❚♦ t❤❡ st✉❞❡♥t✳✳✳ ✷

❚♦ t❤❡ st✉❞❡♥t
▼❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝s ✐s ❛ s❝✐❡♥❝❡✳ ❏✉st ❛s t❤❡ r❡st ♦❢ t❤❡ s❝✐❡♥t✐sts✱ ♠❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝✐❛♥s ❛r❡ tr②✐♥❣ t♦ ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ ❤♦✇
t❤❡ ❯♥✐✈❡rs❡ ♦♣❡r❛t❡s ❛♥❞ ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r ✐ts ❧❛✇s✳ ❲❤❡♥ s✉❝❝❡ss❢✉❧✱ t❤❡② ✇r✐t❡ t❤❡s❡ ❧❛✇s ❛s s❤♦rt st❛t❡♠❡♥ts
❝❛❧❧❡❞ ✏t❤❡♦r❡♠s✑✳ ■♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡s❡ ❧❛✇s ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐✈❡❧② ❛♥❞ ♣r❡❝✐s❡❧②✱ ❛ ❞✐❝t✐♦♥❛r② ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ❝♦♥❝❡♣ts
✐s ❛❧s♦ ❞❡✈❡❧♦♣❡❞❀ ✐ts ❡♥tr✐❡s ❛r❡ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ✏❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥s✑✳ ❚❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ♠❛❦❡ ✉♣ t❤❡ ♠♦st ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ♣❛rt ♦❢ ❛♥②
♠❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝s ❜♦♦❦✳

❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥s✱ t❤❡♦r❡♠s✱ ❛♥❞ s♦♠❡ ♦t❤❡r ✐t❡♠s ❛r❡ ✉s❡❞ ❛s ❜✉✐❧❞✐♥❣ ❜❧♦❝❦s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❝✐❡♥t✐✜❝ t❤❡♦r②
✇❡ ♣r❡s❡♥t ✐♥ t❤✐s t❡①t✳

❊✈❡r② ♥❡✇ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t ✐s ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝❡❞ ✇✐t❤ ✉t♠♦st s♣❡❝✐✜❝✐t②✳

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✵✳✵✳✶✿ sq✉❛r❡ r♦♦t

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ a ✐s ❛ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ sq✉❛r❡ r♦♦t ♦❢ a ✐s ❛ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r
x✱ s✉❝❤ t❤❛t x2 = a✳

❚❤❡ t❡r♠ ❜❡✐♥❣ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝❡❞ ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ✐♥ ✐t❛❧✐❝s✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ t❤❡♥ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❧② r❡❢❡rr❡❞ t♦ t❤r♦✉❣❤♦✉t
t❤❡ t❡①t✳

◆❡✇ s②♠❜♦❧✐s♠ ♠❛② ❛❧s♦ ❜❡ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝❡❞✳

❙q✉❛r❡ r♦♦t
√
a

❈♦♥s❡q✉❡♥t❧②✱ t❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❢r❡❡❧② ✉s❡❞ t❤r♦✉❣❤♦✉t t❤❡ t❡①t✳

❲❡ ♠❛② ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ❛ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ✐♥st❛♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ ♥❡✇ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t ❡✐t❤❡r ❜❡❢♦r❡ ♦r ❛❢t❡r ✐t ✐s ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t❧② ❞❡✜♥❡❞✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✵✳✵✳✷✿ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧

❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♦❢ ❛ 1 × 1 sq✉❛r❡❄ ❚❤❡ sq✉❛r❡ ✐s ♠❛❞❡ ♦❢ t✇♦ r✐❣❤t tr✐❛♥❣❧❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡
❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ✐s t❤❡✐r s❤❛r❡❞ ❤②♣♦t❡♥✉s❡✳ ▲❡t✬s ❝❛❧❧ ✐t a✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ❜② t❤❡ P②t❤❛❣♦r❡❛♥ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✱ t❤❡ sq✉❛r❡ ♦❢
a ✐s 12 + 12 = 2✳ ❈♦♥s❡q✉❡♥t❧②✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
a2 = 2 .
√
❲❡ ✐♠♠❡❞✐❛t❡❧② s❡❡ t❤❡ ♥❡❡❞ ❢♦r t❤❡ sq✉❛r❡ r♦♦t✦ ❚❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ✐s✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ a= 2✳

❨♦✉ ❝❛♥ s❦✐♣ s♦♠❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ✇✐t❤♦✉t ✈✐♦❧❛t✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✢♦✇ ♦❢ ✐❞❡❛s✱ ❛t ②♦✉r ♦✇♥ r✐s❦✳

❆❧❧ ♥❡✇ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧ ✐s ❢♦❧❧♦✇❡❞ ❜② ❛ ❢❡✇ ❧✐tt❧❡ t❛s❦s✱ ♦r q✉❡st✐♦♥s✱ ❧✐❦❡ t❤✐s✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✵✳✵✳✸
❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t ♦❢ ❛♥ ❡q✉✐❧❛t❡r❛❧ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡ t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ s✐❞❡ ♦❢ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s 1✳

❚❤❡ ❡①❡r❝✐s❡s ❛r❡ t♦ ❜❡ ❛tt❡♠♣t❡❞ ✭♦r ❛t ❧❡❛st ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❡❞✮ ✐♠♠❡❞✐❛t❡❧②✳

▼♦st ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✲t❡①t ❡①❡r❝✐s❡s ❛r❡ ♥♦t ❡❧❛❜♦r❛t❡✳ ❚❤❡② ❛r❡♥✬t✱ ❤♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ❡♥t✐r❡❧② r♦✉t✐♥❡ ❛s t❤❡② r❡q✉✐r❡
✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞✐♥❣ ♦❢✱ ❛t ❧❡❛st✱ t❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❡♣ts t❤❛t ❤❛✈❡ ❥✉st ❜❡❡♥ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝❡❞✳ ❆❞❞✐t✐♦♥❛❧ ❡①❡r❝✐s❡ s❡ts ❛r❡ ♣❧❛❝❡❞
✐♥ t❤❡ ❛♣♣❡♥❞✐① ❛s ✇❡❧❧ ❛s ❛t t❤❡ ❜♦♦❦✬s ✇❡❜s✐t❡✿ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s✶✷✸✳❝♦♠✳ ❉♦ ♥♦t st❛rt ②♦✉r st✉❞② ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❡①❡r❝✐s❡s✦
❑❡❡♣ ✐♥ ♠✐♥❞ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❡①❡r❝✐s❡s ❛r❡ ♠❡❛♥t t♦ t❡st ✕ ✐♥❞✐r❡❝t❧② ❛♥❞ ✐♠♣❡r❢❡❝t❧② ✕ ❤♦✇ ✇❡❧❧ t❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❡♣ts ❤❛✈❡
❜❡❡♥ ❧❡❛r♥❡❞✳

❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ s♦♠❡t✐♠❡s ✇♦r❞s ♦❢ ❝❛✉t✐♦♥ ❛❜♦✉t ❝♦♠♠♦♥ ♠✐st❛❦❡s ♠❛❞❡ ❜② t❤❡ st✉❞❡♥ts✳
❚♦ t❤❡ st✉❞❡♥t✳✳✳ ✸

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

2
■♥ s♣✐t❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t
√ (−1) = 1✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♦♥❧②

♦♥❡ sq✉❛r❡ r♦♦t ♦❢ 1✱ 1 = 1✳

❚❤❡ ♠♦st ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ❢❛❝ts ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ❝♦♥❝❡♣ts ❛r❡ ♣✉t ❢♦r✇❛r❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ♠❛♥♥❡r✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✵✳✵✳✹✿ Pr♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ ❘♦♦ts

❋♦r ❛♥② t✇♦ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs a ❛♥❞ b✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✐❞❡♥t✐t②✿

√ √ √
a· b= a·b

❚❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠s ❛r❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❧② r❡❢❡rr❡❞ t♦ t❤r♦✉❣❤♦✉t t❤❡ t❡①t✳

❆s ②♦✉ ❝❛♥ s❡❡✱ t❤❡♦r❡♠s ♠❛② ❝♦♥t❛✐♥ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s❀ ❛ t❤❡♦r❡♠ s✉♣♣❧✐❡s ❧✐♠✐t❛t✐♦♥s ♦♥ t❤❡ ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛❜✐❧✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡
❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐t ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s✳ ❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ ❡✈❡r② ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐s ❛ ♣❛rt ♦❢ ❛ t❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ❛♥❞ ✉s✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ✇✐t❤♦✉t
❦♥♦✇✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ✐s ♣❡r✐❧♦✉s✳

❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ♠❡♠♦r✐③❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥s ♦r t❤❡♦r❡♠s ✭❛♥❞ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s✮✱ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧❧②✳ ❲✐t❤ ❡♥♦✉❣❤ t✐♠❡ s♣❡♥t ✇✐t❤
t❤❡ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧✱ t❤❡ ♠❛✐♥ ♦♥❡s ✇✐❧❧ ❡✈❡♥t✉❛❧❧② ❜❡❝♦♠❡ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r ❛s t❤❡② ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡ t♦ r❡❛♣♣❡❛r ✐♥ t❤❡ t❡①t✳ ❲❛t❝❤
❢♦r ✇♦r❞s ✏✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t✑✱ ✏❝r✉❝✐❛❧✑✱ ❡t❝✳ ❚❤♦s❡ ♥❡✇ ❝♦♥❝❡♣ts t❤❛t ❞♦ ♥♦t r❡❛♣♣❡❛r ✐♥ t❤✐s t❡①t ❛r❡ ❧✐❦❡❧② t♦ ❜❡
s❡❡♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♥❡①t ♠❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝s ❜♦♦❦ t❤❛t ②♦✉ r❡❛❞✳ ❨♦✉ ♥❡❡❞ t♦✱ ❤♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ❜❡ ❛✇❛r❡ ♦❢ ❛❧❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥s
❛♥❞ t❤❡♦r❡♠s ❛♥❞ ❜❡ ❛❜❧❡ t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ♦♥❡ ✇❤❡♥ ♥❡❝❡ss❛r②✳

❖❢t❡♥✱ ❜✉t ♥♦t ❛❧✇❛②s✱ ❛ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ✐s ❢♦❧❧♦✇❡❞ ❜② ❛ t❤♦r♦✉❣❤ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t ❛s ❛ ❥✉st✐✜❝❛t✐♦♥✳

Pr♦♦❢✳
√ √
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ A= a ❛♥❞ B= b✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

a = A2 ❛♥❞ b = B2 .

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

a · b = A2 · B 2 = A · A · B · B = (A · B) · (A · B) = (AB)2 .
√
❍❡♥❝❡✱ ab = A · B ✱ ❛❣❛✐♥ ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✳

❙♦♠❡ ♣r♦♦❢s ❝❛♥ ❜❡ s❦✐♣♣❡❞ ❛t ✜rst r❡❛❞✐♥❣✳

■ts ❤✐❣❤❧② ❞❡t❛✐❧❡❞ ❡①♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♠❛❦❡s t❤❡ ❜♦♦❦ ❛ ❣♦♦❞ ❝❤♦✐❝❡ ❢♦r s❡❧❢✲st✉❞②✳ ■❢ t❤✐s ✐s ②♦✉r ❝❛s❡✱ t❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ ♠②
s✉❣❣❡st✐♦♥s✳

❲❤✐❧❡ r❡❛❞✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❜♦♦❦✱ tr② t♦ ♠❛❦❡ s✉r❡ t❤❛t ②♦✉ ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ ♥❡✇ ❝♦♥❝❡♣ts ❛♥❞ ✐❞❡❛s✳ ❑❡❡♣ ✐♥ ♠✐♥❞✱
❤♦✇❡✈❡r✱ t❤❛t s♦♠❡ ❛r❡ ♠♦r❡ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t t❤❛t ♦t❤❡rs❀ t❤❡② ❛r❡ ♠❛r❦❡❞ ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣❧②✳ ❈♦♠❡ ❜❛❝❦ ✭♦r ❥✉♠♣
❢♦r✇❛r❞✮ ❛s ♥❡❡❞❡❞✳ ❈♦♥t❡♠♣❧❛t❡✳ ❋✐♥❞ ♦t❤❡r s♦✉r❝❡s ✐❢ ♥❡❝❡ss❛r②✳ ❨♦✉ s❤♦✉❧❞ ♥♦t t✉r♥ t♦ t❤❡ ❡①❡r❝✐s❡ s❡ts
✉♥t✐❧ ②♦✉ ❤❛✈❡ ❜❡❝♦♠❡ ❝♦♠❢♦rt❛❜❧❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧✳

❲❤❛t t♦ ❞♦ ❛❜♦✉t ❡①❡r❝✐s❡s ✇❤❡♥ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s ❛r❡♥✬t ♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞❄ ❋✐rst✱ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s✳ ▼❛♥② ♦❢ t❤❡♠ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥
❛ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ✕ ✇✐t❤ ❛ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥✳ ❚r② t♦ s♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ✕ ❜❡❢♦r❡ ♦r ❛❢t❡r r❡❛❞✐♥❣ t❤❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥✳ ❨♦✉ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦
✜♥❞ ❡①❡r❝✐s❡s ♦♥❧✐♥❡ ♦r ♠❛❦❡ ✉♣ ②♦✉r ♦✇♥ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠s ❛♥❞ s♦❧✈❡ t❤❡♠✦

■ str♦♥❣❧② s✉❣❣❡st t❤❛t ②♦✉r s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ t❤♦r♦✉❣❤❧② ✇r✐tt❡♥✳ ❨♦✉ s❤♦✉❧❞ ✇r✐t❡ ✐♥ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❡ s❡♥t❡♥❝❡s✱
✐♥❝❧✉❞✐♥❣ ❛❧❧ t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ②♦✉ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❛♣♣r❡❝✐❛t❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦✿

1+1 1+1
❲r♦♥❣✿ ❘✐❣❤t✿
2 =2
❚♦ t❤❡ st✉❞❡♥t✳✳✳ ✹

❚❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r r❡❛❞s ✏♦♥❡ ❛❞❞❡❞ t♦ ♦♥❡ ✐s t✇♦✑✱ ✇❤✐❧❡ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ❝❛♥♥♦t ❜❡ r❡❛❞✳ ❨♦✉ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❛❧s♦ ❥✉st✐❢② ❛❧❧ ②♦✉r
st❡♣s ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥s✱ ✐♥❝❧✉❞✐♥❣ ❛❧❧ t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ②♦✉ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❛♣♣r❡❝✐❛t❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥
t❤❡s❡ t✇♦✿
2x = 4 2x = 4 ; t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱
❲r♦♥❣✿ ❘✐❣❤t✿
x=2 x = 2.
❚❤❡ st❛♥❞❛r❞s ♦❢ t❤♦r♦✉❣❤♥❡ss ❛r❡ ♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❜♦♦❦✳

◆❡①t✱ ②♦✉r s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ t❤♦r♦✉❣❤❧② r❡❛❞✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ❢♦r s❡❧❢✲❝r✐t✐❝✐s♠✿ ▲♦♦❦ ❢♦r ❡rr♦rs ❛♥❞ ✇❡❛❦
s♣♦ts✳ ■t s❤♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ r❡✲r❡❛❞ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ r❡✇r✐tt❡♥✳ ❖♥❝❡ ②♦✉ ❛r❡ ❝♦♥✈✐♥❝❡❞ t❤❛t t❤❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦rr❡❝t ❛♥❞ t❤❡
♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s s♦❧✐❞✱ ②♦✉ ♠❛② s❤♦✇ ✐t t♦ ❛ ❦♥♦✇❧❡❞❣❡❛❜❧❡ ♣❡rs♦♥ ❢♦r ❛ ♦♥❝❡✲♦✈❡r✳

◆❡①t✱ ②♦✉ ♠❛② t✉r♥ t♦ ♠♦❞❡❧✐♥❣ ♣r♦❥❡❝ts✳ ❙♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡ts ✭▼✐❝r♦s♦❢t ❊①❝❡❧ ♦r s✐♠✐❧❛r✮ ❛r❡ ❝❤♦s❡♥ t♦ ❜❡ ✉s❡❞
❢♦r ❣r❛♣❤✐♥❣ ❛♥❞ ♠♦❞❡❧✐♥❣✳ ❖♥❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❝❤✐❡✈❡ ❛s ❣♦♦❞ r❡s✉❧ts ✇✐t❤ ♣❛❝❦❛❣❡s s♣❡❝✐✜❝❛❧❧② ❞❡s✐❣♥❡❞ ❢♦r t❤❡s❡
♣✉r♣♦s❡s✱ ❜✉t s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡ts ♣r♦✈✐❞❡ ❛ t♦♦❧ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ✇✐❞❡r s❝♦♣❡ ♦❢ ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s✳ Pr♦❣r❛♠♠✐♥❣ ✐s ❛♥♦t❤❡r
♦♣t✐♦♥✳

●♦♦❞ ❧✉❝❦✦

❏✉♥❡ ✷✸✱ ✷✵✷✵

❚♦ t❤❡ t❡❛❝❤❡r ✺

❚♦ t❤❡ t❡❛❝❤❡r
❚❤❡ ❜✉❧❦ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❜♦♦❦ ❝♦♠❡s ❢r♦♠ ♠② ❧❡❝t✉r❡ ♥♦t❡s✳

❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ❧✐tt❧❡ ❡♠♣❤❛s✐s ♦♥ ❝❧♦s❡❞✲❢♦r♠ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♠❛♥✐♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥s✳ ■ ❞♦ t❤✐♥❦ t❤❛t ❛ ♣❡rs♦♥
✇❤♦ ❤❛s ♥❡✈❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛t❡❞ ❜② ❤❛♥❞ ✭♦r ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡❞✱ ♦r ❛♣♣❧✐❡❞ t❤❡ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✱ ❡t❝✳✮ ❝❛♥♥♦t ♣♦ss✐❜❧②
✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✭♦r ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✱ ♦r q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ❡t❝✳✮✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ❛ ❧❛r❣❡ ♣r♦♣♦rt✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✐♠❡
❛♥❞ ❡✛♦rt ❝❛♥ ❛♥❞ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ ❞✐r❡❝t❡❞ t♦✇❛r❞✿

• ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❡♣ts ❛♥❞

• ♠♦❞❡❧✐♥❣ ✐♥ r❡❛❧✐st✐❝ s❡tt✐♥❣s✳

❚❤❡ ❝❤❛❧❧❡♥❣❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ ✐s t❤❛t ✐t r❡q✉✐r❡s ♠♦r❡ ❛❜str❛❝t✐♦♥ r❛t❤❡r t❤❛♥ ❧❡ss✳

❱✐s✉❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❡ ♠❛✐♥ t♦♦❧ ✉s❡❞ t♦ ❞❡❛❧ ✇✐t❤ t❤✐s ❝❤❛❧❧❡♥❣❡✳ ■❧❧✉str❛t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞ ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② ❝♦♥❝❡♣t✱
❜✐❣ ♦r s♠❛❧❧✳ ❚❤❡ ♣✐❝t✉r❡s t❤❛t ❝♦♠❡ ♦✉t ❛r❡ s♦♠❡t✐♠❡s ✈❡r② ♣r❡❝✐s❡ ❜✉t s♦♠❡t✐♠❡s s❡r✈❡ ❛s ♠❡r❡ ♠❡t❛♣❤♦rs
❢♦r t❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❡♣ts t❤❡② ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡✳ ❚❤❡ ❤♦♣❡ ✐s t❤❛t t❤❡② ✇✐❧❧ s❡r✈❡ ❛s ✈✐s✉❛❧ ✏❛♥❝❤♦rs✑ ✐♥ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ t♦ t❤❡ ✇♦r❞s
❛♥❞ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s✳

■t ✐s ✉♥❧✐❦❡❧② t❤❛t ❛ ♣❡rs♦♥ ✇❤♦ ❤❛s ♥❡✈❡r ♣❧♦tt❡❞ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❜② ❤❛♥❞ ❝❛♥ ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ ❣r❛♣❤s
♦r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✇❤❛t ✐❢ ✇❡ ✇❛♥t t♦ ♣❧♦t ♠♦r❡ t❤❛♥ ❥✉st ❛ ❢❡✇ ♣♦✐♥ts ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡ ❝✉r✈❡s✱
s✉r❢❛❝❡s✱ ✈❡❝t♦r ✜❡❧❞s✱ ❡t❝✳❄ ❙♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡ts ✇❡r❡ ❝❤♦s❡♥ ♦✈❡r ❣r❛♣❤✐❝ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛t♦rs ❢♦r ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♣✉r♣♦s❡s
❜❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡② r❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ s❤♦rt❡st st❡♣ ❛✇❛② ❢r♦♠ ♣❡♥ ❛♥❞ ♣❛♣❡r✳ ■♥❞❡❡❞✱ t❤❡ ❞❛t❛ ✐s ♣❧♦tt❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡
s✐♠♣❧❡st ♠❛♥♥❡r ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡✿ ♦♥❡ ❝❡❧❧ ✲ ♦♥❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ✲ ♦♥❡ ♣♦✐♥t ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✳ ❋♦r ♠♦r❡ ❛❞✈❛♥❝❡❞ t❛s❦s s✉❝❤ ❛s
♠♦❞❡❧✐♥❣✱ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡ts ✇❡r❡ ❝❤♦s❡♥ ♦✈❡r ♦t❤❡r s♦❢t✇❛r❡ ❛♥❞ ♣r♦❣r❛♠♠✐♥❣ ♦♣t✐♦♥s ❢♦r t❤❡✐r ✇✐❞❡ ❛✈❛✐❧❛❜✐❧✐t②
❛♥❞✱ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❛❧❧✱ t❤❡✐r s✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t②✳ ◆✐♥❡ ♦✉t ♦❢ t❡♥✱ t❤❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t s❤♦✇♥ ✇❛s ✐♥✐t✐❛❧❧② ❝r❡❛t❡❞ ❢r♦♠ s❝r❛t❝❤ ✐♥
❢r♦♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ st✉❞❡♥ts ✇❤♦ ✇❡r❡ ❧❛t❡r ❛❜❧❡ t♦ ❢♦❧❧♦✇ ♠② ❢♦♦tst❡♣s ❛♥❞ ❝r❡❛t❡ t❤❡✐r ♦✇♥✳

❆❜♦✉t t❤❡ t❡sts✳ ❚❤❡ ❜♦♦❦ ✐s♥✬t ❞❡s✐❣♥❡❞ t♦ ♣r❡♣❛r❡ t❤❡ st✉❞❡♥t ❢♦r s♦♠❡ ♣r❡❡①✐st✐♥❣ ❡①❛♠❀ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❝♦♥tr❛r②✱
❛ss✐❣♥♠❡♥ts s❤♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ ❜❛s❡❞ ♦♥ ✇❤❛t ❤❛s ❜❡❡♥ ❧❡❛r♥❡❞✳ ❚❤❡ st✉❞❡♥ts✬ ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❡♣ts ♥❡❡❞s
t♦ ❜❡ t❡st❡❞ ❜✉t✱ ♠♦st ♦❢ t❤❡ t✐♠❡✱ t❤✐s ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❞♦♥❡ ♦♥❧② ✐♥❞✐r❡❝t❧②✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ❛ ❝❡rt❛✐♥ s❤❛r❡ ♦❢ r♦✉t✐♥❡✱
♠❡❝❤❛♥✐❝❛❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠s ✐s ✐♥❡✈✐t❛❜❧❡✳ ◆♦♥❡t❤❡❧❡ss✱ ♥♦ t♦♣✐❝ ❞❡s❡r✈❡s ♠♦r❡ ❛tt❡♥t✐♦♥ ❥✉st ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ✐t✬s ❧✐❦❡❧② t♦
❜❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ t❡st✳

■❢ ❛t ❛❧❧ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡✱ ❞♦♥✬t ♠❛❦❡ t❤❡ st✉❞❡♥ts ♠❡♠♦r✐③❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s✳

■♥ t❤❡ ♦r❞❡r ♦❢ t♦♣✐❝s✱ t❤❡ ♠❛✐♥ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❢r♦♠ ❛ t②♣✐❝❛❧ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s t❡①t❜♦♦❦ ✐s t❤❛t s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❝♦♠❡ ❜❡❢♦r❡
❡✈❡r②t❤✐♥❣ ❡❧s❡✳ ❚❤❡ r❡❛s♦♥s ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

• ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛r❡ t❤❡ s✐♠♣❧❡st ❦✐♥❞ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳

• ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛r❡ s✐♠♣❧❡r t❤❛♥ ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✭✐♥❝❧✉❞✐♥❣ t❤❡ ♦♥❡s ❛t ✐♥✜♥✐t②✮✳

• ❚❤❡ s✐❣♠❛ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♠❛❦❡ ♠♦r❡ s❡♥s❡ t♦ ❛ st✉❞❡♥t ✇✐t❤
❛ s♦❧✐❞ ❜❛❝❦❣r♦✉♥❞ ✐♥ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✳

• ❆ q✉✐❝❦ tr❛♥s✐t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s t♦ s❡r✐❡s ♦❢t❡♥ ❧❡❛❞s t♦ ❝♦♥❢✉s✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ t✇♦✳

• ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛r❡ ♥❡❡❞❡❞ ❢♦r ♠♦❞❡❧✐♥❣✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ s❤♦✉❧❞ st❛rt ❛s ❡❛r❧② ❛s ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡✳
❋r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ t♦ t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ✻

❋r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ t♦ t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s

■t✬s ♥♦ s❡❝r❡t t❤❛t ❛ ✈❛st ♠❛❥♦r✐t② ♦❢ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s st✉❞❡♥ts ✇✐❧❧ ♥❡✈❡r ✉s❡ ✇❤❛t t❤❡② ❤❛✈❡ ❧❡❛r♥❡❞✳ P♦♦r ❝❛r❡❡r
❝❤♦✐❝❡s ❛s✐❞❡✱ ❛ ❢♦r♠❡r ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s st✉❞❡♥t ✐s ♦❢t❡♥ ✉♥❛❜❧❡ t♦ r❡❝♦❣♥✐③❡ t❤❡ ♠❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝s t❤❛t ✐s s✉♣♣♦s❡❞ t♦
s✉rr♦✉♥❞ ❤✐♠✳ ❲❤② ❞♦❡s t❤✐s ❤❛♣♣❡♥❄

❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ✐s t❤❡ s❝✐❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡✳ ❋r♦♠ t❤❡ ✈❡r② ❜❡❣✐♥♥✐♥❣✱ ✐ts ♣❡❝✉❧✐❛r ❝❤❛❧❧❡♥❣❡ ❤❛s ❜❡❡♥ t♦ st✉❞② ❛♥❞
♠❡❛s✉r❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❝❤❛♥❣❡✿ ❝✉r✈❡s ❛♥❞ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ❛❧♦♥❣ ❝✉r✈❡s✳ ❚❤❡s❡ ❝✉r✈❡s ❛♥❞ t❤✐s ♠♦t✐♦♥ ❛r❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞
❜② ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s✳ ❙❦✐❧❧❢✉❧ ♠❛♥✐♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤♦s❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ✐s ✇❤❛t s♦❧✈❡s ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♣r♦❜❧❡♠s✳ ❋♦r ♦✈❡r ✸✵✵ ②❡❛rs✱
t❤✐s ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ ❤❛s ❜❡❡♥ ❡①tr❡♠❡❧② s✉❝❝❡ss❢✉❧ ✐♥ s❝✐❡♥❝❡s ❛♥❞ ❡♥❣✐♥❡❡r✐♥❣✳ ❚❤❡ s✉❝❝❡ss❡s ❛r❡ ✇❡❧❧✲❦♥♦✇♥✿
♣r♦❥❡❝t✐❧❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥✱ ♣❧❛♥❡t❛r② ♠♦t✐♦♥✱ ✢♦✇ ♦❢ ❧✐q✉✐❞s✱ ❤❡❛t tr❛♥s❢❡r✱ ✇❛✈❡ ♣r♦♣❛❣❛t✐♦♥✱ ❡t❝✳ ❚❡❛❝❤✐♥❣ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s
❢♦❧❧♦✇s t❤✐s ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤✿ ❆♥ ♦✈❡r✇❤❡❧♠✐♥❣ ♠❛❥♦r✐t② ♦❢ ✇❤❛t t❤❡ st✉❞❡♥t ❞♦❡s ✐s ♠❛♥✐♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ♦♥
❛ ♣✐❡❝❡ ♦❢ ♣❛♣❡r✳ ❇✉t t❤✐s ♠❡❛♥s t❤❛t ❛❧❧ t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠s t❤❡ st✉❞❡♥t ❢❛❝❡s ✇❡r❡ ✭♦r ❝♦✉❧❞ ❤❛✈❡ ❜❡❡♥✮ s♦❧✈❡❞
✐♥ t❤❡ ✶✽t❤ ♦r ✶✾t❤ ❝❡♥t✉r✐❡s✦

❚❤✐s ✐s♥✬t ❣♦♦❞ ❡♥♦✉❣❤ ❛♥②♠♦r❡✳ ❲❤❛t ❤❛s ❝❤❛♥❣❡❞ s✐♥❝❡ t❤❡♥❄ ❚❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡rs ❤❛✈❡ ❛♣♣❡❛r❡❞✱ ♦❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱
❛♥❞ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡rs ❞♦♥✬t ♠❛♥✐♣✉❧❛t❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s✳ ❚❤❡② ❞♦♥✬t ❤❡❧♣ ✇✐t❤ s♦❧✈✐♥❣ ✕ ✐♥ t❤❡ tr❛❞✐t✐♦♥❛❧ s❡♥s❡ ♦❢
t❤❡ ✇♦r❞ ✕ t❤♦s❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♣❛st ❝❡♥t✉r✐❡s✳ ■♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✱ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡rs ❡①❝❡❧ ❛t ❤❛♥❞❧✐♥❣
✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t❛❧ ♣r♦❝❡ss❡s✱ ❛♥❞ ✐♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s t❤❡② ❛r❡ ❣r❡❛t ❛t ♠❛♥❛❣✐♥❣ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ ✭❞✐❣✐t❛❧✮ ❞❛t❛✳ ❚♦ ✉t✐❧✐③❡
t❤❡s❡ ❛❞✈❛♥t❛❣❡s✱ s❝✐❡♥t✐sts ✏❞✐s❝r❡t✐③❡✑ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧ts ♦❢ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ❛♥❞ ❝r❡❛t❡ ❛❧❣♦r✐t❤♠s t❤❛t ♠❛♥✐♣✉❧❛t❡ t❤❡
❞✐❣✐t❛❧ ❞❛t❛✳ ❚❤❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ ❜✉t t❤❡ ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛❜✐❧✐t② ✐s ✉♥❧✐♠✐t❡❞✳ ❙✐♥❝❡ t❤❡ ✷✵t❤ ❝❡♥t✉r②✱
t❤✐s ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ ❤❛s ❜❡❡♥ ❡①tr❡♠❡❧② s✉❝❝❡ss❢✉❧ ✐♥ s❝✐❡♥❝❡s ❛♥❞ ❡♥❣✐♥❡❡r✐♥❣✿ ❛❡r♦❞②♥❛♠✐❝s ✭❛✐r♣❧❛♥❡ ❛♥❞ ❝❛r
❞❡s✐❣♥✮✱ s♦✉♥❞ ❛♥❞ ✐♠❛❣❡ ♣r♦❝❡ss✐♥❣✱ s♣❛❝❡ ❡①♣❧♦r❛t✐♦♥✱ str✉❝t✉r❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛t♦♠ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✉♥✐✈❡rs❡✱ ❡t❝✳ ❚❤❡
❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ ✐s ❛❧s♦ ❝✐r❝✉✐t♦✉s✿ ❊✈❡r② ❝♦♥❝❡♣t ✐♥ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s st❛rts ✕ ♦❢t❡♥ ✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t❧② ✕ ❛s ❛ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥
♦❢ ❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♣❤❡♥♦♠❡♥♦♥✦

❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ✐s t❤❡ s❝✐❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡✱ ❜♦t❤ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t❛❧ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✳ ❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ♣❛rt ✕ t❤❡ s♦✲❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡
❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ✕ ♠❛② ❜❡ s❡❡♥ ❛s t❤❡ st✉❞② ♦❢ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t❛❧ ♣❤❡♥♦♠❡♥❛ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s ✐♥❞✐✈✐s✐❜❧❡ ❜② t❤❡✐r
✈❡r② ♥❛t✉r❡✿ ♣❡♦♣❧❡✱ ❛♥✐♠❛❧s✱ ❛♥❞ ♦t❤❡r ♦r❣❛♥✐s♠s✱ ♠♦♠❡♥ts ♦❢ t✐♠❡✱ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ s♣❛❝❡✱ ♣❛rt✐❝❧❡s✱ s♦♠❡
❝♦♠♠♦❞✐t✐❡s✱ ❞✐❣✐t❛❧ ✐♠❛❣❡s ❛♥❞ ♦t❤❡r ♠❛♥✲♠❛❞❡ ❞❛t❛✱ ❡t❝✳ ❲✐t❤ t❤❡ ❤❡❧♣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♠❛❝❤✐♥❡r② ❝❛❧❧❡❞
✏❧✐♠✐ts✑✱ ✇❡ ✐♥✈❛r✐❛❜❧② ❝❤♦♦s❡ t♦ tr❛♥s✐t✐♦♥ t♦ t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♣❛rt ♦❢ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s✱ ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧❧② ✇❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❢❛❝❡
❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♣❤❡♥♦♠❡♥❛ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ❞✐✈✐s✐❜❧❡ ❡✐t❤❡r ❜② t❤❡✐r ♥❛t✉r❡ ♦r ❜② ❛ss✉♠♣t✐♦♥✿ t✐♠❡✱
s♣❛❝❡✱ ♠❛ss✱ t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❡✱ ♠♦♥❡②✱ s♦♠❡ ❝♦♠♠♦❞✐t✐❡s✱ ❡t❝✳ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s ❞❡✜♥✐t✐✈❡ r❡s✉❧ts ❛♥❞ ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡
❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ✕ ❜✉t ♦♥❧② ❢♦r ♣r♦❜❧❡♠s ❛♠❡♥❛❜❧❡ t♦ ✐ts ♠❡t❤♦❞s✦ ■♥ t❤❡ ❝❧❛ssr♦♦♠✱ t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠s ❛r❡ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❡❞
✉♥t✐❧ t❤❡② ❜❡❝♦♠❡ ♠❛♥❛❣❡❛❜❧❡❀ ♦t❤❡r✇✐s❡✱ ✇❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ❜❛❝❦ t♦ t❤❡ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ ♠❡t❤♦❞s ✐♥ s❡❛r❝❤ ♦❢ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s✳

❲✐t❤✐♥ ❛ t②♣✐❝❛❧ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ❝♦✉rs❡✱ t❤❡ st✉❞❡♥t s✐♠♣❧② ♥❡✈❡r ❣❡ts t♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❡ t❤❡ ✏❝✐r❝❧❡✑✦ ▲❛t❡r ♦♥✱ t❤❡
❣r❛❞✉❛t❡ ✐s ❧✐❦❡❧② t♦ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦♥❧② ✇❤❡♥ ❤❡ s❡❡s ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❛♥❞ r❛r❡❧② ✇❤❡♥ ❤❡ s❡❡s ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ❞❛t❛✳

■♥ t❤✐s ❜♦♦❦✱ ❡✈❡r② ❝♦♥❝❡♣t ♦❢ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ✐s ✜rst ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝❡❞ ✐♥ ✐ts ❞✐s❝r❡t❡✱ ✏♣r❡✲❧✐♠✐t✑✱ ✐♥❝❛r♥❛t✐♦♥ ✕ ❡❧s❡✇❤❡r❡
t②♣✐❝❛❧❧② ❤✐❞❞❡♥ ✐♥s✐❞❡ ♣r♦♦❢s ✕ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ✉s❡❞ ❢♦r ♠♦❞❡❧✐♥❣ ❛♥❞ ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ✇❡❧❧ ❜❡❢♦r❡ ✐ts ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s
❝♦✉♥t❡r♣❛rt ❡♠❡r❣❡s✳ ❚❤❡ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ❛r❡ ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r❡❞ ✜rst ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ♠❛t❝❤✐♥❣ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢
t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ❛r❡ ❢♦✉♥❞ ❜② ♠❛❦✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t s♠❛❧❧❡r ❛♥❞ s♠❛❧❧❡r✱ ❛t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ✿
❞✐s❝r❡t❡ ∆x→0 ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s
−−−−−−−−−−→
❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s
❚❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ❛♥❞ ❝❤❛♣t❡r r❡❢❡r❡♥❝❡s ❢♦r ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ■❧❧✉str❛t❡❞ ✼

❚❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ❛♥❞ ❝❤❛♣t❡r r❡❢❡r❡♥❝❡s ❢♦r ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ■❧❧✉str❛t❡❞

❚❤✐s ❜♦♦❦ ✐s ❛ ♣❛rt ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ■❧❧✉str❛t❡❞✳ ❚❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ❝♦✈❡rs t❤❡ st❛♥❞❛r❞ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✉♥❞❡r✲
❣r❛❞✉❛t❡ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ✇✐t❤ ❛ s✉❜st❛♥t✐❛❧ r❡✈✐❡✇ ♦❢ ♣r❡❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ❛♥❞ ❛ ♣r❡✈✐❡✇ ♦❢ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛r② ♦r❞✐♥❛r② ❛♥❞ ♣❛rt✐❛❧
❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s✳ ❇❡❧♦✇ ✐s t❤❡ ❧✐st ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜♦♦❦s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s✱ t❤❡✐r ❝❤❛♣t❡rs✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✇❛② t❤❡ ♣r❡s❡♥t
❜♦♦❦ ✭♣❛r❡♥t❤❡t✐❝❛❧❧②✮ r❡❢❡r❡♥❝❡s t❤❡♠✳
 ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ■❧❧✉str❛t❡❞✳ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✿ Pr❡❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s
✶ P❈✲✶ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s
✶ P❈✲✷ ❙❡ts ❛♥❞ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s
✶ P❈✲✸ ❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s
✶ P❈✲✹ ❈❧❛ss❡s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s
✶ P❈✲✺ ❆❧❣❡❜r❛ ❛♥❞ ❣❡♦♠❡tr②
 ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ■❧❧✉str❛t❡❞✳ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✷✿ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s
✷ ❉❈✲✶ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s
✷ ❉❈✲✷ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②
✷ ❉❈✲✸ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡
✷ ❉❈✲✹ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥
✷ ❉❈✲✺ ❚❤❡ ♠❛✐♥ t❤❡♦r❡♠s ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s
✷ ❉❈✲✻ ❲❤❛t ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❞♦ ✇✐t❤ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s
 ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ■❧❧✉str❛t❡❞✳ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✸✿ ■♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s
✸ ■❈✲✶ ❚❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧
✸ ■❈✲✷ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥
✸ ■❈✲✸ ❲❤❛t ✇❡ ❝❛♥ s♦ ✇✐t❤ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s
✸ ■❈✲✹ ❙❡✈❡r❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s
✸ ■❈✲✺ ❙❡r✐❡s
 ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ■❧❧✉str❛t❡❞✳ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✹✿ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ✐♥ ❍✐❣❤❡r ❉✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥s
✹ ❍❉✲✶ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐♥ ♠✉❧t✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ s♣❛❝❡s
✹ ❍❉✲✷ P❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡s
✹ ❍❉✲✸ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ s❡✈❡r❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s
✹ ❍❉✲✹ ❚❤❡ ❣r❛❞✐❡♥t
✹ ❍❉✲✺ ❚❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧
✹ ❍❉✲✻ ❱❡❝t♦r ✜❡❧❞s
 ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ■❧❧✉str❛t❡❞✳ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✺✿ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❊q✉❛t✐♦♥s
✺ ❉❊✲✶ ❖r❞✐♥❛r② ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s
✺ ❉❊✲✷ ❱❡❝t♦r ❛♥❞ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s
✺ ❉❊✲✸ ❙②st❡♠s ♦❢ ❖❉❊s
✺ ❉❊✲✹ ❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❖❉❊s
✺ ❉❊✲✺ P❛rt✐❛❧ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s

❊❛❝❤ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ r❡❛❞ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t❧②✳

❚❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ❛♥❞ ❝❤❛♣t❡r r❡❢❡r❡♥❝❡s ❢♦r ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ■❧❧✉str❛t❡❞ ✽

❆ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♣t❡rs ✐s ♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❆♥ ❛rr♦✇ ❢r♦♠ ❆ t♦ ❇ ♠❡❛♥s t❤❛t ❝❤❛♣t❡r ❇ s❤♦✉❧❞♥✬t

