clothes? yielded by a survey.
ADVANTAGES OF NON EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN
 Less expensive 1. Descriptive Normative Surveys
 It can be completed in a short span of time  Self-reported data are collected from samples for
 It is easier to gain the cooperation of study subjects. purposes of exploring and describing real-life situations.
Study subjects are not exposed to unpleasant, unusual The data collection process is through questionnaires
or even burdensome conditions. and interviews.
 This is the method of choice when there is a considerable  Example: A survey on staff nurses and administration to
interval between the application of the independent obtain their perception on the extent of staff nurse’s
variable and the appearance of response in the responsibility for patient education.
dependent variable.

"Success is not final; failure is not fatal: It is the courage to continue that counts." — Winston S. Churchill
 NCM 111: NURSING RESEARCH 1
THE DESIGN AND PLANNING PHASE
1nd SEMESTER, SY: 2022-2023
LECTURER: MRS. HAIFA M. ANDILING, RN, MN, LPT
2. Correlational Studies
 It uncovers how phenomena under study are related
wherein an inquiry has to unveil not only when
something happens but also why it happened.
 Example: Is there a significant correlation between
anxiety and board exam to newly graduated nurses?
3. Comparative Studies
 This examines 2 or more intact groups to find out the
difference in their performance between and among
them in the certain dependent variable of interest. There
is no manipulation of the Independent Variable (IV)
because the features of the participants are innate such
as personality type, education level, and medical
condition.
 Example: A study between college A and College B
Nursing Graduates class of 2019 and their performance
in the nursing board exam.
4. Descriptive Evaluative Surveys or Methodological Studies
 This concerned with the development, testing, and
evaluation of methods, procedures, guidelines, and
instruments after which an evaluative judgment is done.
This is also known as Developmental or Evaluative
research wherein the method is utilized to revise, modify
existing programs, and develop effective modalities,
methods, processes, and procedures for more effective
and efficient health care delivery.
 Example:
o “Development of feedback mechanism for
faculty performance.”
o “Training programs for new graduate nurses
and their clinical Proficiency.”
5. Problem-Solving
 This analyzes the solution to a problem. The primary goal
is to obtain alternative solutions and improve scientific
inquiry which is derived from reliable and accurate
information.
 Example:
o “How much nursing care does a particular
patient need?”
o “How often is it necessary to take vital signs of a
patient in labor?”
6. Decision Making
 This is the most feasible course of action from given
alternatives to solve the problem. It is useful in
guidelines creation and improvement of nursing as a
profession.
 Example: “Is the 12-hour work shift more effective than
an 8-hour shift in solving staffing problems?”
7. Case Study
 An in-depth study of a case or a limited number of
interconnected cases intended to interpret their
behavior relative to the occurrence of certain events or
phenomena of inquiry to the nursing discipline.
 Ex: “A case study of a patient with problems of
oxygenation.”
"Success is not final; failure is not fatal: It is the courage to continue that counts." — Winston S. Churchill
OUTLINE BY: SHAMERA M. BUAH
PRE-FINALS
8. Content Analysis
 This process of synthesizing or extracting information
and messages in documents.
 Ex: “The practical implication of the Philippine Nurses Act
(RA 9173 of 2002) provisions for Nursing Education &
Nursing Services.”
9. Feasibility Study
 Determines the viability of an undertaking or a business
venture and creating an institution or constructing
infrastructure.
 Ex: “A feasibility study on nursing entrepreneurship in the
Philippine setting, credentialing of nurses’ clinicians and
their impact on the nursing profession and society.”
10. Cross-Sectional Designs
 Collects data on relevant variables at one point in time
only from a variety of people, subjects, or phenomena.
 The data collected all at the same time within a time
frame.
 It also identifies the association of relationship, describes
characteristics that exists in a community, but not to
determine cause-and-effect relationships between
different variables.
 This method is often used to make inferences about
possible relationships or to gather preliminary data to
support further research and experimentation.
11. Longitudinal Designs
 Collects data over a long period of time.
 The measurements of each variable are distinct overtime
periods which allows the researcher to recognize
changes in variables over time.
 TREND STUDIES - samples of the population being
studied over time concerning the interest in the
phenomenon by the researcher.
o Ex: Studies on maternal compliance to
breastfeeding and newborn screening as health
care policy.
 PANEL STUDIES - Reveals changes from the subjects
measured over time.
o Ex: Repeated measurements and analysis of
variations in health services and practices,
causes, and effects.
 FOLLOW-UP STUDIES
o Ex: Follow up on post-natal health care services
and complications arising.
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
 Qualitative Research is a systematic, interactive and
subjective approach used to describe life experiences
and give them meaning.
 It is conducted to describe and promote understanding
of human experience such as pain, caring, and comfort.
