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Chapter 1 Chapter 1

• What is: • Science= knowledge gained through study

& practice
–Science?
• Theory = set of ideas, mental conceptions
–Theory?
• Concept = abstract & general idea
–Concept? • Hypothesis = explanation for observation
–Hypothesis? • Research = diligent inquiry/examination
–Research?
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What is Science? Science

• An objective, accurate, logical & systematic
method of analysis of phenomenon devised to
permit the accumulation of reliable knowledge
• It is a careful, disciplined & logical search of
knowledge about any aspects of the universe
obtained by examination of the best available
evidence & always subject to review &
correction based on discovery of new evidence

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Theory
• Highlights & explains something that one would otherwise not see, or
would find puzzling
• Theories are things that aim to explain puzzling observations
• Theories are composed of one or more hypotheses, each of which,
consist of concepts linked by relationships
• It is, often, an answer to a ‘Why’ question
• Two important processes of theory construction: induction & deduction
• Induction goes from a set of observation to a theory
• Deduction goes from a theory to particular observation
• Thus, induction is the technique of generating theories and deduction
is the technique for applying them
• Theories must be capable of being tested or falsified. In order to test
theories, there must be a way of measuring each concept.
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Deductive, Inductive & Descriptive
• Deductive research: begins at the point of
theory and ends with observation
• Inductive research: begins with data but ends
with theory
• Descriptive research: begins with data & ends
with generalizations
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10/20/2017
Concepts
• Are the building blocks of science
• Every investigation begins & ends with concepts
• Theories are composed of one or more hypotheses, each
of which, consist of concepts linked by relationships
• Theories are also called high-level concepts; when broken
down into smaller parts, it is called concepts (Concept 
Hypothesis  Theory)
• We call the relationships to be tested a research
hypothesis
• Hypotheses are usually stated in the null form or in the
alternative form
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The Research & Null hypothesis
• Research/Alternative hypothesis (H1 )
– is a directional statement of a relationship btwn variables
– states that there is significant difference btwn 2 parameters
• Null hypothesis (H0)
– is simply the opposite of your research hypothesis
• Eg1. Performance of students in programing courses
– Research Hypothesis (H1): The performance of male and female students
differ in programming courses
– Null hypothesis (Ho): There is no difference between male and female
students in performance in programming courses
• Eg2. Crop failure  drought. What is the H0 & H1 hypothesis?
• The way you test your hypothesis is through statistical
tests - chi square, t tests, f test etc.
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What is a research?
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Consider the following examples
1. Ms Sonia contacted community elder men and collected
information about informal milk market in Bishoftu area
2. A farmer cultivated, selected and kept best panicles of
sorghum for next year cropping season
3. A PhD student runs serious of laboratory experiments
4. Mr Robin collects historical information from library
All exemplify a research
@Solomon Benor, PhD
10/20/2017
Consider the following examples
1. Ms Sonia contacted community elder men and collected
information about informal milk market in Bishoftu area
2. A farmer cultivated, selected and kept best panicles of
sorghum for next year cropping season
3. A PhD student runs serious of laboratory experiments
4. Mr Robin collects historical information from library
Which one of the above exemplifies a research? Why?
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Research
• An original & creative intellectual activity which is carried out in the
laboratory, library, or in the field which attempts to discover new
facts & to appraise & interpret it properly in the light of previous
knowledge
• A process which has a continuum of inter-related or inter-locked sub-
activities and sub-processes starting with need assessment &
ending with the way in which the results will be utilized for
development
• Any inquiry or investigation undertaken with the aid of standardized
procedures in order to obtain information that will augment a
shared body of knowledge
• By standardized it means that research is systematic, communicable,
& repeatable
• Comprises of defining & redefining problems, formulating
hypothesis, collecting, organizing & analyzing data, making
deductions & conclusions
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Research… Research…
• An active, diligent & systematic process of inquiry in order
to discover, interpret or revise facts, events, behaviors, or
theories, or to make practical applications with the help of • When someone starts research, it can be:
such facts, laws or theories 1. An original
• Diligent & thorough inquiry & investigation into a subject. 2. Previously done & add some form of modifications to
This includes using all appropriate print & electronic discover new facts, or
sources, asking the reference librarians for help, and 3. Intellectual exercise
making use of bibliographies given by other authors
• Give an example for each of the above 3
• Investigation & experimentation aimed at discovery,
research types
interpretations, and application of scientific data
• Scientific study to find out facts, test models and develop
theories about the natural world

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Scientific research Research…

The 3 distinguishing characteristics that make a research scientific are:
• It is empirical
– It is to mean the raw materials from which scientific knowledge is
derived are systematic observation of reality
Five key characteristics of a research
– Hence, a researcher engaged in a scientific research should collect data
by whatever procedures of data collection techniques 1. Logical: induction/deduction
• It is a mental process whereby observations are converted into meaningful
information
– From the observation, generalizations are derived to describe the 2. Reductive: conclusion/generalisation
phenomenon under study
– From generalization a theory is formulated; & from theory hypothesis 3. Replicable: methodology
is derived to predict future occurrence of the phenomenon
– The hypotheses are then tested for accuracy by re-observing the
phenomenon 4. Empirical: realistic/evidence based
• It always possesses a structure or design
– The design may vary from inquiry to inquiry, but it is inherent in all
scientific investigations 5. Systematic: standardised process
– This structure is essentially a set of written directives outlining the
sequence of operations that theBenor,
@Solomon investigator
PhD will undertake 15 @Solomon Benor, PhD 16
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Research planning (Roberts & Dunworth, 2012)