❜❡ r❡❛❞ ❜❡❢♦r❡ ❝❤❛♣t❡r ❆✳

❆❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❛✉t❤♦r ✾

❆❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❛✉t❤♦r

P❡t❡r ❙❛✈❡❧✐❡✈ ✐s ❛ ♣r♦❢❡ss♦r ♦❢ ♠❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝s ❛t ▼❛rs❤❛❧❧ ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✱ ❍✉♥t✲
✐♥❣t♦♥✱ ❲❡st ❱✐r❣✐♥✐❛✱ ❯❙❆✳ ❆❢t❡r ❛ P❤✳❉✳ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t② ♦❢ ■❧❧✐♥♦✐s ❛t
❯r❜❛♥❛✲❈❤❛♠♣❛✐❣♥✱ ❤❡ ❞❡✈♦t❡❞ t❤❡ ♥❡①t ✷✵ ②❡❛rs t♦ t❡❛❝❤✐♥❣ ♠❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝s✳
P❡t❡r ✐s t❤❡ ❛✉t❤♦r ♦❢ ❛ ❣r❛❞✉❛t❡ t❡①t❜♦♦❦ ❚♦♣♦❧♦❣② ■❧❧✉str❛t❡❞ ♣✉❜❧✐s❤❡❞
✐♥ ✷✵✶✻✳ ❍❡ ❤❛s ❛❧s♦ ❜❡❡♥ ✐♥✈♦❧✈❡❞ ✐♥ r❡s❡❛r❝❤ ✐♥ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ t♦♣♦❧♦❣② ❛♥❞
s❡✈❡r❛❧ ♦t❤❡r ✜❡❧❞s✳ ❍✐s ♥♦♥✲❛❝❛❞❡♠✐❝ ♣r♦❥❡❝ts ❤❛✈❡ ❜❡❡♥✿ ❞✐❣✐t❛❧ ✐♠❛❣❡
❛♥❛❧②s✐s✱ ❛✉t♦♠❛t❡❞ ✜♥❣❡r♣r✐♥t ✐❞❡♥t✐✜❝❛t✐♦♥✱ ❛♥❞ ✐♠❛❣❡ ♠❛t❝❤✐♥❣ ❢♦r ♠✐s✲
s✐❧❡ ♥❛✈✐❣❛t✐♦♥✴❣✉✐❞❛♥❝❡✳
❈♦♥t❡♥ts
Pr❡❢❛❝❡ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷
 ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶✿ ❚❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✷
✶✳✶ ❚❤❡ ❆r❡❛ Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✷
✶✳✷ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ❛♥❞ s✉♠s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✽
✶✳✸ ❚❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✸
✶✳✹ ❚❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✸
✶✳✺ ❍♦✇ t♦ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ ❛r❡❛s ❛♥❞ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥ts ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✾
✶✳✻ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✿ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✺
✶✳✼ Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✻✺
✶✳✽ ❚❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡❞ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✼✹
✶✳✾ ❇❛s✐❝ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✽✹
✶✳✶✵ ❋r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✾✵
 ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷✿ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✾✻
✷✳✶ Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✾✻
✷✳✷ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡✿ ❧✐♥❡❛r✐t② ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✵✶
✷✳✸ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✐♥ ❧✐❣❤t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✵✾
✷✳✹ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✷✶
✷✳✺ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✿ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✷✽
✷✳✻ ❈❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✸✸
✷✳✼ ❈❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐♥ ❞❡✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✸✽
✷✳✽ ❚r✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✹✷
✷✳✾ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② ♣❛rts✿ ♣r♦❞✉❝ts ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✹✼
✷✳✶✵ ❆♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡s t♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✺✶
✷✳✶✶ ❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛s ♦❢ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ r❡❣✐♦♥s✿ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✺✸
✷✳✶✷ Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ♣r♦♣❡r ❛♥❞ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ❞❡✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✻✺
✷✳✶✸ ❙❤♦♦t✐♥❣ ❛ ❝❛♥♥♦♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✼✵
 ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✸✿ ❲❤❛t ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❞♦ ✇✐t❤ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✽✵
✸✳✶ ❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t✇♦ ❣r❛♣❤s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✽✵
✸✳✷ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❞❡♥s✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♠❛ss ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✽✽
✸✳✸ ❚❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✾✷
✸✳✹ ❚❤❡ r❛❞✐❛❧ ❞❡♥s✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♠❛ss ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✵✶
✸✳✺ ❚❤❡ ✢♦✇ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✢✉① ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✵✹
✸✳✻ ❚❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✇♦r❦ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✵✽
✸✳✼ ❚❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✶✺
✸✳✽ ◆✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✶✾
✸✳✾ ▲❡♥❣t❤s ♦❢ ❝✉r✈❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✸✵
✸✳✶✵ ❚❤❡ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠ ❢♦r ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥ t❤r❡❡ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✸✻
✸✳✶✶ ❱♦❧✉♠❡s ♦❢ s♦❧✐❞s ✈✐❛ t❤❡✐r ❝r♦ss✲s❡❝t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✹✹
✸✳✶✷ ❱♦❧✉♠❡s ♦❢ s♦❧✐❞s ♦❢ r❡✈♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✺✶
 ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✹✿ ❙❡✈❡r❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✺✽
✹✳✶ ❆ ❜❛❧❧ ✐s t❤r♦✇♥✳✳✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✺✽
✹✳✷ P❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡s ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✻✹
✹✳✸ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✼✹
❈♦♥t❡♥ts ✶✶

✹✳✹ ■♥tr♦❞✉❝t✐♦♥ t♦ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦❢ s❡✈❡r❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✽✺

✹✳✺ ❚❤❡ ❝❡♥tr♦✐❞ ♦❢ ❛ ✢❛t ♦❜❥❡❝t ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✾✸
✹✳✻ ❈♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠s❀ ♣♦❧❛r ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✾✼
✹✳✼ ❱❡❝t♦rs ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✵✼
✹✳✽ ❍♦✇ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❡♠❡r❣❡ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✶✷
✹✳✾ ❚❤❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♣❧❛♥❡ C ✐s t❤❡ ❊✉❝❧✐❞❡❛♥ s♣❛❝❡ R2 ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✶✾
✹✳✶✵ ▼✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡rs✿ C ✐s♥✬t ❥✉st R2 ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✷✸
✹✳✶✶ ❉✐s❝r❡t❡ ❢♦r♠s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✷✽
✹✳✶✷ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✸✼
 ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✺✿ ❙❡r✐❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✹✹
✺✳✶ ❋r♦♠ ❧✐♥❡❛r t♦ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✹✹
✺✳✷ ❚❤❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✺✷
✺✳✸ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✻✷
✺✳✹ ■♥✜♥✐t❡ s❡r✐❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✻✽
✺✳✺ ▼❛✐♥ ❝❧❛ss❡s ♦❢ s❡r✐❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✼✺
✺✳✻ ❋r♦♠ ✜♥✐t❡ s✉♠s ✈✐❛ ❧✐♠✐ts t♦ s❡r✐❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✽✹
✺✳✼ ❉✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✾✷
✺✳✽ ❙❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ t❡r♠s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✾✺
✺✳✾ ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ♦❢ s❡r✐❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✵✷
✺✳✶✵ ❆❜s♦❧✉t❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✵✽
✺✳✶✶ ❚❤❡ ❘❛t✐♦ ❚❡st ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❘♦♦t ❚❡st ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✶✺
✺✳✶✷ P♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✷✶
✺✳✶✸ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦❢ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✷✽
❊①❡r❝✐s❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✹✶
✶ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❇❛❝❦❣r♦✉♥❞ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✹✶
✷ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✹✻
✸ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✹✽
✹ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ▼♦❞❡❧s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✺✶
✺ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ■♥❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✺✸
✻ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❈♦♠♣✉t✐♥❣ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✺✹
✼ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✺✺
✽ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✺✼
✾ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✺✾
✶✵ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ P❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡s ❛♥❞ r❡❧❛t❡❞ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✻✶
✶✶ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❙❡✈❡r❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✻✹
✶✷ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛♥❞ s❡r✐❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✻✻
✶✸ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ P♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ❛♥❞ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✻✽
■♥❞❡① ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✼✷
 ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶✿ ❚❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧

❈♦♥t❡♥ts
✶✳✶ ❚❤❡ ❆r❡❛ Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✷
✶✳✷ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ❛♥❞ s✉♠s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✽
✶✳✸ ❚❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✸
✶✳✹ ❚❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✸
✶✳✺ ❍♦✇ t♦ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ ❛r❡❛s ❛♥❞ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥ts ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✾
✶✳✻ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✿ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✺
✶✳✼ Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✻✺
✶✳✽ ❚❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡❞ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✼✹
✶✳✾ ❇❛s✐❝ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✽✹
✶✳✶✵ ❋r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✾✵

✶✳✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❆r❡❛ Pr♦❜❧❡♠

❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ t✇♦ ♠❛✐♥ ✇❛②s t♦ ❡♥t❡r ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s✿

• ❙t✉❞② ♦❢ ♠♦t✐♦♥✿ ❜❛❝❦ ❛♥❞ ❢♦rt❤ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s✳
• ❙t✉❞② ♦❢ ❝✉r✈❡❞ s❤❛♣❡s✿ ❜❛❝❦ ❛♥❞ ❢♦rt❤ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❛♥❣❡♥ts ❛♥❞✳✳✳ ✇❤❛t❄ ❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛s✳
❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ ❛ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ♦❢ r❛❞✐✉s r ✐s s✉♣♣♦s❡❞ t♦ ❜❡ A = πr2 ✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✶✳✶✿ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ ❝✐r❝❧❡

▲❡t✬s r❡✈✐❡✇ ❤♦✇ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❝♦♥✜r♠ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✇✐t❤ ♥♦t❤✐♥❣ ❜✉t ❛ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t✳

❋✐rst✱ ✇❡ ♣❧♦t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ √

y= 1 − x2 ,
❜② ❧❡tt✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ x r✉♥ ❢r♦♠ −1 t♦ 1 ❡✈❡r② h = .1 ❛♥❞ ✜♥❞✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ y ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t
❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿
❂❙◗❘❚✭✶✲❘❈❬✲✷❪✂ ✷✮
❲❡ ♣❧♦t t❤❡s❡ 20 ♣♦✐♥ts❀ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s ❛ ❤❛❧❢✲❝✐r❝❧❡✿
✶✳✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❆r❡❛ Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ✶✸

❲❡ ♥❡①t ❝♦✈❡r✱ ❛s ❜❡st ✇❡ ❝❛♥✱ t❤✐s ❤❛❧❢✲❝✐r❝❧❡ ✇✐t❤ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❜❛rs t❤❛t st❛♥❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [−1, 1]✳ ❲❡
r❡✲✉s❡ t❤❡ ❞❛t❛✿
• ❚❤❡ ❜❛s❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❛rs ❛r❡ ♦✉r ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ✐♥ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✳
• ❚❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤ts ❛r❡ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ y✳
❚♦ s❡❡ t❤❡ ❜❛rs✱ ✇❡ s✐♠♣❧② ❝❤❛♥❣❡ t❤❡ t②♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❤❛rt ♣❧♦tt❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t✿

◆❡①t✱ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ✐s ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❛rs✳ ❚♦ ❧❡t t❤❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t
❞♦ t❤❡ ✇♦r❦ ❢♦r ✉s✿
• ▼✉❧t✐♣❧② t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤ts ❜② t❤❡ ✭❝♦♥st❛♥t✮ ✇✐❞t❤s ✐♥ t❤❡ ♥❡①t ❝♦❧✉♠♥✳
• ❆❞❞ t❤❡♠ ✉♣ ❛t t❤❡ t♦♣ ❝❡❧❧ ✭②❡❧❧♦✇✮✳
❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❢♦r ❛r❡❛s ✿
❂❘❈❬✲✶❪✯✭❘❈❬✲✷❪✲❘❬✲✶❪❈❬✲✷❪✮
❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ♣r♦❞✉❝❡❞ ✐s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

❆♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡♠✐❝✐r❝❧❡ = 1.552 .

■t ✐s ❝❧♦s❡ t♦ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡t✐❝❛❧ r❡s✉❧t ♦❜t❛✐♥❡❞ ❧❛t❡r ✐♥ t❤✐s ❝❤❛♣t❡r✿

❊①❛❝t ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡♠✐❝✐r❝❧❡ = π/2 ≈ 1.571 .

■♥ s✉♠♠❛r②✱ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ A ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✿

p
an = 1 − x2n · 0.1, ✇❤❡r❡ xn = −1.0 , −0.9 , −0.8 , ... , 0.8 , 0.9 , 1.0 .
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✿
20
X p
A= 0.1 · 1 − x2n .
n=1
✶✳✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❆r❡❛ Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ✶✹

❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ♠♦r❡✦ ❚❤❡ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ✉s❡❞ ♠❛♥② t✐♠❡s ✐♥ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷❉❈✲✸✮ ✐s t♦ ✐♠♣r♦✈❡
♦✉r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ❜② ♠❛❦✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s s♠❛❧❧❡r ❛♥❞ s♠❛❧❧❡r✳ ❘❡❞♦✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ 40
✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ❣✐✈❡s ❛ ❜❡tt❡r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥✱ 1.564✿

❚❤❡ q✉❛❧✐t② ♦❢ ❛♥ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ✐s s❡❡♥ ❛s t❤❡ s✐③❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rts ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❛rs st✐❝❦✐♥❣ ♦✉t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡
❛s ✇❡❧❧ ❛s t❤❡ ♣❛rts ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥s✐❞❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ♥♦t ❝♦✈❡r❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❜❛rs✿

◆♦t❤✐♥❣ st♦♣s ✉s ❢r♦♠ ✐♠♣r♦✈✐♥❣ t❤✐s ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ❢✉rt❤❡r ❛♥❞ ❢✉rt❤❡r ✇✐t❤ ❧❛r❣❡r ❛♥❞ ❧❛r❣❡r ✈❛❧✉❡s
♦❢ n✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✶✳✷

❆♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ♦❢ r❛❞✐✉s 1 ✇✐t❤✐♥ 0.0001✳

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ s❤♦✇❡❞ t❤❛t ✐♥❞❡❡❞ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ✐s ❝❧♦s❡ t♦ ✇❤❛t✬s ❡①♣❡❝t❡❞✳ ❇✉t t❤❡ r❡❛❧ q✉❡st✐♦♥ ✐s✿
◮ ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❛r❡❛❄
❉♦ ✇❡ ❡✈❡♥ ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ ✇❤❛t ✐t ✐s❄
❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✐s ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r✳

❚❤❡ ✐♥t✉✐t✐♦♥ ✐s t♦ s♣❡❛❦ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛♠♦✉♥t ♦❢ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧ ❤❡❧❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ✇❡ ✜❧❧ ❛ s❡♠✐❝✐r❝✉❧❛r
❜✉❝❦❡t ✇✐t❤ ✇❛t❡r ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♣♦✉r ✐t ✐♥t♦ ❛ r❡❝t❛♥❣✉❧❛r ♦♥❡ s♦ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ♠❡❛s✉r❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♥t❡♥ts✿
✶✳✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❆r❡❛ Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ✶✺

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✶✳✸

❈♦♥✜r♠ t❤❛t t❤❡ s❡♠✐❝✐r❝✉❧❛r ❜✉❝❦❡t ❛♥❞ t❤❡ r❡❝t❛♥❣✉❧❛r ♦♥❡ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❛♠♦✉♥t ♦❢ ✇❛t❡r✳

❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ♠❛❦❡ ♠❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝❛❧ s❡♥s❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s❄

❖♥❡ t❤✐♥❣ ✇❡ ❞♦ ❦♥♦✇✳ ❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ ❛ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡ a×b ✐s ab✳

❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ ❛♥② r✐❣❤t tr✐❛♥❣❧❡ ✐s s✐♠♣❧② ❛ ❤❛❧❢ ♦❢ ❛ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧❧② ❝✉t r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡✿

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ❝✉t ❛♥② tr✐❛♥❣❧❡ ✐♥t♦ ❛ ♣❛✐r ♦❢ r✐❣❤t tr✐❛♥❣❧❡s✿

❋✐♥❛❧❧②✱ ❛♥② ♣♦❧②❣♦♥ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❝✉t ✐♥t♦ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡s✿

❙♦✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ✜♥❞ ✕ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ ✕ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛s ♦❢ ❛❧❧ ♣♦❧②❣♦♥s✳ ❚❤❡② ❛r❡ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ♦❜❥❡❝ts ✇✐t❤ str❛✐❣❤t
❡❞❣❡s✳

❇✉t ✇❤❛t ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛s ♦❢ ❝✉r✈❡❞ ♦❜❥❡❝ts❄

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✶✳✹✿ ❝✐r❝❧❡

▲❡t✬s r❡✈✐❡✇ t❤❡ ❛♥❝✐❡♥t ●r❡❡❦s✬ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ t♦ ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞✐♥❣ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♠♣✉t✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ ❛ ❝✐r❝❧❡✳ ❚❤❡②
❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡❞ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ✇✐t❤ r❡❣✉❧❛r ♣♦❧②❣♦♥s✿ ❡q✉❛❧ s✐❞❡s ❛♥❞ ❛♥❣❧❡s✳ ❲❡ ♣✉t s✉❝❤ ♣♦❧②❣♦♥s ❛r♦✉♥❞
t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ s♦ t❤❛t ✐t t♦✉❝❤❡s t❤❡♠ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ✐♥s✐❞❡ ✭✏❝✐r❝✉♠s❝r✐❜✐♥❣✑ ♣♦❧②❣♦♥s✮✿
✶✳✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❆r❡❛ Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ✶✻

❋♦r ❡❛❝❤ n = 3, 4, 5, 6, ...✱ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✐s ❝❛rr✐❡❞ ♦✉t✳ ❲❡ s♣❧✐t ❡❛❝❤ s✉❝❤ ♣♦❧②❣♦♥ ✇✐t❤ n s✐❞❡s ✐♥t♦ 2n
r✐❣❤t tr✐❛♥❣❧❡s ❛♥❞ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡✐r ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥s✿

❲❡ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ π ❤❡r❡ ❛s t❤❡ ❛♥❣❧❡ ♠❡❛s✉r❡ ✭♣♦ss✐❜❧② ✉♥❦♥♦✇♥✮ ♦❢ ❛ ❤❛❧❢ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉❧❧ t✉r♥✳ ❚❤❡ ❢✉❧❧ t✉r♥

✐s 2π ✱ ❛♥❞ ✐t ✐s ❝✉t ✐♥t♦ 2n ❛♥❣❧❡s✿

2π π
αn = = .
2n n
❚❤❡ s✐❞❡ t❤❛t t♦✉❝❤❡s t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ✐s ✐ts r❛❞✐✉s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♦♣♣♦s✐t❡ s✐❞❡ ✐s r tan πn ✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢

t❤❡ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡ ✐s
1 π r2
an = · r · r tan n = tan πn .
2 2
❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ ♥♦✇ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ♣♦❧②❣♦♥✿

r2
An = an · 2n = tan πn · 2n .
2
❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❡①❛♠✐♥❡ t❤❡ ❞❛t❛✿

n 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 ...
An 5.196 4.000 3.633 3.464 3.371 3.314 3.276 3.249 3.230 3.215 3.204 3.195 3.188 ...

❚❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs s❡❡♠ t♦ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ ✦

■♥❞❡❡❞✱ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ An ✐s ❜♦t❤ ♠♦♥♦t♦♥❡ ❛♥❞ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❛♥❞✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t✳ ■ts ❧✐♠✐t ✐s t❤❡

♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✭❛♥❞ ♦❢ π ✮✳

✶✳✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❆r❡❛ Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ✶✼

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t✿

r2
An = tan πn · 2n
2
sin π 1
= πr2 · π n · ❲❡ r❡❛rr❛♥❣❡ t❤❡ t❡r♠s ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ✉s❡✳✳✳
n
cos πn
|| ↓ ↓ ❛s n→∞ ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢❛♠♦✉s tr✐❣ ❧✐♠✐ts ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷❉❈✲✶).

πr2 ·1 ·1

= πr2 .

■♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❢✉❧❧② ❥✉st✐❢② t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t✱ t❤❡ ●r❡❡❦s ❛❧s♦ ♣✉t s✉❝❤ ♣♦❧②❣♦♥s ❛r♦✉♥❞ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ s♦ t❤❛t ✐t
t♦✉❝❤❡s t❤❡♠ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♦✉ts✐❞❡ ✭✏✐♥s❝r✐❜✐♥❣✑ ♣♦❧②❣♦♥s✮✳ ❯♥❢♦rt✉♥❛t❡❧②✱ t❤❡ ♠❡t❤♦❞s ❝❛♥♥♦t ❜❡ ❡❛s✐❧②
❛♣♣❧✐❡❞ t♦✱ s❛②✱ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛s✳ ❚❤❛t ✐s ✇❤② ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ s❡❡❦ ❛ ♠♦r❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✶✳✺

❊①♣❧❛✐♥ ✐♥ ❞❡t❛✐❧ ✇❤② An ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✶✳✻

❊①♣❧❛✐♥ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ❧✐♠✐t ✐♥ ♦✉r ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✶✳✼

❈❛rr② ♦✉t t❤✐s ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐♦♥ ❢♦r t❤❡ ✐♥s❝r✐❜❡❞ ♣♦❧②❣♦♥s✳

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ s❡❡♠✐♥❣❧② ✉♥r❡❧❛t❡❞ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠s ❛♥❞ ❤♦✇ t❤❡② ❛r❡ s♦❧✈❡❞✿

❚❤❡ ❚❛♥❣❡♥t Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ❚❤❡ ❆r❡❛ Pr♦❜❧❡♠

●❡♦♠❡tr②✿ ❋♦r ❛ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❝✉r✈❡✱ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ t♦✉❝❤✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ ❛t ❛ ♣♦✐♥t t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ❡♥❝❧♦s❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡

❚❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠s ❛r❡ ❡❛s② ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ❛❝t✉❛❧ ❝✉r✈✐♥❣✿ str❛✐❣❤t ❧✐♥❡s✳ ❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ s♦❧✈❡❞ t❤❡s❡
♣r♦❜❧❡♠s ❢♦r ❛ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ❝✉r✈❡✿ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡✳ ❚❤❡ ❢✉rt❤❡r ♣r♦❣r❡ss ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥ t❤❡ ❞❡✈❡❧♦♣♠❡♥t ♦❢ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✱ t❤❡
❈❛rt❡s✐❛♥ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✭❈❤❛♣t❡rs ✶P❈✲✷✱ ✶P❈✲✸✱ ❛♥❞ ✶P❈✲✹✮✳
✶✳✷✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ❛♥❞ s✉♠s ✶✽

▼♦t✐♦♥✿ ❚❤❡ t✇♦ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠s ❛r❡ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❡❞ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

❚❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤

t♦ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
✐s t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛t t❤❛t ♠♦♠❡♥t✳ ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t✳

❚❤❡ ❢✉rt❤❡r ❞❡✈❡❧♦♣♠❡♥t ✉t✐❧✐③❡s ❞✐✈✐❞✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐♥t♦ s♠❛❧❧❡r ♣✐❡❝❡s✱ ∆x ❧♦♥❣✱ s❛♠♣❧✐♥❣
t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ❛♥❞ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❜② ♠❡❛♥s ♦❢ str❛✐❣❤t ❧✐♥❡s✳

❋♦r ♠❛♥② ♣r❛❝t✐❝❛❧ ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s✱ t❤✐s st❛❣❡ ✐s s✉✣❝✐❡♥t✳ ■♥ ✐❞❡❛❧✐③❡❞ s✐t✉❛t✐♦♥s✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❞♦ ♠♦r❡✳
❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s✿ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s✱ ❛s ∆x → 0✱ ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧

■♥ t❤✐s ❝❤❛♣t❡r✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♣✉rs✉❡ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ❛s ♦✉t❧✐♥❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ❝♦❧✉♠♥✳

✶✳✷✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ❛♥❞ s✉♠s

❲❡ t✉r♥ t♦ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ♥♦✇✳ ❖✉r st❛rt✐♥❣ ♣♦✐♥t ✐s t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿

❞✐st❛♥❝❡ = s♣❡❡❞ × t✐♠❡

❘❡❝❛❧❧ t✇♦ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r ♣r♦❜❧❡♠s ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷❉❈✲✶✮✳

Pr♦❜❧❡♠✿ ■♠❛❣✐♥❡ t❤❛t ♦✉r s♣❡❡❞♦♠❡t❡r ✐s ❜r♦❦❡♥ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ✜♥❞ ❛ ✇❛② t♦ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ ❤♦✇ ❢❛st ✇❡ ❛r❡
❞r✐✈✐♥❣✳
✶✳✷✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ❛♥❞ s✉♠s ✶✾

❲❡ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ ♦❞♦♠❡t❡r s❡✈❡r❛❧ t✐♠❡s ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ tr✐♣ ❛♥❞ r❡❝♦r❞ t❤❡ ♠✐❧❡❛❣❡ ♦♥ ❛ ♣✐❡❝❡ ♦❢ ♣❛♣❡r✿
✶✳ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ r❡❛❞✐♥❣✿ 10, 000 ♠✐❧❡s
✷✳ ❛❢t❡r t❤❡ ✜rst ❤♦✉r✿ 10, 055 ♠✐❧❡s
✸✳ ❛❢t❡r t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❤♦✉r✿ 10, 095 ♠✐❧❡s
✹✳ ❛❢t❡r t❤❡ t❤✐r❞ ❤♦✉r✿ 10, 155 ♠✐❧❡s
✺✳ ❡t❝✳
❚❤❛t✬s ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳ ❲❡ ♥♦✇ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ t♦ s♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠✿
✶✳ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❝♦✈❡r❡❞ ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✜rst ❤♦✉r✿ 10, 055 − 10, 000 = 55 ♠✐❧❡s
✷✳ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❝♦✈❡r❡❞ ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❤♦✉r✿ 10, 095 − 10, 055 = 40 ♠✐❧❡s
✸✳ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❝♦✈❡r❡❞ ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ t❤✐r❞ ❤♦✉r✿ 10, 155 − 10, 095 = 60 ♠✐❧❡s
✹✳ ❡t❝✳
❚❤❛t✬s ❛♥♦t❤❡r s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳ ❲❡ s❡❡ ❜❡❧♦✇ ❤♦✇ t❤❡s❡ ♥❡✇ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❛♣♣❡❛r ❛s t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤ts ♦❢ t❤❡ st❡♣s ♦❢ ♦✉r
❧❛st ♣❧♦t ✭t♦♣✮✿

❆s ②♦✉ ❝❛♥ s❡❡✱ ✇❡ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ❞❛t❛ ✐♥ s✉❝❤ ❛ ✇❛② ❛s t♦ s✉❣❣❡st t❤❛t t❤❡ s♣❡❡❞ r❡♠❛✐♥s ❝♦♥st❛♥t
❞✉r✐♥❣ ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❤♦✉r✲❧♦♥❣ ♣❡r✐♦❞s✳
■♥ t❤✐s ❝❤❛♣t❡r✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛t❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✢✐♣ s✐❞❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛st ♣r♦❜❧❡♠✳
Pr♦❜❧❡♠✿ ■♠❛❣✐♥❡ t❤❛t ✐t ✐s t❤❡ ♦❞♦♠❡t❡r t❤❛t ✐s ❜r♦❦❡♥ ❛♥❞ ✜♥❞ ❛ ✇❛② t♦ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ ❤♦✇ ❢❛r ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❤❛✈❡
❣♦♥❡✳
❖❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ ✇❡ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ s♣❡❡❞♦♠❡t❡r s❡✈❡r❛❧ t✐♠❡s ✕ s❛②✱ ❡✈❡r② ❤♦✉r ✕ ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ tr✐♣ ❛♥❞ r❡❝♦r❞ ✐ts
r❡❛❞✐♥❣s ♦♥ ❛ ♣✐❡❝❡ ♦❢ ♣❛♣❡r✿
✶✳ ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✜rst ❤♦✉r✿ 35 ♠✐❧❡s ❛♥ ❤♦✉r
✷✳ ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❤♦✉r✿ 65 ♠✐❧❡s ❛♥ ❤♦✉r
✸✳ ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ t❤✐r❞ ❤♦✉r✿ 50 ♠✐❧❡s ❛♥ ❤♦✉r
✹✳ ❡t❝✳
❚❤❛t✬s ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳ ❲❤❛t ❞♦❡s t❤✐s t❡❧❧ ✉s ❛❜♦✉t ♦✉r ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥❄ ◆♦t❤✐♥❣✱ ✇✐t❤♦✉t ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✦ ❋♦rt✉♥❛t❡❧②✱ ✇❡
❝❛♥ ❥✉st ✉s❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❛s ❜❡❢♦r❡✳
■♥ ❝♦♥tr❛st t♦ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ♣r♦❜❧❡♠✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❜✐t ♦❢ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥✳ ❲❡ ♠✉st ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ st❛rt✐♥❣ ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢
♦✉r tr✐♣✱ s❛②✱ t❤❡ 100✲♠✐❧❡ ♠❛r❦✳ ❚❤❡ t✐♠❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✇❛s ❝❤♦s❡♥ t♦ ❜❡ 1 ❤♦✉r s♦ t❤❛t ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ ♦♥❧② t♦ ❛❞❞✱
❛♥❞ ❦❡❡♣ ❛❞❞✐♥❣✱ t❤❡ s♣❡❡❞ ❛t ✇❤✐❝❤ ✕ ✇❡ ❛ss✉♠❡ ✕ ✇❡ ❞r♦✈❡ ❞✉r✐♥❣ ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ♦♥❡✲❤♦✉r ♣❡r✐♦❞s✿
✶✳ t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✿ 100✲♠✐❧❡ ♠❛r❦
✷✳ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛❢t❡r t❤❡ ✜rst ❤♦✉r✿ 100 + 35 = 135✲♠✐❧❡ ♠❛r❦
✸✳ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛❢t❡r t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❤♦✉r✿ 135 + 65 = 200✲♠✐❧❡ ♠❛r❦
✹✳ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛❢t❡r t❤❡ t❤✐r❞ ❤♦✉r✿ 200 + 50 = 250✲♠✐❧❡ ♠❛r❦
✶✳✷✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ❛♥❞ s✉♠s ✷✵

✺✳ ❡t❝✳
❚❤❛t✬s ❛♥♦t❤❡r s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳ ■t ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳
■♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡ t❤✐s ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✱ ✇❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ s♣❡❡❞s ❛s t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡ st❡♣s ♦❢ t❤❡ st❛✐r❝❛s❡✿

❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ♥✉♠❜❡rs s❤♦✇ ❤♦✇ ❤✐❣❤ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❝❧✐♠❜ ✐♥ ♦✉r ❧❛st ♣❧♦t✳
❚❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ✐s s♦❧✈❡❞✦ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❡st❛❜❧✐s❤❡❞ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ♣r♦❣r❡ss❡❞ t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ r♦✉❣❤❧② 135✲✱ 200✲✱ ❛♥❞
250✲♠✐❧❡ ♠❛r❦s ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤✐s t✐♠❡✳
■♥ s✉♠♠❛r②✱ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ♦❢ t✐♠❡ ❛r❡ ✉♥✐ts✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❣♦ ❢r♦♠ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s t♦ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s ❛♥❞ ❜❛❝❦ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡
t✇♦ s✐♠♣❧❡ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s✿

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠♠❛r②✿

✶✳ ■❢ ❡❛❝❤ t❡r♠ ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts ❛ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡ ♣❛✐r✇✐s❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ✇✐❧❧ ❣✐✈❡ ②♦✉ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s✳ ❆
❜r♦❦❡♥ s♣❡❡❞♦♠❡t❡r ✐s s✉❜st✐t✉t❡❞ ✇✐t❤ ❛♥ ♦❞♦♠❡t❡r ❛♥❞ ❛ ✇❛t❝❤✳ ❚❤✐s st✉❞② ✐s ❛♣♣❡❛r❡❞ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡
✷✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷❉❈✲✸✳
✷✳ ■❢ ❡❛❝❤ t❡r♠ ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts ❛ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✱ t❤❡✐r s✉♠ ✉♣ t♦ t❤❛t ♣♦✐♥t ✇✐❧❧ ❣✐✈❡ ②♦✉ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✳
❆ ❜r♦❦❡♥ ♦❞♦♠❡t❡r ✐s s✉❜st✐t✉t❡❞ ✇✐t❤ ❛ s♣❡❡❞♦♠❡t❡r ❛♥❞ ❛ ✇❛t❝❤✳ ❚❤✐s st✉❞② ✇✐❧❧ ❛♣♣❡❛r ✐♥ t❤✐s
❝❤❛♣t❡r✳
■♥ t❤❡ ❛❜str❛❝t✱ t❤❡ ♣❛✐r✇✐s❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ ❢r♦♠ ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ ✐ts t❡r♠s t♦
t❤❡ ♥❡①t✿
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✶✳✷✳✶✿ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s
❋♦r ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ an ✱ ✐ts s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s✱ ♦r s✐♠♣❧② t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡✱ ✐s ❛ ♥❡✇
s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ s❛② dn ✱ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ n ❜② t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿
dn = an+1 − an .

■t ✐s ❞❡♥♦t❡❞ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
∆an = an+1 − an

■♥ t❤✐s s❡❝t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ st❛rt ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❛t❤ ♦❢ ❞❡✈❡❧♦♣♠❡♥t ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐❞❡❛ t❤❛t ❝✉❧♠✐♥❛t❡s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧
❝♦♥❝❡♣t ♦❢ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s t♦ ❜❡ s❡❡♥ ❧❛t❡r ✐♥ t❤✐s ❝❤❛♣t❡r✳
✶✳✷✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ❛♥❞ s✉♠s ✷✶

❚❤❡ s✉♠ r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts t❤❡ t♦t❛❧✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ✏❜❡❣✐♥♥✐♥❣✑ ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ ❢♦✉♥❞ ❜② ❛❞❞✐♥❣ ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ ✐ts t❡r♠s t♦ t❤❡
♥❡①t✱ ✉♣ t♦ t❤❛t ♣♦✐♥t✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✷✳✷✿ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② ❧✐sts

❲❡ ❥✉st ❛❞❞ t❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t t❡r♠ t♦ ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛❝❝✉♠✉❧❛t❡❞ s♦ ❢❛r✿

s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✿ 2 4 7 1 −1 ...
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ...
s✉♠s✿ 2
2 + 4 = 6
6 + 7 = 13
13 + 1 = 14
14 + (−1) = 13
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ...
♥❡✇ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✿ 2 6 13 14 13 ...

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ♥❡✇ ❧✐st✦

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✷✳✸✿ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② ❣r❛♣❤s

❲❡ tr❡❛t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❛s ✐❢ ♠❛❞❡ ♦❢ ❜❛rs ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❥✉st st❛❝❦ ✉♣ t❤❡s❡ ❜❛rs ♦♥ t♦♣ ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤
♦t❤❡r ♦♥❡ ❜② ♦♥❡✿

❚❤❡s❡ st❛❝❦❡❞ ❜❛rs ✕ ♦r r❛t❤❡r t❤❡ ♣r♦❝❡ss ♦❢ st❛❝❦✐♥❣ ✕ ♠❛❦❡ ❛ ♥❡✇ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✶✳✷✳✹✿ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ s✉♠s

❋♦r ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ an ✱ ✐ts s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ s✉♠s✱ ♦r s✐♠♣❧② t❤❡ s✉♠✱ ✐s ❛ ♥❡✇ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ sn
❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛♥❞ ❞❡♥♦t❡❞ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ n ≥ m ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ an ❜② t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣
✭r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡✮ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿

sm = 0, sn+1 = sn + an+1

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱

sn = am + am+1 + ... + an

❚❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✐s ❛♥ ❛❜❜r❡✈✐❛t❡❞ ✇❛② t♦ ♣r❡s❡♥t s✉♠♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳

❙✐❣♠❛ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r s✉♠♠❛t✐♦♥

n
X
sn = am + am+1 + ... + an = ak
k=m

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦
X
❯s✐♥❣ ❡✐t❤❡r ✏✳✳✳✑ ❛♥❞ ✏ ✑ ♠✐❣❤t ♦❜s❝✉r❡ t❤❡ r❡✲
❝✉rs✐✈❡ ♥❛t✉r❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥✳
✶✳✷✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ❛♥❞ s✉♠s ✷✷

▲❡t✬s t❛❦❡ ❛ ❝❧♦s❡r ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤❡ ✜rst ❝❤♦✐❝❡ ♦❢ ❤♦✇ t♦ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ ❛ s❡❣♠❡♥t ✕
❢r♦♠ m t♦ n ✕ ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ an ✐s t❤✐s✿

am +am+1 +... +a +... +a

|{z} | {z } |{z}k |{z}n
st❡♣ 1 st❡♣ 2 st❡♣ k st❡♣ n−m

❚❤✐s ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ r❡✢❡❝ts t❤❡ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ ♥❛t✉r❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r♦❝❡ss ❜✉t ✐t ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ❜❡ r❡♣❡t✐t✐✈❡ ❛♥❞ ❝✉♠❜❡rs♦♠❡✳ ❚❤❡
♥❡✇ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ♠❡❛♥t t♦ ♠❛❦❡ ✐t ♠♦r❡ ❝♦♠♣❛❝t✳ ❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ✐s t♦ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝❡ ❛♥ ✏✐♥t❡r♥❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✑ k ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

❙✐❣♠❛ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥

❜❡❣✐♥♥✐♥❣ ❛♥❞ ❡♥❞ ✈❛❧✉❡s ❢♦r k

↓
3
X
3 X

k 2 + k = 20 −→ k2 + k = 20
k=0 k=0
↑ ↑
❛ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ k ❛ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ♥✉♠❜❡r

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

■t ✇♦✉❧❞ ❛❧s♦ ♠❛❦❡ s❡♥s❡ t♦ ❤❛✈❡ ✏ k = 3✑ ❛❜♦✈❡ t❤❡

s✐❣♠❛✿
k=3
X

k2 + k .
k=0

❍❡r❡ t❤❡ ●r❡❡❦ ❧❡tt❡r Σ st❛♥❞s ❢♦r t❤❡ ❧❡tt❡r ❙ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ✏s✉♠✑✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✷✳✺✿ ❡①♣❛♥❞✐♥❣ ❢r♦♠ s✐❣♠❛ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥

❚❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ❛❜♦✈❡ ✐s ❡①♣❛♥❞❡❞ ❤❡r❡✿

k k2 + k
0 02 + 0 = 0 +
3
X
2

1 12 + 1 = 2 +
k +k =
2
k=0 2 2 +2 =6 +

3 32 + 3 = 12
= 20

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✷✳✻✿ ❝♦♥tr❛❝t✐♥❣ t♦ s✐❣♠❛ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥

❍♦✇ ✇✐❧❧ t❤❡ s✉♠ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✐❢ ✇❡ r❡♣❧❛❝❡ k=0 ✇✐t❤ k = 1✱ ♦r k = −1❄ ❲❤❛t ✐❢ ✇❡ r❡♣❧❛❝❡ 3 ❛t t❤❡ t♦♣
✇✐t❤ 4❄

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✷✳✼✿ ❝♦♥tr❛❝t✐♥❣ s✉♠♠❛t✐♦♥

❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ ✇❡ ❝♦♥tr❛❝t t❤❡ s✉♠♠❛t✐♦♥✿

17
X
12 + 22 + 32 + ... + 172 = k2 .
k=1

❚❤✐s ✐s ♦♥❧② ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ✐❢ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ nt❤✲t❡r♠ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡❀ ✐♥ t❤✐s ❝❛s❡✱ ak = k 2 ✳

❆♥❞ t❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ ✇❡ ❡①♣❛♥❞ ❜❛❝❦ ❢r♦♠ t❤✐s ❝♦♠♣❛❝t ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✱ ❜② ♣❧✉❣❣✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ k = 1, 2, ..., 17
✶✳✷✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ❛♥❞ s✉♠s ✷✸

✐♥t♦ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿

17
X
k 2 = |{z} 22 + |{z}
12 + |{z} 172 .
32 +... + |{z}
k=1 k=1 k=2 k=3 k=17

❙✐♠✐❧❛r❧②✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
10
1 1 1 1 X 1
1 + + 2 + 3 + ... + 10 = k
.
2 2 2 2 k=0
2

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✷✳✽

❈♦♥✜r♠ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❝❛♥ st❛rt ❛t ❛♥② ♦t❤❡r ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ✐♥❞❡① ✐❢ ✇❡ ❥✉st ♠♦❞✐❢② t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿

? ?
1 1 1 1 X 1 X 1
1+ + 2 + 3 + ... + 10 = k−1
= k−2
= ...
2 2 2 2 k=?
2 k=?
2

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✷✳✾

❈♦♥tr❛❝t t❤✐s s✉♠♠❛t✐♦♥✿

1 1 1
1+ + + =?
3 9 27

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✷✳✶✵

❊①♣❛♥❞ t❤✐s s✉♠♠❛t✐♦♥✿

4
X
(k/2) = ?
k=0

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✷✳✶✶

❘❡✇r✐t❡ ✉s✐♥❣ t❤❡ s✐❣♠❛ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✿

✶✳ 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 + 13 + 15
✷✳ 0.9 + 0.99 + 0.999 + 0.9999
✸✳ 1/2 − 1/4 + 1/8 − 1/16
✹✳ 1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + 1/4 + ... + 1/n
✺✳ 1 + 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8
✻✳ 2 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 11 + 13 + 17
✼✳ 1 − 4 + 9 − 16 + 25

❚❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ❛♣♣❧✐❡s t♦ ❛❧❧ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✱ ❜♦t❤ ✜♥✐t❡ ❛♥❞ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡✳ ❋♦r ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✱ r❡❝♦❣♥✐③❡❞ ❜② ✏✳✳✳✑ ❛t
t❤❡ ❡♥❞✱ t❤❡ s✉♠ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❛❧s♦ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ✏♣❛rt✐❛❧ s✉♠s✑ ❛s ✇❡❧❧ ❛s ✏s❡r✐❡s✑ ✭t♦ ❜❡ ❞✐s❝✉ss❡❞ ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✹✮✳

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ s✉♠s r❡✲✇r✐tt❡♥ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s✐❣♠❛ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✿
✶✳✷✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ❛♥❞ s✉♠s ✷✹

❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ s✉♠s

❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✿ a1 a2 a3 a4 ...
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ...
✐ts s✉♠s✿ a1
a1 + a2 = s2
s2 + a3 = s3
s3 + a4 = s4 ...
s4 ...
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ...
t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ s✉♠s✿ s1 s2 s3 s4 ...
|| || || || ...
1
X 2
X 3
X 4
X
t❤❡ s✐❣♠❛ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✿ ak ak ak ak ...
k=1 k=1 k=1 k=1

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✷✳✶✷✿ s✉♠s ❛r❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥ts

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ✉s❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡rs t♦ s♣❡❡❞ ✉♣ t❤❡s❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ♦♥❡ ♠❛② ❤❛✈❡ ❜❡❡♥ r❡❝♦r❞✐♥❣

♦♥❡✬s ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s ❛♥❞ ♥♦✇ ❧♦♦❦✐♥❣ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r ❛ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t ✭t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s✮✿

❂❘❬✲✶❪❈✰❘❈❬✲✶❪

❲❤❡t❤❡r t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❝♦♠❡s ❢r♦♠ ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ♦r ✐t✬s ❥✉st ❛ ❧✐st ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✱ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❛♣♣❧✐❡s✿

❆s ❛ r❡s✉❧t✱ ❛ ❝✉r✈❡ ❤❛s ♣r♦❞✉❝❡❞ ❛ ♥❡✇ ❝✉r✈❡✿

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✷✳✶✸✿ t❤r❡❡ r✉♥♥❡rs✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡❞

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ s❤♦✇s t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s ♦❢ t❤r❡❡ r✉♥♥❡rs ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ t✐♠❡✱ n✿

✶✳✷✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ❛♥❞ s✉♠s ✷✺

■t✬s ❡❛s② t♦ ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡ ❤♦✇ t❤❡② ❛r❡ ♠♦✈✐♥❣✿

• A st❛rts ❢❛st ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ s❧♦✇s ❞♦✇♥✳
• B ♠❛✐♥t❛✐♥s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ s♣❡❡❞✳
• C st❛rts ❧❛t❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ r✉♥s ❢❛st✳

❇✉t ✇❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡②✱ ❛t ❡✈❡r② ♠♦♠❡♥t❄ ❆ s✐♠♣❧❡ ❡①❛♠✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✜rst ❣r❛♣❤ s❤♦✇s t❤❛t B ❛♥❞
C ✇✐❧❧ ❛rr✐✈❡ ❛t t❤❡ ✜♥✐s❤ ❧✐♥❡ ❛t t❤❡ s❛♠❡ t✐♠❡✳ ❚♦ s❛② t❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t A ✇♦✉❧❞ r❡q✉✐r❡ ♠♦r❡ s✉❜t❧❡ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s✳

❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ s❡✈❡r❛❧ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ❛♥s✇❡rs✿

❲❤✐❝❤ ♦♥❡ ✐s t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ♦♥❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥ t❤❡ st❛rt✐♥❣ ♣♦✐♥t✳ ❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ ✐❢ t❤❡ r❡q✉✐r❡♠❡♥t t❤❛t t❤❡②
❛❧❧ st❛rt ❛t t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❧✐❢t❡❞✱ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✱ ❢♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✷✳✶✹

❙✉❣❣❡st ♦t❤❡r ❣r❛♣❤s t❤❛t ♠❛t❝❤ t❤❡ ❞❡s❝r✐♣t✐♦♥ ❛❜♦✈❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✷✳✶✺

P❧♦t t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❢♦r t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ tr✐♣✿ ✏■ ❞r♦✈❡ s❧♦✇❧②✱ ❣r❛❞✉❛❧❧② s♣❡❞ ✉♣✱ st♦♣♣❡❞
❢♦r ❛ ✈❡r② s❤♦rt ♠♦♠❡♥t❀ st❛rt❡❞ ❛❣❛✐♥ ❜✉t ✐♥ t❤❡ ♦♣♣♦s✐t❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✱ q✉✐❝❦❧② ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t❡❞✱ ❛♥❞ ❢r♦♠
t❤❛t ♣♦✐♥t ♠❛✐♥t❛✐♥❡❞ t❤❡ s♣❡❡❞✳✑ ▼❛❦❡ ✉♣ ②♦✉r ♦✇♥ st♦r② ❛♥❞ r❡♣❡❛t t❤❡ t❛s❦✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✷✳✶✻

❉r❛✇ ❛ ❝✉r✈❡ ♦♥ ❛ ♣✐❡❝❡ ♦❢ ♣❛♣❡r✱ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❡ t❤❛t ✐t r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts ②♦✉r ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ s❦❡t❝❤ ✇❤❛t ②♦✉r
❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s ✇♦✉❧❞ ❧♦♦❦ ❧✐❦❡✳ ❘❡♣❡❛t✳

❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ❞❡❛❧ ✇✐t❤ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ♠♦♠❡♥ts ❛r❡♥✬t ✐♥t❡❣❡rs❄ ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t t❤❡♥❄

❙✉♣♣♦s❡

• xn ✐s t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ♠♦♠❡♥ts ♦❢ t✐♠❡✱ ❛♥❞

• vn ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s✳

❚❤❡② ❛r❡ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡❞ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

✶✳✷✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ❛♥❞ s✉♠s ✷✻

❚❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤ts ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡s✳ ❚❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❛s❡s ♦❢
t❤❡ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡s✿
∆xn = xn − xn−1 .