 It is an interpretative methodological approach to
produce more of a subjective science than quantitative
research.
 It evolves from the behavioral and social sciences as a
method of understanding the unique, dynamic and
holistic nature of human beings.
 NCM 111: NURSING RESEARCH 1
THE DESIGN AND PLANNING PHASE
1nd SEMESTER, SY: 2022-2023
LECTURER: MRS. HAIFA M. ANDILING, RN, MN, LPT
 The focus is broad and the researcher is an active
participant in the study. Its intent is to give meaning to
the whole.
 The researcher’s values and perceptions influence the
findings.
TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
1. Phenomenological Studies
 Examines the lived experiences thru the descriptions
furnished through the people involved.
 These experiences are referred to as lived experiences.
 The purpose of phenomenological research is to
describe the meaning that experiences preserve for each
subject.
2. Ethnographic Studies
 This refers to the series and analysis of facts on the
lifestyle and daily things to do of a way of life or a group
of people.
 Such research contains the description and
interpretation of cultural and social behavior.
 It goals to recognize the participant’s view, how their
subculture is communicated and portrayed.
 Example:
o The lifestyle, beliefs, and fitness habits of the
Aetas of Mt. Pinatubo”
o “The parental style, attitude, and child-rearing
practices of the Mangyans in Mindoro.”
3. Grounded Theory
 Directed towards the improvement of theory,
contributors generate complete explanations of a
phenomenon grounded in reality.
 Ex: “The journey of caring for a girl with a high-risk
pregnancy in the course of which the theory of Newman
is developed with the nurse and the client as partners in
a relationship of care, characterized by way of
negotiation, reciprocity, and empowerment.”
4. Historical Studies
5. Case Study
6. Field Study
 Determine problems going on in natural settings such as
nursing homes, housing projects, medical wards, etc.
7. Biographies
 Explore the lifestyle of a character, their growth,
improvement patterns on accomplishment.
8. Critical Theory
 Action-oriented lookup objectives to combine theory
and practice such that people emerge as aware of
contradictions and incongruities in their culture, beliefs,
and social practice.
 Ex: “An investigation of the technique of selection
making concerning the discharge of elderly sufferers
from the hospital.”
9. Participatory Action Research (Par)
 Aims to raise neighborhood recognition to the problems
they are dealing with and empower them to discover
their solution.
"Success is not final; failure is not fatal: It is the courage to continue that counts." — Winston S. Churchill
OUTLINE BY: SHAMERA M. BUAH
PRE-FINALS
10. Focus Group
 Thorough team interview which is asked related to their
mind-set on a precise remember in the field of nursing
service, fitness product, nursing care, thinking or
academic experiences, etc.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
 Manipulates and control research condition and verify
results, utilizing empirical data gathered through the
senses.
 It is also concerned with the objective meaning of
experience to a person with sturdy control of the
situation and generalization of findings.
 This type of research applies both to experimental and
non-experimental studies that resulted in numerical
testing which utilizes deductive or theory testing
approach.
 The figure below is the representation of deductive
research in which quantitative design is yielded. In the
simplest term, it means from general to specific reason
on how data were collected, and formulate result.
TYPES OF QUANTITVATIVE RESEARCH
1. Survey
 This gathers quantitative data of what people do, how or
what they eat or how they meet their health, compliance
with medication.
 The subject usually answers on a given question
formulated by the researcher, hence data are collected
through interviews and questionnaires.
2. Methodological Research
 Instrument or procedure that measures effect or change
on the dependent variable.
 Ex: “Competencies evaluation instrument utilizing
nursing process indicators to assess the clinical
performance of nurses.”
3. Evaluative Research
 The goal is to determine how well a program, practice,
procedure, or policy working out.
 Direct the researcher and the recipient of the study to
make decisions to improve intervention or implement
policy.
 Ex: “Clinical training program for newly hired nurses and
their clinical performance proficiency.”
4. Content Analysis
 Refers to the amount of narrative data of a research
report, published articles, journals, etc. for analysis and
evaluation.
 Example:
o “The position of congress to the malpractice bill
for physicians.”
 NCM 111: NURSING RESEARCH 1
THE DESIGN AND PLANNING PHASE
1nd SEMESTER, SY: 2022-2023 OUTLINE BY: SHAMERA M. BUAH
LECTURER: MRS. HAIFA M. ANDILING, RN, MN, LPT PRE-FINALS

o “The culture of graft and corruption in the

Philippines.”
5. Clinical Trial
 Assess the safety and effectiveness of the nursing
intervention.
 It involves experimental or quasi-experimental and
quantitative analysis of variables.
 Ex: “Clinical trial to test a nurse-managed intervention
called “smoking cessation intervention (SCI) compared to
a “routine or standard treatment” among women who
smoke.’’
6. Secondary Analysis
 Use of data gathered in a previous study to test
hypotheses or explore new phenomena or relationships.

‘’Chair up mga mhie! Kayod lang, you’re almost there!’’- shams

"Success is not final; failure is not fatal: It is the courage to continue that counts." — Winston S. Churchill