Review the Available
Literature

Publish Formulate a
Findings Question
Research Process
Interpret Select an Appropriate
Findings Research Design

Collect Relevant
Data
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The research cycle The research cycle

1. Research proposal 1. Problem
2. Research 2. Research question
3. Problem 3. Research design
4. Research paper 4. Research proposal
5. Research question 5. Research
6. Research design 6. Research finding
7. Research finding 7. Research paper
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Classification of a research Classification of a research

Uncommitted and Committed research Committed (oriented) research
Uncommitted research – discovers new principles & solve new problems via
– done in academic institutions for extending knowledge empirical research, oriented basic research & applied
or for an academic satisfaction research
– involves transmitting basic scientific knowledge to do
– includes oriented basic research which addresses the
an applied research
client question & its fate is to come to applied research
– includes pure basic research & its fate is:
– involves contacting with questionnaires like exploratory
• to gain additional information
research
• to transmit scientific knowledge, or
– by exploratory work, we assess the extent of the
• dead-end
problem of the society

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Other classification of a research Other classification of a research

• Basic (fundamental, theoretical, pure, academic) research • (Mission) Oriented basic research /basic-applied research
– studies the laws of nature without regard for the immediate applicability of the – is directed to the discovery of new scientific knowledge of
findings potential economic importance &/or needed for the solution of a
• Applied research specific problem
– consists of the application of existing knowledge to the solutions of practical • Adaptive research
problems – is designed to adapt technology to the specific needs of a
particular set of conditions E.g. adaptability of agricultural
Basic biotechnology findings of a country to different countries
Applied • Developmental research
Example Example – is the use of scientific knowledge to produce new or substantial
improved materials, devices, products, programs, processes,
 Does caffeine  Does caffeine ingestion systems, etc.
consumption increase improve athletic • Insurance research
lipid metabolism? performance? – is aimed at preventing undesirable situations from occurring; or
preparing a remedy for such situations in time. E.g. climatic
 Would this aid research, developmental of drought tolerant varieties, etc
contraction of muscle?
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Other classifications… Other classifications…

• Descriptive research
– is conducted to precisely measure & report the characteristics of some population
or phenomenon under study
– A descriptive study describes & interprets the question “what is?”
– It involves description, recording, analyzing, & interpretation of conditions that
exist
• Experimental research
– refers to that type of research in which variables are manipulated & their effects
upon other variables are observed
– it provides a systematic & logical method for answering the question, “If this is
done under carefully planned & controlled conditions, what will happen?”
– it shows “what will be the outcome when certain variables are carefully
controlled or manipulated?”
• Strategic research
– is designed to generate new knowledge & methodology needed for the solution
of specific research problems. E.g. introduction of rubber trees, soybean, etc
• Diagnostic research
– case study method to reach the basic casual relationships
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• Commodity research
– targeting on environmental details affecting living organisms
– Eg 1. Research in soil science could be on soil fertility, soil survey, soil
conservation, irrigation.
– Eg 2. Research in crop science could be on cereals, pulses, oil crops, horticultural
crops, fiber crops
– Eg 3. Research in biotechnology could be on agricultural, industrial,
environmental, medical, or pharmaceutical (or in microbes, plants, or animals)
• Disciplinary research
– research conducted by similar disciplines . Example ?
• Multidisciplinary research
– denotes that there are several disciplines involved in a given study carried out by
a team of researchers. Example ?
• Interdisciplinary research
– goes further than multi-disciplinary research
– consists of persons trained in different fields of knowledge or disciplines with
different concepts, terms, & methods but organized into a common effort on a
common problem with sustained intercommunication among the participant .
Example?
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Disciplinary Multidisciplinary: involves pieces of more than one

Physics Chemistry Physics Chemistry

Biology Mathematics Economics Biology Mathematics Economics

Psychology Etc. Psychology Etc.

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Some disciplines seem to lend

themselves easily to this . . . Or . . .

Computer
Mathematics Science

Physics Biology Chemistry Psychology Economics Physics Biology Chemistry Psychology Economics

Etc. Etc.

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Or, some claim . . . Interdisciplinary: Lives in interstices, goes both ways

Philosophy Philosoph
Linguistics
y

Cognitive
Physics Biology Chemistry Psychology Economics Biology Computing
Science

Etc. Psychology Etc.

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Another traditional example: Review questions

1. Give an example of a research question & identify/generate:
– Theory
– Concept
– Null & research hypothesis
Geography Economics
2. Define the following research classifications terms

– Basic research – Experimental research

Biology Ecology Management – Applied research – Commodity research
– Development research – Disciplinary research
– Adaptive research – Multidisciplinary research
– Insurance research – Interdisciplinary research
Poly. Sci. Etc.

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3. Give an example for the following research types

• Basic research (Striga)

• Adaptive research (adaptation trial)
• Commodity research (crop, soil, etc.)
• Applied research
• Disciplinary research
• Multidisciplinary research
• Interdisciplinary research
• Development research
• Strategic research

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