❆s ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇✱ t❤❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [xn−1 , xn ] ✐s t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ vn ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢
xn ✿
❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t = vn · ∆xn .
❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥ts ❢♦r♠ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✿
❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥ts✿ v1 · ∆x1 , v2 · ∆x2 , ..., vn · ∆xn , ...
❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [x0 , xn ] ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤✐s s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✿
n
X
t♦t❛❧ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t = v1 · ∆x1 + v2 · ∆x2 + ... + vn · ∆xn = vk · ∆xk .
k=1

❲✐t❤ t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛✱ ✇❡ st❛rt t♦ ❞❡✈❡❧♦♣ t❤❡ ♠❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❛❝❦✲❛♥❞✲❢♦rt❤ ✐♥t❡r❛❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ♣❛✐rs✿
• ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s
• t❛♥❣❡♥ts ❛♥❞ ❛r❡❛s
❚❤❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ s❡t✉♣ ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✳ ❚❤❡r❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ♥♦ r❡str✐❝t✐♦♥s ✇❤❛ts♦❡✈❡r ♦♥ t❤❡ s❡❣♠❡♥ts ♦r t❤❡ s❛♠♣❧❡ ♣♦✐♥ts
✐♥ t❤✐s ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐♦♥✳
❋✐rst✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b]✳ ❲❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ ❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r n ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ♣❧❛❝❡ n + 1 ♣♦✐♥ts
♦♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✿
a = x0 ≤ x1 ≤ x2 ≤ ... ≤ xn−1 ≤ xn = b .
■t✬s ❛♥ ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ xi ✿

❆s ❛ r❡s✉❧t✱ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✐s ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥❡❞ ✐♥t♦ n s♠❛❧❧❡r ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ♦❢ ♣♦ss✐❜❧② ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ❧❡♥❣t❤s✿
[x0 , x1 ], [x1 , x2 ], ..., [xn−1 , xn ] .

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✶✳✷✳✶✼✿ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧

❆ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ✐s ✐ts r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ❛s t❤❡ ✉♥✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s t❤❛t
✐♥t❡rs❡❝t ♦♥❧② ❛t t❤❡ ❡♥❞✲♣♦✐♥ts✿
[a, b] = [x0 , x1 ] ∪ [x1 , x2 ] ∪ ... ∪ [xn−1 , xn ] .

❚❤❡s❡ ❡♥❞✲♣♦✐♥ts ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✳

❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❣✐✈❡s ✉s t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤s ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✳

✶✳✷✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ❛♥❞ s✉♠s ✷✼

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✶✳✷✳✶✽✿ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥ts ♦❢ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥

❚❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ❛r❡ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜②✿
∆xi = xi − xi−1 , i = 1, 2, ..., n .

■♥ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ t♦ t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s✱ t❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✱ ✇❡ ♠❛② ❛❧s♦ ❜❡ ❣✐✈❡♥ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ✐♥ ❡❛❝❤ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ♦❢
t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✿
c1 ✐♥ [x0 , x1 ], c2 ✐♥ [x1 , x2 ], ..., cn ✐♥ [xn−1 , xn ] .

■♥ s✉♠♠❛r②✿
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✶✳✷✳✶✾✿ ❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧
❆♥ ❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✱ ♦r s✐♠♣❧② ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✱ ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ❝♦♥s✐sts ♦❢ t✇♦
s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✿
✶✳ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s a = x0 , x1 , x2 , ..., xn−1 , xn = b ❀
✷✳ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s c1 , c2 , c3 , ..., cn−1 , cn ❀
t❤❛t s❛t✐s❢② t❤❡s❡ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t✐❡s✿
x0 ≤ c1 ≤ x1 ≤ c2 ≤ x2 ≤ ... ≤ xn−1 ≤ cn ≤ xn .

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦
❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❝❤♦s❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧✐st ♦❢ ♣r✐✲
♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t✐❡s ❛r❡ ♥♦♥✲str✐❝t✳

❚❤❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✭✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ r✐s❡s✮ ✐s ♦✉t❧✐♥❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇✿
✶✳✷✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ❛♥❞ s✉♠s ✷✽

❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ st❛❣❡s t❤❛t ✇❡ s❡❡ ❤❡r❡✿

✶✳ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
✷✳ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ✐ts ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s
✸✳ s❛♠♣❧✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛t t❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s
✹✳ r❡♠♦✈✐♥❣ t❤❡ r❡st ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤
✺✳ ♣❧♦tt✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ✭r✐s❡s✮
✻✳ ♣❧❛❝✐♥❣ t❤❡s❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ❛t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s
❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s ❛ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳
■t ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛❧❧② ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✶✳✷✳✷✵✿ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ y = f (x) ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s xk , k = 0, 1, 2, ..., n✱ ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✳
❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ f ✐s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ ❡❛❝❤ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥
❛♥❞✱ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣❧②✱ ❛t ❡✈❡r② s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✱ ❛♥❞ ❞❡♥♦t❡❞✱ ❛s
❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

∆ f [x = ∆f (ck ) = f (xk+1 ) − f (xk )
k−1 ,xk ]

▲❡t✬s r❡♠❡♠❜❡r t❤❛t ❤❡r❡ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡❞ ♦✈❡r t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ [xk−1 , xk ]✱ ✇❤✐❧❡ t❤❡ ♥❡✇
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ∆f ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t ck ✿ 
∆ f [x = ∆f (ck ) .
k−1 ,xk ]

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ✉s❡ ♣❛r❡♥t❤❡s❡s t♦ s❡♣❛r❛t❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡✐r ✐♥♣✉ts ✇❤❡♥ ✐t✬s ♥♦t ❝✉♠❜❡rs♦♠❡✿
  
∆ f [x = (∆f )(ck ) .
k−1 ,xk ]

❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ♦♥❡ s❡❣♠❡♥t ❛t ❛ t✐♠❡✿

✶✳✷✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ❛♥❞ s✉♠s ✷✾

◆♦✇ ✇❡ ❣♦ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♦♣♣♦s✐t❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✿ ❢r♦♠ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s t♦ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ ❢r♦♠ ❛r❡❛s t♦ t❛♥❣❡♥ts✳
❚❤❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✭✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ r✐s❡s✮ ✐s ♦✉t❧✐♥❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ st❛❣❡s t❤❛t ✇❡ s❡❡ ❤❡r❡✿

✶✳ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
✷✳ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ✐ts s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s
✸✳ s❛♠♣❧✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s
✹✳ r❡♠♦✈✐♥❣ t❤❡ r❡st ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤
✺✳ ♣✉tt✐♥❣ t❤❡s❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦♥ t♦♣ ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r
✻✳ ♣❧❛❝✐♥❣ t❤❡s❡ s✉♠s ❛t t❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s
❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s ❛ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳
■t ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛❧❧② ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✶✳✷✳✷✶✿ s✉♠ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ g ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ❛♥ ❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥
P ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b]✳ ❚❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ g ✐s t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ h ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r②
♥♦❞❡s ❛s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✿
g(c1 ), g(c2 ), ..., g(ck ), ...

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✐t ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ✭r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡❧②✮✿

h(x0 ) = 0, h(xm ) = h(xm−1 ) + g(cm ), m > 0

✶✳✷✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ❛♥❞ s✉♠s ✸✵

■t ✐s ❞❡♥♦t❡❞ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿


Σ g [a,c ] = Σg (xk )
k

❲❡ ❛❧s♦ ❤❛✈❡✿
h(xm ) = g(c1 ) + g(c2 ) + ... + g(cm ) .
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤✐s ✐s ❛♥ ❛❜❜r❡✈✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s✐❣♠❛ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ✭✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ❛❧s♦ ❛♥ ❛❜❜r❡✈✐❛t✐♦♥✮✿

m
X
g(c1 ) + g(c2 ) + ... + g(cm ) = g(ci ) .
i=1

❍❡r❡ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ g ✐s ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡❞ ♦✈❡r t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ [a, ck ]✱ ✇❤✐❧❡ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ h = Σg ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞
❛t xk ✿ 
Σ g [a,c ] = Σg (xk ) .
k

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ✉s❡ ♣❛r❡♥t❤❡s❡s t♦ s❡♣❛r❛t❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡✐r ✐♥♣✉ts ✇❤❡♥ ✐t✬s ♥♦t ❝✉♠❜❡rs♦♠❡✿

  
Σ g [a,c ] = (Σg)(xk ) .
k

❚❤❡ s✉♠ ✐s ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡❧② ♦♥❡ s❡❣♠❡♥t ❛t ❛ t✐♠❡✿

■♥ t❤✐s ❝♦♥t❡①t✱ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ❛r❡ ❛❧s♦ ❦♥♦✇♥ ❛s t❤❡ s❛♠♣❧❡ ♣♦✐♥ts✳
■♥ t❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s✱ ✇❡ ❝❤♦s❡ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ✐♥ ❛ ❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t ✇❛②✳ ❋✐rst ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ t♦ ❤❛✈❡ ❡q✉❛❧ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥ts✿

b−a
h = ∆x = .
n
❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ t❤r❡❡ ♠❛✐♥ ✏s❝❤❡♠❡s✑ ❢♦r ❝❤♦♦s✐♥❣ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✳ ❖♥❡ ✐s s❡❡♥ ❛❜♦✈❡✿ ❚❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r②
♥♦❞❡s ❛r❡ ♣❧❛❝❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ❡♥❞ ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳ ■t ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✲❡♥❞ s❝❤❡♠❡ ✿
• Pr✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✿ x = a, a + h, a + 2h, ...
• ❙❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✿ c = a + h, a + 2h, ...
❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❧❡❢t✲❡♥❞ s❝❤❡♠❡ ✿
• Pr✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✿ x = a, a + h, a + 2h, ...
• ❙❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✿ c = a, a + h, ...
❆♥♦t❤❡r ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥t ❝❤♦✐❝❡ ✐s t❤❡ ♠✐❞✲♣♦✐♥t s❝❤❡♠❡ ✿
• Pr✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✿ x = a, a + h, a + 2h, ...
• ❙❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✿ c = a + h/2, a + 3h/2, ...
❚❤❡② ❛r❡ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇✿
✶✳✷✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ❛♥❞ s✉♠s ✸✶

❇❡❧♦✇ ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠♠❛r② ♦❢ ♦✉r ❜❛❝❦✲❛♥❞✲❢♦rt❤ ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐♦♥✿

◆♦✇✱ ❡✈❡♥ ✐❢ t❤❡ ♣❡rs♦♥ ❞✐❞♥✬t s♣❡♥❞ ❛♥② t✐♠❡ ❞r✐✈✐♥❣✱ t❤❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t st✐❧❧ ♠❛❦❡s s❡♥s❡✳ ■t✬s ③❡r♦✦
❲❡ ❡①t❡♥❞ t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ t♦ ✐♥❝❧✉❞❡ ③❡r♦ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥ts✿
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✶✳✷✳✷✷✿ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦✈❡r ③❡r♦✲❧❡♥❣t❤ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧
❲❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ x ✐s ③❡r♦✿
∆xk = xk − xk−1 = 0,

t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ g ♦✈❡r t❤✐s s❡❣♠❡♥t ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ t♦ ❜❡ ③❡r♦✿

  
∆ g [x =0
k ,xk ]

❲❡ ❡①t❡♥❞ t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉♠ t♦ ✐♥❝❧✉❞❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ♦❢ ③❡r♦ ❧❡♥❣t❤✳

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✶✳✷✳✷✸✿ s✉♠ ♦✈❡r ③❡r♦✲❧❡♥❣t❤ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧
❚❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ g ♦✈❡r ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, a] ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ t♦ ❜❡ ③❡r♦✿
  
Σ g [a,a] = 0

❚♦ ❝❛♣✐t❛❧✐③❡ ♦♥ t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛ ❡✈❡♥ ❢✉rt❤❡r✱ ✇❡ ❡①t❡♥❞ t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s✉♠ t♦ ❛❧❧ ♦r✐❡♥t❡❞
s❡❣♠❡♥ts✿
✶✳✷✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ❛♥❞ s✉♠s ✸✷

• a b ❚❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ✐s ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡❧② ♦r✐❡♥t❡❞ ✇❤❡♥ a < b✳

• b a ❚❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ✐s ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡❧② ♦r✐❡♥t❡❞ ✇❤❡♥ a > b✳
■♥ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ❝❛s❡✱ t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❢r♦♠ a t♦ b✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ b − a✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡✦
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✶✳✷✳✷✹✿ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦✈❡r ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡❧② ♦r✐❡♥t❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧
❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ♦✈❡r ❛ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡❧② ♦r✐❡♥t❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧
[xk , xk−1 ], xk−1 < xk ✱ ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ t♦ ❜❡ t❤❡ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐❢✲
❢❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦✈❡r [xk−1 , xk ]✿
     
∆ f [x = −∆ f [x
k ,xk−1 ] k−1 ,xk ]

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✶✳✷✳✷✺✿ s✉♠ ♦✈❡r ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡❧② ♦r✐❡♥t❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧

❚❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ g ♦✈❡r ❛ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡❧② ♦r✐❡♥t❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [b, a], a < b✱ ♦✈❡r ❛♥
❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ P ♦❢ [a, b]✱ ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ t♦ ❜❡ t❤❡ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦✈❡r P ✿
     
Σ g [b,a] = −Σ g [a,b]


❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦
■♥ ❛♥t✐❝✐♣❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❤✐❣❤❡r ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s✱ ❛♥

♦r✐❡♥t❡❞ s❡❣♠❡♥t ✐s ♥♦t ❛ ✈❡❝t♦r✳

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ ✢✐♣♣✐♥❣ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❛s ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ❜② −1✳ ■❢ I st❛♥❞s ❢♦r s✉❝❤ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
X X
f =− f.
−I I

❲❡ ♥❡①t ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ s✐♠♣❧❡st ❝❛s❡✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✷✳✷✻✿ ❙✉♠ ♦❢ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ g ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❛t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ [a, b]✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ g(ci ) = p
❢♦r ❛❧❧ i = 1, 2, ..., n ❛♥❞ s♦♠❡ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r p✳ ❚❤❡♥


Σg [a,b] = p · n

❚❤✐♥❣s ❛r❡ ♣❛✐r❡❞ ✉♣✿

❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ■♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s

f ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s g ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s

✶✳ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡✱ ∆f ✶✳ s✉♠✱ Σg
❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s
∆f (ck ) = f (xk ) − f (xk−1 ) Σg (xk ) = g(c1 ) + ... + g(ck )

✷✳ ✷✳
✶✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ✸✸

❲❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤✐s t❛❜❧❡ ❜❡❧♦✇✳

✶✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠

▲❡t✬s ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❡ t❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✸✳✶✿ s❛♠♣❧✐♥❣ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥

❋✐rst✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ tr✐♣ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❜r♦❦❡♥ s♣❡❡❞♦♠❡t❡r✳

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ t✐♠❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b]✳ ■♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ ♦✉r s♣❡❡❞✱ ✇❡ ❞❡❝✐❞❡ t♦ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ ♦❞♦♠❡t❡r s❡✈❡r❛❧
t✐♠❡s ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ tr✐♣✱ ✐♥❝❧✉❞✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✈❡r② ❜❡❣✐♥♥✐♥❣ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✈❡r② ❡♥❞ ♦❢ ✐t✳ ❖t❤❡r✇✐s❡✱ t❤❡ ♠♦♠❡♥ts ♦❢
t✐♠❡ ♠❛② ❜❡ ❛r❜✐tr❛r②✿
a = x0 , x1 , x2 , ..., xn−1 , xn = b .
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ [a, b]✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥ ✐s t♦ s❛♠♣❧❡ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥
✐s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ p ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ ❜✉t ♥♦✇ ♦♥❧② ✐ts ✈❛❧✉❡s ❛t t❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ t❤❡
♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ❛r❡ r❡❝♦r❞❡❞✳ ❲❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ t❤✐s s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡
✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✳ ❊✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ v ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ♥♦✇ ♦♥❧② ✐ts
❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ❛ss✐❣♥❡❞ t♦ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✸✳✷✿ s❛♠♣❧✐♥❣ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②

❖♥ t❤❡ ✢✐♣ s✐❞❡✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ tr✐♣ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❜r♦❦❡♥ ♦❞♦♠❡t❡r✳

❲❡ st✐❧❧ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ t✐♠❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b]✳ ❲❡ s♣❧✐t [a, b] ✐♥t♦ s♠❛❧❧❡r t✐♠❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ✐♥ ❛♥ ❛r❜✐tr❛r② ♠❛♥♥❡r✳
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ [a, b]✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥ ✐s t♦ s❛♠♣❧❡ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✳ ❉✉r✐♥❣ ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢
t❤❡♠ ✇❡ ❧♦♦❦❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ s♣❡❡❞♦♠❡t❡r ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❡①❛❝t ♠♦♠❡♥ts✿

c1 , c2 , c3 , ..., cn−1 , cn .

❚❤❡② ❛r❡ ❥✉st ❛ ♠❛tt❡r ♦❢ ❜♦♦❦❦❡❡♣✐♥❣✳ ❚❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ v ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱
❜✉t ♥♦✇ ♦♥❧② ✐ts ✈❛❧✉❡s ❛t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ❛r❡ r❡❝♦r❞❡❞✳ ❲❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧② t❤❡
✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❜② t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t t✐♠❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✇❡
❛❞❞ t❤❡♠ t♦❣❡t❤❡r ✭t❤❡ ✏❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠✑✮✳ ❊✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t ✐s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ p ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥
t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ♥♦✇ ♦♥❧② ✐ts ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ❛ss✐❣♥❡❞ t♦ t❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✳

❚❤✐s ✐s ❛♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ s✉❝❤ ❛ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥✿

t✐♠❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ✭❤♦✉rs✮✿ [0, 2] [2, 4] [4, 6] [6, 8]

t✐♠❡ ✭❤♦✉rs✮✿ c1 = 1 c2 = 4 c3 = 5 c4 = 6
✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✭♠✐❧❡s✴❤♦✉r✮✿ 60 100 −80 −80
❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t ✭♠✐❧❡s✮✿ 60 · 2 100 · 2 −80 · 2 −80 · 2
= 120 = 200 = −160 = −160
t♦t❛❧ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t ✭♠✐❧❡s✮✿ 120 120 + 200 340 − 160 180 − 160
= 120 = 340 = 180 = 20
✶✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ✸✹

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ p ♦❢ t✐♠❡ ❜✉t ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ❛ss✐❣♥ t❤❡s❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs t♦ t❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r②
♥♦❞❡s✿
t✐♠❡ ✭❤♦✉rs✮✿ x0 = 0 x1 = 2 x2 = 4 x3 = 6 x4 = 8

t♦t❛❧ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t ✭♠✐❧❡s✮✿ 0 120 340 180 20

❖❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ ✐❢ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ ♦✉r ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✜rst✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ p(a)✱ ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦
st❛rt t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥❀ ✇❡ ❛ss✉♠❡❞ ✐t t♦ ❜❡ 0 ❛❜♦✈❡✳ ■❢ ✐t✬s 10✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

t✐♠❡ ✭❤♦✉rs✮✿ x0 = 0 x1 = 2 x2 = 4 x3 = 6 x4 = 8

t♦t❛❧ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t ✭♠✐❧❡s✮✿ 10 130 350 190 30

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸✳✸
❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t ✐❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✇❛s −50❄ ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡
❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t ✐❢ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❛t t✐♠❡ 2 ✇❛s 20❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸✳✹
❈♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t ❢♦r t❤❡ s❛♠❡ s❛♠♣❧✐♥❣ ❞❛t❛ ❛s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ❜✉t ❢♦r ❛
❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ✭✉♥❡q✉❛❧✮ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✿

t✐♠❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ✭❤♦✉rs✮✿ [0, 1] [1, 4] [4, 5] [5, 8]

❙♦✱ ✐♥ ❝♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ t♦ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ st❡♣ ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ♦r ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ❜② t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t
∆x✿

▲❡t✬s ♣r♦✈✐❞❡ ♣r❡❝✐s❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥s✳ ❏✉st ❛s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡r❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ♥♦ r❡str✐❝t✐♦♥s ✇❤❛ts♦❡✈❡r ♦♥ t❤❡
♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✳
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✶✳✸✳✺✿ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s xk , k = 0, 1, 2, ..., n✱
♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ f ✐s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡
✶✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ✸✺

s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ck , k = 1, 2, ..., n ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ❛s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥✿

∆f f (xk+1 ) − f (xk ) f (xk + ∆xk ) − f (xk )

(ck ) = =
∆x xk+1 − xk ∆xk

■t ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ f ❞✐✈✐❞❡❞ ❜② ∆xk ✳

■t ✐s t❤❡ r❡❧❛t✐✈❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✕ t❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✕ ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✳

▲❡t✬s r❡♠❡♠❜❡r t❤❛t ❤❡r❡ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡❞ ♦✈❡r t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ [xk−1 , xk ]✱ ✇❤✐❧❡ t❤❡ ♥❡✇
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ∆f ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t ck ✿
∆  ∆f
f [x ,x ] = (ck ) .
∆x k−1 k ∆x
❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ✉s❡ ♣❛r❡♥t❤❡s❡s t♦ s❡♣❛r❛t❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡✐r ✐♥♣✉ts ✇❤❡♥ ✐t✬s ♥♦t ❝✉♠❜❡rs♦♠❡✿

∆     ∆f 
f [x ,x ] = (ck ) .
∆x k−1 k ∆x

❲❤❡r❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥ ✇❡ ❧♦♦❦❡❞ ❢♦r t❤❡ r✐s❡s✱ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡s ♥♦✇✳ ❖♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ s❡❡ ❤♦✇
❡❛❝❤ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡ ♣❛✐r ♦❢ ♣♦✐♥ts ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s ❛ ❧✐♥❡ s❡❣♠❡♥t ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✐s t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡
❝♦♥♥❡❝t✐♥❣ t❤❡♠✿

◆♦✇ ✐♥ r❡✈❡rs❡✳
❚❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t ✐s ❛♥ ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧❧② ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ❢r♦♠ ❛♥♦t❤❡r
♦♥❡ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
g(ck ) = f (ck )∆xk .
❚❤❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❛s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥✱ ❜✉t t❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥ts ♦❢ x ♠❛❦❡ t❤❡✐r ❛♣♣❡❛r❛♥❝❡✿

❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ ♦✉r t✇♦ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐♦♥✿

♠♦t✐♦♥ ❣❡♦♠❡tr②

∆xk t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ k t❤ t✐♠❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ t❤❡ ✇✐❞t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ k t❤ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡

f (ck ) t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ k t❤ t✐♠❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t ♦❢ t❤❡ k t❤ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡

g(ck ) = f (ck )∆xk t❤❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ k t❤ t✐♠❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ k t❤ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡
✶✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ✸✻

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦
❊✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ ✇❡ ♦❢t❡♥ s❛② t❤❛t ❡❛❝❤ s✉❝❤ t❡r♠ ✐s
t❤❡ ✏❛r❡❛✑ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡✱ t❤✐s q✉❛♥t✐t② ✐s tr✉❧②
t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ t❤❡ ✉♥✐t ♦❢ ❜♦t❤ t❤❡ x✲ ❛♥❞ t❤❡
y ✲❛①✐s ✐s t❤❛t ♦❢ ❧❡♥❣t❤✳

❲❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❛ s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❦✐♥❞ ♦❢ s✉♠✳

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✶✳✸✳✻✿ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ❛♥ ❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥
P ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b]✳ ❚❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦❢ f ✐s t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ h ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡
♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ❛s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✿

f (c1 )∆x1 , f (c2 )∆x2 , ..., f (cn )∆xn .

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✐t ✐s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡❧②✿

h(x0 ) = 0, h(xk ) = h(xk−1 ) + f (ck )∆xk , k = 1, 2, ..., n .

■t ✐s ❞❡♥♦t❡❞ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

Σ f · ∆x[a,c ] = Σf · ∆x (xk ) = f (c1 )∆x1 + f (c2 )∆x2 + ... + f (ck )∆xk
k

■♥ s✐❣♠❛ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✱ ✐t ✐s✿

k
X
f (ci )∆xi .
i=1

❍❡r❡ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡❞ ♦✈❡r t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ [a, ck ]✱ ✇❤✐❧❡ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ h = Σf · ∆x ✐s
❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t xk ✿ 
Σ f · ∆x[a,c ] = Σf · ∆x (xk ) .
k

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ✉s❡ ♣❛r❡♥t❤❡s❡s t♦ s❡♣❛r❛t❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡✐r ✐♥♣✉ts ✇❤❡♥ ✐t✬s ♥♦t ❝✉♠❜❡rs♦♠❡✿
  
Σ f · ∆x[a,c ] = (Σf · ∆x)(xk ) .
k

❆t ✜rst ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛t❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦✈❡r t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳
▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r s♦♠❡ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ♦❢ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✳ ❲❡ ❛ss✉♠❡ ❛❣❛✐♥ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s
❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧✿
∆xi = ∆x = (b − a)/n .

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✸✳✼✿ x2
▲❡t f (x) = x2 ♦✈❡r t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [0, 1] ✇✐t❤ n = 4✳

❚❤❡♥ ∆x = 1/4 ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✐s s✉❜❞✐✈✐❞❡❞ ❛s ❜❡❢♦r❡ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ✜✈❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t♦
✶✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ✸✼

✇♦r❦ ✇✐t❤✿

• −− | −− | −− | −− •

♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✿ x = 0 1/4 1/2 3/4 1

✈❛❧✉❡s✿ x2 = 0 1/16 1/4 9/16 1

❧❡❢t✲❡♥❞ ❘❙ = 0 · 1/4 + 1/16 · 1/4 + 1/4 · 1/4 + 9/16 · 1/4 ≈ 0.22

r✐❣❤t✲❡♥❞ ❘❙ = 1/16 · 1/4 + 1/4 · 1/4 + 9/16 · 1/4 + 1 · 1/4 ≈ 0.47

❚❤❡ s✐♠♣❧❡st ❝❤♦✐❝❡s ❢♦r t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t✲❡♥❞ ♦r t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✲❡♥❞ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✳

❚❤✐s ❢✉❧❧② ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐♦♥ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡❞✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸✳✽

❲❤❛t ✐s ②♦✉r ❜❡st ❡st✐♠❛t❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡❞ ❛r❡❛ ❜❛s❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❞❛t❛ ♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸✳✾

❘❡♣❡❛t t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s ❢♦r ✭❛✮ ♥❂✽✱ ✭❜✮ [a, b] = [−1, 0]✱ ✭❝✮ f (x) = x3 ✳

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❧❡❢t✲❡♥❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✿

a = x0 x1 x2 ... xn−1 xn = b ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s

a = c1 c2 c3 ... cn ◦ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s

❚❤❡ t❛❜❧❡ s❤♦✇s t❤❡ nt❤ ❧❡❢t✲❡♥❞ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ nt❤ r✐❣❤t✲❡♥❞ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ♦♥ [a, b]✿

i 0 1 ... n−1 n

[xi , xi+1 ] | −− | − ... − | −− |

xi a a + ∆x ... a + (n − 1) ∆x b

f (x) f (x0 ) f (x1 ) ... f (xn−1 ) f (xn )

❧❡❢t✲❡♥❞ ❘❙ = f (x0 ) · ∆x + f (x1 ) · ∆x + ... + f (xn−1 ) · ∆x

r✐❣❤t✲❡♥❞ ❘❙ = f (x1 ) · ∆x + ... + f (xn−1 ) · ∆x + f (xn ) · ∆x

❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r s✉❝❤ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❢♦r ❜♦t❤✿
ci = a + i ∆x ,

❜✉t t❤❡ ✐♥❞✐❝❡s r✉♥ ♦✈❡r ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t s❡ts✿

✶✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ✸✽

• i = 0, 1, 2, ..., n − 1 ❢♦r t❤❡ ❧❡❢t✲❡♥❞ ♣♦✐♥ts❀

• i = 1, 2, ..., n ❢♦r t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✲❡♥❞ ♣♦✐♥ts✳
❚❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ❜❡ ❝❤♦s❡♥ t♦ ❜❡ t❤❡ ♠✐❞✲♣♦✐♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✿

i 0 1 2 ... n−1 n

[xi , xi+1 ] | −·− | −·− | − ... − | −·− |

ci a + 21 ∆x a + 32 ∆x ... a+ 2n−1
2
∆x

f (x) f (c0 ) f (c1 ) ... f (cn )

♠✐❞✲♣♦✐♥t ❘❙ = f (c1 ) · ∆x + f (c2 ) · ∆x + ... + f (cn ) · ∆x

❚❤❡ ✐❧❧✉str❛t✐♦♥ s❤♦✇s t❤❡ nt❤ ♠✐❞✲♣♦✐♥t ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦❢ f ♦♥ [a, b]✿

❚❤❡ s✐♥❣❧❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠✐❞✲♣♦✐♥ts ✐s

1


ci = a + i + 2
∆x, i = 0, 1, 2, ..., n − 1 .

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✸✳✶✵✿ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ❛r❡❛

❲❤❡♥ t❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥ ❧✐❡s ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡ ❊✉❝❧✐❞❡❛♥ ♣❧❛♥❡✱ t❤❡ it❤ t❡r♠ ✐♥ ❛❧❧ t❤r❡❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ✐s✿
✇✐❞t❤ ♦❢ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡
z}|{
t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ it❤ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡ = f (ci ) × ∆xi
| {z }
❤❡✐❣❤t ♦❢ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡

❚❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ✐s t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡s✳ ❇✉t ✇❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ f ❛r❡ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡✱

f (ci ) < 0?

◆♦t❤✐♥❣ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♣r❡✈❡♥ts t❤❛t✿

✶✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ✸✾

❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ t❡r♠ f (ci ) ∆x t❤❡♥❄ ❏✉st ✐♠❛❣✐♥❡ ❛❣❛✐♥ t❤❛t f ✐s t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✳ ❚❤❡♥
f (ci ) ∆x ✐s st✐❧❧ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ✏❝♦✈❡r❡❞✑ ❜✉t ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ s♣❡❡❞✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ♠❡❛♥s t❤❛t ②♦✉ ❛r❡ ♠♦✈✐♥❣ ✐♥
t❤❡ ♦♣♣♦s✐t❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✦ ❚❤❡♥ ②♦✉r ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t ✐s ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡✳ ❆s ❢♦r t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♠❡t❛♣❤♦r✱ s✐♥❝❡ ∆x > 0✱
t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ✐s ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ f (ci )✿

❲❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇ ✉♣ t♦ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❡①t❡♥❞ t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ t♦ ✐♥❝❧✉❞❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ♦❢ ③❡r♦
❧❡♥❣t❤✳

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✶✳✸✳✶✶✿ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦✈❡r ③❡r♦✲❧❡♥❣t❤ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧

❚❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ♦✈❡r ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, a] ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ t♦ ❜❡ ③❡r♦✿

  
Σ f · ∆x[a,a] = 0

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✶✳✸✳✶✷✿ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦✈❡r ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡❧② ♦r✐❡♥t❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧

❚❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ♦✈❡r ❛ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡❧② ♦r✐❡♥t❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [b, a], a ≤ b✱
♦✈❡r ❛♥ ❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ P ♦❢ [a, b]✱ ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ t♦ ❜❡ t❤❡ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡
❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦✈❡r P✿
     
Σ f · ∆x[b,a] = −Σ f · ∆x[a,b]

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✸✳✶✸✿ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ✇✐❞t❤

❲❤❡♥ t❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥ ❧✐❡s ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡ ❊✉❝❧✐❞❡❛♥ ♣❧❛♥❡✱ t❤❡ ✇✐❞t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡ ✐♥ t❤❡
❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ✐s ❛❧s♦ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡✱ ❛♥❞ s♦ ✐s ✐ts ❛r❡❛ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡✿
✶✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ✹✵

❚❤❡ ♥♦t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ❛r❡❛ ✐s ❥✉st✐✜❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t t❤❡ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡ ✐s ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡❧② ♦r✐❡♥t❡❞✳✳✳ ❚❤❡
♠♦t✐♦♥ ♠❡t❛♣❤♦r ♠✐❣❤t ❡①♣❧❛✐♥ ✐t ❜❡tt❡r t❤♦✉❣❤✳ ■t ✐s ❛s ✐❢ t✐♠❡ ✐s r❡✈❡rs❡❞ ✭♦r ❛ ✈✐❞❡♦t❛♣❡ ❣♦❡s
❜❛❝❦✇❛r❞✮✱ s♦ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ✐s ♦♣♣♦s✐t❡✱ ❛♥❞ ❛❧❧ ❣❛✐♥s ❛r❡ r❡✈❡rs❡❞✿

❲❡ ♥❡①t ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ s✐♠♣❧❡st ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✸✳✶✹✿ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ❙✉♠ ♦❢ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❛t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ [a, b]✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ f (ci ) = p
❢♦r ❛❧❧ i = 1, 2, ..., n ❛♥❞ s♦♠❡ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r p✳ ❚❤❡♥

  
Σ f · ∆x[a,b] = p(b − a)

Pr♦♦❢✳

❙✐♥❝❡ f (ci ) = p ❢♦r ❛❧❧ i✱ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦✿

Σf · ∆x = f (c1 ) ∆x1 + f (c2 ) ∆x2 + ... + f (cn ) ∆xn

= p ∆x1 + p ∆x2 + ... + p ∆xn

 
= p ∆x1 + ∆x2 + ... + ∆xn
 
= p (x1 − x0 ) + (x2 − x1 ) + (x3 − x2 ) + ... + (xn − xn−1 )

= p(b − a) .

❖♥❝❡ ✇❡ ③♦♦♠❡❞ ♦✉t✱ ✇❡ r❡❝♦❣♥✐③❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts t❤❡ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡ ✇✐t❤ ✇✐❞t❤ b − a ❛♥❞
❤❡✐❣❤t p✿
✶✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ✹✶

❊①❝❡♣t✱ ✐t ✐s ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ✇❤❡♥ p ✐s ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✸✳✶✺✿ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ❛r❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ❛❧❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ♦❢ ♦❢ f (x) = x2 ♦✈❡r [0, 1]✿

❲❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s t♦ ❜❡ n=4 ✇✐t❤ ❡q✉❛❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ♦❢ ❧❡♥❣t❤ h = 1/4✱ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡✱

❛s t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✱ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t✲❡♥❞ ♦r t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✲❡♥❞ ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✿

❆t t❤♦s❡ ♣♦✐♥ts✱ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡❞✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t✲❡♥❞ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ L4 ✿

• −− | −− | −− | −− •

x 0 1/4 1/2 3/4 1

x2 0 1/16 1/4 9/16 1

L4 0 · 1/4 + 1/16 · 1/4 + 1/4 · 1/4 + 9/16 · 1/4 ≈ 0.22

Σ [0,0] 0 · 1/4 =0

Σ [0,1/4] 0 · 1/4 + 1/16 · 1/4 ≈ 0.04

Σ [0,1/2] 0 · 1/4 + 1/16 · 1/4 + 1/4 · 1/4 ≈ 0.10

Σ [0,3/4] 0 · 1/4 + 1/16 · 1/4 + 1/4 · 1/4 + 9/16 · 1/4 ≈ 0.22

❲❡✱ ❢✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ r❡❛❧✐③❡ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❛r❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❢♦r t❤✐s ❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞

♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✳ ■ts ❢♦✉r ✈❛❧✉❡s ❛r❡ s❤♦✇♥ ✐♥ ❜♦tt♦♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❛❜❧❡✳

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ❝❤♦♦s❡ t❤❡ ♠✐❞✲♣♦✐♥ts ❛s t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✿

✶✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ✹✷

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠✐❞✲♣♦✐♥t ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ M4 ❢♦r t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✿

• −− | −− | −− | −− •

x 1/8 3/8 5/8 7/8

f (x) = x2 (1/8)2 (3/8)2 (5/8)2 (7/8)2

M4 (1/8)2 · 1/4 + (3/8)2 · 1/4 + (5/8)2 · 1/4 + (7/8)2 · 1/4 = 0.328125

Σ [0,1/8] (1/8)2 · 1/4 ≈ 0.004

Σ [0,3/8] (1/8)2 · 1/4 + (3/8)2 · 1/4 ≈ 0.040

Σ [0,5/8] (1/8)2 · 1/4 + (3/8)2 · 1/4 + (5/8)2 · 1/4 ≈ 0.230

Σ [0,7/8] (1/8)2 · 1/4 + (3/8)2 · 1/4 + (5/8)2 · 1/4 + (7/8)2 · 1/4 ≈ 0.328

■t ✐s ♠✉❝❤ ❝❧♦s❡r t❤❛♥ L4 t♦ t❤❡ tr✉❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✱ 1/3✳

❍❡r❡ ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠♠❛r② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡✈❡❧♦♣♠❡♥t ✉♣ t♦ t❤✐s ♣♦✐♥t✿

❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ■♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s

f ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s g ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s

✶✳ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡✱ ∆f ✶✳ s✉♠✱ Σg

❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s

∆f (ck ) = f (xk ) − f (xk−1 ) Σg (xk ) = g(c1 ) + ... + g(ck )

❞✐✈✐❞❡❞ ❜② ∆x ∆x ✐s ❢❛❝t♦r❡❞ ✐♥ ❡❛❝❤ t❡r♠

∆f
✷✳ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✱ ✷✳ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠✱ Σf · ∆x
∆x
❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s
∆f f (xk ) − f (xk−1 )
(ck ) = Σf · ∆x (xk ) = f (c1 )∆x + ... + f (ck )∆x
∆x ∆x

✸✳ ✸✳
❚❤❡ t✇♦ ❝♦❧✉♠♥s ❛r❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝t❡❞ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t❧② ❜✉t ❝❛♥ ❡❛s✐❧② ❜❡ ❧✐♥❦❡❞ t♦❣❡t❤❡r✳
✶✳✹✳ ❚❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ✹✸

✶✳✹✳ ❚❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s

❆s ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇✱ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ s✉❜tr❛❝t✐♦♥ ❝❛♥❝❡❧ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r✳

❘❡♣❡❛t❡❞ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ s✉❜tr❛❝t✐♦♥ ❝❛♥❝❡❧ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r✱ t♦♦✳
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤❡ s✉♠ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ✕ ❛s ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ♦♥ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✕ ❝❛♥❝❡❧ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r✳ ❲❡ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡
t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

❆s ②♦✉ ❝❛♥ s❡❡✱ t❤❡ s✉♠ st❛❝❦s ✉♣ t❤❡ t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦♥ t♦♣ ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r ✇❤✐❧❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ t❛❦❡s
t❤✐s ❜❛❝❦ ❞♦✇♥✳
❲❤❛t ❞♦ t❤❡ s✉♠ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❞♦ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts❄ ❏✉st
♣❧✉❣ ✐♥ ∆xk = 1 ❛♥❞ ②♦✉ ❣❡t t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✳ ❚❤❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥
s✉♠s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts ✐s ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✹✳✶✿ ❝❛♥❝❡❧❧❛t✐♦♥

❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ ❤♦✇ t♦ ❣❡t t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✕ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✳ ❖❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱
❡①❡❝✉t✐♥❣ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡❧② s❤♦✉❧❞ ❜r✐♥❣ ✉s ❜❛❝❦ ✇❤❡r❡ ✇❡ st❛rt❡❞✳

❲❡ ♥♦✇ t❛❦❡ ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ t✇♦ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s ❛❜♦✉t ♠♦t✐♦♥ ✕ ❛ ❜r♦❦❡♥ ♦❞♦♠❡t❡r ❛♥❞ ❛ ❜r♦❦❡♥
s♣❡❡❞♦♠❡t❡r ✕ ♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❡❛r❧✐❡r✳

❋✐rst✱ ❜❡❧♦✇ ✇❡ s❡❡ ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s ❛r❡ ✉s❡❞ t♦ ❛❝q✉✐r❡ t❤❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥ts ✈✐❛ t❤❡ s✉♠s✱ ❜✉t ✇❡ ❛❧s♦
❞✐s❝♦✈❡r t❤❛t ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❣❡t t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ✈✐❛ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s✿
✶✳✹✳ ❚❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ✹✹

❙❡❝♦♥❞✱ ❜❡❧♦✇ ✇❡ s❡❡ ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ✉s❡❞ t♦ ❛❝q✉✐r❡ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s ✈✐❛ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s✱ ❜✉t ✇❡
❛❧s♦ ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r t❤❛t ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❣❡t t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ✈✐❛ t❤❡ s✉♠s✿

❲❡ ❦♥❡✇ t❤✐s ✇♦✉❧❞ ❤❛♣♣❡♥✿ ❆❢t❡r ❛❧❧✱ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛r❡♥✬t r❡❛❧❧② ❞❡r✐✈❡❞ ❢r♦♠ ❡❛❝❤
♦t❤❡r ❜✉t ❝♦✲❡①✐sts ❛s t✇♦ ❛ttr✐❜✉t❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥✳

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ♦♥❝❡ ❛❣❛✐♥ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛♥ ❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ P ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ✇✐t❤ n ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ❛♥❞
• t❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✿ xk , k = 0, 1, ..., n
• t❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥ts✿ ∆xk = xk − xk−1 , i = 1, 2, ..., n
• t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✿ ck , i = 1, 2, ..., n ✐♥ [xk−1 , xk ]
❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ t✇♦ ♣❛rts✿
✶✳ ❙✉♠✿ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ g ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ck ✳ ❲❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ ✐ts s✉♠ ✇✐t❤ ❛
✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ r✐❣❤t ❡♥❞✱ xk ✳ ❲❡ ❛ss✐❣♥ t❤❡s❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s t♦ t❤❡s❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✳ ❚❤✐s ❞❡✜♥❡s ❛ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱
✶✳✹✳ ❚❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ✹✺

G✱ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✳ ❚❤❡ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ✇r✐tt❡♥ ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t❧②✿

G(xk ) = Σg (xk ) = g(c1 ) + g(c2 ) + ... + g(ck ) ,

♦r ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡❧②✿
G(xk ) = G(xk−1 ) + g(ck ) .

✷✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡✿ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ F ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✳ ❏✉st ❛s
❛❧✇❛②s✱ ✐ts ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ♦✈❡r ❡❛❝❤ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [xk−1 , xk ] ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✱ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

F (xk ) − F (xk−1 ), k = 1, 2..., n .

❲❡ t❤❡♥ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r ✕ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t✐♥❣ t❤❡ r✐s❡ ✕ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ k ✳ ❚❤✐s ❞❡✜♥❡s ❛ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ f ✱ ♦♥ t❤❡
s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✳ ❚❤❡ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ❜② ❛♥ ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿

f (ck ) = F (xk ) − F (xk−1 ) .

❚❤❡ ✜rst q✉❡st✐♦♥ ✇❡ ✇♦✉❧❞ ❧✐❦❡ t♦ ❛♥s✇❡r ✐s✿

◮ ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉♠ ❄
❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ g ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ✐ts s✉♠ G ❞❡✜♥❡❞ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡❧② ❛t t❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r②
♥♦❞❡s✿
G(xk ) = G(xk−1 ) + g(ck ) .
❆❧s♦✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ f ♦❢ G ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ❜②✿

f (ck ) = G(xk ) − G(xk−1 ) .

❲❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ✐♥t♦ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r✿

f (ck ) = G(xk ) − G(xk−1 ) = g(ck ) .

❙♦✱ t❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r ✐s✱ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳

❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t t❛❦❡s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❝♦♠♣❛❝t ❢♦r♠✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✹✳✷✿ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❉✐s❝r❡t❡ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ■
✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ g ✐s g ✿

∆ (Σg) = g

✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦❢ g ✐s g ✿

∆ (Σg · ∆x)
=g
∆x

❚❤❡ t✇♦ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ❝❛♥❝❡❧ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r✦

Pr♦♦❢✳
❋♦r t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ♣❛rt✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ ❛ s❧✐❣❤t ♠♦❞✐✜❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ g ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡
s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ✐ts ✭✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✲❡♥❞✮ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ G ❞❡✜♥❡❞ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡❧② ❛t t❤❡
♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✿
G(xk ) = G(xk−1 ) + g(ck ) ∆xk .
✶✳✹✳ ❚❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ✹✻

❆❧s♦✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t f ♦❢ G ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ❜②✿

G(xk ) − G(xk−1 )
f (ck ) = .
∆xk
❲❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ✐♥t♦ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r✿
G(xk ) − G(xk−1 )
f (ck ) =
∆xk
g(ck ) ∆xk
=
∆xk
= g(ck ) .

❚❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ q✉❡st✐♦♥ ✇❡ ✇♦✉❧❞ ❧✐❦❡ t♦ ❛♥s✇❡r ✐s✿

◮ ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❄
❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ F ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ✐ts ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ f ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✿
f (ck ) = F (xk ) − F (xk−1 ) .

❆❧s♦✱ t❤❡ s✉♠ G ♦❢ f ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ❜②✿

G(xk ) = G(xk−1 ) + f (ck ) .

❲❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ✐♥t♦ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✿

G(xk ) − G(xk−1 ) = f (ck ) = F (xk ) − F (xk−1 ) .

❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱
     
G(xk ) − G(x0 ) = G(xk ) − G(xk−1 ) + G(xk−1 ) − G(xk−2 ) + ... + G(x1 ) − G(x0 )
     
= F (xk ) − F (xk−1 ) + F (xk−1 ) − F (xk−2 ) + ... + F (x1 ) − F (x0 )

= F (xk ) − F (x0 ) .

❙♦✱ t❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r ✐s✱ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♣❧✉s ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✹✳✸✿ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❉✐s❝r❡t❡ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ■■

✶✳ ❚❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ F ✐s F + C ✱ ✇❤❡r❡ C ✐s ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t✿

Σ (∆F ) = F + C

✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ F ✐s F + C ✱ ✇❤❡r❡ C ✐s ❛

❝♦♥st❛♥t✿
 
∆F
Σ ∆x = F + C
∆x

Pr♦♦❢✳

❋♦r t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ♣❛rt✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ ❛ s❧✐❣❤t ♠♦❞✐✜❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ F ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡
✶✳✹✳ ❚❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ✹✼

♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ✐ts ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t f ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✿

F (xk ) − F (xk−1 )
f (ck ) = .
∆xk
❆❧s♦✱ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ G ♦❢ f ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ❜②✿

G(xk ) = G(xk−1 ) + f (ck ) ∆xk .

❲❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ✐♥t♦ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✿

G(xk ) − G(xk−1 ) = f (ck ) ∆xk

F (xk ) − F (xk−1 )
= ∆xk
∆xk
= F (xk ) − F (xk−1 ) .

❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱
     
G(xk ) − G(x0 ) = G(xk ) − G(xk−1 ) + G(xk−1 ) − G(xk−2 ) + ... + G(x1 ) − G(x0 )
     
= F (xk ) − F (xk−1 ) + F (xk−1 ) − F (xk−2 ) + ... + F (x1 ) − F (x0 )
= F (xk ) − F (x0 ) .

❚❤❡ t✇♦ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ✕ ❛❧♠♦st ✕ ❝❛♥❝❡❧ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r✱ ❛❣❛✐♥✦ ❚❤❡② ❞♦♥✬t ❝❛♥❝❡❧ ❢✉❧❧② ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ✐s♥✬t
❛ ♦♥❡✲t♦✲♦♥❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳
■♥ s✉♠♠❛r②✱ t❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ✐♥✈♦❧✈❡❞✿
∆f
❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✱ : → s✉❜tr❛❝t✐♦♥ → ❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥
∆x
↓

❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✱ Σg · ∆x : ← ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ ← ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥

❲❡ ❝❛rr② ♦✉t t❤❡s❡ ❢♦✉r ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡❧②✳ ❚❤❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ❜② ∆x ❝❛♥❝❡❧ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r
✜rst✿
❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡✱ ∆f : → s✉❜tr❛❝t✐♦♥

s✉♠✱ Σg : ← ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥
❚❤❛t✬s ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❝❛♥❝❡❧❧❛t✐♦♥✦
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✹✳✹✿ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✇✐t❤ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t

❋♦r ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ❞❛t❛✱ ✇❡ ✉s❡ ❛ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡rs ✷❉❈✲✷ ❛♥❞ ✷❉❈✲✸✳
❋r♦♠ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t♦ ✐ts ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠✿
❂❘❬✲✶❪❈✰❘❈❬✲✶❪✯❘✶❈✷
❋r♦♠ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t♦ ✐ts ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✿
❂✭❘❈❬✲✶❪✲❘❬✲✶❪❈❬✲✶❪✮✴❘✶❈✷
❲❤❛t ✐❢ ✇❡ ❡①❡❝✉t❡ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡❧②❄
✶✳✹✳ ❚❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ✹✽

■♥ t❤✐s ♦r❞❡r ✜rst✱ ❢r♦♠ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t♦ ✐ts ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ t♦ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✿

■t✬s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✦

◆♦✇ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♦♣♣♦s✐t❡ ♦r❞❡r✱ ❢r♦♠ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t♦ ✐ts ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ t♦ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✿

■t✬s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ s❤✐❢t❡❞ ❞♦✇♥✦

✶✳✺✳ ❍♦✇ t♦ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ ❛r❡❛s ❛♥❞ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥ts ✹✾

✶✳✺✳ ❍♦✇ t♦ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ ❛r❡❛s ❛♥❞ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥ts

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✺✳✶✿ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ ❛r❡❛s

▲❡t✬s ❡st✐♠❛t❡ ✕ ✐♥ s❡✈❡r❛❧ ✇❛②s ✕ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y = f (x) = x2 t❤❛t ❧✐❡s ❛❜♦✈❡ t❤❡
✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [0, 1]✳

❆s ❜❡❢♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ s❛♠♣❧❡ ♦✉r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛t s❡✈❡r❛❧ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ x✱ ❛ t♦t❛❧ ♦❢ n ♦❢ t✐♠❡s✳

▲❡t✬s st❛rt ✇✐t❤ n = 1 ❛♥❞ ♣✐❝❦ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ❡♥❞ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❛s t❤❡ ♦♥❧② s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡✳ ❍❡r❡✱
f (1) = 12 = 1✱ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✐s 1✱ t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ sq✉❛r❡✳ ❲❡ r❡❝♦r❞ t❤✐s r❡s✉❧t ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

R1 = 1 ,
✇❤❡r❡ R st❛♥❞s ❢♦r ✏r✐❣❤t✑✳

■♥ t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥t✐♠❡✱ ✐❢ ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t ❡♥❞✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ f (1) = 02 = 0✱ s♦ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✐s 0✳ ❲❡ r❡❝♦r❞ t❤✐s
r❡s✉❧t ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
L1 = 0 ,
✇❤❡r❡ L st❛♥❞s ❢♦r ✏❧❡❢t✑✳

◆❡①t✱ n = 2✳ ❚❤❡♥ ∆x = 1/2 ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✐s s✉❜❞✐✈✐❞❡❞ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

• −−− | −−− •
x 0 1/2 1
f (x) = x2 0 1/4
L2 0 · 1/2 + 1/4 · 1/2 = 1/8
R2 1/4 · 1/2 + 1 · 1/2 = 5/8
✶✳✺✳ ❍♦✇ t♦ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ ❛r❡❛s ❛♥❞ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥ts ✺✵

◆♦t❡ t❤❛t t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s ✉♥❞❡r❡st✐♠❛t❡ ❛♥❞ ♦✈❡r❡st✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✳

◆♦✇✱ n = 4✳ ❚❤❡♥ ∆x = 1/4 ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✐s s✉❜❞✐✈✐❞❡❞ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

• −− | −− | −− | −− •
x 0 1/4 1/2 3/4 1
x2 0 1/16 1/4 9/16 1
L4 0 · 1/4 + 1/16 · 1/4 + 1/4 · 1/4 + 9/16 · 1/4 ≈ 0.22
R4 1/16 · 1/4 + 1/4 · 1/4 + 9/16 · 1/4 + 1 · 1/4 ≈ 0.47

◆♦t❡ t❤❛t t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s ✉♥❞❡r❡st✐♠❛t❡ ❛♥❞ ♦✈❡r❡st✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✳

❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ t❛❜❧❡✿

1 1 1 1 1 9 1
R4 = · + · + · + ·1
4 16 4 4 4 16  4
1 1 4 9 16
= + + +
4 16 16 16 16
1 30
=
4 16
≈ 0.47 .

❲❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡ ✇✐t❤ ❧❛r❣❡r ❛♥❞ ❧❛r❣❡r ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ n✳ ❲❡ ❡♥❞ ✉♣ ✇✐t❤ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢
t❤✐s s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s ♠❡❛♥t t♦ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❝✉r✈❡❞ ✜❣✉r❡✳ ❚❤❡s❡ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥s ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s
♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤✐s ❤♦✇ ✐t ✇♦r❦s✿
• ❚❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ❡①❛❝t ❛r❡❛✳
• ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ✐s t❤❡ ❡①❛❝t ❛r❡❛✳
✶✳✺✳ ❍♦✇ t♦ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ ❛r❡❛s ❛♥❞ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥ts ✺✶

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✺✳✷✿ ♠✐❞✲♣♦✐♥ts

❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♦t❤❡r ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ✐❢ ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ ♦t❤❡r s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✱ s✉❝❤ ❛s ♠✐❞✲♣♦✐♥ts❀
2
✐t ✐s ❞❡♥♦t❡❞ ❜② Mn ✳ ▲❡t✬s ❛❣❛✐♥ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✉♥❞❡r y = x ✇✐t❤ n = 4✳ ❙✐♥❝❡ L4 ❛♥❞ R4 ✉♥✲
❞❡r❡st✐♠❛t❡ ♦r ♦✈❡r❡st✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✱ ♦♥❡ ♠✐❣❤t ❡①♣❡❝t t❤❛t M4 ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ❝❧♦s❡r t♦ t❤❡ tr✉t❤✳

❚❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ ∆x ✐s st✐❧❧ 1/4✿

• −− | −− | −− | −− •

x 1/8 3/8 5/8 7/8

f (x) = x2 (1/8)2 (3/8)2 (5/8)2 (7/8)2

M4 (1/8)2 · 1/4 + (3/8)2 · 1/4 + (5/8)2 · 1/4 + (7/8)2 · 1/4 ≈ 0.328

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✺✳✸

❋✐♥✐s❤ t❤❡ s❡♥t❡♥❝❡ ✏ Ln ❛♥❞ Rn ✇✐❧❧ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡ t♦ ✉♥❞❡r❡st✐♠❛t❡ ❛♥❞ ♦✈❡r❡st✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♥♦ ♠❛tt❡r
❤♦✇ ♠❛♥② ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ f ✐s✳✳✳✑

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✺✳✹

❋✐♥✐s❤ t❤❡ s❡♥t❡♥❝❡ ✏ Mn ✇✐❧❧ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡ t♦ ✉♥❞❡r❡st✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♥♦ ♠❛tt❡r ❤♦✇ ♠❛♥② ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ✇❡
❤❛✈❡ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ f ✐s✳✳✳✑

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✺✳✺✿ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡

▲❡t✬s t❡st t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ t♦ ❝♦♠♣✉t✐♥❣ ❛r❡❛s t♦ ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r r❡❣✐♦♥✱ ❛ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡✳ ❙✉♣✲
♣♦s❡
f (x) = x .
❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✉♥❞❡r ✐ts ❣r❛♣❤ ❢r♦♠ x=0 t♦ x = 1❄

❲❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❧❡❢t✲❡♥❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ t❤❡s❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✿

1 2 n−1
0 n n
... n
1

0 = c1 c2 c3 ... cn ◦

❲❡ ♥❡①t ♣❧♦t t❤✐s ❝❤❛rt ❢♦r n = 2 , 4 , 8 , 16 , 80 t♦ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✿

✶✳✺✳ ❍♦✇ t♦ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ ❛r❡❛s ❛♥❞ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥ts ✺✷

❚❤❡ ❧❛st ♦♥❡ ❤❛s ✈✐rt✉❛❧❧② ♥♦ ❣❛♣s✳ ❲❡ ❧❡t t❤❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ❛r❡❛s ✭❝♦r♥❡rs✮✿

n 2 4 8 16 80 ... n

∆x 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/16 1/80 ... 1/n

Dn 0.250 0.375 0.438 0.469 0.494 ... ?

❚❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs s❡❡♠ t♦ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ 0.5 ❛s ❡①♣❡❝t❡❞✳ ❚♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❢✉❧❧ tr✉t❤✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♥❡❡❞ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤✐s
s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✦

❋♦r ❛♥ ❛r❜✐tr❛r② n✱ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ❛r❡❛ ✐s ♦♥❧② ✇r✐tt❡♥ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡❧②✳ ▲❡t✬s tr② t♦ s✐♠♣❧✐❢② ✭f (x) = x✮✿

Dn = f (c1 ) · ∆x + f (c2 ) · ∆x + ... + f (cn ) · ∆x ❙✉❜st✐t✉t❡✳

1 1 2 1 n−1 1
= · + · + ... + · ❋❛❝t♦r ✐t✳
 n n n n n n 
1
= 1 + 2 + ... + (n − 1) · .
n2

❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ t❤✐s ❧✐♠✐t❄ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉♠ ✐♥ ♣❛r❡♥t❤❡s❡s ✐s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❛♥❞ s♦ ✐s t❤❛t ♦❢ n2 ✳ ❲❡
❤❛✈❡ ❛♥ ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥✿ ∞ · 0✳ ❏✉st ❛s ❜❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ♦♥❧② ✇❛② t♦ r❡s♦❧✈❡ ✐t ✐s ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✳ ❲❡
♥❡❡❞ t♦ ✜♥❞ ❛♥ ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ s✉♠✳

❋♦rt✉♥❛t❡❧②✱ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ ✐♥ ♣❛r❡♥t❤❡s❡s ✐s ❦♥♦✇♥ ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✶✮ ❛s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ ❛♥
❛r✐t❤♠❡t✐❝ ♣r♦❣r❡ss✐♦♥✿
n(n − 1)
1 + 2 + ... + (n − 1) = .
2
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❛rs ✐s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❧✐♠✐t ❛s n → ∞✿
n(n − 1) 1 1 n2 − n 1
Dn = 2
= 2
→ ,
2 n 2 n 2
❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❘❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷❉❈✲✷✮✳ ❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ♠❛t❝❤❡s ✇❤❛t
✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ❢r♦♠ ❣❡♦♠❡tr②✳

■t s❤♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ ❝❧❡❛r t❤❛t ✇❡ ✇♦✉❧❞♥✬t ❜❡ ❛❜❧❡ t♦ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ r✉❧❡s ❛♥❞ ♠❡t❤♦❞s ♦❢ ❝♦♠♣✉t✐♥❣ ❧✐♠✐ts ✇✐t❤♦✉t t❤✐s
s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛t✐♦♥ st❡♣✳ ❯♥❧✐❦❡ ♠♦st s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✇❡ s❛✇ ✐♥ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ✭❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✷✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷❉❈✲✶✮✱ t❤❡
❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ❤❛s n t❡r♠s✳ ❚❤✐s ♠❡❛♥s t❤❛t ✇❡ ❞♦ ♥♦t ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❞✐r❡❝t✱ ♦r ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t✱ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛
❢♦r t❤❡ nt❤ t❡r♠ ♦❢ t❤✐s s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳ ❈♦♥✈❡rt✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ✐♥t♦ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r r❡q✉✐r❡s s♦♠❡ ❝❤❛❧❧❡♥❣✐♥❣ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✳
❆ ❢❡✇ s✉❝❤ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❛r❡ ❦♥♦✇♥✳
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✺✳✻✿ ❋♦r♠✉❧❛s ❢♦r ❋✐♥✐t❡ ❙✉♠s

❚❤❡ s✉♠s ♦❢ m ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✱ t❤❡✐r sq✉❛r❡s✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡✐r ❝✉❜❡s ❛r❡ t❤❡
✶✳✺✳ ❍♦✇ t♦ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ ❛r❡❛s ❛♥❞ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥ts ✺✸

❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

m
X m(m + 1)
k =
k=1
2
m
X m(m + 1)(2m + 1) m3 m2 m
k2 = = + +
k=1
6 3 2 6
m  2 4 3
X m(m + 1) m m m2
k3 = = + +
k=1
2 4 2 4

Pr♦♦❢✳

❚❤❡ ✜rst ♦♥❡ ✐s ♣r♦✈❡♥ ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✶✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✺✳✼✿ ❛r❡❛ ✉♥❞❡r ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛

Pr♦❜❧❡♠✿ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❛r❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❛ ❧❛♥❞✐♥❣ ♠♦❞✉❧❡ ♦♥ ✐ts tr✐♣ t♦ t❤❡ ♠♦♦♥✳ ❚❤❡ ✈❡r② ❧❛st ♣❛rt ♦❢
t❤❡ tr✐♣ ✐s ✈❡r② ❝❧♦s❡ t♦ t❤❡ s✉r❢❛❝❡ ❛♥❞ ✐t ✐s s✉♣♣♦s❡❞ t♦ ❝♦✈❡r 2/3 ♦❢ ❛ ♠✐❧❡ ✐♥ ♦♥❡ ♠✐♥✉t❡✳ ❈♦♥s✐❞✲
❡r✐♥❣ t❤❛t t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ✇❛② t♦ ♠❡❛s✉r❡ ❛❧t✐t✉❞❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ t❤❡ s✉r❢❛❝❡✱ ❤♦✇ ✇♦✉❧❞ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t ✐t ❤❛s ❧❛♥❞❡❞❄

❚❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❞♦ ❦♥♦✇✿ ❚❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✱ ❛t ❛❧❧ t✐♠❡s✿

❙♦❧✉t✐♦♥✿ ❲❡ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ❜② ♣r❡❞✐❝t✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t ❡✈❡r②✿

• 1 ♠✐♥✉t❡✱ ♦r
• 1/2 ♠✐♥✉t❡✱ ♦r
• 1/4 ♠✐♥✉t❡✱ ♦r
• ❡t❝✳✱
❜② ✉s✐♥❣ t❤❡ s♣❡❡❞ r❡❝♦r❞❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ❜❡❣✐♥♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✿
♣r♦❥❡❝t❡❞ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t = ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② · t✐♠❡ ♣❛ss❡❞.
❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛❧r❡❛❞② ♣❧♦tt❡❞ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛♥❞ ♥♦✇ ✇❡ ❛r❡ ❛❧s♦ t♦ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡ t❤❡ ♣r♦❥❡❝t❡❞ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t✳ ■t
✐s ❛ ♣❧♦t ♦❢ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❜✉t ♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❛s ❛ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ❦✐♥❞ ♦❢ ♣❧♦t✱ ❛ ❜❛r ❝❤❛rt✿

❲❡ ♣❧♦t t❤✐s ❝❤❛rt ❢♦r ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ t✐♠❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✱ n✱ ❛♥❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ❝❤♦✐❝❡s ♦❢ t❤❡✐r ❧❡♥❣t❤s✱
∆x = 1/n✳ ❲❡ ❛❧s♦ ❧❡t t❤❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t ❛❞❞ t❤❡s❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs t♦ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t✱ Dn ✱
✶✳✺✳ ❍♦✇ t♦ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ ❛r❡❛s ❛♥❞ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥ts ✺✹

♦✈❡r t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ♦♥❡✲♠✐♥✉t❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❞❛t❛✿

n 2 4 8 16 80

∆x 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/16 1/80

Dn 0.869 0.778 0.725 0.697 0.673

❚❤❡ ❞❛t❛ s✉❣❣❡sts t❤❛t t❤❡ ❝r❛❢t ❤❛s ❧❛♥❞❡❞ ❛s t❤❡ ❡st✐♠❛t❡❞ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t s❡❡♠s t♦ ❜❡ ❝❧♦s❡ t♦
2/3 ♠✐❧❡s✳ ❍♦✇ ❝❧♦s❡ ❛r❡ ✇❡ t♦ t❤✐s ❞✐st❛♥❝❡❄ ❆s t❤✐s q✉❡st✐♦♥ ♠❡❛♥s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t t❤✐♥❣s t♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t
♣❡♦♣❧❡✱ ❧❡t✬s tr② t♦ ✜♥❞ ❛ r✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❛♥s✇❡r✐♥❣ ✐t✿ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ♣r♦❥❡❝t❡❞ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t Dn ❛s ✐t ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥ n✳

❋✐rst✱ t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ t✐♠❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✐s✿

1
∆x = ,
n
❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♠♦♠❡♥ts ♦❢ t✐♠❡ ❢♦r s❛♠♣❧✐♥❣ ❛r❡✿
2 3 n−1
x1 = 0, x2 = , x3 = , ..., xn = .
n n n

❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ ❡①❛❝t✱ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❡ ❞❛t❛ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② y ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
♦❢ t✐♠❡✱ x✱ ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② t❤✐s✱ ❡①❛❝t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿
y = f (x) = 1 − x2 .

❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t ✐s

Dn = f (x1 ) · ∆x + f (x2 ) · ∆x + ... + f (xn ) · ∆x

 2 !  2 !  2 !
1 1 2 1 n−1 1
= 1− · + 1− · + ... + 1− ·
n n n n n n
 
12 22 (n − 1)2 1
= 1− + + ... + ·
 n2 n2 n 2
 n
1
= 1− 12 + 22 + ... + (n − 1)2 · 3.
n

❲❡ ❛r❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♣❧❛❝❡ ❛s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✿ ❚❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ✐♠♣r♦✈✐♥❣ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ✐s t❤❡
s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ s✉♠s ♦❢ ❛ ❝❡rt❛✐♥ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳ ❆♥❞✱ ♦♥❝❡ ❛❣❛✐♥✱ t❤❡ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ ♠✉st ❜❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rt❡❞
t♦ ❛♥ ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ ♠❡t❤♦❞s ♦❢ ❝♦♠♣✉t✐♥❣ ❧✐♠✐ts t❤❛t ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇✳

▲❡t✬s s✐♠♣❧✐❢② ✐t ✉s✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❧❛st t❤❡♦r❡♠✿

(n − 1)3 (n − 1)2 n − 1
12 + 22 + ... + (n − 1)2 = + + .
3 2 6
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱  
(n − 1)3 (n − 1)2 n − 1 1
Dn =1− + +
3 2 6 n3
3 2
(n − 1) (n − 1) n−1
=1− 3
− 3
− .
3n 2n 6n3
❲✐t❤ t❤✐s ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ✐♠♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♦❢ ♦✉r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t t♦
❛♥② ❞❡❣r❡❡ ✇❡ ❞❡s✐r❡ ❜② ❝❤♦♦s✐♥❣ ❧❛r❣❡r ❛♥❞ ❧❛r❣❡r ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ n✳
✶✳✻✳ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✿ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✺✺

◆❡①t✱ ✇❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❡①❛❝t ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t D❄ ■t ✐s t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ Dn ✳ ❲❡ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠
▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❘❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷❉❈✲✶✮✮ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ t❤❡ ❧❡❛❞✐♥❣ t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥s✿
1 2
Dn → 1 − −0−0= .
3 3

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✺✳✽

❘❡❞♦ t❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ❢♦r f (x) = x2 ✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✺✳✾

❯s❡ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐♥ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y = x3 ✳

■♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❡s❝❛♣❡ t❤❡ ♥❡❡❞ ❢♦r t❤❡♦r❡♠s ❧✐❦❡ t❤❡ ♦♥❡ ❛❜♦✈❡✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❞❡✈❡❧♦♣ ❛ ✇♦r❦✲❛r♦✉♥❞✳ ❆♥
✐♥❞✐r❡❝t ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ ✇✐❧❧ ♣r♦✈❡ ♠♦r❡ ❡✛❡❝t✐✈❡✳

✶✳✻✳ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✿ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧

❲❡ ✐♠♣r♦✈❡ ♦✉r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s t♦ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ❜❡tt❡r ❛♥❞ ❡st✐♠❛t❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛s ♦r ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥ts ❜② ♠❛❦✐♥❣
t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ✜♥❡r ❛♥❞ ✜♥❡r✳ ❲❡ t❤❡♥ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤✐s ♣r♦❝❡ss✳
❲❡ ❛r❡✱ ✐♥ ❢❛❝t✱ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t❤❡ r♦✉t❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✿
s❛♠♣❧✐♥❣ s❛♠♣❧✐♥❣
s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ←−−−−−−−− ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦♥ [a, b] s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ←−−−−−−−− ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦♥ [a, b]
   
   
❉◗ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❘❙ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧
y y y y

s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ −−−∆x→0
−−−−−→ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦♥ [a, b] s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ −−−∆x→0
−−−−−→ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦♥ [a, b]

▲❡t✬s r❡✈✐❡✇ t❤❡ s❡t✉♣✳

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤✐s t✐♠❡ t❤❛t ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t ❛❧❧ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b]✳
❲❡ ❛r❡ ❛❧s♦ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r✐♥❣ ❛❧❧ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥s P ♦❢ [a, b]✿
a = x0 ≤ c1 ≤ x1 ≤ c2 ≤ x2 ≤ . . . < xn−1 ≤ c1 ≤ xn = b .
❚❤❡♥ ❡❛❝❤ s✉❝❤ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ✇✐❧❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿
∆f f (ck+1 ) − f (ck )
= ,
∆x ∆xk
❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿
n
X
Σf · ∆x = f (c1 ) ∆x1 + f (c2 ) ∆x2 + ... + f (cn ) ∆xn = f (ci ) ∆xi ,
i=1

✇❤❡r❡
∆xi = xi − xi−1 .

◆♦✇✱ ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ✐♠♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡s❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s✱ ✇❡ r❡✜♥❡ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✿ ❚❤❡r❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ♠♦r❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ❛♥❞
t❤❡② ❛r❡ s♠❛❧❧❡r✳ ❲❡ ❦❡❡♣ r❡✜♥✐♥❣✳ ❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥s✱ Pn ✳
❍❡r❡ ✐s ❛♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❛ t②♣✐❝❛❧ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ r❡✜♥✐♥❣ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥s✳ ❲❡ s✐♠♣❧② ❝✉t ❡✈❡r② ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✐♥ ❤❛❧❢ ❡✈❡r②
t✐♠❡ ✭❧❡❢t✮ ❛❣❛✐♥ ❛♥❞ ❛❣❛✐♥✿
✶✳✻✳ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✿ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✺✻

❚❤❡ ❧❡❢t ❡♥❞s ❛r❡ ❝❤♦s❡♥ ❛s s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s t♦ s❛♠♣❧❡ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✭r✐❣❤t✮✳
❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❝❛♥ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ ❛s ❛ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ fn ✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✻✳✶✿ sin x
▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r
f (x) = sin x .
❋♦r ❡❛❝❤ n = 2, 3, 4, ...✱ t❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t ✐s ❢♦✉♥❞✱ ∆x = (b − a)/n✱ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ n s❡❣♠❡♥ts ✐♥ ♦✉r
♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳ ❖♥ ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ ✐ts s❡❣♠❡♥ts✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✐s ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞✱ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ✐s
r❡❝♦r❞❡❞ ❛s t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ ❛ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s ♣❧♦tt❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❜♦tt♦♠ r♦✇✿

❲❡ ❢❛❝❡ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ■ts ❧✐♠✐t ✐s t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✳

❙✐♠✐❧❛r❧② t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ✐s ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞✱ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ✐s r❡❝♦r❞❡❞ ❛s t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ ❛ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡
r❡s✉❧t ✐s ♣❧♦tt❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❜♦tt♦♠ r♦✇✿

❲❡ ❢❛❝❡ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛❣❛✐♥✳ ❲❤❛t ✐s ✐ts ❧✐♠✐t❄

❖✉r s❛♠♣❧✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❣❡tt✐♥❣ ❞❡♥s❡r ❛♥❞ ❞❡♥s❡r✳ ■♥ t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥t✐♠❡✱ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts t❤❛t ♠❛❦❡ ✉♣
t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts ❛♥❞ t❤♦s❡ t❤❛t ♠❛❦❡ ✉♣ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ❛r❡ ❣❡tt✐♥❣ ❝❧♦s❡r
❛♥❞ ❝❧♦s❡r t♦❣❡t❤❡r✳ ❲❤❛t ✐s ❛t t❤❡ ❡♥❞ ♦❢ t❤✐s ♣r♦❝❡ss❄ ❆ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✦

❋♦r s✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t②✱ ❜❡❧♦✇ ✇❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ♦♥ ❛ ✜①❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳ ❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ✉s✐♥❣ [a, b] ✐♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ ❛❧❧
✶✳✻✳ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✿ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✺✼

♦❢ t❤❡s❡✿ [a, xk ]✳
❚❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ♦✈❡r [a, b] ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s fn ❛❝q✉✐r❡❞ ❢r♦♠ s❛♠♣❧✐♥❣✱

Sn = Σfn ∆x ,

❢♦r♠ ❛ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ Sn ✳

❆s ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ s❡❡♥✱ t❤✐s s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♠❛② ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ ❛s n → ∞✿

❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤✐s s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ lim Sn = S ✱ ✐s ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❛r❡ ❛❢t❡r✳

n→∞

❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ❧❡❢t✲❡♥❞✱ r✐❣❤t✲❡♥❞✱ ♠✐❞✲♣♦✐♥t ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥s✱ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥s ✇✐t❤ ✉♥❡q✉❛❧ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥ts✱ ❛♥❞ ✐♥✲
✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② ♦t❤❡r s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥s✳ ❏✉st ❛s ♦♥❡ ❝❛♥ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ ❛ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ✇✐t❤ ♥♦♥✲r❡❣✉❧❛r ♣♦❧②❣♦♥s✦
❲❡✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ❛❧❧ ♦❢ t❤❡♠ ❛♥❞ r❡q✉✐r❡ t❤❛t ❛❧❧ ♦❢ t❤❡♠ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r✿

Ln Mn Rn
ց ↓ ւ
Sn → S ← ?
ր ↑ տ
? ? ?

❚❤❡ ♦♥❧② r❡str✐❝t✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❛t ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥s ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❜❡ ❝❤♦s❡♥ ✐♥ s✉❝❤ ❛ ✇❛② t❤❛t

∆xi → 0 ❛s n → ∞.

❚♦ ♠❛❦❡ s❡♥s❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s✱ ✇❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✶✳✻✳✷✿ ♠❡s❤ ♦❢ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥

❚❤❡ ♠❡s❤ ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ P ✐s t❤❡ ♠❛①✐♠❛❧ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ ✐ts ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t✿

|P | = max ∆xi .
i

■t ✐s ❛ ♠❡❛s✉r❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡❣r❡❡ ♦❢ ✏r❡✜♥❡♠❡♥t✑ ♦❢ P✳ ❲❤❡♥❡✈❡r ✐t ❣♦❡s t♦ 0✱ ❛❧❧ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥ts ❣♦ t♦ 0 t♦♦✳ ❲❡

✉s❡ ✐t ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✶✳✻✳✸✿ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧

❚❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✱ ♦r t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✱ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ♦✈❡r ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b]
✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ t♦ ❜❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t I ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ✐ts ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s Sn ♦✈❡r ❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞
♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥s Pn ✇✐t❤ t❤❡✐r ♠❡s❤ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤✐♥❣ 0 ❛s n → ∞❀ ✐✳❡✳✱

Sn → I, ♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞ |Pn | → 0 ,

✇❤❡♥ ❛❧❧ t❤❡s❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r✳ ❲❤❡♥ t❤✐s ❧✐♠✐t ✐s ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r✱ f ✐s
✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r [a, b]✳ ❲❤❡♥
❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛♥ ❛❧❧ t❤❡s❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ +∞
✭♦r −∞✮✱ ✇❡ s❛② t❤❛t t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✐s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡✳

❚❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s s✐♠✐❧❛r t♦ t❤❛t ❢♦r ❛♥t✐✲❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✿

✶✳✻✳ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✿ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✺✽

■♥t❡❣r❛❧
Z b
f dx
a
■t r❡❛❞s ✏t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ f ❢r♦♠
a t♦ b✑✳

❆❜❜r❡✈✐❛t❡❞✱ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✐s ✇r✐tt❡♥ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

Z b
f dx = lim Σfn ∆x ,
a n→∞

✇❤❡r❡ fn ✐s f s❛♠♣❧❡❞ ♦✈❡r t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ Pn ✳

■♥ t❤❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❝❛s❡✱ ✇❡ s✐♠♣❧② ✇r✐t❡ ✭❥✉st ❛s ✇✐t❤ ♦t❤❡r ❧✐♠✐ts✮✿

Z b
f dx = +∞ (♦r − ∞) .
a

❙♦✱ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✐s t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✱ ✐♥ t❤✐s s♣❡❝✐❛❧ s❡♥s❡✳ ❇♦t❤ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ s❡❡♥ ❛s t❤❡
❛r❡❛s ✉♥❞❡r ❝❡rt❛✐♥ ❣r❛♣❤s✿

Z
❚❤❡ s②♠❜♦❧ ✏ ✑ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ s✐❣♥✳ ■t ❧♦♦❦s ❧✐❦❡ ❛ str❡t❝❤❡❞ ❧❡tt❡r ❙✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ st❛♥❞s ❢♦r ✏s✉♠♠❛t✐♦♥✑

✭❛s ❞♦❡s ❧❡tt❡r Σ✮✿

❚❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s s✐♠✐❧❛r✱ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ✐t ✐s r❡❧❛t❡❞✱ t♦ t❤❛t ❢♦r ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ✭✐t ✐s ❛❧s♦ s✐♠✐❧❛r✱ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ✐t ✐s
r❡❧❛t❡❞✱ t♦ t❤❛t ❢♦r ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✮✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❞❡❝♦♥str✉❝t❡❞✿
✶✳✻✳ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✿ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✺✾

❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠

❧❡❢t ❛♥❞ r✐❣❤t ❜♦✉♥❞s ❢♦r x

↓

" 1 Z  
3
❞♦♠❛✐♥ 3x + sin x dx = 0

−1
↑ ↑ ↑
❧❡❢t ❛♥❞ r✐❣❤t ❜r❛❝❦❡ts ❛ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ♥✉♠❜❡r

❲❡ r❡❢❡r t♦ a ❛♥❞ b ❛s t❤❡ ✏❧♦✇❡r ❜♦✉♥❞✑ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✏✉♣♣❡r ❜♦✉♥❞✑ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✱ ✇❤✐❧❡ f ✐s t❤❡
✏✐♥t❡❣r❛♥❞✑✳ ❚❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ✐s r❡❢❡rr❡❞ t♦ ❛s t❤❡ ✏❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥✑✳

❈♦♠♣❛r❡ t♦ t❤❡ s✐❣♠❛ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✿

❧❡❢t ❛♥❞ r✐❣❤t ❜♦✉♥❞s ❢♦r k

↓

" 10
X 
3
❞♦♠❛✐♥ 3k + sin k = 9076.411188

k=0
↑ ↑ ↑
❧❡❢t ❛♥❞ r✐❣❤t ❜r❛❝❦❡ts ❛ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ♥✉♠❜❡r

❊✐t❤❡r t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ s✐❣♥ ♦r t❤❡ s✐❣♠❛ s✐❣♥ ❞❡s✐❣♥❛t❡s ❛ ❝❡rt❛✐♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t❤❛t t❛❦❡s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✕ ♦❢ x ♦r k ✕
❛s ✐ts ✐♥♣✉t✳ ❚❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉t ✐s ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r✳

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❚❤❡s❡ ✏❜♦✉♥❞s✑ a ❛♥❞ b ❛r❡♥✬t ❥✉st ❧♦✇❡r ❛♥❞ ✉♣♣❡r

❜♦✉♥❞s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ❜✉t ✐ts ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠ ❛♥❞
♠❛①✐♠✉♠✳ ■t ✐s ❛❧s♦ ✈❡r② ❝♦♠♠♦♥ t♦ ✉s❡ ✏❧✐♠✐ts✑
✐♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ ✏❜♦✉♥❞s✑✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✻✳✹

❲❤❛t ❞♦ t❤♦s❡ ✏❜♦✉♥❞s✑ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❞♦ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ✇♦r❞ ✏❜♦✉♥❞❛r②✑❄

❲❤✐❧❡ dx s❡❡♠s t♦ ❜❡ ♥♦t❤✐♥❣ ❜✉t ❛ ✏❜♦♦❦❡♥❞✑ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✱ ❧❡t✬s ♥♦t ❢♦r❣❡t t❤❛t t❤✐s ✐s t❤❡
❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷❉❈✲✸✮✳ ❆♥ ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ r❡✢❡❝ts t❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✐s ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡❞ ❜②
t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠ f (x) · dx ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✹✮✿

❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧
Z
f dx
[a,b]

❙♦✱ t❤✐s ✐s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❝r❡❛t❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠ ❛♥❞ ✐ts ✐♥♣✉ts ❛r❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✳ ❚♦ ❡♠♣❤❛s✐③❡ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r
♣♦✐♥t✱ ✇❡ ♠♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ [a, b] t♦ t❤❡ s✉❜s❝r✐♣t✳
✶✳✻✳ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✿ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✻✵

❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❞❡❝♦♥str✉❝t❡❞✿

❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧

✏❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡✑

↓
Z


3x3 + sin x dx = 0
| {z }
✐♥♣✉t → [−1, 1] ↑ ↑
❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠ ♦✉t♣✉t

❚❤✐s tr❛♥s✐t✐♦♥ ❜❡❝♦♠❡s ✐♥❡✈✐t❛❜❧❡ ✐♥ ❤✐❣❤❡r ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥s ✭❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✹✮✳

❲❤❡♥ ✇❡ s♣❡❛❦ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ✭✇✐t❤ n ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ♦♥k ✮✿

Z b X n
f dx = lim f (ci ) ∆xi .
a k→∞
| {z } i=1
t❤❡ ❡①❛❝t ❛r❡❛ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤
| {z }
❛r❡❛s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❛rs

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✻✳✺✿ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ❛r❡❛❄

❏✉st ❛s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✱ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ f ❛r❡ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡✱ s♦ ✐s t❤❡ ✏❛r❡❛✑ ✉♥❞❡r ✐ts ❣r❛♣❤✿

❚❤✐s ❞❡♠♦♥str❛t❡s ❛ ❞r❛✇❜❛❝❦ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❛s t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✐♥ ❝♦♥tr❛st t♦ t❤❡
✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛t✐♦♥ ❛s t❤❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t✳

▲❡t✬s ✈❡r✐❢② t❤❛t t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♠❛❦❡s s❡♥s❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ s✐♠♣❧❡st ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✻✳✻✿ ■♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♦♥ [a, b]✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ f (x) = c ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x ✐♥ [a, b] ❛♥❞ s♦♠❡ r❡❛❧

♥✉♠❜❡r c✳ ❚❤❡♥ f ✐s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ♦♥ [a, b] ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

Z b
f dx = c(b − a)
a

Pr♦♦❢✳

❋r♦♠ t❤❡ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ❙✉♠s✱ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇✿

Σ[a,b] fk ∆x = c(b − a) .

❙✐♥❝❡ t❤✐s ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❞❡♣❡♥❞ ♦♥ k✱ t❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✳

✶✳✻✳ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✿ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✻✶

❖❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ r❡❝♦✈❡r❡❞ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ ❛ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡✿

❛r❡❛ = ❤❡✐❣❤t · ✇✐❞t❤ .

❊①❝❡♣t✱ t❤✐s ❛r❡❛ ✐s ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ✇❤❡♥ c ✐s ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡✳

❊✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r t♦ t❤❡ q✉❡st✐♦♥ ✏❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ❞♦ ✐t❄✑ ✐s st✐❧❧ t♦ ❝♦♠❡✱ ✇❡ ❛s❦ ✏■s ✐t ❛❧✇❛②s ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡❄✑

❙♦♠❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ❞♦♥✬t ❡①✐st✳

❚❤❡♥✱ ❛s ❛ ❧✐♠✐t✱ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♠✐❣❤t ♥♦t ❡①✐st ❡✐t❤❡r✳

■♥ ❝♦♥tr❛st t♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜✐❧✐t②✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥✬t t❡❧❧ ❜② ❥✉st ❧♦♦❦✐♥❣ ❛t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✻✳✼✿ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❛r❡❛

❍❡r❡ ✐s ❛ s✐♠♣❧❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♥♦♥✲✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ♦✈❡r [0, 1]✿

1 ✐❢ x > 0,
f (x) = x2
0 ✐❢ x = 0.

■t s✉✣❝❡s t♦ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ ✜rst t❡r♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ nt❤ r✐❣❤t✲❡♥❞ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✿

❚❤✐s ❜❛r ✐s ❣❡tt✐♥❣ t❛❧❧❡r ❛♥❞ t❤✐♥♥❡r ❛t t❤❡ s❛♠❡ t✐♠❡✳ ❲❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t ✐ts ❛r❡❛❄ ❲❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡✿

 
1 1 1 1
f (x1 ) ∆x = f = 2
· =n→∞ ❛s n → ∞.
n n 1/n n

■t t✉r♥s ♦✉t t❤✐s ❜❛r ✐s ❣❡tt✐♥❣ t❛❧❧❡r ❢❛st❡r t❤❛♥ ✐t ✐s ❣❡tt✐♥❣ t❤✐♥♥❡r✦ ❚❤❡♥✱ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ P✉s❤ ❖✉t
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦r ❉✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷❉❈✲✶✮✱ ✐t ❢♦❧❧♦✇s t❤❛t

Rn → ∞ ❛s n → ∞.

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱
Z 1
f dx = +∞ .
0

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✻✳✽
1 1
❈♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤✐s ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ❛♥❞ 3 ✳
x x
✶✳✻✳ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✿ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✻✷

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✻✳✾✿ ❉✐r✐❝❤❧❡t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

❚❤❡ ❉✐r✐❝❤❧❡t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛❧s♦ ♥♦♥✲✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡✿

(
1 ✐❢ x ✐s ❛ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r,
IQ (x) =
0 ✐❢ x ✐s ❛♥ ✐rr❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r.

❚♦ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤✐s✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t✇♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥s✿

• ■❢ ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ ❛❧❧ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥s Pn t♦ ❜❡ r❛t✐♦♥❛❧✱ t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥
s✉♠s ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ 1❀ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ b − a✳
• ■❢ ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ ❛❧❧ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥s Qn t♦ ❜❡ ✐rr❛t✐♦♥❛❧✱ t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥
s✉♠s ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ 0❀ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ✐s ❛❧s♦ ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ 0✳
❚❤❡ ♠✐s♠❛t❝❤ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ♣r♦✈❡s t❤❛t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ♥♦t ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡✳

❚❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ r❡s✉❧t ♣r♦✈❡s t❤❛t ♦✉r ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♠❛❦❡s s❡♥s❡ ❢♦r ❛ ❧❛r❣❡ ❝❧❛ss ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✻✳✶✵✿ ■♥t❡❣r❛❜✐❧✐t② ♦❢ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

❆❧❧ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦♥ [a, b] ❛r❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ♦♥ [a, b]✳

❲❡ ❛❝❝❡♣t ✐t ✇✐t❤♦✉t ♣r♦♦❢✳

❚❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡ ✐s♥✬t tr✉❡ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✻✳✶✶✿ s✐❣♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

❚❤❡ s✐❣♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ f (x) = sign(x)✱ ❤❛s ❛ ✈❡r② s✐♠♣❧❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ❛♥❞✱ ✐t ❛♣♣❡❛rs✱ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✉♥❞❡r ✐t ✇♦✉❧❞
✏♠❛❦❡ s❡♥s❡✑✿

■♥❞❡❡❞✱ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ♦✈❡r ❛♥② ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b]✳

❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ t✇♦ ❝❛s❡s✳ ❲❤❡♥ b≤0 ♦r a ≥ 0✱ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s s✐♠♣❧② ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♦♥ t❤✐s ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳ ❲❤❡♥
a < 0 < b✱ ❛❧❧ t❡r♠s ♦❢ ❛❧❧ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ❛r❡ −1 · ∆xi ✱ ♦r 1 · ∆xi ✱ ♦r 0 ✭❛t ♠♦st t✇♦✮✳ ▲❡t✬s s✉♣♣♦s❡
t❤❛t 0 ✐s♥✬t ❛ ♥♦❞❡ ♦❢ ❛♥② ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥s Pk ❛♥❞✱ ✐♥ ❢❛❝t✱ ✐t ✐s ♦♥❡ ♦❢ ✐ts s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✱ 0 = cm ✳
✶✳✻✳ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✿ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✻✸

❚❤❡♥
m−1
X n
X
Σf · ∆x = (−1) · ∆xi +0 · ∆xm + 1 · ∆xi
i=1 i=m+1
m−1
X Xn
=− ∆xi + ∆xi
i=1 i=m+1

= −(xm − a) +(b − xm+1 )

=a+b −xm − xm+1 .

❚❤❡♥✱ ❛s |Pk | → 0✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

xm → 0 ❛♥❞ xm+1 → 0 .
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✬s ❧✐♠✐t ✐s✿
Z b
f dx = a + b .
a

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✻✳✶✷

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ♠✐ss✐♥❣ ❝❛s❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ♣r♦♦❢✳

❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ ♠❛✐♥ ❝❧❛ss❡s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ s❡❡♥ ❛♥❞ t❤❡✐r r❡❧❛t✐♦♥s✿

❚❤❡② ❛r❡ s✉❜s❡ts ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r✦

❲❡ ❛❝❝❡♣t t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ r❡s✉❧t ✇✐t❤♦✉t ♣r♦♦❢✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✻✳✶✸✿ ■♥t❡❣r❛❜✐❧✐t② ♦❢ ❘❡str✐❝t✐♦♥

■❢f ✐s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ♦✈❡r [a, b]✱ t❤❡♥ ✐t ✐s ❛❧s♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ♦✈❡r ❛♥② [A, B] ✇✐t❤ a≤
A < B ≤ b✳

❏✉st ❛s ❜❡❢♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❡ t❤❛t ❡✈❡♥ ✐❢ t❤❡ ♣❡rs♦♥ ❞✐❞♥✬t s♣❡♥❞ ❛♥② t✐♠❡ ❞r✐✈✐♥❣✱ t❤❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t st✐❧❧

♠❛❦❡s s❡♥s❡❀ ✐t✬s ③❡r♦✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✻✳✶✹✿ ■♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❖✈❡r ❩❡r♦✲❧❡♥❣t❤ ■♥t❡r✈❛❧

❚❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ♦✈❡r ❛ ✏③❡r♦✲❧❡♥❣t❤✑ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, a]✱ ✐s ❡q✉❛❧
t♦ ③❡r♦✿
Z a
f dx = 0
a

❆♥❞ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ ❛ r❡❣✐♦♥ ♦♥❡✲♣♦✐♥t t❤✐❝❦ ✐s ③❡r♦✱ t♦♦✳

✶✳✻✳ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✿ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✻✹

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✻✳✶✺

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✳

■♥ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✱ t❤✐s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✇✐t❤ ❡q✉❛❧ ❜♦✉♥❞s ❤❛s ❛ ❝❧❡❛r❡r ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣✿

Z
f dx = 0
{a}

❚❤❡ ♦r✐❡♥t❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ❛r❡ ❛❧s♦ ✐♥❝❧✉❞❡❞✳

❲❡ ♦♥❝❡ ❛❣❛✐♥ ✉t✐❧✐③❡ t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ ♦r✐❡♥t❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ❛♥❞ ♦r✐❡♥t❡❞ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡s✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✻✳✶✻✿ ■♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❖✈❡r ◆❡❣❛t✐✈❡❧② ❖r✐❡♥t❡❞ ■♥t❡r✈❛❧

❚❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ♦✈❡r ❛ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡❧② ♦r✐❡♥t❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [b, a], b >
a ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦✈❡r [a, b]✿

Z a Z b
f dx = − f dx
b a

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✻✳✶✼

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✳

■♥ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✱ t❤✐s ✏✢✐♣♣✐♥❣✑ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜♦✉♥❞s ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❤❛s ❛ ♠♦r❡ ♣r❡❝✐s❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣✳ ❲❡
t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡❧② ♦r✐❡♥t❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❛s t❤❡ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧✿

[b, a] = −[a, b] .
❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ t❛❦❡s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❢♦r♠✿

Z Z
f dx = − f dx
−[a,b] [a,b]

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✻✳✶✽✿ ❛r❡❛ ✈s✳ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧

❚❤✉s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❡①♣❧❛✐♥❡❞ t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ ❛ ❝✉r✈❡❞ r❡❣✐♦♥✿ ■t ✐s ❛♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✳ ❈♦♥✈❡rs❡❧②✱ ✐s
t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❛♥ ❛r❡❛❄ ❨❡s✱ ✐♥ ❛ s❡♥s❡✳ ■t ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥ t❤❡ ✉♥✐ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ✇❤❡♥
❜♦t❤ x ❛♥❞ y ❛r❡ ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ❢❡❡t✱ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✐s ✐♥❞❡❡❞ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✐♥ t❤❡ ✉s✉❛❧ s❡♥s❡❀ ✐t ✐s ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥
sq✉❛r❡ ❢❡❡t✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✇❤❛t ✐❢ x ❛♥❞ y ❛r❡ s♦♠❡t❤✐♥❣ ❡❧s❡❄ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛❧r❡❛❞② s❡❡♥ t❤❛t x ♠❛② ❜❡ t✐♠❡
❛♥❞ y t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②❀ t❤❡② ❛r❡ ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ s❡❝♦♥❞s ❛♥❞ ❢❡❡t ♣❡r s❡❝♦♥❞ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧
✐s ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ s❡❝♦♥❞s · ❢❡❡t ♣❡r s❡❝♦♥❞✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ ❢❡❡t✳ ❚❤❛t ❝❛♥✬t ❜❡ ❛r❡❛✳✳✳ ■♥ ❢❛❝t✱ ❜♦t❤ x ❛♥❞ y ♠❛② ❜❡
q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s ♦❢ ❛r❜✐tr❛r② ♥❛t✉r❡❀ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✉♥✐ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♠✐❣❤t ❜❡✿ ♣♦✉♥❞ · ❞❡❣r❡❡✱ ♠❛♥✲❤♦✉r✱ ❡t❝✳
❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✐s ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡❞ ❛s ✏t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ✈❛❧✉❡✑ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳

❍❡r❡ ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠♠❛r② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡✈❡❧♦♣♠❡♥t ♦❢ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ✉♣ t♦ t❤✐s ♣♦✐♥t✿

✶✳✼✳ Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✻✺

❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ■♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s

f ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s g ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s

✶✳ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡✱ ∆f ✶✳ s✉♠✱ Σg

❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s

∆f (ck ) = f (xk ) − f (xk−1 ) Σg (xk ) = g(c1 ) + ... + g(ck )

❞✐✈✐❞❡ ❜② ∆x ∆x ✐s ❢❛❝t♦r❡❞ ✐♥ ❡❛❝❤ t❡r♠

∆f
✷✳ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✱ ✷✳ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠✱ Σg · ∆x
∆x
❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s
∆f f (xk − f (xk−1 )
(ck ) = Σg · ∆x (xk ) = g(c1 )∆x + ... + g(ck )∆x
∆x ∆x

∆x → 0 ∆x → 0
Z
df
✸✳ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✱ ✸✳ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✱ g dx
dx
❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧

❚❤❡ t✇♦ ❝♦❧✉♠♥s ❛r❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝t❡❞ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t❧②✳ ❘♦✇s ✶ ❛♥❞ ✷ ❛r❡ ❧✐♥❦❡❞ t♦❣❡t❤❡r ❜② t❤❡ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ ✈❡rs✐♦♥
♦❢ t❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s✳ ❘♦✇ ✸ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ❧✐♥❦❡❞ t♦❣❡t❤❡r ❜② ✐ts ✜♥❛❧ ✈❡rs✐♦♥✳

✶✳✼✳ Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡✲

❣r❛❧s

❲❡ ❣♦ ❜❛❝❦ t♦ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥s ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❝♦♥✜r♠ t❤❛t ♦✉r t❤❡♦r② ♠❛❦❡s s❡♥s❡ ❜② ♠❛t❝❤✐♥❣ t❤❡ ♣❡r❝❡✐✈❡❞
✐❞❡❛s ♦❢ ❤♦✇ t❤❡s❡ ❝♦♥❝❡♣ts ❛r❡ s✉♣♣♦s❡❞ t♦ ♦♣❡r❛t❡ ✐♥ r❡❛❧ ✕ t❤♦✉❣❤ ✐❞❡❛❧✐③❡❞ ✕ ❧✐❢❡✳ ❚❤❡ ♠❛✐♥ ❛r❡❛s ❛r❡✱
❛s ❜❡❢♦r❡✱ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❣❡♦♠❡tr②✳
❚❤❡ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ❝♦♠❡ ❢r♦♠ ♣✉r❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✳ ❲❤❛t✬s ❧❡❢t✱ t❤❡♥✱ ✐s t♦ ♠❛❦❡ s✉r❡ t❤❛t t❤♦s❡
r❡❧❛t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ♣r❡s❡r✈❡❞ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t t♦ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ t❤❡ ♠❛t❝❤✐♥❣ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s✳
❚❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❢♦❧❧♦✇s t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠✱ ❡✈❡r② t✐♠❡✿

❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ✐s✿

Σf · ∆x = f (c1 ) ∆x1 + f (c2 ) ∆x2 + ... + f (cn ) ∆xn ,

✶✳✼✳ Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✻✻

✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts

a = x0 ≤ c1 ≤ x1 ≤ c2 ≤ x2 ≤ ... ≤ cn ≤ xn = b
♠❛❦❡ ✉♣ ❛♥ ❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ [a, b]✳
❚❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ r❡♠❛✐♥s ❥✉st ❛ s✉♠✳ ❲❡✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ❝❛♥ ✉s❡ s♦♠❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❡r② ❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛r② ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ❢❛❝ts✳
❲❤✐❧❡ ❛❞❞✐♥❣✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ r❡✲❣r♦✉♣ t❤❡ t❡r♠s ❢r❡❡❧②❀ ✐♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ r❡♠♦✈❡ t❤❡ ♣❛r❡♥t❤❡s❡s✿

(a + b) + c = a + (b + c) = a + b + c .

❋♦r s✉♠s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

(u1 + u2 + ... + un ) + (v1 + v2 + ... + vm ) = u1 + u2 + ... + un + v1 + v2 + ... + vm .

❚❤❡ st❛t❡♠❡♥t ✐s ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t ✇❤❡♥ ❛❞❞✐♥❣✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ t❤❡ ♦r❞❡r ♦❢ t❡r♠s ❢r❡❡❧②❀ t❤✐s ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞
t❤❡ ❆ss♦❝✐❛t✐✈✐t② Pr♦♣❡rt② ♦❢ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ❛❧s♦ t❤❡ ❆❞❞✐t✐✈✐t② ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❙✉♠s ✭s❡❡♥ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r
✶P❈✲✶✮✳

◆♦t ♠✉❝❤ t♦ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✇❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ s✉♠s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✳ ■❢ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥s ♦❢
t✇♦ ❛❞❥❛❝❡♥t ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❥✉st ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡ t♦ ❛❞❞ t❡r♠s✱ t❤✉s ❝r❡❛t✐♥❣ ❛ ✏❧♦♥❣❡r✑ s✉♠✿

❖r ✇❡ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❛s ❛r❡❛s✳

❚❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ✐s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✼✳✶✿ ❆❞❞✐t✐✈✐t② ♦❢ ❙✉♠s

❚❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉♠s ♦✈❡r t✇♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡ ♣❛rts ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦✈❡r

t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ❢♦r ❛♥② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❛♥❞ ❢♦r ❛♥② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❛♥❞ ❢♦r ❛♥② ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥s

♦❢ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s [a, b] ❛♥❞ [b, c]✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

  
Σg [a,b] + Σg [b,c] = Σg [a,c]

❲❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡s❡ s✉♠s ❛r❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s❄ ◆♦t ♠✉❝❤ ❝❤❛♥❣❡s✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✼✳✷✿ ❆❞❞✐t✐✈✐t② ♦❢ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ❙✉♠s

❚❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ♦✈❡r t✇♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡ ♣❛rts ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✐s t❤❡

❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦✈❡r t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ❢♦r ❛♥② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❛♥❞ ❢♦r ❛♥② ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s [a, b] ❛♥❞

[b, c]✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

  
Σf · ∆x[a,b] + Σf · ∆x[b,c] = Σf ∆x[a,c]
✶✳✼✳ Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✻✼

Pr♦♦❢✳

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥s✱ P ❛♥❞ Q✱ ❛r❡ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜②✿

P : a = x0 ≤ c1 ≤ x1 ≤ c2 ≤ x2 ≤ ... ≤ cn ≤ xn = b

Q: b = y0 ≤ d1 ≤ y1 ≤ d2 ≤ y2 ≤ ... ≤ dm ≤ xm = c
❲❡ r❡♥❛♠❡ t❤❡ ✐t❡♠s ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ❧✐st ❛♥❞ ❢♦r♠ ❛♥ ❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ [a, c]✿

P ∪ Q : a = x0 ≤ c1 ≤ x1 ≤ c2 ≤ ... ≤ cn ≤ xn ≤ cn+1 ≤ xn+1 ≤ cn+2 ≤ xn+2 ≤ ... ≤ cn+m ≤ xn+m = c

❆♣♣❧②✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ t♦ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s [a, b] ❛♥❞ [b, c] ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ t♦ [a, c]✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
 
Σf · ∆x[a,b] + Σf · ∆x[b,c] = (f (c1 ) + f (c2 ) + ... + f (cn ))

+ (f (cn+1 ) + f (cn+2 ) + ... + f (cn+m ))


= Σf ∆x[a,c] .

❚♦ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♠❡t❛♣❤♦r✱ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❡ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ③♦♦♠❡❞ ♦✉t ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣✐❝t✉r❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✿

❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s ❡q✉❛❧❧② ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛❜❧❡ t♦ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s❀ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐♥ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛❞❞s t❤❡ ❛r❡❛s ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦
❛❞❥❛❝❡♥t r❡❣✐♦♥s✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✼✳✸✿ ❆❞❞✐t✐✈✐t② ♦❢ ■♥t❡❣r❛❧

❚❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ♦✈❡r t✇♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡ ♣❛rts ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧

♦✈❡r t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ❢♦r ❛♥② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ♦✈❡r [a, b] ❛♥❞ ♦✈❡r [b, c] ✐s ❛❧s♦

✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ [a, c]✱ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

Z b Z c Z c
f dx + f dx = f dx
a b a

Pr♦♦❢✳

❚❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜✐❧✐t② ❢♦❧❧♦✇s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧❛st t❤❡♦r❡♠ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥✳ ❚♦ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✱ ✇❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤
t❤✐s ❢❛❝t ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ♠❡s❤ ♦❢ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥s✿

|P ∪ Q| = max{|P |, |Q|} .
✶✳✼✳ Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✻✽

❖♥❝❡ ✇❡ ♠♦✈❡ t♦ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥s✱ t❤✐s ❢❛❝t ✐♠♣❧✐❡s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

|Pk ∪ Qk | → 0 ⇐⇒ |Pk | → 0 ❛♥❞ |Qk | → 0 .

◆❡①t✱ ✇❡ t❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐♥ ♣❛rt ✭❆✮✱ t❤❡ ❆❞❞✐t✐✈✐t② ♦❢ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✱ t❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ✇✐t❤ k→∞
❛♥❞ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ▲✐♠✐ts ❢r♦♠ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷❉❈✲✶✳
❆s ②♦✉ ❝❛♥ s❡❡✱ t❤❡ ✇♦r❞ ✏❛❞❞✐t✐✈✐t②✑ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♥❛♠❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❞♦❡s♥✬t r❡❢❡r t♦ ❛❞❞✐♥❣ t❤❡ t❡r♠s ♦❢
t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ❜✉t t♦ ❛❞❞✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥s ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ ✉♥✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✳ ❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛
❜❡❝♦♠❡s ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧❧② ✈✐✈✐❞ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐s ✇r✐tt❡♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✿
Z Z Z
f dx + f dx = f dx
[a,b] [b,c] [a,b]∪[b,c]

♦r❛♥❣❡ + ❣r❡❡♥ = ❜❧✉❡

❚❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❜❡❝♦♠❡s t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✱ s✉❜❥❡❝t t♦ s♦♠❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✼✳✹

❋✐♥✐s❤ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿ Z Z

f dx + f dx = ...
[a,b] [c,d]

❋♦r t❤❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ♠❡t❛♣❤♦r✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❝♦✈❡r❡❞ ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✶st ❤♦✉r

+ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❝♦✈❡r❡❞ ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✷♥❞ ❤♦✉r

= ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❤♦✉rs

❚❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✐s ❛♥ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ❝♦r♦❧❧❛r②✳

❲❡ ❛❧s♦ ❛❝❝❡♣t ✐t ✇✐t❤♦✉t ♣r♦♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦r♦❧❧❛r② ❜❡❧♦✇✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✼✳✺✿ ■♥t❡❣r❛❜✐❧✐t② ♦❢ P✐❡❝❡✇✐s❡ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

❆❧❧ ♣✐❡❝❡✇✐s❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✭✐✳❡✳✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♦♥ ❛❧❧ ❜✉t ❛ ✜♥✐t❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢
♣♦✐♥ts ✇✐t❤ ♦♥❧② ❥✉♠♣ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t✐❡s✮ ♦♥ [a, b] ❛r❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ♦♥ [a, b]✳

Pr♦♦❢✳

■t ❢♦❧❧♦✇s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜✐❧✐t② ♦❢ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✭❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥✮ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❆❞❞✐t✐✈✐t② ❘✉❧❡✳

■♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱ ❛❧❧ st❡♣✲❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡✳ ❆❢t❡r ❛❧❧✱ t❤❡② ❡✈❡♥ ❧♦♦❦ ❧✐❦❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✿
✶✳✼✳ Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✻✾

❆s ②♦✉ ❝❛♥ s❡❡✱ t❤❡ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ❢♦❧❧♦✇ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥
s✉♠s ✕ ✈✐❛ t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ r✉❧❡s ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts✳ ❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✐❝❛❧ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ❛r❡ ❛❧s♦
t❤❡ s❛♠❡❀ ✇❡ ❥✉st ③♦♦♠ ♦✉t✳

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✲❡♥❞ s✉♠❀ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ n ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ♦❢ ❡q✉❛❧ ❧❡♥❣t❤✱

b−a
∆xi = h = ,
n
❜❡t✇❡❡♥ a ❛♥❞ b ❛♥❞ t❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✿

ci = a, a + h, ... , b − h .

❆ ♣r♦♦❢ ❢♦r ❧❡❢t✲❡♥❞ s✉♠ ❛♥❞ ♠✐❞✲♣♦✐♥ts s✉♠s ✇♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ ✈✐rt✉❛❧❧② ✐❞❡♥t✐❝❛❧✳

❇❡❧♦✇✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ r❡✈✐❡✇✐♥❣ s♦♠❡ ❢❛❝ts ❛❜♦✉t s✉♠s ♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✶ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❛♣♣❧②✐♥❣ t❤❡♠ t♦
t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ♣r♦❞✉❝✐♥❣✱ ✈✐❛ ❧✐♠✐ts✱ r❡s✉❧ts ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s✳

❈❛♥ ✇❡ ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t✇♦ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s❄ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤✐s s✐♠♣❧❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✿

u ≤ U
v ≤ V
u+v ≤ U +V

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❦❡❡♣ ❛❞❞✐♥❣ t❡r♠s✿

up ≤ Up ,

up+1 ≤ Up+1
✳ ✳ ✳
✳ ✳ ✳
✳ ✳ ✳

uq ≤ Uq

up + ... + uq ≤ Up + ... + Uq
q q
X X
un ≤ Un
n=p n=p

❚❤❛t✬s t❤❡ ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❙✉♠s ✭s❡❡♥ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✶✮✳
❋♦r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦✈❡r ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥s✱ ✐❢ ♦♥❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✏❞♦♠✐♥❛t❡s✑ ❛♥♦t❤❡r✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ❞♦❡s ✐ts s✉♠✱ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥
s✉♠✱ ❛♥❞ ❧❛t❡r t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✿
✶✳✼✳ Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✼✵

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✼✳✻✿ ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❙✉♠s

❚❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ ❛ s♠❛❧❧❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s s♠❛❧❧❡r✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✐❢ f ❛♥❞ g ❛r❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ t❤❡♥ ❢♦r ❛♥② ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧

[a, b]✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

f (x) ≥ g(x) ♦♥ [a, b] =⇒ Σf ≥ Σg

✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡ s✉♠♠❛t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ♦✈❡r ❛♥ ❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ [a, b]✳

❲❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡s❡ s✉♠s ❛r❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s❄

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✼✳✼✿ ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ❙✉♠s

❚❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦❢ ❛ s♠❛❧❧❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s s♠❛❧❧❡r✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✐❢ f ❛♥❞ g ❛r❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ t❤❡♥ ❢♦r ❛♥② ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧

[a, b]✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

f (x) ≥ g(x) ♦♥ [a, b] =⇒ Σf · ∆x ≥ Σg · ∆x

✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡ s✉♠♠❛t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ♦✈❡r ❛♥ ❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ [a, b]✳

Pr♦♦❢✳

❆♣♣❧②✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ t♦ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ t♦ g ✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

Σf · ∆x (b) = f (a) + f (a + h) + f (a + 2h) + ... + f (b − h)

≥ g(a) + g(a + h) + g(a + 2h) + ... + g(b − h)
= Σg · ∆x (b) .

■❢ ✇❡ ③♦♦♠ ♦✉t✱ ✇❡ s❡❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛❧✇❛②s ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s ❛ ❧❛r❣❡r ❛r❡❛ ✉♥❞❡r ✐ts ❣r❛♣❤✿
✶✳✼✳ Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✼✶

❙♦✱ ✇❡ t❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤✐s ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t② ❛s ∆x → 0✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✼✳✽✿ ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ■♥t❡❣r❛❧s

❚❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ ❛ s♠❛❧❧❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s s♠❛❧❧❡r✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✐❢ f ❛♥❞ g ❛r❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ t❤❡♥ ❢♦r ❛♥② a, b ✇✐t❤ a < b✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

Z b Z b
f (x) ≥ g(x) ♦♥ [a, b] =⇒ f dx ≥ g dx
a a

♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞ f ❛♥❞ g ❛r❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ♦✈❡r [a, b]✳

Pr♦♦❢✳

◆♦✇ t❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ✇✐t❤ n → ∞ ❛♥❞ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ▲✐♠✐ts ❢r♦♠ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷❉❈✲✶✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✼✳✾✿ ❝♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ♦❢ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s

❯♥❢♦rt✉♥❛t❡❧②✱ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✇✐❧❧ ♠❛t❝❤ ♦✉r ✐♥t✉✐t✐♦♥ ♦♥❧② ❢♦r ❛s
❧♦♥❣ ❛s t❤❡ ❛r❡❛s ❛r❡ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡✳ ❚❤❡ r❡❛s♦♥ ✐s t❤❛t ✇❡ ♠❡❛s✉r❡ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s t♦ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✳
❚❤❛t ✐s ✇❤② ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡✱ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛s ❛r❡ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ t♦♦✳ ❚❤❡ ❝♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ t❤❡♥ ❛♣♣❡❛rs
t♦ ❜❡ ✇r♦♥❣✿

❇✉t t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❤❛s♥✬t ❜❡❡♥ ✢✐♣♣❡❞✦

❚❤❡r❡ ♠❛② ❜❡ ❛ s✐♠✐❧❛r ❝♦♥✢✐❝t ❢♦r t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤✐s r❡s✉❧t ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ ♠♦t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤✐s s✐♠♣❧❡
✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛t✐♦♥ ❢❛✐❧s ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ✐t ❞♦❡s♥✬t t❛❦❡ ✐♥t♦ ❛❝❝♦✉♥t t❤❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥s✿ ❚❤❡ ❢❛st❡r ❝♦✈❡rs t❤❡ ❧♦♥❣❡r
❞✐st❛♥❝❡✳ ❇❡tt❡r st✐❧❧✿ ❚❤❡ ❢❛st❡r ②♦✉ ❣♦ ✐♥ ❛ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡ ❢❛rt❤❡r ②♦✉ ♣r♦❣r❡ss✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✼✳✶✵

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ r❡st ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✳

✶✳✼✳ Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✼✷

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✼✳✶✶

▼♦❞✐❢② t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ❢♦r✿ ✭❛✮ ❧❡❢t✲❡♥❞✱ ✭❜✮ ♠✐❞✲♣♦✐♥t✱ ❛♥❞ ✭❝✮ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✼✳✶✷

❲❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s ✇❤❡♥ a > b❄

❘❡❧❛t❡❞ r❡s✉❧ts ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✼✳✶✸✿ ❙tr✐❝t ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❙✉♠s

❚❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ ❛ str✐❝t❧② s♠❛❧❧❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s str✐❝t❧② s♠❛❧❧❡r✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✐❢ f ❛♥❞ g ❛r❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ t❤❡♥ ❢♦r ❛♥② ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧

[a, b] ✇✐t❤ a < b✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

f (x) < g(x) ♦♥ [a, b] =⇒ Σf < Σg

✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡ s✉♠♠❛t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ♦✈❡r ❛♥ ❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ [a, b]✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✼✳✶✹✿ ❙tr✐❝t ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ❙✉♠s

❚❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦❢ ❛ str✐❝t❧② s♠❛❧❧❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s str✐❝t❧② s♠❛❧❧❡r✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✐❢ f ❛♥❞ g ❛r❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ t❤❡♥ ❢♦r ❛♥② ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧

[a, b] ✇✐t❤ a < b✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

f (x) < g(x) ♦♥ [a, b] =⇒ Σf · ∆x < Σg · ∆x

✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡ s✉♠♠❛t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ♦✈❡r ❛♥ ❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ [a, b]✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✼✳✶✺

❙t❛t❡ ❛♥❞ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❙tr✐❝t ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s✳ ❍✐♥t✿ ❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ❙tr✐❝t ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❘✉❧❡
❢♦r ❧✐♠✐ts✳

❲❤❛t ✐❢ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ♦♥❧② ❛ ♣r✐♦r✐ ❜♦✉♥❞s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥❄ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ r❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❧✐❡s ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡
✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [m, M ]✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✐ts ❣r❛♣❤ ❧✐❡s ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❧✐♥❡s y = m ❛♥❞ y = M ✱ ✇✐t❤ m < M ✳

❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❤❛t ❝❛♥ ✇❡ s❛② ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦❢ f ❄ ❲❡ ✇♦✉❧❞ ❧✐❦❡ t♦ ✜♥❞ ❛♥ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡
♦r❛♥❣❡ r❡❣✐♦♥ ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ a✱ b✱ m✱ M ✳ ❇❡❧♦✇✱ t❤❡ ②❡❧❧♦✇ r❡❣✐♦♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t ✐s ❧❡ss t❤❛♥ t❤❡ ♦r❛♥❣❡ ❛r❡❛✳ ❖♥
t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✱ t❤❡ ❣r❡❡♥ ❛r❡❛ ✐s ❧❛r❣❡r✳
❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ r❡❣✐♦♥s ❛r❡ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡✐r ❛r❡❛s ❛r❡ ❡❛s② t♦ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣
✐♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥s✿

t❤❡ s♠❛❧❧❡r r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡ ⊂ t❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ⊂ t❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡r r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡ .
✶✳✼✳ Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✼✸

❚❤❡② ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t✐❡s✿

t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ s♠❛❧❧❡r r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡ ≤ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ≤ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡r r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡ .

❋♦r t❤❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❝❛s❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✼✳✶✻✿ ❇♦✉♥❞s ❢♦r ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ❙✉♠s

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f ✐s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ t❤❛t ❢♦r ❛♥② ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b]✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

m ≤ f (x) ≤ M ,

❢♦r ❛❧❧ x ✇✐t❤ a ≤ x ≤ b✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

m(b − a) ≤ Σf · ∆x ≤ M (b − a)

✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡ s✉♠♠❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ♦✈❡r ❛♥ ❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ [a, b]✳

Pr♦♦❢✳

❋♦r ❡✐t❤❡r t❤✐s ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t✐❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♦♥❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♥❡①t t❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✇❡ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❘✉❧❡
❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛❜♦✈❡✳ ◆♦✇ t❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ✇✐t❤ k→∞ ❛♥❞ ✉s❡
t❤❡ ❇♦✉♥❞s ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ▲✐♠✐ts ❢r♦♠ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷❉❈✲✶✳

◆♦✇ ✇❡ t❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✼✳✶✼✿ ❇♦✉♥❞s ❢♦r ■♥t❡❣r❛❧s

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f ✐s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ t❤❛t ❢♦r ❛♥② a, b ✇✐t❤ a < b✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

m ≤ f (x) ≤ M ,

❢♦r ❛❧❧ x ✇✐t❤ a ≤ x ≤ b✳ ■❢ f ✐s ❛♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r [a, b]✱ t❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

Z b
m(b − a) ≤ f dx ≤ M (b − a)
a

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤❡ ❜♦✉♥❞s ❢♦r ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❝r❡❛t❡ ❜♦✉♥❞s ❢♦r t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✼✳✶✽

❙t❛t❡ ❛♥❞ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❙tr✐❝t ❇♦✉♥❞s ❢♦r ■♥t❡❣r❛❧s✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✼✳✶✾✿ ❛ ♣r✐♦r✐ ❡st✐♠❛t❡s

❲❡ ❦♥♦✇✱ ❛ ♣r✐♦r✐✱ t❤❛t t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ s✉❝❤ ❛ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛s sin ✭❛♥❞ cos✮ ❧✐❡ ✇✐t❤✐♥ [−1, 1]✳
❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
−1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x =⇒
Z b
−1(b − a) ≤ sin x dx ≤ 1(b − a)
a
❙♦✱ ❡✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ ❛❧❧ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❥✉st t❤❡s❡ t✇♦✱ ✈❡r② ❝r✉❞❡✱ ❡st✐♠❛t❡s✱ ✇❡ ❣✉❛r❛♥t❡❡
t❤❛t t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✇✐❧❧ ❧✐❡ ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a − b, b − a]✳
✶✳✽✳ ❚❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡❞ ✼✹

✶✳✽✳ ❚❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡❞

❙♦ ❢❛r✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❧❡❛r♥❡❞ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

◮ ❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ✉♥❞♦ t❤❡ ❡✛❡❝t ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r✳
❚❤❡ s✐♠♣❧❡ r❡❛s♦♥ ✐s t❤❛t t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥ t❤❡② ❛r❡ ❝r❡❛t❡❞ ❜② ❝❛♥❝❡❧ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r ♦♥❡ ❜② ♦♥❡✳
◆♦✇✱ s✐♥❝❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✱ ✐t st❛♥❞s t♦
r❡❛s♦♥ t❤❛t t❤❡② ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥✿
◮ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✉♥❞♦ t❤❡ ❡✛❡❝t ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r✳
❇❡❧♦✇✱ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s s❛♠♣❧❡❞ t♦ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥
✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ t♦ ❜❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡❞✿

❲✐❧❧ ✇❡ ♠❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❢✉❧❧ ❝✐r❝❧❡❄

❙♦✱ ✇❤❛t ❞♦❡s t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❞♦ ✇✐t❤ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s❄ ❙❛♠❡ ❛s ✇❤❛t t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ❞♦❡s✦
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✽✳✶✿ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s

❲❡ ❛❧r❡❛❞② ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r✱ ❢♦r t❤❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ♠❡t❛♣❤♦r✳ ■❢ y = f (x) ✐s t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛♥❞ x ✐s t❤❡ t✐♠❡✱
t❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
• ❖♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✐s t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ F (x)✳
Zb
• ❚❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t ❞✉r✐♥❣ [a, b]✱ f dx✳
a
■❢ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❛t ❛❧❧ t✐♠❡s✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❝❡rt❛✐♥❧② ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t ❛t ❛♥② ♠♦♠❡♥t✿
F (b) − F (a)
|{z} | {z }
❝✉rr❡♥t ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥

Zx
❈♦♥✈❡rs❡❧②✱ t❤❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t ✐s ❢♦✉♥❞ ❢♦r ❛♥② x > a ❛s f dx✳ ❆❢t❡r ❛❧❧✱ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❛r❡ ❛ttr✐❜✉t❡s ♦❢ t❤❡
a
s❛♠❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥✱ ♥♦ ♠❛tt❡r ❤♦✇ t❤❡② ❛r❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞❀ t❤❡② ❝♦✲❡①✐st✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✽✳✷✿ ❛r❡❛s ❛♥❞ t❛♥❣❡♥ts

◆♦✇✱ ✇❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♠❡t❛♣❤♦r❄ ■t✬s ♥♦t tr❛♥s♣❛r❡♥t✳

✶✳✽✳ ❚❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡❞ ✼✺

❆♥❛❧♦❣♦✉s t♦ ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❞✐❞ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠✱ ✇❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ f t♦ ❜❡✿
✈❛r✐❡s
z}|{
Zx
A(x) = f (t) dt = ❛r❡❛ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦✈❡r [a, x] .
a

❚❤✐s ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❤❛s ❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ✉♣♣❡r ❜♦✉♥❞ ✳ ■t✬s ❛❧s♦ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇✿ x r✉♥s ❢r♦♠ a t♦ b ❛♥❞
❜❡②♦♥❞✳

❲❡ ❝❛♥ s❡❡ ❤♦✇✱ ✇❤❡r❡✈❡r f ❤❛s ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s✱ ❡✈❡r② ✐♥❝r❡❛s❡ ♦❢ x > a ❛❞❞s ❛ s❧✐❝❡ t♦ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛
✭❧❡ss ✐♥ t❤❡ ♠✐❞❞❧❡✮ ❝❛✉s✐♥❣ A t♦ ✐♥❝r❡❛s❡ ✭s❧♦✇❡r ✐♥ t❤❡ ♠✐❞❞❧❡✮✳ ▼♦r❡♦✈❡r✱ ✇❤❡r❡✈❡r f ❤❛s ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡
✈❛❧✉❡s✱ t❤✐s s❧✐❝❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ❛r❡❛✱ t❤❡r❡❜② ❝❛✉s✐♥❣ A t♦ ❞❡❝r❡❛s❡✳ ❚❤❛t✬s ❛ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ♦❢ ❛♥

❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f ✦

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✱ A′ ✳ ❋✐rst✱ ✐t✬s t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡✿

❲❡ ❣♦ ❛❧❧ t❤❡ ✇❛② ❜❛❝❦ t♦ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿

A(x + h) − A(x)
A′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
Z x+h Z x 
1
= lim f dt − f dt
h→0 h a a
Z
1 x+h
= lim f dx . ❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ❆❞❞✐t✐✈✐t② ❘✉❧❡✳
h→0 h x

❚❤❡ ❧❛st ✈❛❧✉❡ ✐s ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✿

✶✳✽✳ ❚❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡❞ ✼✻

❲❡ ❛r❡ ❧❡❢t ✇✐t❤ ❛ s❧✐❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ❛❜♦✈❡ t❤❡ s❡❣♠❡♥t [x, x + h]❀ ✐t ❧♦♦❦s ❧✐❦❡ ❛ tr❛♣❡③♦✐❞ ✇❤❡♥ h ✐s
s♠❛❧❧✳ ❲❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s t♦ t❤✐s ❧✐♠✐t❄

▲❡t✬s ♠❛❦❡ h s♠❛❧❧✳ ❚❤❡ ✏tr❛♣❡③♦✐❞✑ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ t❤✐♥♥❡r ❛♥❞ t❤✐♥♥❡r ❛♥❞ ✐ts t♦♣ ❡❞❣❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❧♦♦❦ ♠♦r❡ ❛♥❞
♠♦r❡ str❛✐❣❤t✱ ❛ss✉♠✐♥❣ f ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✳ ❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ ❛ tr❛♣❡③♦✐❞ ✐s t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡
♠✐❞✲❧✐♥❡ t✐♠❡s t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

❛r❡❛ ♦❢ tr❛♣❡③♦✐❞
= ❤❡✐❣❤t ✐♥ t❤❡ ♠✐❞❞❧❡ .
✇✐❞t❤

■t ❢♦❧❧♦✇s t❤❛t ✐ts ❤❡✐❣❤t ✐s ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡❞ ❜②

R x+h
x
f dx
.
h
❚❤✐s ♦✉t❝♦♠❡ s✉❣❣❡sts t❤❛t A′ = f ✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ♣r♦✈✐♥❣ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❡①✐sts ✇♦✉❧❞ r❡q✉✐r❡ ❛ s✉❜t❧❡r
❛r❣✉♠❡♥t✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✽✳✸

❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ♣❧♦tt❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇ ❢♦r a = 1✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✽✳✹

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♣❧♦tt❡❞ ❛❜♦✈❡ ✐s t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s♦♠❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❛t
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✽✳✺

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✳

✶✳✽✳ ❚❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡❞ ✼✼

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✽✳✻

❋✐♥✐s❤ t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ❜② ✉s✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❙q✉❡❡③❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦r✿

A(x + h) − A(x)
f (x) ≤ ≤ f (x + h) .
h

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✽✳✼✿ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥✜r♠ t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r s❤❛♣❡✳ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r

f (x) = 2x .

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡✿ Z x
A(x) = 2x dx
0

= ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡ ✇✐t❤ ❜❛s❡ [0, x]

1
= ✇✐❞t❤ · ❤❡✐❣❤t
2
1
= x · 2x
2
= x2 .

❲❤❛t✬s t❤❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ f (x) = 2x ❛♥❞ A(x) = x2 ❄ ❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r✿

′
x2 = 2x ,

s♦ f ✐s ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f ✦

❚❤✐s ✐❞❡❛ ❛♣♣❧✐❡s t♦ ❛❧❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✽✳✽✿ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ■

●✐✈❡♥ ❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ♦♥ [a, b]✱ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❜②

Z x
F (x) = f dx
a

✐s ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f ♦♥ (a, b)❀ ✐✳❡✱

F′ = f .
✶✳✽✳ ❚❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡❞ ✼✽

❚❤✉s✱ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❝❛♥❝❡❧s t❤❡ ❡✛❡❝t ♦❢ t❤❡ ✭✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✲❡♥❞✮ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✿ F ′ = f ✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✽✳✾
❋✐♥❞ ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✇✐t❤ F (a) = 1✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✽✳✶✵
Z b
❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f dx✳
x

❇✉t t❤✐s ✐s ♦♥❧② ❛ ❤❛❧❢✦

◆❡①t✱ ✇❡ s❡❡ ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❝❛♥❝❡❧s ✕ ✉♣ t♦ ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ✕ t❤❡ ❡✛❡❝t ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✳✽✳✶✶✿ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ■■ ✭◆❡✇t♦♥✲

▲❡✐❜♥✐③ ❋♦r♠✉❧❛✮

❋♦r ❛♥② ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ♦♥ [a, b] ❛♥❞ ❛♥② ♦❢ ✐ts ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s F✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡

Z b
f dx = F (b) − F (a)
a

Pr♦♦❢✳
❲❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ P ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ✇✐t❤ n ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✳ ❚❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s xi , i = 0, 1, ..., n, ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❛r❜✐✲
tr❛r②❀ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❡✈❡♥ ❝❤♦♦s❡ ❡q✉❛❧ ❧❡♥❣t❤s ❢♦r t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✿ ∆xi = xi − xi−1 = (b − a)/n, i = 1, 2, ..., n✳
❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♥♦ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ②❡t❀ t❤❡✐r ❝❤♦✐❝❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ❞✐❝t❛t❡❞ ❜② F ✳

❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ci , i = 1, 2, ..., n, ✐s ❝❤♦s❡♥✿

▲❡t✬s t❛❦❡ ♦♥❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [xi−1 , xi ] ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ ▼❡❛♥ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ t♦ F ✿ ❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛ ci ✐♥ t❤❡
✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ s✉❝❤ t❤❛t
F (xi ) − F (xi−1 )
= F ′ (ci ) .
xi − xi−1
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ ❛ ♣♦✐♥t ✇✐t❤✐♥ ❡❛❝❤ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ t❤❛t ❤❛s t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ ✐ts t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡ ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ t❤❡
s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡ ♦✈❡r t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [xi−1 , xi ]✿
✶✳✽✳ ❚❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡❞ ✼✾

❲❡ ♠♦❞✐❢② t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿

F (xi ) − F (xi−1 ) = f (ci ) ∆x .
❍❡r❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
• ❚❤❡ ❧❡❢t✲❤❛♥❞ s✐❞❡ ✐s t❤❡ ♥❡t ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✭t❤❡ r✐s❡✮ ♦❢ F [xi−1 , xi ]✳
♦✈❡r t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧
• ❚❤❡ r✐❣❤t✲❤❛♥❞ s✐❞❡ ✐s t❤❡ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦❢ f ♦✈❡r [xi−1 , xi ]✳
❚❤❡ ♥❡①t st❡♣ ✐s t♦ ❡①♣r❡ss t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ♥❡t ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ F ♦✈❡r t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ❛s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥❡t
❝❤❛♥❣❡s ♦✈❡r t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✿

❲❡ ♥♦✇ ❝♦♥✈❡rt t❤♦s❡ ♥❡t ❝❤❛♥❣❡s ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿

F (b) − F (a) = F (xn ) = F (xn ) − F (xn−1 ) = f (cn ) ∆x

+F (xn−1 ) − F (xn−2 ) +f (cn−1 ) ∆x
+... +...
+F (xi+1 ) − F (xi ) +f (ci ) ∆x
+... +...
−F (x0 ) +F (x1 ) − F (x0 ) +f (c1 ) ∆x .
Z b
❚❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦❢ f✱ ❛♥❞ s✐♥❝❡ f ✐s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡✱ ✐t ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦ f dx ❛s
a
∆x → 0✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✽✳✶✷

❯s❡ t❤❡ s✐❣♠❛ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ t♦ r❡✲✇r✐t❡ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥✳

✶✳✽✳ ❚❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡❞ ✽✵

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✽✳✶✸

Pr♦✈✐❞❡ t❤❡ ❞❡t❛✐❧s ❢♦r t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ■ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡
❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ■■ ✭◆▲❋✮✿
Z x 
d d
f dx = (F (x) − F (a)) = F ′ (x) = f (x) .
dx a dx

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❙✐♥❝❡ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛♣♣❧✐❡s t♦ ❛❧❧ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✱ ✇❡

❝❛♥ ♦♠✐t ✏ +C ✑✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✽✳✶✹✿ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✉♥❞❡r y = x2 ❢r♦♠ 0 t♦ 1✿

❲❡ ❞✐❞ ❛ s✐♠✐❧❛r ♦♥❡ t❤❡ ❤❛r❞ ✇❛②✱ ✈✐❛ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ r❡q✉✐r❡❞ ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r 1 + 2 + ... + n✳

▲❡t✬s t❡st t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✳ ❲❡ ♥❡❡❞ t❤❡ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f (x) = x2 ✳ ❇② r❡❝❛❧❧✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✇❡
❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ❜❡❢♦r❡✿
(x3 )′ = 3x2 .
✭♦r ✉s✐♥❣ t❤❡ P♦✇❡r ❋♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢r♦♠ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷❉❈✲✺✮✱ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿
x3
F (x) = .
3
❚❤❡♥✱ ❜② ◆▲❋✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿ Z 1
13 03 1
x2 dx = F (1) − F (0) = − = .
0 3 3 3
❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s ♣❧❛✉s✐❜❧❡✿

❚❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ❤❛s ❛❧s♦ s❤♦✇♥ t❤❛t ✐❢ ✇❡ ✐♥❝r❡❛s❡ t❤❡ s♣❡❡❞ ❢r♦♠ 0 t♦ 1 q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝❛❧❧② ♦✈❡r t❤❡
✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ♦❢ t✐♠❡ [0, 1]✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❝♦✈❡r❡❞ ✐s 1/3✳
✶✳✽✳ ❚❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡❞ ✽✶

❚❤❡ P❛rt ■ s✉♣♣❧✐❡s ✉s ✇✐t❤ ❛ s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❝❤♦✐❝❡ ♦❢ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✕ t❤❡ ♦♥❡ t❤❛t s❛t✐s✜❡s F (a) = 0✳ ❚❤❡ r❡st✱
❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ P❛rt ■■✱ ❛r❡ ❛❝q✉✐r❡❞ ❜② ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ s❤✐❢ts✿ G = F + C ✭s❡❡♥ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✷✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷❉❈✲✹✮✳ ❚❤❡
✐❞❡❛ ✐s t❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ ❝❡✐❧✐♥❣ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✢♦♦r ♦❢ ❛ t✉♥♥❡❧ ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧ ❛t ❡✈❡r② ♣♦✐♥t✱ ✐ts ❤❡✐❣❤t ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✿

❘❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ✿ 



F (x) = F (a) .

x=a
■♥ ✐ts s♣✐r✐t✱ ✇❡ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝❡ ❛ ♥❡✇ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✲❤❛♥❞ s✐❞❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✳ ■t ✐s s✐♠♣❧② t✇♦ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥s
s✉❜tr❛❝t❡❞✿
❙✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ❞❡✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧
Z b x=b
b  
 
f dx = F (x) = F (x) = F (b) − F (a)
a  
a x=a

❆s ②♦✉ ❝❛♥ s❡❡✱ t❤❡ ❜♦✉♥❞s ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❥✉st ❥✉♠♣ ♦✈❡r ❛♥❞ ❛r❡ ❦❡♣t ❢♦r r❡❢❡r❡♥❝❡✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ ✇❡ ❝❛♥
r❡❝♦r❞ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥✿ 1
Z 1 3
x
x2 dx =  .

0 3 
0

❈♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❛r❡❛s ❜❡❝♦♠❡ ❡❛s② ✕ ❛s ❧♦♥❣ ❛s ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐♥✈♦❧✈❡❞✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✽✳✶✺✿ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t
❈♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✉♥❞❡r y = ex ❢r♦♠ 0 t♦ 1✿

❇② ◆▲❋ ✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿ 1
Z 1 
x x
e dx = e  = e1 − e0 = e − 1 .
0 
0
✶✳✽✳ ❚❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡❞ ✽✷

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✽✳✶✻✿ ❝♦s✐♥❡

❈♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✉♥❞❡r y = cos x ❢r♦♠ 0 t♦ π/2✿

❇② ◆▲❋ ✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
Z π
π
2
2 π

cos x dx = sin x = sin − sin 0 = 1 − 0 = 1 .
0  2
0

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✽✳✶✼✿ ❝✐r❝❧❡

❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ ❛ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ♦❢ r❛❞✐✉s R❄ ❊✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ ❡✈❡r②♦♥❡ ❦♥♦✇s t❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r✱ t❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ t✐♠❡ t♦
♣r♦✈❡t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✳ ❲❡ ❛❧s♦ ❣❛✈❡ ❛♥ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ ❛♥s✇❡r ❛t t❤❡ ❜❡❣✐♥♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❝❤❛♣t❡r✳

❲❡ ✜rst ♣✉t t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ❛t t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ xy ✲♣❧❛♥❡✿

■♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ✜♥❞ ✐ts ❛r❡❛✱ ✇❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ ✉♣♣❡r ❤❛❧❢ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ❛s t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢
√
f (x) = R2 − x2 , −R ≤ x ≤ R .

❚❤❡♥✱ Z
1 R √
❆r❡❛ = R2 − x2 dx .
2 −R

❲❤❛t✬s t❤❡ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥❄ ❯♥❢♦rt✉♥❛t❡❧②✱ ✇❡ ❞♦♥✬t ❦♥♦✇❀ ✐t✬s ♥♦t ♦♥ ♦✉r ✕ ✈❡r② s❤♦rt
✕ ❧✐st✳ ❲❤❡♥ t❤✐s ❤❛♣♣❡♥s✱ ✇❡ ❛❧✇❛②s ❞♦ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ t❤✐♥❣✿ ❲❡ ❣♦ t♦ t❤❡ ❜❛❝❦ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜♦♦❦ t♦ ✜♥❞ ❛ ❧♦♥❣❡r
❧✐st✳ ❚❤✐s t❛❜❧❡ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s t❤❡ r❡❧❡✈❛♥t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿
Z √
u√ 2 a2 u
a2 − u2 dx = a − u2 + sin−1 + C .
2 2 a

◆♦✇✱ ❡✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ ✇❡ ❣❡t t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢r♦♠ ❡❧s❡✇❤❡r❡✱ ♦♥❝❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ✐t✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❝❡rt❛✐♥❧②
♣r♦✈❡ ✐t ✕ ❜② ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✳ ❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❢r♦♠ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷❉❈✲✹✿

√ ′ u
′ 1
a2 − u2 = −√ ❛♥❞ sin−1 y =p .
a2 − u2 1 − y2
✶✳✽✳ ❚❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡❞ ✽✸

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

 ′
u√ 2 a2 u 1√ 2 u u a2 1
a − u2 + sin−1 = a − u2 − √ + √
2 2 a 2 2 a −u
2 2 2 a − u2
2

1√ 2 1 a2 − u2
= a − u2 + √
2 2 a2 − u2
√
= a2 − u 2 .

❈♦♥✜r♠❡❞✦

❲❡ r❡♣❧❛❝❡ a ✇✐t❤ R ❛♥❞ u ✇✐t❤ x ✐♥ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❛♥❞ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ ◆❡✇t♦♥✲▲❡✐❜♥✐③ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✿

Z R √
1
❆r❡❛ = R2 − x2 dx
2 −R R
x√ 2 R 2
x 
sin−1 

= R − x2 +
2 2 R
−R
   
R √ R 2
−1 R −R √ R 2
−1 −R
= R2 − R2 + sin − R2 − R2 + sin
2 2 R 2 2 R
2
R

= sin−1 (1) + 0 − 0 − sin−1 (−1)
2
R2
= (π/2 − (−π/2))
2
R2
=π .
2
❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❝♦♥✜r♠❡❞ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✦ ❈♦♥✈❡rs❡❧②✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛
♦❢ t❤❡ ✉♥✐t ❝✐r❝❧❡ ❛s ❛ ✇❛② t♦ ✜♥❞ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ π✳

❲❤❛t ✐❢ ✇❡ ❝❛♥✬t ✜♥❞ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐♥ q✉❡st✐♦♥❄ ❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ❛❧✇❛②s ❧❛r❣❡r ❧✐sts✱ ❜✉t
✐t✬s ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ t❤❛t ♥♦ ❜♦♦❦ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ②♦✉ ♥❡❡❞✳ ■♥ ❢❛❝t✱ ✇❡ ♠❛② ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝❡ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s
s✉❝❤ ❛s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ●❛✉ss ❡rr♦r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛s t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✿
Z
2 2
erf(x) = √ e−x dx .
π

❚❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ❛s ✐t r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts ❛ ❞✐str✐❜✉t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐t✐❡s ♦❢ s♦♠❡ ❝♦♠♠♦♥ q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s ✭❤❡✐❣❤ts✱
✇❡✐❣❤ts✱ ■◗s✱ ❡t❝✳✮ ❛r♦✉♥❞ t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡✿

❊✈❡♥ ✐❢ ✇❡ ❦❡❡♣ ❛❞❞✐♥❣ t❤❡s❡ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s t♦ t❤❡ ❧✐st ♦❢ ✏❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r✑ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ t❤❡r❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❛❧✇❛②s r❡♠❛✐♥
✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ♥♦t ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧✐st✳ ■♥ ❝♦♥tr❛st t♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✱ ❛♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ✇✐❧❧ ♦❢t❡♥ t❛❦❡ ✉s ♦✉ts✐❞❡ ♦❢ t❤❡
r❡❛❧♠ ♦❢ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛r② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✭r✐❣❤t✮✿
✶✳✾✳ ❇❛s✐❝ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✽✹

✶✳✾✳ ❇❛s✐❝ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥

❘❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❡ ♣r♦❝❡❞✉r❡ ❢♦r ❝♦♠♣✉t✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿

s❛♠♣❧✐♥❣
s❡q✉❡♥❝❡

←−−−−−−−− ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦♥ [a, b]

 
❉◗ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡
y y
s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ −−−∆x→0
−−−−−→ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦♥ [a, b]

❚❤❡ ♦♥❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❤❛s ❛ ✈❡r② s✐♠✐❧❛r r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥✿

s❛♠♣❧✐♥❣
s❡q✉❡♥❝❡

←−−−−−−−− ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦♥ [a, b]

 
❘❙ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧
y y
s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ −−−∆x→0
−−−−−→ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦♥ [a, b]

❇❡❝❛✉s❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ ♥❛t✉r❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✱ ❤♦✇❡✈❡r✱ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❜② ❢❛r ♠♦r❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡①
♦r ❡✈❡♥ ✐♠♣♦ss✐❜❧❡✳
❚❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✇✐❧❧ ❣✐✈❡ t❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r ✐❢ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❡①❡❝✉t❡ t❤❡ ❛♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ r❡q✉✐r❡❞✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✾✳✶✿ x
❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢
f (x) = x .
❲❡ r✉♥ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ✜rst✿

❚❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r ❛♣♣❡❛r t♦ ❜❡ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝✳ ❇✉t

(ax2 + bx + c)′ = 2ax + b .
✶✳✾✳ ❇❛s✐❝ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✽✺

■t ✇♦r❦s ✐❢ ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡✿ a = 1/2 ❛♥❞ b = 0✳ ❲❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡✿

Z
1
x dx = x2 + C .
2

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✾✳✷✿ x2
❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢
f (x) = x2 .
❲❡ r✉♥ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ✜rst✿

▼✐❣❤t ✐t ❜❡ ❝✉❜✐❝❄ ▲❡t✬s tr②✿

(ax3 + bx2 + cx + d)′ = 3ax2 + 2bx + c .

■t ✇♦r❦s ✐❢ ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡✿ a = 1/3✱ b = 0✱ ❛♥❞ c = 0✳ ❲❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡✿

Z
1
x2 dx = x3 + C .
3

❖❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❥✉st ✏r❡✈❡rs❡✑ t❤❡ P♦✇❡r ❋♦r♠✉❧❛✿

Z
1
xn dx = xn+1 + C
n+1

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✾✳✸✿ sin x ❛♥❞ cos x

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢
f (x) = sin x .
❲❡ r✉♥ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ✜rst✿

■t ❧♦♦❦s ❧✐❦❡ cos x + 1✳ ■♥❞❡❡❞✿

(cos x)′ = sin x .
✶✳✾✳ ❇❛s✐❝ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✽✻

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢

f (x) = cos x .
❲❡ r✉♥ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ✜rst✿

■t ❧♦♦❦s ❧✐❦❡ t❤❡ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ s✐♥❡✳ ■♥❞❡❡❞✿

(sin x)′ = cos x .

❖❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❥✉st ✏r❡✈❡rs❡✑ ❛ ❝♦✉♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s✿

Z Z
sin x dx = cos x + C cos x dx = − sin x + C

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✾✳✹✿ ex
❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢
f (x) = ex .
❲❡ r✉♥ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ✜rst✿

■t ❛❧s♦ ❧♦♦❦s ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧✳ ❲❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡✿

Z
ex dx = ex + C .

❲❡ ✏r❡✈❡rs❡✑ ❛ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✿

Z
ex dx = ex + C

▲❡t✬s r❡✈✐❡✇ t❤❡ ♠❛✐♥ ✐❞❡❛s ♦❢ ❛♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✳

✶✳✾✳ ❇❛s✐❝ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✽✼

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = g(x) ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✱ c✱ ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✳ ❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ ❛
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s✱ x✱ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ s♦ t❤❛t g ✐s ✐ts ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ✿

∆f (c) = g(c)?

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❢❛❝❡ ❛♥ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✿

❙♦❧✈❡ ❢♦r f : ∆f = g

❙♦❧✈✐♥❣ t❤✐s ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ✐s♥✬t ❤❛r❞✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ g ✐s ❦♥♦✇♥ ❜✉t f ✐s♥✬t✱ ❡①❝❡♣t ❢♦r ♦♥❡ ✭✐♥✐t✐❛❧✮ ✈❛❧✉❡✿
y0 = f (a) = f (x0 )✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

f (xk+1 ) = f (xk ) + g(ck )

❚❤✐s ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐s r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ ✿ ❲❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ ❧❛st ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ f ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ♥❡①t✳
◆♦✇✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✳ ■♥ ❝♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛♥♦t❤❡r ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥ ✕ ❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ✭❜② ∆x✮ ✕ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t❤❡
s✉❜tr❛❝t✐♦♥✿

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = v(x) ✭✇❤✐❝❤ ❝♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✮ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✱ c✱ ♦❢ ❛
♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✳ ❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = p(x) ✭✇❤✐❝❤ ❝♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✮ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s✱ x✱ ♦❢ t❤❡
♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ s♦ t❤❛t v ✐s ✐ts ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✿

∆p
(c) = v(c)?
∆x
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ✇❡ ❢❛❝❡✿

∆p
❙♦❧✈❡ ❢♦r p : =v
∆x

❲❡ ❥✉st ❢♦❧❧♦✇ ❡①❛❝t❧② t❤❡ ♣r♦❝❡ss ❛❜♦✈❡✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ v ✐s ❦♥♦✇♥ ❜✉t p ✐s♥✬t✱ ❡①❝❡♣t ❢♦r ♦♥❡
✭✐♥✐t✐❛❧✮ ✈❛❧✉❡✿ y0 = p(a) = p(x0 )✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

p(xk+1 ) = p(xk ) + v(ck )∆xk

◆♦✇✱ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✳ ❲❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿
✶✳✾✳ ❇❛s✐❝ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✽✽

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = v(x) ✭✇❤✐❝❤ ❝♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✮ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ ❛♥ ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳ ❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡
✜♥❞ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = p(x) ✭✇❤✐❝❤ ❝♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✮ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤✐s ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ s♦ t❤❛t v ✐s ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❢♦r
❡❛❝❤ x✿
dp
(x) = v(x)?
dx
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ✇❡ ❢❛❝❡✿

dp
❙♦❧✈❡ ❢♦r p: =v
dx

❚❤✐s ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ✐s♥✬t ❛s ❡❛s② t♦ s♦❧✈❡ ❛s t❤❡ ❧❛st✳ ❚❤❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✇❛s ❜✉✐❧t ❜② ❧✐♥❦✐♥❣ n
♣✐❡❝❡s t♦❣❡t❤❡r✳ ❇❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s ❛ ❧✐♠✐t✱ ✐t✬s ❛s ✐❢ ✇❡ ✇❡r❡ t♦ ❧✐♥❦ t♦❣❡t❤❡r ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧②
s♠❛❧❧ ♣✐❡❝❡s✦ ❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ s✐♠♣❧❡✱ ❡✈❡♥ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡✱ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ t❤❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ t♦ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
❝❛♥♥♦t ❜❡ ✏♠❛❞❡✑ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✇❡ ❛r❡ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r ✇✐t❤✿

dp 2
= ex .
dx

❚❤❡s❡ t❤r❡❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠s ❛r❡ s✐♠✐❧❛r t♦ t❤❛t ♦❢ ✜♥❞✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s
❛♣♣❡❛r ✐♥ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛❀ t❤❡② ❝♦♠❡ ❢r♦♠ s♦❧✈✐♥❣ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s✱ ❢♦r x✿
√
x2 = 4 =⇒ x = 2 ✈✐❛

2x = 8 =⇒ x = 3 ✈✐❛ log2 ( )
sin x = 0 =⇒ x = 0 ✈✐❛ sin−1 ( )
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❤❛t ❞♦ ✇❡ ❞♦ ✐❢ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉t ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ✇❛♥t t♦ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t❄ ■♥✐t✐❛❧❧②✱
✇❡ ❝❛♥ ♦♥❧② r❡❝♦❧❧❡❝t ❛ ♣❛st ❡①♣❡r✐❡♥❝❡ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✦ ❋♦r ❛ r❡♣❡❛t❡❞ ✉s❡✱ ✇❡ ❞❡✈❡❧♦♣ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ t❤❡
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳

❙✐♠✐❧❛r❧②✱ ✇❤❛t ❞♦ ✇❡ ❞♦ ✐❢ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ✇❛♥t t♦ ❦♥♦✇ ✇❤❡r❡ ✐t ❝❛♠❡ ❢r♦♠❄
■♥✐t✐❛❧❧②✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ♦♥❧② r❡❝♦❧❧❡❝t ❛ ♣❛st ❡①♣❡r✐❡♥❝❡ ✇✐t❤ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✿

f ′ = 2x =⇒ f = x2
f ′ = cos x =⇒ f = sin x
f ′ = ex =⇒ f = ex
❋♦r ❛ r❡♣❡❛t❡❞ ✉s❡✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❞❡✈❡❧♦♣ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳
❲❡ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡ t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ ❛♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❞✐❛❣r❛♠✿

d
x2 → → 2x
dx
 −1
d
2x → → x2
dx
✶✳✾✳ ❇❛s✐❝ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✽✾

❖❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♠♦r❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s✿

x2 + 1
ր ...
2x → x2
ց ...
x2 − 1
d
❆s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✐s♥✬t ♦♥❡✲t♦✲♦♥❡✳ ❲❡ ✉s❡ ✏❛♥✑ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♠❛♥② ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s
dx
❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳

❚❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✐s t❤❡ ❝✉❧♠✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ♦✉r st✉❞② ♦❢ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s✱ s♦ ❢❛r✳ ❚❤❡ ♠✐❧❡st♦♥❡s ♦❢ t❤✐s st✉❞②
✉♣ t♦ t❤✐s ♣♦✐♥t ❛r❡ ♦✉t❧✐♥❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❚❤❡ ❚❛♥❣❡♥t Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ❚❤❡ ❆r❡❛ Pr♦❜❧❡♠

❆♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s✿

t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠

∆F
Σf · ∆x
∆x
t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡s t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡s

♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y = F (x) ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y = f (x)

❲✐t❤ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s✱ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s✱ ❛s ∆x → 0✱ ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t❤❡ ✐♥❞❡✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧

✶✳✶✵✳ ❋r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧ ✾✵

❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠s✱ t❤❡ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❝❛♥❝❡❧ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r✿
Z
d
❋❚❈■✿ f →  dx → F →  → f
dx
Z
d
❋❚❈■■✿ F →  → f →  dx → F +C
dx

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛ tr✉❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦♥❧② ✇❤❡♥ ❛♥ ❡①tr❛

❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥✱ s✉❝❤ ❛s F (a) = 0✱ ✐s ✐♠♣♦s❡❞✳

✶✳✶✵✳ ❋r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✶✵✳✶✿ ♠♦✈✐♥❣ ❜❛❧❧

▲❡t✬s r❡✈✐❡✇ ❛♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ❢r♦♠ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✷✳ ❚❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♦❢ ❛ ❜❛❧❧ t❤r♦✇♥ ✉♣ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❛✐r ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t❧②
❝❤❛♥❣❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❣r❛✈✐t②✳ ■♠❛❣✐♥❡ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤✐s ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t❛❧ ❞❛t❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤ts ♦❢ ❛ ♣✐♥❣✲♣♦♥❣
❜❛❧❧ ❢❛❧❧✐♥❣ ❞♦✇♥ r❡❝♦r❞❡❞ ❛❜♦✉t ❡✈❡r② 0.1 s❡❝♦♥❞✱ ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ✐♥❝❤❡s✿

❲❡ ♣❧♦t t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ pn ✭r❡❞✮✳ ❲❡ t❤❡♥ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✱ vn ✭❣r❡❡♥✮✿

❲❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥✱ an ✭❜❧✉❡✮✱ t♦♦✳ ■t ❛♣♣❡❛rs ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳

▲❡t✬s ❛❝❝❡♣t t❤❡ ♣r❡♠✐s❡ ✇❡✬✈❡ ♣✉t ❢♦r✇❛r❞✿

✶✳✶✵✳ ❋r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧ ✾✶

◮ ✳
❚❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❢r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧ ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t

❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ tr② t♦ ♣r❡❞✐❝t t❤❡ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ♦❢ ❛♥ ♦❜❥❡❝t t❤r♦✇♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❛✐r ✕ ❢r♦♠ ❛♥② ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❤❡✐❣❤t ❛♥❞ ✇✐t❤
❛♥② ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✿
◮ ❲❡ ✉s❡ ♦✉r ❦♥♦✇❧❡❞❣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ t♦ ❞❡r✐✈❡ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❞❡r✐✈❡ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥
♦❢ t❤❡ ♦❜❥❡❝t ✐♥ t✐♠❡✳
❲❡ ♣❧♦t t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❛❣❛✐♥st t✐♠❡✿

❲❡ ✉s❡❞ t❤❡s❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥
❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✿
❉◗ ∆p pn+1 − pn ❉◗ ∆v vn+1 − vn
pn −−−−−→ vn = = −−−−−→ an = =
∆t h ∆t h
❍❡r❡ h ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ t✐♠❡✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ♦♥
t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s✱ ♦❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ ✐❞❡♥t✐❝❛❧✳
❚♦ ❝r❡❛t❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❢♦r ❛ s✐♠✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❢r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧✱ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐♦♥ ❣♦❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ ♦♣♣♦s✐t❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✿
• t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥
• t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥✳
❚❤❡ t✇♦ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❛❜♦✈❡ ❛r❡ s♦❧✈❡❞ ❛s ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ❢♦r pn+1 ❛♥❞ vn+1 r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✿
pn+1 − pn
vn = =⇒ pn+1 = pn + hvn
h
vn+1 − vn
an = =⇒ vn+1 = vn + han
h
❚❤❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♦♥ t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s✱ ♦❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ ✐❞❡♥t✐❝❛❧✳

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❯♥❧✐❦❡ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r✱ t❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✶✵✳✷✿ ❢r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧

◮ Pr♦❜❧❡♠✿ ❋r♦♠ ❛ 100✲❢♦♦t ❜✉✐❧❞✐♥❣✱ ❛ ❜❛❧❧ ✐s t❤r♦✇♥ ✉♣ ❛t 50 ❢❡❡t ♣❡r s❡❝♦♥❞ ✐♥ s✉❝❤ ❛
✇❛② t❤❛t ✐t ❢❛❧❧s ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r♦✉♥❞✳ ❍♦✇ ❤✐❣❤ ✇✐❧❧ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❧ ❣♦❄
❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛♥❞ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✿

❂❘❬✲✶❪❈✰❘❬✲✶❪❈❬✲✶❪✯❘✷❈✶

◆♦✇ ✐♥ t❤❡ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ❢r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❥✉st ♦♥❡ ❢♦r❝❡✱ t❤❡ ❣r❛✈✐t②✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ✐s
❦♥♦✇♥ ✭❢r♦♠ ❛ ♣❤②s✐❝s t❡①t❜♦♦❦✮ t♦ ❜❡ a = −g ✱ ✇❤❡r❡ g ✐s t❤❡ ❣r❛✈✐t❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❝♦♥st❛♥t✿

g = 32 ❢t/s❡❝2 .
✶✳✶✵✳ ❋r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧ ✾✷

◆❡①t✱ ✇❡ ❛❝q✉✐r❡ t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s✿

• ❚❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜②✿ p0 = 100✳
• ❚❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜②✿ v0 = 50✳
❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s t♦ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❡✈❡r② h = 0.20 s❡❝♦♥❞✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ❧♦♦❦ ❧✐❦❡✿

❇② s✐♠♣❧② ❡①❛♠✐♥✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❞❛t❛✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ s♦❧✈❡ ✈❛r✐♦✉s ♣r♦❜❧❡♠s ❛❜♦✉t t❤✐s ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t✿
✶✳ ❚♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❤✐❣❤❡st ❡❧❡✈❛t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ r♦✇ ✇✐t❤ p✳ ❚❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡st ✈❛❧✉❡ s❡❡♠s t♦ ❜❡ ❝❧♦s❡ t♦
y = 144 ❢❡❡t✳
✷✳ ❚♦ ✜♥❞ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❧ ❤✐ts t❤❡ ❣r♦✉♥❞✱ ✇❡ s❝r♦❧❧ ❞♦✇♥ t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ r♦✇ ✇✐t❤ p ❝❧♦s❡ t♦ 0✳ ■t
❤❛♣♣❡♥s s♦♠❡t✐♠❡ ❝❧♦s❡ t♦ t = 4.7 s❡❝♦♥❞s✳
✸✳ ❚♦ ✜♥❞ ❤♦✇ ❢❛st t❤❡ ❜❛❧❧ ❤✐ts t❤❡ ❣r♦✉♥❞✱ ✇❡ s❝r♦❧❧ ❞♦✇♥ ❛❣❛✐♥ t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ r♦✇ ✇✐t❤ p ❝❧♦s❡ t♦ 0
❛♥❞ ❧♦♦❦ ✉♣ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ v ✳ ■t ✐s ❝❧♦s❡ t♦ v = 200 ❢❡❡t ♣❡r s❡❝♦♥❞✳
❖❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❞❡❝r❡❛s❡ t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t h = ∆x ❛♥❞ ❣❡t ♠♦r❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛t❡ ❛♥s✇❡rs✳

❲✐t❤ ♦✉r ❢r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❛s❦ ❛♥❞ ❛♥s✇❡r ❛ ✈❛r✐❡t② ♦❢ ♦t❤❡r q✉❡st✐♦♥s ❛❜♦✉t s✉❝❤ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ✭❤♦✇
❤❛r❞ ✐t ❤✐ts t❤❡ ❣r♦✉♥❞✱ ❡t❝✳✮✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ♦♥❧② ❞♦ ♦♥❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ❛t ❛ t✐♠❡✦ ❚❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥s ✇❡ ❞r❛✇
❛r❡ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ t♦ t❤❡s❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s✳ ❚❤❡② ❛r❡ ❛❧s♦ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ t♦ t❤❡ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛✈✐t②✱ ❛♥❞ ✇♦✉❧❞ ❜❡
❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ♦♥ ▼❛rs✳ ❆♥❞ s♦ ♦♥✳
❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧ts ❛r❡ ❛❧s♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ♦♥ ♦✉r ❝❤♦✐❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t h = ∆x✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ✇❤② ✇❡ ♥♦✇ ♣r♦❝❡❡❞ t♦ t❤❡
❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❝❛s❡ ❛♥❞ t❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t✿
h = ∆x → 0 .

❚❤✐s t✐♠❡✱ ✐♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t✐♠❡ ✿

✶✳ p ✐s t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t✱ t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✳
✷✳ v ✐s t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✳
✸✳ a ✐s t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥✳
❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ✜rst✿
v = p′ , a = v ′ ,
✶✳✶✵✳ ❋r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧ ✾✸

❛♥❞✱ ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣❧②✱ Z Z
p= v dx, v = a dx .

◆♦✇ t❤❡ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ❢r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧✿

a = −g .

❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t✿
✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ✐s ❧✐♥❡❛r✳
✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳
❆♥❞✱ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡❧②✿
✶✳ ❚❤❡ ♦♥❧② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ❧✐♥❡❛r ✐s ❛ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧✳
✷✳ ❚❤❡ ♦♥❧② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t ✐s ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧✳
❋r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r t✇♦✱ ✇❡ ❞❡r✐✈❡✿
a = a(t) ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t =⇒ v = v(t) ✐s ❧✐♥❡❛r =⇒ p = p(t) ✐s q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝✳
▼♦r❡ ♣r❡❝✐s❡❧②✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
1. p(t) = At2 + Bt + C
2. v(t) = p′ (t) = 2At + B
3. a(t) = v ′ (t) = 2A

❲❤❛t ♠❛❦❡s t❤❡s❡ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts✱ A✱ B ✱ ❛♥❞ C ✱ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ❛r❡ t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥✿
✶✳ p0 ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❤❡✐❣❤t✱ p0 = p(0)✳
✷✳ v0 ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t ♦❢ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✱ v0 = v(0)✳
✸✳ −g ✐s t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥✱ −g = a(t)✳
❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ t❤✐r❞ ✐t❡♠✿ g
2A = −g =⇒ A = − .
2
❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ✐t❡♠✿ 

2At + B  = B = v0 .
t=0

❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ✜rst ✐t❡♠✿ 

At2 + Bt + C 

= C = p0 .
t=0

❚❤❡♥✱ ♦✉r ♠♦❞❡❧ ♦❢ ♠♦t✐♦♥ t❛❦❡s ✐ts ✜♥❛❧ ❢♦r♠✿

1
1. p(t) = p0 +v0 t − gt2
2
2. v(t) = v0 −gt
3. a(t) = −g

❚❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ✐s s♦❧✈❡❞ ✇✐t❤ ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝②✦

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶✳✶✵✳✸✿ ❢r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧

◮ Pr♦❜❧❡♠✿ ❋r♦♠ ❛ 100✲❢♦♦t ❜✉✐❧❞✐♥❣✱ ❛ ❜❛❧❧ ✐s t❤r♦✇♥ ✉♣ ❛t 50 ❢❡❡t ♣❡r s❡❝♦♥❞ ✐♥ s✉❝❤ ❛
✇❛② t❤❛t ✐t ❢❛❧❧s ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r♦✉♥❞✳ ❍♦✇ ❤✐❣❤ ✇✐❧❧ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❧ ❣♦❄
✶✳✶✵✳ ❋r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧ ✾✹

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
p0 = 100, v0 = 50 .
❖✉r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡❝♦♠❡s✿
p = 100 +50t −16t2 .
■♥ ❝♦♥tr❛st t♦ t❤❡ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ ❝❛s❡✱ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✐s♥✬t r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ ❜✉t ❞✐r❡❝t ❛♥❞ ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t✦

❇❡❢♦r❡ ✇❡ ✉t✐❧✐③❡ t❤❡ ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧ts ❜② ♣❧♦tt✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤
♦❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♥❡①t t♦ t❤❡ ♦♥❡ ♦❜t❛✐♥❡❞ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡❧②✿

❚❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ✐s ❛ s❛♠♣❧✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡①❛❝t s♦❧✉t✐♦♥✳

❏✉st ❛s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ✉s❡ t❤✐s ♣❧♦t t♦ s♦❧✈❡ ❛ ✈❛r✐❡t② ♦❢ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠s ❛❜♦✉t t❤✐s ♠♦t✐♦♥✳
▲❡t✬s r❡✈✐s✐t t❤❡ t✇♦ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠s ❛❜♦✉t t❤✐s s♣❡❝✐✜❝ t❤r♦✇ ✇❡ s♦❧✈❡❞ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧❧②✳ ❚❤❡② ❛r❡ s♦❧✈❡❞ t❤❡
s❛♠❡ ✇❛②✿
✶✳ ❚♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❤✐❣❤❡st ❡❧❡✈❛t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ r♦✇ ✇✐t❤ p✳ ❚❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡st ✈❛❧✉❡ s❡❡♠s t♦ ❜❡ ❝❧♦s❡ t♦
y = 139 ❢❡❡t✳
✷✳ ❚♦ ✜♥❞ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❧ ❤✐ts t❤❡ ❣r♦✉♥❞✱ ✇❡ s❝r♦❧❧ ❞♦✇♥ t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ r♦✇ ✇✐t❤ p ❝❧♦s❡ t♦ 0✳ ■t
❤❛♣♣❡♥s s♦♠❡t✐♠❡ ❝❧♦s❡ t♦ t = 4.5 s❡❝♦♥❞s✳
❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s ❛s t❤❡② ❝♦♠❡ ❢r♦♠ ❛ s❛♠♣❧❡❞ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✱ ❤♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ❣✐✈❡s
✉s ❛ ✇❛② t♦ ❛♥s✇❡r t❤❡ q✉❡st✐♦♥s ✇✐t❤ ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝②✳ ❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❡✈❡♥ ❛✈♦✐❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✳

❋♦r t❤❡ ✜rst ♣r♦❜❧❡♠✱ ✇❡ r❡❛❧✐③❡ t❤❛t p = −16t2 + 50t + 100 ✐s ❛ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛✦ ❆♥❞ t❤❡ ✈❡rt❡① ♦❢
y = ax2 + bx + c ✐s ❛t x = −b/a ✭❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✹✮✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❤✐❣❤❡st ♣♦✐♥t ✐s r❡❛❝❤❡❞
❛t t✐♠❡
t = −50/(−2 · 16) = 1.5625 .
❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ ❤✐❣❤❡st ❡❧❡✈❛t✐♦♥ ✐s
p = 100 + 50 · 1.5625 − 16 · 1.56252 = 139.0625 .

❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ♠❛t❝❤❡s ♦✉r ❡st✐♠❛t❡✦

❋♦r t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠✱ t❤❡ ❛❧t✐t✉❞❡ ❛t t❤❡ ❡♥❞ ✐s 0✱ s♦ t♦ ✜♥❞ ✇❤❡♥ ✐t ❤❛♣♣❡♥❡❞✱ ✇❡ s❡t p = 0✱ ♦r
−16t2 + 50t + 100 = 0 ,

❛♥❞ s♦❧✈❡ ❢♦r t✳ ❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ◗✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❋♦r♠✉❧❛ ✭s❡❡♥ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✹✮✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
p
−50 − 502 − 4(−16)100
t= ≈ 4.5106 .
2 · (−16)
❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ♠❛t❝❤❡s ♦✉r ❡st✐♠❛t❡✦
✶✳✶✵✳ ❋r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧ ✾✺

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✶✵✳✹

❲❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥❡❞ t♦ ±❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✶✵✳✺

❍♦✇ ❤✐❣❤ ❞♦❡s t❤❡ ♣r♦❥❡❝t✐❧❡ ❣♦ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✶✵✳✻

❯s✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ❤♦✇ ❧♦♥❣ ✇✐❧❧ ✐t t❛❦❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ ♣r♦❥❡❝t✐❧❡ t♦ r❡❛❝❤ t❤❡ ❣r♦✉♥❞ ✐❢ ✜r❡❞ ❞♦✇♥ ❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✶✵✳✼

❯s❡ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ♠♦❞❡❧ t♦ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❤♦✇ ❧♦♥❣ ✐t ✇✐❧❧ t❛❦❡ ❢♦r ❛♥ ♦❜❥❡❝t t♦ r❡❛❝❤ t❤❡ ❣r♦✉♥❞ ✐❢ ✐t ✐s
❞r♦♣♣❡❞✳ ▼❛❦❡ ✉♣ ②♦✉r ♦✇♥ q✉❡st✐♦♥s ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ s✐t✉❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❛♥s✇❡r t❤❡♠✳ ❘❡♣❡❛t✳

❲✐t❤ ♦✉r s✐♠♣❧❡ ♠♦❞❡❧ ♦❢ ♠♦t✐♦♥✱ ❛❧❧ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ s❝❡♥❛r✐♦s ❤❛✈❡ ❜❡❡♥ ❢♦✉♥❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠ ♦❢ ❛♥ ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✦
❲❡ ❝❛♥✬t ❡①♣❡❝t t♦ ❛✈♦✐❞ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s t❤♦✉❣❤✿
✶✳ ❚❤❡r❡ ♠❛② ❜❡ ♥♦ ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✱ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r✲
❛t✐♦♥ ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✐♠❡ ✐s ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ❡♥♦✉❣❤✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❣♦ ❜❛❝❦ t♦ ♦✉r ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ ♠♦❞❡❧✳
✷✳ ❊✈❡♥ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❢♦r t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ♠❛② ❤❛✈❡ ♥♦
❡①♣❧✐❝✐t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ✭t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ✐♥ ✢✐❣❤t✮ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ✐s t♦♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡①✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ s❡❡❦
❛♥ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥✳
✸✳ ❊✈❡♥ ✐♥ ♦✉r ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ✐♥ ✢✐❣❤t ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ t❤❡ sq✉❛r❡ r♦♦t ✇✐❧❧ st✐❧❧ ❤❛✈❡
t♦ ❜❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡❞✳
 ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷✿ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥

❈♦♥t❡♥ts
✷✳✶ Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✾✻
✷✳✷ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡✿ ❧✐♥❡❛r✐t② ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✵✶
✷✳✸ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✐♥ ❧✐❣❤t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✵✾
✷✳✹ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✷✶
✷✳✺ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✿ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✷✽
✷✳✻ ❈❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✸✸
✷✳✼ ❈❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐♥ ❞❡✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✸✽
✷✳✽ ❚r✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✹✷
✷✳✾ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② ♣❛rts✿ ♣r♦❞✉❝ts ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✹✼
✷✳✶✵ ❆♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡s t♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✺✶
✷✳✶✶ ❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛s ♦❢ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ r❡❣✐♦♥s✿ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✺✸
✷✳✶✷ Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ♣r♦♣❡r ❛♥❞ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ❞❡✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✻✺
✷✳✶✸ ❙❤♦♦t✐♥❣ ❛ ❝❛♥♥♦♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✼✵

✷✳✶✳ Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤✐s ♦❜✈✐♦✉s st❛t❡♠❡♥t ❛❜♦✉t ♠♦t✐♦♥✿

◮ ✏■❢ ♠② s♣❡❡❞ ✐s ③❡r♦✱ ■ ❛♠ st❛♥❞✐♥❣ st✐❧❧ ✭❛♥❞ ✈✐❝❡ ✈❡rs❛✮✳✑

Pr♦✈✐♥❣ t❤❡ ♠❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝❛❧ ✈❡rs✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤✐s st❛t❡♠❡♥t ✇✐❧❧ ❝♦♥✜r♠ t❤❛t ♦✉r t❤❡♦r② ♠❛t❝❤❡s t❤❡ r❡❛❧✐t② ❛♥❞
t❤❡ ❝♦♠♠♦♥ s❡♥s❡✳ ❲❡ ❞✐❞ t❤✐s ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✷✳ ❆s ❛ r❡✈✐❡✇✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❣♦ t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡s❡ t❤r❡❡ st❛❣❡s ❛❣❛✐♥✿

✶✳ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡

✷✳ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t

✸✳ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡

❚❤✐s t✐♠❡✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❛❝❝♦♠♣❛♥② ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤♦s❡ st❛t❡♠❡♥ts ✇✐t❤ ✐ts ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✿

✶✳ t❤❡ s✉♠

✷✳ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠

✸✳ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✶✳✶✿ ❈♦♥st❛♥❝② ✈s✳ ❩❡r♦ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡

❆ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❤❛s ❛ ③❡r♦
❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ✭❢♦r ❛❧❧ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✮ ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳
✷✳✶✳ Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✾✼

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

∆F = 0 ⇐⇒ F = ❝♦♥st❛♥t.

❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✷✳✶✳✷✿ ❩❡r♦ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✈s✳ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ❙✉♠

❆ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❤❛s
❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t s✉♠ ✭♦✈❡r ❛❧❧ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✮ ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ t❤✐s
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ③❡r♦✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

k = 0 ⇐⇒ Σk = ❝♦♥st❛♥t.

❲❡ ❝❛♥ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ F ❛s t❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t❛❧ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ k ❛s t❤❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✳✸
❉❡r✐✈❡ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r r❡s✉❧t ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r✳

◆❡①t✱ ✇❡ ❞✐✈✐❞❡ ∆x ♦r ❢❛❝t♦r ♦✉t ∆x ✭✐✳❡✳✱ k = f ∆x✮✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✶✳✹✿ ❈♦♥st❛♥❝② ✈s✳ ❩❡r♦ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t
❆ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❤❛s ❛ ③❡r♦
❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✭❢♦r ❛❧❧ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✮ ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ t❤✐s
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

∆F
= 0 ⇐⇒ F = ❝♦♥st❛♥t .
∆x

❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✷✳✶✳✺✿ ❩❡r♦ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✈s✳ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ❙✉♠

❆ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❤❛s ❛
❝♦♥st❛♥t ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ✭♦✈❡r ❛❧❧ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✮ ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢
t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ③❡r♦✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

f = 0 ⇐⇒ Σf · ∆x = ❝♦♥st❛♥t.

❲❡ ❝❛♥ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ F ❛s t❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t❛❧ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ f ❛s t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✳✻
❉❡r✐✈❡ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r r❡s✉❧t ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r✳

◆❡①t✱ ✇❡ ♠❛❦❡ ∆x → 0✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✶✳✼✿ ❈♦♥st❛♥❝② ✈s✳ ❩❡r♦ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡
❆ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ♦♥ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❤❛s ❛ ③❡r♦ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦✈❡r t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✐❢
❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳
✷✳✶✳ Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✾✽

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

dF
= 0 ⇐⇒ F = ❝♦♥st❛♥t.
dx

❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✷✳✶✳✽✿ ❩❡r♦ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✈s✳ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ■♥t❡❣r❛❧

❆♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❤❛s ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧

✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ③❡r♦✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

Z x
f = 0 ⇐⇒ f dx = ❝♦♥st❛♥t.
a

❲❡ ❝❛♥ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ F ❛s t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧② ❝❤❛♥❣✐♥❣ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ f ❛s t❤❡ ✐♥st❛♥t❛♥❡♦✉s ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✳✾

❉❡r✐✈❡ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r r❡s✉❧t ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r✳

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ♥♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ t✇♦ r✉♥♥❡rs r✉♥♥✐♥❣ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ s♣❡❡❞❀ ✇❤❛t ❝❛♥ ✇❡ s❛② ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡✐r ♠✉t✉❛❧
❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s❄

❚❤❡② ❛r❡ ♥♦t✱ ♦❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ st❛♥❞✐♥❣ st✐❧❧✱ ❜✉t t❤❡② ❛r❡ st✐❧❧ r❡❧❛t✐✈❡ t♦ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r✦ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ s❧✐❣❤t❧② ❧❡ss
♦❜✈✐♦✉s ❢❛❝t ❛❜♦✉t ♠♦t✐♦♥✿

◮ ✏■❢ t✇♦ r✉♥♥❡rs r✉♥ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ s♣❡❡❞✱ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡♠ ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✭❛♥❞ ✈✐❝❡
✈❡rs❛✮✑✳

■t✬s ❛s ✐❢ t❤❡② ❛r❡ ❤♦❧❞✐♥❣ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❡♥❞s ♦❢ ❛ ♣♦❧❡ ✇✐t❤♦✉t ♣✉❧❧✐♥❣ ♦r ♣✉s❤✐♥❣✿

❚❤❡ ❢❛❝t r❡♠❛✐♥s ✈❛❧✐❞ ❡✈❡♥ ✐❢ t❤❡② s♣❡❡❞ ✉♣ ❛♥❞ s❧♦✇ ❞♦✇♥ ❛❧❧ t❤❡ t✐♠❡✳ ❚❤❡② ♠♦✈❡ ❛s ✐❢ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ❜♦❞②✿

❖♥❝❡ ❛❣❛✐♥✱ ❢♦r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s y = F (x) ❛♥❞ y = G(x) r❡♣r❡s❡♥t✐♥❣ t❤❡✐r ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ r❡st❛t❡ t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛
♠❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝❛❧❧② ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❝♦♥✜r♠ t❤❛t ♦✉r t❤❡♦r② ♠❛❦❡s s❡♥s❡✳

❲❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ t❤r❡❡ st❛❣❡s st❛rt✐♥❣ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s✿

✷✳✶✳ Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✾✾

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✶✳✶✵✿ ❆♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s

❚✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❤❛✈❡
t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ✭❢♦r ❛❧❧ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✮ ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ t❤❡
t✇♦ ❞✐✛❡r ❜② ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

∆F = ∆G ⇐⇒ F − G = ❝♦♥st❛♥t.

❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✷✳✶✳✶✶✿ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ❙✉♠s

❚✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❛r❡
❡q✉❛❧ ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ t❤❡ s✉♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❞✐✛❡r ❜② ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ✭♦♥ ❛❧❧ ♣r✐♠❛r②
♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✮✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

f = g ⇐⇒ Σf − Σg = ❝♦♥st❛♥t.

❲❡ ❝❛♥ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ F ❛♥❞ G ❛s t❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t❛❧ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ f ❛♥❞ g ❛s t❤❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥ts✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✳✶✷
❉❡r✐✈❡ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r r❡s✉❧t ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r✳

◆❡①t✱ ✇❡ ❞✐✈✐❞❡ ∆x ♦r ❢❛❝t♦r ♦✉t ∆x✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✶✳✶✸✿ ❆♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t ◗✉♦t✐❡♥ts
❚✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡
❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❞✐✛❡r ❜② ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

∆F ∆G
= ⇐⇒ F − G = ❝♦♥st❛♥t.
∆x ∆x

❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✷✳✶✳✶✹✿ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ❙✉♠s

❚✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❛r❡
❡q✉❛❧ ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❞✐✛❡r ❜② ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ✭♦♥ ❛❧❧
♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✮✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

f = g ⇐⇒ Σf · ∆x − Σg · ∆x = ❝♦♥st❛♥t.

❲❡ ❝❛♥ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ F ❛♥❞ G ❛s t❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t❛❧ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ f ❛♥❞ g ❛s t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✳✶✺
❉❡r✐✈❡ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r r❡s✉❧t ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r✳

◆❡①t✱ ✇❡ ♠❛❦❡ ∆x → 0✿
✷✳✶✳ Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✶✵✵

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✶✳✶✻✿ ❆♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s

❚✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ♦♥ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧②
✐❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❞✐✛❡r ❜② ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

d d
F = G ⇐⇒ F − G = ❝♦♥st❛♥t.
dx dx

❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✷✳✶✳✶✼✿ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ■♥t❡❣r❛❧s

❚✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ♦♥ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✐❢ ❛♥❞
♦♥❧② ✐❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❞✐✛❡r ❜② ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

Z x Z x
f = g ⇐⇒ f dx − g dx = ❝♦♥st❛♥t.
a a

❲❡ ❝❛♥ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ F ❛♥❞ G ❛s t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧② ❝❤❛♥❣✐♥❣ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ f ❛♥❞ g ❛s t❤❡ ✐♥st❛♥t❛♥❡♦✉s ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✳✶✽
❉❡r✐✈❡ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r r❡s✉❧t ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r✳

■♥ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ t♦ t❤❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛❧s♦ ♦♥❡ ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ ❣❡♦♠❡tr②✳ ❚❤❡ ❧❛st t❤❡♦r❡♠ s❛②s✿
◮ ■❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ y = F (x) ❛♥❞ y = G(x) ❤❛✈❡ ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡s ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ x✱ t❤❡♥
t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ F ✐s ❛ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ s❤✐❢t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ G ✭❛♥❞ ✈✐❝❡ ✈❡rs❛✮✳
❲❡ ❝❛♥ ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛ ✐❢ ✇❡ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❡ ❛ t✉♥♥❡❧ ❛♥❞ ❛ ♣❡rs♦♥ ✇❤♦s❡ ❤❡❛❞ ✐s t♦✉❝❤✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❝❡✐❧✐♥❣✳ ■❢ t❤❡
❝❡✐❧✐♥❣ ✐s s❧♦♣❡❞ ❞♦✇♥✱ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❤❡ ❜❡ ❝♦♥❝❡r♥❡❞ ❛❜♦✉t ❤✐tt✐♥❣ ❤✐s ❤❡❛❞❄ ◆♦t ✐❢ t❤❡ ✢♦♦r ✐s s❧♦♣❡❞ ❞♦✇♥ ❛s
♠✉❝❤✿

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✐❢ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t✉♥♥❡❧✬s t♦♣ ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜♦tt♦♠ ❛t ❡✈❡r② ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡♥
t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t ♦❢ t❤❡ t✉♥♥❡❧ r❡♠❛✐♥s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ t❤r♦✉❣❤♦✉t ✐ts ❧❡♥❣t❤✳
✷✳✷✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡✿ ❧✐♥❡❛r✐t② ✶✵✶

❇❛s❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ♥♦✇ ✉♣❞❛t❡ t❤✐s ❧✐st ♦❢ s✐♠♣❧❡ ❜✉t ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ❢❛❝ts✿
Z
✐♥❢♦ ❛❜♦✉t F ✐♥❢♦ ❛❜♦✉t F ′
✐♥❢♦ ❛❜♦✉t f dx ✐♥❢♦ ❛❜♦✉t f
Z
F ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳ ⇐⇒ F ✐s ③❡r♦✳
′
f dx ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳ ⇐⇒ f ✐s ③❡r♦✳
Z
F ✐s ❧✐♥❡❛r✳ ⇐⇒ F ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳
′
f dx ✐s ❧✐♥❡❛r✳ ⇐⇒ f ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳
Z
F ✐s q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝✳ ⇐⇒ F ✐s ❧✐♥❡❛r✳
′
f dx ✐s q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝✳ ⇐⇒ f ✐s ❧✐♥❡❛r✳

❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❧❛st t✇♦ ❢❛❝ts t♦ ❥✉st✐❢② ♦✉r ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ♦❢ ❢r❡❡ ✢✐❣❤t ✿
❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t✐♠❡
❚❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳ =⇒
❚❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ❧✐♥❡❛r✳ =⇒
❚❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✐s q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝✳
❆♥♦t❤❡r ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❛t t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ F ′ = f ✳
❚❤❡✐r ❣r❛♣❤s ❛r❡ ❡❛s② t♦ ♣❧♦t ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡② ❞✐✛❡r ❜② ❛ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ s❤✐❢t✿

❙♦✱ ❡✈❡♥ ✐❢ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ r❡❝♦✈❡r t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ F ❢r♦♠ ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ F ′ ✱ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♠❛♥② ♦t❤❡rs ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s❛♠❡
❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✱ s✉❝❤ ❛s G = F + C ❢♦r ❛♥② ❝♦♥st❛♥t r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r C ✳ ❆r❡ t❤❡r❡ ♦t❤❡rs❄ ◆♦t ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡
t❤❡♦r❡♠✳
❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

■t✬s ♦♥❧② tr✉❡ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ✐s ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳

✷✳✷✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡✿ ❧✐♥❡❛r✲

✐t②

■♥ t❤✐s ❝❤❛♣t❡r✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ t❛❦✐♥❣ ❛ ❜r♦❛❞❡r ❧♦♦❦ ❛t ❤♦✇ ✇❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳
❋♦r t❤❡ ♣r♦❝❡❞✉r❡ ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✭❧❡❢t✮✱ ✇❡ ♥♦✇ ❤❛✈❡ s❡✈❡r❛❧ s❤♦rt❝✉ts ✭r✐❣❤t✮✿
s❛♠♣❧✐♥❣
s❡q✉❡♥❝❡

←−−−−−−−− ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧

xn

ex

sin x

cos x

 R R R R R
❘❙     
y y y y y y
s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ −−−∆x→0
−−−−−→ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ 1
n+1
xn+1 ex − cos x sin x
✷✳✷✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡✿ ❧✐♥❡❛r✐t② ✶✵✷

▲❡t✬s r❡✈✐❡✇ t❤❡ ❞❡t❛✐❧s✳

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b]✳ ❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✿
a = x0 , ..., xn = b .

❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✿

c1 , ..., cn .
❚❤❡② s❛t✐s❢②✿
xk ≤ ck ≤ xk+1 .

❲❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ g ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✳ ■t ✐s s✐♠♣❧② ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✳ ❍❡r❡ ✐s ✐ts
s✉♠ ✿
m X
Σg(xk ) = g(ck ) .
k=1

■t ✐s ❛❧s♦ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✳ ❖♥ t❤❡ ♦♥❡ ❤❛♥❞✱ ✐t ✐s s✐♠♣❧② ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✳ ❖♥ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r✱ ✐t✬s
❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✳
❲❤❛t t❤✐s ♠❡❛♥s ✐s t❤❛t t❤✐s ♣r♦❝❡❞✉r❡ ✐s ❛ s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❦✐♥❞ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ → Σ → ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡

◆♦✇ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✳ ❚♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ Σ ♦❢ f ✱ ✇❡ ❥✉st
❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ s✉♠ ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐♦♥ t♦ f ✇✐t❤ ✐ts ✈❛❧✉❡s ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❡❞ ❜② ∆x = xk+1 − xk ✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❝r❡❛t❡❞ ❛♥♦t❤❡r
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ → Σ · ∆x → ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡

◆❡①t✱ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛s ❛ ❧✐♠✐t✳ ■t ✐s t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ♦❢ f ❢ ♦✈❡r ❛❧❧ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥s
♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳ ❚❤✐s ♣r♦❝❡ss ❝r❡❛t❡s ❛ s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❦✐♥❞ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t♦♦✱ ❛❧s♦ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿
Z
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ →  dx → ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

❆s ❛ r❡♠✐♥❞❡r✱ t❤❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ❛♥❛❧♦❣② ❢♦r t❤❡s❡ t❤r❡❡ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ✐s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

✈❡❧♦❝✐t②


s❛♠♣❧✐♥❣
y
s❛♠♣❧❡❞ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②

·∆
y
s❛♠♣❧❡❞ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥ts

P

y
s❛♠♣❧❡❞ t♦t❛❧ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t

∆x→0
y
t♦t❛❧ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t

❲❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ ❤♦✇ t❤❡s❡ t❤r❡❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦♣❡r❛t❡✳

❲❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉♠s✱ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s✳ ■♥ ❧✐❣❤t ♦❢
t❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ♣r❡❞✐❝t t❤❛t t❤❡② ✇✐❧❧ ♠❛t❝❤ t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ t❤❡
❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✳
✷✳✷✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡✿ ❧✐♥❡❛r✐t② ✶✵✸

❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❧❛st ✐t❡♠ ♦♥ ❡✐t❤❡r ❧✐st ❝♦♠❡s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts✳ ■♥ ❢❛❝t✱ t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛s
♦❢ ✇❤❛t s❤♦rt❝✉ts t♦ ❧♦♦❦ ❢♦r ❝♦♠❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤♦s❡ ❢♦r ❧✐♠✐ts ✿ t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡✱ t❤❡ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡✱ ❡t❝✳
❚❤❡ q✉❡st✐♦♥ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ❛s❦✐♥❣ ✐s✿
◮ ❲❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s t♦ t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❛s ✇❡ ♣❡r❢♦r♠ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ✇✐t❤
t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s❄
❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ❛ ❢❡✇ s❤♦rt❝✉t ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s✳
▲❡t✬s t❛❦❡ ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤✐s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛r② st❛t❡♠❡♥t ❛❜♦✉t ♠♦t✐♦♥ ✿
◮ ■❋ t✇♦ r✉♥♥❡rs ❛r❡ r✉♥♥✐♥❣ ❛✇❛② ❢r♦♠ ❛ ♣♦st✱ ❚❍❊◆ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡♠ ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡
❛s t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♣♦st ♦❢ ❛ t❤✐r❞ ♣❡rs♦♥ r✉♥♥✐♥❣ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❜♦t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡♠ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡❞
s♣❡❡❞✳

❲❤❡♥ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❛❞❞❡❞✱ ✇❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s t♦ t❤❡✐r s✉♠s❄

❚❤✐s s✐♠♣❧❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✱ t❤❡ ❆ss♦❝✐❛t✐✈❡ Pr♦♣❡rt② ✱ t❡❧❧s t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ st♦r②✿

u + U
+
v + V
= (u + v) + (U + V )

❚❤❡ r✉❧❡ ❛♣♣❧✐❡s ❡✈❡♥ ✐❢ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ♠♦r❡ t❤❛♥ ❥✉st t✇♦ t❡r♠s❀ ✐t✬s ❥✉st r❡✲❛rr❛♥❣✐♥❣ t❤❡ t❡r♠s✿

up + Up
up+1 + Up+1
✳✳ ✳✳ ✳✳
✳ ✳ ✳
uq + Uq
up + ... + uq + Up + ... + Uq
= (up + Up )+ ... +(uq + Uq )
q
X
= (un + Un )
n=p

❚❤❛t✬s t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❙✉♠s ♦❢ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✶✮✳ ❲❡ r❡st❛t❡ ✐t ❢♦r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥
♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥s✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✷✳✶✿ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❙✉♠s

❋♦r ❛♥② ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠

♦❢ t❤❡ s✉♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

Σ (f + g) = Σf + Σg

❋♦r t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✱ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛❧s♦ s✐♠♣❧❡❀ t❤❡ ♣✐❝t✉r❡ ❜❡❧♦✇ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡s ❤♦✇ ❛❞❞✐♥❣ t✇♦
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❝❛✉s❡s ❛❞❞✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛s ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡✐r ❣r❛♣❤s✿
✷✳✷✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡✿ ❧✐♥❡❛r✐t② ✶✵✹

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✷✳✷✿ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ❙✉♠s

❋♦r ❛♥② ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

✐s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

Σ (f + g) · ∆x = Σf · ∆x + Σg · ∆x

Pr♦♦❢✳

❆♣♣❧②✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ t♦ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f + g ✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

Σ f + g · ∆x = f (a) + g(a) + f (a + h) + g(a + h) + ...


+ f (x − h) + g(x − h) · ∆x
 
= f (a) + f (a + h) + f (a + 2h) + ... + f (x − h) + f (x) · ∆x
 
+ g(a) + g(a + h) + g(a + 2h) + ... + g(x − h) + g(x) · ∆x

= Σf · ∆x (b) + Σg · ∆x .

■t ✐s ❛s ✐❢ ♦♥❡ ♠❛❦❡s t✇♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡ ❞r♦♣s ✐♥ ❛ ❣❛♠❡ ♦❢ ❚❡tr✐s✿

◆♦✇ ∆x → 0 ✐♥ t❤❡s❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✿

✷✳✷✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡✿ ❧✐♥❡❛r✐t② ✶✵✺

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✷✳✸✿ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ■♥t❡❣r❛❧s

❚❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ♦❢ t❤❡

❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✐❢ f ❛♥❞ g ❛r❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦✈❡r [a, b]✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ✐s f +g
❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
Z x Z x Z x
(f + g) dx = f dx + g dx
a a a

Pr♦♦❢✳

❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ▲✐♠✐ts ❢r♦♠ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷❉❈✲✶✳

❙♦✱ ∆✬s ❜❡❝♦♠❡ d✬s✦

❚❤❡ ♣✐❝t✉r❡ ❜❡❧♦✇ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡s ✇❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❜♦tt♦♠ ❞r♦♣s ❢r♦♠ ❛ ❜✉❝❦❡t ♦❢ s❛♥❞ ❛♥❞ ✐t ❢❛❧❧s ♦♥ ❛

✉♥❡✈❡♥ s✉r❢❛❝❡✿

❚❤❡ ❧❛st t✇♦ t❤❡♦r❡♠s ❞❡♠♦♥str❛t❡ t❤❛t t❤✐s ✐s tr✉❡ ✇❤❡t❤❡r t❤❡ s✉r❢❛❝❡ ✐s st❛✐r❝❛s❡✲❧✐❦❡ ♦r ❝✉r✈❡❞✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✷✳✹

▼♦❞✐❢② t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ❢♦r✿ ✭❛✮ ❧❡❢t✲❡♥❞✱ ✭❜✮ ♠✐❞✲♣♦✐♥t✱ ❛♥❞ ✭❝✮ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✳

❈♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥❛❧❧②✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ✐❞❡❛ ❛s t❤❡ ♦♥❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✿ ❚❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✐s s♣❧✐t ✐♥ ❤❛❧❢✳

❊✐t❤❡r ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛st t✇♦ t❤❡♦r❡♠s ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ❜❡ ❞❡♠♦♥str❛t❡❞ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t✿

❚❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ❛♣♣❧✐❡s t♦ s✉❜tr❛❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉♠s✳

✷✳✷✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡✿ ❧✐♥❡❛r✐t② ✶✵✻

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✷✳✺

❙t❛t❡ t❤❡ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❘✉❧❡✳

◆❡①t✱ ✇❤❡♥ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❡❞ ❜② ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t✱ ✇❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s t♦ ✐ts s✉♠s❄

❚❤✐s s✐♠♣❧❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✱ t❤❡ ❉✐str✐❜✉t✐✈❡ Pr♦♣❡rt② ✱ t❡❧❧s t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ st♦r②✿

c·( u + U)
= cu + cU

❚❤❡ r✉❧❡ ❛♣♣❧✐❡s ❡✈❡♥ ✐❢ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ♠♦r❡ t❤❛♥ ❥✉st t✇♦ t❡r♠s❀ ✐t✬s ❥✉st ❢❛❝t♦r✐♥❣ ✿

c · up
c · up+1
✳✳ ✳✳ ✳✳
✳ ✳ ✳
c · uq
c · (up + ... + uq )
q
X
=c · un
n=p

❚❤❛t✬s t❤❡ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❢♦r ❙✉♠s ❢♦r s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✶✮✳ ❲❡ r❡st❛t❡ ✐t ❢♦r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❞❡✜♥❡❞
♦♥ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥s✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✷✳✻✿ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❙✉♠s

❋♦r ❛♥② ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ ❛ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❡

♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ♦❢ ✐ts s✉♠✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

Σ(cf ) = c (Σf )

❋♦r t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✱ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛❧s♦ s✐♠♣❧❡❀ t❤❡ ♣✐❝t✉r❡ ❜❡❧♦✇ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡s t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐✲
❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✈✐③✳ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✉♥❞❡r ✐ts ❣r❛♣❤✿
✷✳✷✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡✿ ❧✐♥❡❛r✐t② ✶✵✼

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✷✳✼✿ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ❙✉♠s

❚❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦❢ ❛ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ♦❢ ✐ts ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ❢♦r ❛♥② r❡❛❧ c ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

Σ(cf ) · ∆x = c (Σf · ∆x)

Pr♦♦❢✳

❆♣♣❧②✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ t♦ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

Σ(cf )∆x = cf (a) + cf (a + h) + cf (a + 2h) + ... + cf (x − h)

= c (f (a) + f (a + h) + f (a + 2h) + ... + f (x − h))
= c Σf · ∆x .

■t ✐s ❛s ✐❢ ♦♥❡ ✐s ♠❛❦❡s s❡✈❡r❛❧ ✐❞❡♥t✐❝❛❧ ❞r♦♣s ✐♥ ❛ ❣❛♠❡ ♦❢ ❚❡tr✐s✿

◆♦✇ ∆x → 0 ✐♥ t❤❡s❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✷✳✽✿ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ■♥t❡❣r❛❧s

❚❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ ❛ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ♦❢ ✐ts ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✐❢ f ✐s ❛♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r [a, b]✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ✐s c·f ❢♦r ❛♥②

r❡❛❧ c✱ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

Z x Z x
(cf ) dx = c f dx
a a

Pr♦♦❢✳

❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ▲✐♠✐ts ❢r♦♠ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷❉❈✲✶✳

❆♥❞ ∆✬s ❜❡❝♦♠❡ d✬s ❛❣❛✐♥✳

❈♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥❛❧❧②✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ✐❞❡❛ ❛s t❤❡ ♦♥❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✿ ❚❤❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ✐s ❢❛❝t♦r❡❞

♦✉t ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✳

❚❤❡ ♣✐❝t✉r❡ ❜❡❧♦✇ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡s t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ t❤❛t tr✐♣❧✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t ♦❢ ❛ r♦❛❞ ✇✐❧❧ ♥❡❡❞ tr✐♣❧✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❛♠♦✉♥t ♦❢ s♦✐❧
✉♥❞❡r ✐t✿
✷✳✷✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡✿ ❧✐♥❡❛r✐t② ✶✵✽

❚❤❡ t✇♦ ❧❛st t❤❡♦r❡♠s ❞❡♠♦♥str❛t❡ t❤❛t t❤✐s ✐s tr✉❡ ✇❤❡t❤❡r t❤❡ s✉r❢❛❝❡ ✐s st❛✐r❝❛s❡✲❧✐❦❡ ♦r ❝✉r✈❡❞✳

❋♦r t❤❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ♠❡t❛♣❤♦r✱ ✐❢ ②♦✉r ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s tr✐♣❧❡❞✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ②♦✉ ❤❛✈❡ ❝♦✈❡r❡❞ ♦✈❡r t❤❡ s❛♠❡
♣❡r✐♦❞ ♦❢ t✐♠❡✳

❊✐t❤❡r ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❧❛st t❤❡♦r❡♠s ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❞❡♠♦♥str❛t❡❞ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✷✳✾

▼♦❞✐❢② t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ❢♦r✿ ✭❛✮ ❧❡❢t✲❡♥❞✱ ✭❜✮ ♠✐❞✲♣♦✐♥t✱ ❛♥❞ ✭❝✮ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✳

❚❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡❞ ✐♥t♦ ♦♥❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝✐♥❣ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥s ✿

αx + βy ,
✇❤❡r❡ α, β ❛r❡ t✇♦ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♥✉♠❜❡rs✳ ❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ❛♣♣❧✐❡s t♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s❀ ❢♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ t❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ♦❢ t✇♦
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✭❧❡❢t✮✿

❲❡ ❛❧s♦ ♥♦t✐❝❡ ✇❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s t♦ t❤❡✐r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✭r✐❣❤t✮✿

◮ ❚❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ✐s t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s✳

❚❤❡ q✉❡st✐♦♥ ❜❡❝♦♠❡s✿ ❲❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✉♥❞❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥❄

❘❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❛t ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ F ✐s ❧✐♥❡❛r ✐❢ ✐t ✏♣r❡s❡r✈❡s✑ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥s✿

αx + βy → F → αF (x) + βF (y)

❲✐t❤ t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛✱ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡❞ ✐♥t♦ ♦♥❡✳ ❚❤❡ s✉♠✱ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥
✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❛r❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❆ ♣r❡❝✐s❡ ✈❡rs✐♦♥ ✐s ❜❡❧♦✇✿
✷✳✸✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✐♥ ❧✐❣❤t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✵✾

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✷✳✶✵✿ ▲✐♥❡❛r✐t② ♦❢ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥

❚❤❡ s✉♠✱ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥

♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐s t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡✐r s✉♠s✱ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✱ ❛♥❞

❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✱ ✇❤❡♥❡✈❡r t❤❡② ❡①✐st✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

Σ(αf + βg) = αΣf +βΣg

Σ(αf + βg) · ∆x = αΣf · ∆x +βΣg · ∆x

Z x Z x Z x
(αf + βg) dx = α f dx +β g dx
a a a

❚❤❡ ❧❛st ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐s ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡❞ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❞✐❛❣r❛♠✿

Z Z Z
αf + βg → → α f dx + β g dx

❆s ✇❡ s❡❡✱ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❢♦❧❧♦✇s t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠✱ ❡✈❡r② t✐♠❡✿

■♥ s✉♠♠❛r②✱ ✇❡ t❛❦❡ t❤❡ s❤♦rt❝✉t ✐♥ ♦✉r ❞✐❛❣r❛♠ ♦♥ ♠❛♥② ♦❝❝❛s✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ ✐❣♥♦r❡ t❤❡ r❡st✿

s❛♠♣❧✐♥❣ f
s❡q✉❡♥❝❡

←−−−−−−−− ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦♥ [a, b]
 
  R
❘❙ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ −→

y
y y Z
s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ −−−−−−−−→ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦♥ [a, b]
∆x→0
f dx

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❚❤❡s❡ r✉❧❡s ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❛❝q✉✐r❡❞ ✈✐❛ t❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s✳

✷✳✸✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✐♥ ❧✐❣❤t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠

▲❡t✬s r❡✈✐❡✇ ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ❛❜♦✉t ❛♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✳

✷✳✸✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✐♥ ❧✐❣❤t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✶✵

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✷✳✸✳✶✿ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦♥ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥
✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ I✳ ❚❤❡♥ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ F ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ t❤❛t s❛t✐s✜❡s
t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✿

∆F
(c) = f (c)
∆x

❢♦r ❡✈❡r② s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡ c✱ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f✳

■♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✱ ✇❡ ❢♦✉♥❞ ❛ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❜② s♦❧✈✐♥❣ ✐t ❢♦r t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ❛s ✐♥ t❤❡
❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ❛❝q✉✐r✐♥❣ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✿

pn+1 − pn
vn = =⇒ pn+1 = pn + vn ∆t .
∆t
■t✬s ♣✉r❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✦

❚❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❝❛s❡ ✐s ❜② ❢❛r ♠♦r❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡①✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✷✳✸✳✷✿ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ I✳ ❚❤❡♥ ❛ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
F ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ I t❤❛t s❛t✐s✜❡s t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✿

dF
(x) = f (x)
dx

❢♦r ❡✈❡r② x✱ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f✳

❲❡ ✉s❡ ✏❛♥✑ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡r❡ ♠❛② ❜❡ ♠❛♥② ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳

❲❡ ❝❛♥ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ❛s ❛♥ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✱ ❛♥ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿

●✐✈❡♥ f, s♦❧✈❡ ❢♦r F ●✐✈❡♥ f, s♦❧✈❡ ❢♦r F

∆F dF
=f =f
∆x dx

❚❤✐s ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❤❛s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s ✇❤❡♥ f ✐s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡✳ ❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ❆♥t✐✲
❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✐❢ F ✐s ♦♥❡ ♦❢ ✐ts ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ s❡t ♦❢ ❛❧❧ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ f ✐s

{F + C : C r❡❛❧ }.

❚❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ❛r❡ ❧✐♥❦❡❞ t♦ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❜② t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✸✳✸✿ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ■ ❛♥❞ ■■

■ ❋♦r ❛♥② ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ♦♥ [a, b]✱ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❜②
Z x
F (x) = f dx
a

✐s ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f ✳
■■ ❋♦r ❛♥② ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ♦♥ [a, b] ❛♥❞ ❛♥② ♦❢ ✐ts ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s F ✱ ✇❡
✷✳✸✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✐♥ ❧✐❣❤t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✶✶

❤❛✈❡ Z b
f dx = F (b) − F (a) .
a

❲❤② t✇♦ ♣❛rts❄ ❇❡❝❛✉s❡ ✇❡ ❞❡❛❧ ✇✐t❤ t✇♦ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❝❛❧❝❧✉❧✉s ✕ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✕ ❛♥❞ ✇❡
❝❛♥ ❝♦♠♣♦s❡ t❤❡♠ ✐♥ t✇♦ ✇❛②s✳ ❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ t❤❡ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥
❛♥❞ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❝❛♥❝❡❧ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
Z
d
❋❚❈■✿ f →  dx → F →  → f
dx
Z
d
❋❚❈■■✿ F →  → f →  dx → F +C
dx

❚❤❡ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ❛r❡ ♣r♦✈❡♥ ❢r♦♠ s❝r❛t❝❤ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥✳ ■♥ t❤✐s s❡❝t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡
❛❝q✉✐r❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ r❡s✉❧ts ❜② ❛♣♣❧②✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ t♦ t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ t❤❡♦r❡♠s ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡
❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✭❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✷✮✳
❲❡ st❛rt ♦✈❡r✳
❲❡ ❝❛♥ r❡st❛t❡ t❤❡ ❆♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✷✳✸✳✹✿ ❙❡t ♦❢ ❆♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ F ✐s ❛♥② ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡

s❡t ♦❢ ❛❧❧ ♦❢ ✐ts ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✐s

{F + C : C r❡❛❧ } .

❆s ✐t ✐s ♦❢t❡♥ t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ ✇✐t❤ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s✱ t❤❡r❡ s❡❡♠s t♦ ❜❡ ♠❛♥② ✭✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥②✮ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s✳ ❇✉t ❛ ✈❡r②
✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❛t ✐t s✉✣❝❡s t♦ ✜♥❞ ❥✉st ♦♥❡ ❛♥t✐✲❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✦

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ F + C ✇♦r❦s ♦♥❧② ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳

❚❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t t❤✐s s❡t ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✇♦✉❧❞ ❧♦♦❦ ❧✐❦❡✿

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ s❡t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ✐t ♠❛② ❜❡ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✸✳✺✿ x3
❋✐♥❞ ❛❧❧ F t❤❛t s❛t✐s❢② t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✿
F ′ (x) = x3 .
✷✳✸✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✐♥ ❧✐❣❤t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✶✷

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✸✳✻

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ ❛♥ ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ I ✳ Pr♦✈❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ t✇♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ f ♥❡✈❡r ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✳
✷✳ ❋♦r ❡✈❡r② ♣♦✐♥t (x, y) ✇✐t❤ x ✇✐t❤✐♥ I✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ✇❤✐❝❤ ♣❛ss❡s
t❤r♦✉❣❤ ✐t✳

❚❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ t❤❡♥ ❜❡❝♦♠❡s t❤❡ ♦♥❡ ♦❢ ✜♥❞✐♥❣ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ F✱ ❡✐t❤❡r

∆F
• ❢r♦♠ ✐ts ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t
∆x
✱ ♦r

dF
• ❢r♦♠ ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡
dx
✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ r❡❝♦♥str✉❝t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ ❛ ✏✜❡❧❞ ♦❢ s❧♦♣❡s✑✿

❖♥❡ ❝❛♥ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❡ ❛ ✢♦✇✐♥❣ ❧✐q✉✐❞ ✇✐t❤ ✐ts ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ❦♥♦✇♥ ❛t ❡✈❡r② ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✳ ❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ♣❛t❤ ♦❢
❛ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r ♣❛rt✐❝❧❡❄ ❚❤❡ ♣r♦❝❡ss ♦❢ r❡❝♦♥str✉❝t✐♥❣ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ F✱ ❢r♦♠ ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✱ f✱ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛♥t✐✲
❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦r ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥✳
❚❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ❤❛s ❜❡❡♥ s♦❧✈❡❞ ♦♥ s❡✈❡r❛❧ ♦❝❝❛s✐♦♥s ❢♦r t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r✱ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ ❝❛s❡ ✕ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❢r♦♠
❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✕ ✈✐❛ t❤❡s❡ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s✿

F (xn+1 ) = F (xn ) + f (cn )∆xn .

❋♦r ❡❛❝❤ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ❧♦♦❦ ✉♣ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✱ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ♥❡①t ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✱ ❛♥❞ r❡♣❡❛t✿

■❢ t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ❛r❡ ❝❧♦s❡ ❡♥♦✉❣❤ t♦ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r✱ t❤❡s❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ❢♦r♠ ❝✉r✈❡s✿
✷✳✸✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✐♥ ❧✐❣❤t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✶✸

❋♦r t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❝❛s❡✱ t❤✐s ✐s ❛ ❝❤❛❧❧❡♥❣✐♥❣ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠✿ ❍♦✇ ❞♦❡s ♦♥❡ ♣❧♦t ❛ ❝✉r✈❡ t❤❛t ❢♦❧❧♦✇s t❤❡s❡
✕ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② ✕ t❛♥❣❡♥ts❄
❚♦ ❜❡❣✐♥ ✇✐t❤✱ ✇❡ ❥✉st tr② t♦ r❡✈❡rs❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✳ ❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ tr② t♦ ❝♦♥str✉❝t ❛ t❤❡♦r② ♦❢ ❛♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥
t❤❛t ♠❛t❝❤❡s ✕ t♦ t❤❡ ❞❡❣r❡❡ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ✕ t❤❛t ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✳
❍❡r❡ ✐s ❛ s❤♦rt ❧✐st ♦❢ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✭❢♦r ❛❧❧ x ❢♦r ✇❤✐❝❤ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡✮✿

❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ −→ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡

xr rxr−1
1
ln x
x
ex ex

sin x cos x

cos x − sin x

❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ←− ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

❚♦ ✜♥❞ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s✱ r❡✈❡rs❡ t❤❡ ♦r❞❡r✿

◮ ❘❡❛❞ ❡❛❝❤ ❧✐♥❡ ❢r♦♠ r✐❣❤t t♦ ❧❡❢t✦
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✸✳✼✿ sin ❛♥❞ cos
❲❤❛t ✐s ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ cos x❄ ❲❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ s♦❧✈❡ ❢♦r F ✿

F ′ (x) = cos x .

❏✉st ✜♥❞ cos x ✐♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ❝♦❧✉♠♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❛❜❧❡✳ ❚❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t ✐s sin x✳ ❚❤❛t✬s
t❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r✿ F (x) = sin x✦

❲❤❛t ✐s ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ sin x❄ ❙♦❧✈❡✿

F ′ (x) = sin x .

❏✉st ✜♥❞ sin x ✐♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ❝♦❧✉♠♥✳ ■t✬s ♥♦t t❤❡r❡✳✳✳ ❜✉t − sin x ✐s✦ ❚❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦♥ t❤❡
❧❡❢t ✐s cos x✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✭❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡✮ t❤❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ♠✉st ❜❡ − sin x✳

■t✬s t❤❛t s✐♠♣❧❡✦ ❲❡ ♠❛② ♥❡❡❞ s♦♠❡ t✇❡❛❦✐♥❣ t♦ ♠❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❛❜♦✉t t♦ ❡♠❡r❣❡ ❛s ❡❛s② t♦ ❛♣♣❧② ❛s
t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ♦♥❡s✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✸✳✽✿ ♣♦✇❡r ❢♦r♠✉❧❛

❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ❧❡t✬s ✜♥❞ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ xn ✳ ❯s❡ t❤❡ P♦✇❡r ❋♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ✭t❤❡ ✜rst r♦✇✮✱
❞✐✈✐❞❡ ❜② r✱ ❛♥❞ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ✿
 ′
r ′ r−1 1 1 r
(x ) = rx =⇒ (xr )′ = xr−1 =⇒ x = xr−1 .
r r

❲❡ t❤❡♥ s✐♠♣❧✐❢② t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✲❤❛♥❞ s✐❞❡ ❜② s❡tt✐♥❣ r − 1 = s✿

 ′
1 s+1
x = xs .
s+1
✷✳✸✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✐♥ ❧✐❣❤t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✶✹

❲❡ ♠❛❦❡ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✲❤❛♥❞ s✐❞❡ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t✲❤❛♥❞ s✐❞❡ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ P♦✇❡r ❋♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r ❛♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✳ ❲❡
❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

❆♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ xs ✐s
1
s+1
xs+1 ✱ ♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞ s 6= −1✳
❇✉t ✇❤❛t ✐❢ s = −1❄ ❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ r❡❛❞ t❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♥❡①t ❧✐♥❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ t❛❜❧❡✿

❆♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ x−1 ✐s ln |x|✳

❙♦✱ t❤❡ r✉❧❡ t❤❛t ✏t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ♣♦✇❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛ ♣♦✇❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❞❡❣r❡❡ 1 ❧♦✇❡r✑ ❤❛s ❛♥ ❡①❝❡♣t✐♦♥✱
t❤❡ 0✲♣♦✇❡r✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ r✉❧❡ t❤❛t ✏t❤❡ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ♣♦✇❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛ ♣♦✇❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❞❡❣r❡❡ 1 ❤✐❣❤❡r✑
❤❛s ❛♥ ❡①❝❡♣t✐♦♥ t♦♦✳

❚❛❦✐♥❣ t❤❡ r❡st ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ r♦✇s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❧✐st ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ♦♥ ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✿

❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ −→ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✴✐♥t❡❣r❛❧

xs 1
s+1
xs+1 , s 6= −1
1
ln |x|
x
ex ex

sin x − cos x

cos x sin x

❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ←− ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✸✳✾✿ ❞♦♠❛✐♥s

❊❛❝❤ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐s ♦♥❧② ✈❛❧✐❞ ♦♥ ❛♥ ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ♦♥ ✇❤✐❝❤ t❤❡ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ✇❡
✐♥t❡r♣r❡t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ r♦✇ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
• ln(x) ✐s ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ x1 ♦♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ (0, +∞)✱ ❛♥❞
• ln(−x) ✐s ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ x1 ♦♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ (−∞, 0)✳

◆❡①t✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♥❡❡❞ t❤❡ r✉❧❡s ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥✳

❋✐rst✱ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✭❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✷✮✿ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉♠ ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡
❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s❀ ✐✳❡✳✱
(f + g)′ = f ′ + g ′ .
▲❡t✬s r❡❛❞ t❤❛t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢r♦♠ r✐❣❤t t♦ ❧❡❢t✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✸✳✶✵✿ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ■♥t❡❣r❛❧s

❆♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉♠ ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

■❢

F ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ f ❛♥❞

G ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ g✱
t❤❡♥

F +G ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ f + g✳
✷✳✸✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✐♥ ❧✐❣❤t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✶✺

Pr♦♦❢✳

❲❡ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s t♦ ❝♦♥✜r♠✿

(F (x) + G(x))′ = F ′ (x) + G′ (x) = f (x) + g(x) .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✸✳✶✶

❲❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡❄

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✸✳✶✷✿ s✉♠s

❙♦❧✈❡ ❢♦r F ✿
F ′ (x) = x2 + sin x .
❚❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ✐s s♦❧✈❡❞ ❜② s♦❧✈✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t✇♦ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s✿

❢♦r G : G′ (x) = x2 ❛♥❞ ❢♦r H : H ′ (x) = sin x .

❚❤❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❢♦✉♥❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ t❛❜❧❡✿

1
G(x) = x3 ❛♥❞ H(x) = − cos x .
3
❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r ♦♥ (−∞, +∞)✿
1
F (x) = x3 − cos x + C .
3

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✸✳✶✸

❯s✐♥❣ t❤✐s r✉❧❡✱ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ ln x2 ✳

❈♦♠♣❛r❡✿
❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉♠ ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✳
❚❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉♠ ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s✳
❙✐♠✐❧❛r❧②✱ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✭❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✷✮✿ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ✐s
t❤❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡❀ ✐✳❡✳✱
(cf )′ = cf ′ .
▲❡t✬s r❡❛❞ t❤❛t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢r♦♠ r✐❣❤t t♦ ❧❡❢t✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✸✳✶✹✿ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ■♥t❡❣r❛❧s

❚❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ ❛ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ✐s t❤❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

■❢

F ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ f ❛♥❞

c ✐s ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t✱

t❤❡♥

cF ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ cf ✳
✷✳✸✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✐♥ ❧✐❣❤t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✶✻

Pr♦♦❢✳

❲❡ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✿

(cF (x))′ = cF ′ (x) = cf (x) .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✸✳✶✺

❲❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡❄

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✸✳✶✻✿ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡s

❙♦❧✈❡ ❢♦r F ✿
F ′ (x) = 3 sin x .
❲❡ s♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❜② s♦❧✈✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✿

❢♦r G : G′ (x) = sin x .

❚❤❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ✐s ❢♦✉♥❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ t❛❜❧❡✿

G(x) = − cos x .
❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛♥ ❛♥s✇❡r ♦♥ (−∞, +∞)✿

F (x) = 3(− cos x) + C .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✸✳✶✼

❯s✐♥❣ t❤✐s r✉❧❡✱ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ ex+3 ✳

❈♦♠♣❛r❡✿
❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✳
❚❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✳
❆s ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❆♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ❡✈❡r② ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❝♦♠❡s ✇✐t❤ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧②
♠❛♥② ♦t❤❡rs✿
F → F + C ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② r❡❛❧ C ,
♦♥ ❡✈❡r② ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳ ❚♦❣❡t❤❡r t❤❡② ❢♦r♠ t❤❡ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦r t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✸✳✶✽✿ ❢r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ♠❛❦❡ ♦✉r ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ♦❢ ❢r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧ ♠♦r❡ s♣❡❝✐✜❝✿

❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t✐♠❡
❚❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳ a = −g =⇒
❚❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ❧✐♥❡❛r✳ v = −gt + C =⇒
❚❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✐s q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝✳ p = −gt2 /2 + Ct + K
❚❤❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥ts C ❛♥❞ K ❝♦✈❡r ❛❧❧ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ tr✐♣s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❧✳
✷✳✸✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✐♥ ❧✐❣❤t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✶✼

❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ ✇❡ r❡✇r✐t❡ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❧✐st✿

Z
1 s+1
xs dx = x +C, ❢♦r s 6= −1
Z s+1
1
dx = ln x + C
Z x
ex dx = ex + C
Z
sin x dx = − cos x + C
Z
cos x dx = sin x + C

❲❡ r❡st❛t❡ t❤❡ r✉❧❡s t♦♦✳

❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡✿
Z Z Z
(f + g) dx = f dx + g dx

❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡✿

Z Z
(cf ) dx = c f dx

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✸✳✶✾

❙t❛t❡ t❤❡ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s✳

❲✐t❤ t❤❡s❡ r✉❧❡s✱ ✇❤❡♥ ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛❜❧❡✱ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ✈❡r② s✐♠✐❧❛r t♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✸✳✷✵✿ r✉❧❡s ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢

3x2 + 5ex + cos x .
❖♥❡ ❝❛♥ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❡ ✇❤❛t ❤❡✬❞ ❞♦ t♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❢♦❧❧♦✇ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ st❡♣s ❜✉t ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥
❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❛♥❞ r✉❧❡s ✉s❡❞ ✐♥st❡❛❞✳

❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✿
(3x2 + 5ex + cos x)′ = (3x2 )′ + 5(ex )′ + (3 sin x)′ ❙❘
= 3(x2 )′ + 5(ex )′ + 3(sin x)′ ❈▼❘
= 3 · 6x + 5ex + 3 cos x . ❚❛❜❧❡

■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥✿
Z Z Z Z
2 x ′
(3x + 5e + cos x) dx = (3x ) dx + 5(e ) dx + (3 sin x)dx ❙❘
2 x
Z Z Z
= 3 (x ) dx + 5 (e ) dx + 3 (sin x)dx ❈▼❘
2 x

= 3 · x3 /3 + 5ex + 3(− cos x) + C . ❚❛❜❧❡

❏✉st ❛s ✇❤❡♥ s♦❧✈✐♥❣ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❡❛s✐❧② ❝♦♥✜r♠ t❤❛t ♦✉r ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❝♦rr❡❝t✱ ❜② s✉❜st✐t✉✲
✷✳✸✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✐♥ ❧✐❣❤t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✶✽

t✐♦♥✳ ■♥ t❤✐s ❝❛s❡✱ ✇❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✿

(x3 + 5ex + 3 sin x)′ = (x3 )′ + 5(ex )′ + (3 sin x)′
= 3x2 + 5ex + 3 cos x .

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✦ ❚❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r ❝❤❡❝❦s ♦✉t✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✸✳✷✶

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ 5e3x+2 − ee ✳

❇❡❧♦✇✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❞✐❛❣r❛♠s t♦ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r❛❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✇✐t❤ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✿

R R
′ ′
f, g ←−−−− f ,g f ←−−−− f′
   
   
+ + ·c ·c
y y y y
R R
f + g ←−−−− f ′ + g ′ cf ←−−−− cf ′

❚❤❡ ❛rr♦✇s ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❛r❡ r❡✈❡rs❡❞✦ ❲❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ ❛ ♣❛✐r ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛t t♦♣ r✐❣❤t✱ t❤❡♥ ✇❡ ♣r♦❝❡❡❞
✐♥ t✇♦ ✇❛②s✿

• ▲❡❢t✿ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t❡ t❤❡♠✳ ❚❤❡♥ ❞♦✇♥✿ ❛❞❞ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧ts✳

• ❉♦✇♥✿ ❛❞❞ t❤❡♠✳ ❚❤❡♥ ❧❡❢t✿ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t❡ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧ts✳

❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡✦

❙♦ ❢❛r✱ t❤✐s ✐s ✈❡r② s✐♠✐❧❛r t♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤❡ str❛t❡❣② ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡✿ ❞✐✈✐❞❡ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥❝✉r✳ ❙♣❧✐t ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥
✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡✱ t❤❡♥ ❢❛❝t♦r ♦✉t t❤❡ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡✱ t❤❡♥ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ t❛❜❧❡
r❡s✉❧ts t♦ t❤❡s❡ ♣✐❡❝❡s✳

❯♥❢♦rt✉♥❛t❡❧②✱ t❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡ s✐♠✐❧❛r✐t✐❡s st♦♣✳

❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ❛♥❛❧♦❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✿

❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❝❛♥

❜❡ ❡①♣r❡ss❡❞ ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡✐r ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s t❤❡♠s❡❧✈❡s✳

❚❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❝❛♥♥♦t

❜❡ ❡①♣r❡ss❡❞ ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡✐r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s t❤❡♠s❡❧✈❡s✳

❙✐♠✐❧❛r❧② t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡✱ ♥♦r t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡✱ ❢♦r ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥✳

❚❤✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❤❛s ♣r♦❢♦✉♥❞ ❝♦♥s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✳ ❲❡ ❝❛♥ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ ❥✉st t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿

xs , sin x, ex .

❚❤❡♥ ✕ ❜② ❛♣♣❧②✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❢♦✉r ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s✱ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✱ ❛♥❞ ✐♥✈❡rt✐♥❣ ✕ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❝♦♥str✉❝t ❛ ❣r❡❛t
✈❛r✐❡t② ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ▲❡t✬s ❝❛❧❧ t❤❡♠ ✏❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛r② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✑✳ ❇❡❝❛✉s❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✇❛② t❤❡② ❛r❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝t❡❞✱ ❛❧❧ ♦❢
t❤❡♠ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❡❛s✐❧② ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡❞ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ r✉❧❡s ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✱ t❤✉s ♣r♦❞✉❝✐♥❣ ♦t❤❡r ❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛r② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s
✭❧❡❢t✮✿
✷✳✸✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✐♥ ❧✐❣❤t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✶✾

❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ❝♦♥tr❛r② t♦ ✇❤❛t t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❧✐st ♠✐❣❤t s✉❣❣❡st✱ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✇✐❧❧ ♦❢t❡♥ t❛❦❡ ✉s ♦✉ts✐❞❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❛❧♠ ♦❢
❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛r② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✭r✐❣❤t✮✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ❛ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ●❛✉ss ❡rr♦r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ♠✉st ❜❡ ❝r❡❛t❡❞
❢♦r t❤✐s ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✿ Z
2 2
erf(x) = √ e−x dx .
π

❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ✐❢ ✇❡ ❡①❝❧✉❞❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ✏❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛r② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✑ ❡✐t❤❡r t❤❡ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s
♦r t❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✳ ❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ✐❢ ✇❡ ✐♥❝❧✉❞❡ ♠♦r❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s t♦ t❤❡ ❧✐st✳

❲✐t❤ t❤❡ ❤❡❧♣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❆♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❝❧❛✐♠ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❢♦✉♥❞ ❛❧❧ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s
♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦♥ ♦✉r ❧✐st✱ ♦✈❡r ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥s ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ t❤❡
❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✷✳✸✳✷✷✿ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛♥❞ ✐♥❞❡✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧

❋♦r ❛ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f✱ t❤❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦r t❤❡ ✐♥❞❡✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ f
♦✈❡r ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ I ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❜②✿
Z
f dx = F (x) + C ,

✇❤❡r❡ F ✐s ❛♥② ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ I ✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ F ′ = f ✱ ✉♥❞❡rst♦♦❞ ❛s t❤❡ ❝♦❧❧❡❝t✐♦♥

f ♦♥
♦❢ ❛❧❧ s✉❝❤ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦✈❡r ❛❧❧ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs C ✳ ❚❤✐s ❝♦❧❧❡❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛❧s♦ ❝❛❧❧❡❞
t❤❡ ✐♥❞❡✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ f ✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✸✳✷✸✿ ❤♦✇ ♠❛♥② ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s❄

❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✱ ❜✉t t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♠♦r❡ t♦ ✐t✳ ▲❡t✬s t❛❦❡ ❛ ♠♦r❡ ❝❛r❡❢✉❧ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t
♦♥❡ ❧✐♥❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧✐st✿ Z
1 ❄❄❄
dx === ln |x| + C, x 6= 0 .
x

❚❤✐s ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐s ✐♥t❡♥❞❡❞ t♦ ♠❡❛♥ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

✶✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❝❛♣t✉r❡❞ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② ✕ ♦♥❡ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r C ✕ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✳
✷✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❝❛♣t✉r❡❞ ❛❧❧ ♦❢ t❤❡♠✳
❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ t❤❡ ❆♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛♣♣❧✐❡s ♦♥❧② t♦ ♦♥❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❛t ❛ t✐♠❡✳ ▼❡❛♥✇❤✐❧❡✱ t❤❡
❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ 1/x ❝♦♥s✐sts ♦❢ t✇♦ r❛②s (−∞, 0) ❛♥❞ (0, +∞)✳ ❆s ❛ r❡s✉❧t✱ ✇❡ s♦❧✈❡ t❤✐s ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ s❡♣❛r❛t❡❧②
♦♥ ❡✐t❤❡r ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ 1/x ❛r❡✿
• ln(−x) + C ♦♥ (−∞, 0)✱ ❛♥❞
• ln(x) + C ♦♥ (0, +∞)✳
❇✉t ✐❢ ♥♦✇ ✇❡ ✇❡r❡ t♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡ ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ♣❛✐rs ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐♥t♦ ♦♥❡✱ F ✱ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ (−∞, 0)∪(0, +∞)✱
✇❡ ✇♦✉❧❞ r❡❛❧✐③❡ t❤❛t✱ ❡✈❡r② t✐♠❡✱ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❝♦♥st❛♥ts ♠✐❣❤t ❜❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✳ ❆❢t❡r ❛❧❧✱ t❤❡② ❤❛✈❡ ♥♦t❤✐♥❣
t♦ ❞♦ ✇✐t❤ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r✦ ❲❡ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡ t❤❡ ✇r♦♥❣ ✭✐♥❝♦♠♣❧❡t❡✮ ❛♥s✇❡r ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡❝t ♦♥❡
♦♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✿
✷✳✸✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✐♥ ❧✐❣❤t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✶✷✵

❚❤❡ ✐♠❛❣❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t✱ ❛s ✇❡❧❧ ❛s t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✇❡ st❛rt❡❞ ✇✐t❤✱ ♠✐❣❤t s✉❣❣❡st t❤❛t ❛❧❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✬s
❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❛r❡ ❡✈❡♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❚❤❡ ✐♠❛❣❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t s❤♦✇s ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✭✐♥ r❡❞✮ ❜✉t
✐ts t✇♦ ❜r❛♥❝❤❡s ❞♦♥✬t ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ♠❛t❝❤✦

1
❆❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛❧❧②✱ t❤❡ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ✕ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ✕ ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② t❤✐s ♣✐❡❝❡✇✐s❡✲❞❡✜♥❡❞
x
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿ (
ln(−x) + C ❢♦r x ✐♥ (−∞, 0),
F (x) =
ln(x) + K ❢♦r x ✐♥ (0, +∞).
■t ❤❛s t✇♦ ♣❛r❛♠❡t❡rs ✐♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✉s✉❛❧ ♦♥❡✳ ❚❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♠❛t❝❤❡s t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ t❤❡ ✏❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥ts✑
♦❢ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✸✳✷✹
❱❡r✐❢② t❤❛t t❤✐s ✐s ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ 1/x✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✸✳✷✺
■♥ ❛ s✐♠✐❧❛r ❢❛s❤✐♦♥✱ ❡①❛♠✐♥❡ t❤❡ P♦✇❡r ❋♦r♠✉❧❛ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❢♦r s < −1✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✸✳✷✻✿ ✜♥❞ ❣r❛♣❤s

❚❤❡ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦♥ ♦✉r ❧✐st ✇❡r❡ ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r❡❞ ❜② r❡❛❞✐♥❣ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧ts ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❜❛❝❦✇❛r❞s✳
❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❞♦ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❢♦r ❣r❛♣❤s✳

❇❡❧♦✇✱ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✬s ❣r❛♣❤ ✭❣r❡❡♥✮ ✇❛s ❢♦✉♥❞ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✭r❡❞✮ ❜② ❧♦♦❦✐♥❣ ❛t t❤❡
′ ′ ′
♠♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ♦❢ f ✭❡✐t❤❡r f > 0 ♦r f < 0✱ ❛♥❞ ❧♦❝❛❧ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥ts✿ f = 0✮✿

■♥ s✉♠♠❛r②✱ ✇❡ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t ց, ր ♦❢ f t♦ ✜♥❞ +, − ♦❢ f ′✳

■♥ r❡✈❡rs❡✱ ✇❡ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t +, − ♦❢ f′ t♦ ✜♥❞ ց, ր ♦❢ f✳

❍❡r❡ ✐s ❛♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ✐s ❢♦✉♥❞ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿
✷✳✹✳ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✶✷✶

❚♦ s❤♦✇ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❡ ❛♥s✇❡r✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ s❤♦✇ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✿

❲❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ✭♦r ✜♥❛❧✱ ♦r ♠✐❞✲✢✐❣❤t✮ st❛t❡ ✐s ❦♥♦✇♥✱ ✇❡ ♣✐❝❦ ❛ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ❝✉r✈❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤✐s s❡t✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✸✳✷✼

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥✢❡❝t✐♦♥ ♣♦✐♥ts✳

✷✳✹✳ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧

◆✉♠❡r♦✉s q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s ❛r❡ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ✈✐❛ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✿ ❛r❡❛s ❛♥❞ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥ts ❛s ♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r
✶❀ ❛♥❞ ✇❡✐❣❤ts✱ ✈♦❧✉♠❡s✱ ❧❡♥❣t❤s✱ ✢✉①❡s✱ ✇♦r❦✱ ❛♥❞ ♠❛♥② ♠♦r❡ t♦ ❜❡ ♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r
♣❛rt ♦❢ t❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛❧❧♦✇s ✉s t♦ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ ❛♥②t❤✐♥❣ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ t❤✐s ✇❛② ❜② ♠❡❛♥s ♦❢ ❛ s✐♠♣❧❡
s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ✕ ❛s ❧♦♥❣ ❛s ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❢♦✉♥❞✦ ❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ r❡❢❡r t♦ t❤❡♠ ❛s ✐♥❞❡✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ♦r
s✐♠♣❧② ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s✳
❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s❄ ❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ s✉❜❥❡❝t ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r❡s❡♥t ❝❤❛♣t❡r✳
■♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ s❛✇ s♦♠❡ ❢❛❝ts ❛❜♦✉t ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ❛s t❤❡② ❛r❡ ♠❛t❝❤❡❞ ❛❣❛✐♥st t❤♦s❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✳
■♥ t❤✐s s❡❝t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❢✉rt❤❡r ❡①❛♠✐♥❡ ❛♥♦t❤❡r s✉❝❤ ❢❛❝t✱ t❤❡ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❘✉❧❡✳
❚❤❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✇❡ ❛r❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r✐♥❣ ❛r❡ q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s ✇❡ ♠❡❡t ✐♥ ❡✈❡r②❞❛② ❧✐❢❡✳ ❋r❡q✉❡♥t❧②✱ t❤❡r❡
❛r❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ✇❛②s t♦ ♠❡❛s✉r❡ t❤❡s❡ q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s✿
• ❧❡♥❣t❤ ❛♥❞ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡✿ ✐♥❝❤❡s✱ ♠✐❧❡s✱ ♠❡t❡rs✱ ❦✐❧♦♠❡t❡rs✱ ✳✳✳✱ ❧✐❣❤t ②❡❛rs
✷✳✹✳ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✶✷✷

• ❛r❡❛✿ sq✉❛r❡ ✐♥❝❤❡s✱ sq✉❛r❡ ♠✐❧❡s✱ ✳✳✳✱ ❛❝r❡s

• ✈♦❧✉♠❡✿ ❝✉❜✐❝ ✐♥❝❤❡s✱ ❝✉❜✐❝ ♠✐❧❡s✱ ✳✳✳✱ ❧✐t❡rs✱ ❣❛❧❧♦♥s
• t✐♠❡✿ ♠✐♥✉t❡s✱ s❡❝♦♥❞s✱ ❤♦✉rs✱ ✳✳✳✱ ②❡❛rs
• ✇❡✐❣❤t✿ ♣♦✉♥❞s✱ ❣r❛♠s✱ ❦✐❧♦❣r❛♠s✱ ❦❛r❛ts
• t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❡✿ ❞❡❣r❡❡s ♦❢ ❈❡❧s✐✉s✱ ♦❢ ❋❛❤r❡♥❤❡✐t
• ♠♦♥❡②✿ ❞♦❧❧❛rs✱ ❡✉r♦s✱ ♣♦✉♥❞s✱ ②❡♥
• ❡t❝✳
❚❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs✐♦♥ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❢♦r t❤❡s❡ ✉♥✐ts ❛r❡ s❡❡♥ ✐♥ ♠❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝s ❛s ❝❤❛♥❣❡s ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✳
❆❧♠♦st ❛❧❧ ❝♦♥✈❡rs✐♦♥ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❛r❡ ❥✉st ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s✱ s✉❝❤ ❛s t❤✐s ♦♥❡✿
# ♦❢ ♠❡t❡rs = # ♦❢ ❦✐❧♦♠❡t❡rs · 1000 .

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❲❡ ❞♦♥✬t ❝♦♥✈❡rt ✏♣♦✉♥❞s t♦ ❦✐❧♦s✑✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rt t❤❡

♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ♣♦✉♥❞s t♦ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ❦✐❧♦s✳

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ♠♦t✐♦♥ ❛s ❛♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✿

• ■❢ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ✐s ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ✐♥❝❤❡s ❛♥❞ t✐♠❡ ✐♥ ♠✐♥✉t❡s✱ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ✐♥❝❤❡s ♣❡r
♠✐♥✉t❡✳
• ◆♦✇✱ ✐❢ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ✐s ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ❢❡❡t✱ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ♥♦✇ ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ❢❡❡t ♣❡r ♠✐♥✉t❡✳
• ❇✉t ✐❢ t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ✐s ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ s❡❝♦♥❞s✱ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ✐♥❝❤❡s ♣❡r s❡❝♦♥❞✳
❲❡ ❛r❡ ❞❡❛❧✐♥❣ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ❥✉st ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ✉♥✐ts ❛♥❞✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳
❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ tr❛♥s✐t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ t❤r❡❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s❄
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
y = f (x)
❡st❛❜❧✐s❤❡s ❛ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t✇♦ q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s x ❛♥❞ y ✿
f
x −−−−→ y

◆♦✇✱ ❡✐t❤❡r ♦♥❡ ♠❛② ❜❡ r❡♣❧❛❝❡❞ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ♥❡✇ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ✭♦r ❛ ♥❡✇ ✉♥✐t✮✳ ▲❡t✬s ❝❛❧❧ t❤❡♠ t ❛♥❞ z r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②
❛♥❞ s✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡s❡ r❡♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥ts✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥s✱ ❛r❡ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② s♦♠❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿
• ❈❛s❡ ✶✿ x = g(t) ❛♥❞ y = k(t) = f (g(t))
• ❈❛s❡ ✷✿ z = h(y) ❛♥❞ z = k(x) = h(f (x))
❚❤❡s❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥s ❝r❡❛t❡ ♥❡✇ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥s ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✿
g f
❈❛s❡ ✶ : t −−−−→ x −−−−→ y
f
❈❛s❡ ✷ : h
x −−−−→ y −−−−→ z

❚❤❡ t✇♦ ❝❛s❡s ❛r❡ s❤♦✇♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣✐❝t✉r❡ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

✷✳✹✳ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✶✷✸

❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❛ss✉♠❡ t❤❛t t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s g ❛♥❞ h ❛r❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r✳

❈❛s❡ ✶

❚❤❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✉♥✐ts ✐s

x = g(t) = mt + b .

❘❡✲s❝❛❧✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❛①✐s r❡q✉✐r❡s ❛♥ ❛❞❥✉st♠❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✐❢ ✐t ✐s s❡❡♥ ❛s t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✿

❆❜♦✈❡✱ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ✐s s❤r✉♥❦ ❜② ❛ ❢❛❝t♦r ♦❢ 2✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ x = t/2✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦✈❡r ❛♥② ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✐♥ x ✇✐❧❧

❤❛✈❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❡❞ ❜② 2 t♦ ❣❡t ♦♥❡ ❢♦r t✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✹✳✶✿ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ■

❋♦r ❛♥② ♥✉♠❜❡rs m 6= 0 ❛♥❞ b ❛♥❞ ❛♥② ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

Z Z 
1 
f (mt + b) dt = f (x) dx
m x=mt+b
✷✳✹✳ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✶✷✹

Pr♦♦❢✳

❲❡ t❛❦❡✿ Z
F (x) = f (x) dx .

❲❡ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ✿
 
d 1 1 d 1
F (mt + b) = (F (mt + b)) = mF ′ (mt + b) = F ′ (mt + b) = f (mt + b) .
dt m m dt m

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✹✳✷✿ t✐♠❡ s❤✐❢t

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ x ✐s t❤❡ t✐♠❡✱ ❛♥❞ s✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ t❤❡ ♠♦♠❡♥t ❢r♦♠ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✇❡ st❛rt ♠❡❛s✉r✐♥❣ t✐♠❡✳ ❚❤❡♥
✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿ Z Z
x = t + t0 =⇒ k(x) dx = f (t + t0 ) dt .

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✹✳✸✿ s❡❝♦♥❞s t♦ ♠✐♥✉t❡s

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ x ✐s t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ❛♥❞ y ✐s t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✳ ■❢ x ✐s ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ s❡❝♦♥❞s✱ t❤❡♥ s✇✐t❝❤✐♥❣ t♦ t✐♠❡ t
♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ♠✐♥✉t❡s ✇✐❧❧ r❡q✉✐r❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

x = g(t) = 60t .

❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ ❢r♦♠ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷❉❈✲✹ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ t❤❡ q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s ❞❡s❝r✐❜✐♥❣ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ❛r❡ s✐♠♣❧② r❡✲s❝❛❧❡❞
✈❡rs✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦❧❞ ♦♥❡s✳ ▲❡t✬s r❡❝❛st t❤✐s st❛t❡♠❡♥t ✐♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❢♦r♠✳
• ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ y = q(t) ❛♥❞ y = p(x) ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ♠✐♥✉t❡s ❛♥❞ s❡❝♦♥❞s r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✳
❚❤❡♥
q(t) = p(60t) .
• ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ v(t) = q ′ (t) ❛♥❞
Z e(x) = p (x)Z❛r❡ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s ❛s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ♠✐♥✉t❡s ❛♥❞ s❡❝♦♥❞s
′

r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ v dt = q ❛♥❞ e dx = p✳ ❲❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ t❤❡s❡ ✐♥t♦ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✿

Z Z 


v dt = e dx .

x=60t

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✹✳✹

❊①♣r❡ss t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ♠✐♥✉t❡s ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s❡❝♦♥❞s✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✹✳✺✿ ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ t♦ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡

▲❡t✬s ✜♥❞ ❜♦t❤ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿
k(t) = sin(3t − 1) .
❆❢t❡r ❛❧❧✱ t❤❡ ♠❛✐♥ ❝❤❛❧❧❡♥❣❡ ♠✐❣❤t ❜❡ t❤❡ ❞❡❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿
t 7→ 3t − 1 = x 7→ sin x = z
❍❡r❡✱ x ✐s t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ♠❛❞❡ ✉♣✳

❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿
d d
d  
 
k(t) = sin(3t − 1) = 3 sin x = 3 cos x = 3 cos(3t − 1) .
dt dt dx x=3t−1 x=3t−1
❚❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✿
Z Z  
1  1  1
k(t) dt = sin(x) dx = (− cos(x))  + C = − cos(3t − 1) + C .
3 x=3t−1 3 x=3t−1 3
✷✳✹✳ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✶✷✺

❈❛s❡ ✷

❚❤❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✉♥✐ts ✐s

z = h(y) = my + b .

❘❡✲s❝❛❧✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❛①✐s r❡q✉✐r❡s ❛♥ ❛❞❥✉st♠❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✿

❆❜♦✈❡✱ t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s ✐s s❤r✉♥❦ ❜② ❛ ❢❛❝t♦r ♦❢ 2✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ z = y/2✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ y ✇✐❧❧ ❤❛✈❡

♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❡❞ ❜② 2 t♦ ❣❡t ♦♥❡ ❢♦r z ✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✹✳✻✿ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ■■

❋♦r ❛♥② ♥✉♠❜❡rs m ❛♥❞ b ❛♥❞ ❛♥② ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

Z Z


mf (x) + b dx = m f dx + bx

❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s ❥✉st ❛♥ ✐♥st❛♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ▲✐♥❡❛r✐t② ❘✉❧❡✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✹✳✼✿ s♣❛❝❡ s❤✐❢t ❛♥❞ ✢✐♣

■❢ y ✐s t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ t❤❡ ♣❧❛❝❡ ❢r♦♠ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✇❡ st❛rt ♠❡❛s✉r✐♥❣✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

Z Z
z = h(x) = y + y0 =⇒ k dx = f dx + y0 x .

■❢ ✇❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ t❤❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

Z Z
z = h(x) = −y =⇒ k dx = − f dx .

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✹✳✽✿ ♠✐❧❡s t♦ ❦✐❧♦♠❡t❡rs

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ x ✐s t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ❛♥❞ y ✐s t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ h ♠❛② r❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✉♥✐ts ♦❢

❧❡♥❣t❤✱ s✉❝❤ ❛s ❢r♦♠ ♠✐❧❡s t♦ ❦✐❧♦♠❡t❡rs✿

z = h(y) = 1.6y .

❆s ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇✱ t❤❡ q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s ❞❡s❝r✐❜✐♥❣ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ❛r❡ s✐♠♣❧② r❡♣❧❛❝❡❞ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡✐r ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡s✳ ❚❤❡ ♥❡✇ ❣r❛♣❤s

❛r❡ t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧❧② str❡t❝❤❡❞ ✈❡rs✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦❧❞ ♦♥❡s✳ ▲❡t✬s r❡❝❛st t❤✐s st❛t❡♠❡♥t ✐♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❢♦r♠✿

• ■❢ a ✐s t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ ♠✐❧❡s✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ ❦✐❧♦♠❡t❡rs ✐s

Z
1
a dx .
1.6
✷✳✹✳ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✶✷✻

• ■❢ v ✐s t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ ♠✐❧❡s✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ ❦✐❧♦♠❡t❡rs ✐s
Z
1
v dx .
1.6

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✹✳✾

■❢ a ✐s t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ ♠✐❧❡s✱ t❤❡♥ ✇❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ ❦✐❧♦♠❡t❡rs❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✹✳✶✵

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✹✳✶✶✿ t✐♠❡ ❛♥❞ t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❡

❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ ❜♦t❤ ❝❛s❡s ❝❛♥ ❛♣♣❡❛r✳ ❘❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ❢r♦♠ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷❉❈✲✹ ✇❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
f t❤❛t r❡❝♦r❞s t❤❡ t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❡ ✭✐♥ ❋❛❤r❡♥❤❡✐t✮ ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ♦❢ t✐♠❡ ✭✐♥ ♠✐♥✉t❡s✮ r❡♣❧❛❝❡❞ ✇✐t❤
❛♥♦t❤❡r t❤❛t r❡❝♦r❞s t❤❡ t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❡ ✐♥ ❈❡❧s✐✉s ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ g ♦❢ t✐♠❡ ✐♥ s❡❝♦♥❞s✿
• s t✐♠❡ ✐♥ s❡❝♦♥❞s❀
• m t✐♠❡ ✐♥ ♠✐♥✉t❡s❀
• F t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❡ ✐♥ ❋❛❤r❡♥❤❡✐t❀
• C t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❡ ✐♥ ❈❡❧s✐✉s✳
❚❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs✐♦♥ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❛r❡✿
m = s/60 ,
❛♥❞
C = (F − 32)/1.8 .
❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥s ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ❢♦✉r q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s✿

s/60 f (F −32)/1.8
g: s −−−−−−→ m −−−−→ F −−−−−−−−−−→ C

❆♥❞ t❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

F = k(s) = f (s/60) − 32 /1.8 .
❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
Z Z


k ds = (f (s/60) − 32)/1.8 ds
Z Z
= f (s/60)/1.8 ds − 32/1.8 ds
Z
1
= f (s/60) ds − 32/1.8s
1.8 
Z 
60 
= f dm − 32/1.8s ,
1.8 
m=s/60

❜② t❤❡ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❘✉❧❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✹✳✶✷

Pr♦✈✐❞❡ ❛ s✐♠✐❧❛r ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ❢♦r t❤❡ s✐③❡s ♦❢ s❤♦❡s ❛♥❞ ❝❧♦t❤✐♥❣✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✹✳✶✸✿ ❞❡❣r❡❡s t♦ r❛❞✐❛♥s

❚❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ❞❡❣r❡❡s y t♦ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ r❛❞✐❛♥s x ✐s✿

π
x= y.
180
✷✳✹✳ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✶✷✼

❚❤❡♥✱ ❢♦r ❛♥② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ z = f (x)✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

Z Z 
 π  180 

f y dy = f dx .
180 π  π
x= 180 y

❇❡❝❛✉s❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡①tr❛ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥t✱ t❤❡ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s✱ s✉❝❤ ❛s

Z
sin x dx = − cos x + C ,

❞♦♥✬t ❤♦❧❞ ❢♦r ❞❡❣r❡❡s✳ ■♥❞❡❡❞✱ ✐❢ ✇❡ ❞❡♥♦t❡ s✐♥❡ ❛♥❞ ❝♦s✐♥❡ ❢♦r ❞❡❣r❡❡s ❜② sind y ❛♥❞ cosd y r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✱
✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t✇♦ ❡♥t✐r❡❧② ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿
 π   π 
sind y = sin y ❛♥❞ cosd y = cos y .
180 180
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ 
Z Z 
180 
sind y dy = sin x dx
π  π
 x= 180 y

180 

= cos x +C
π  π
x= 180 y
180
= cosd y + C .
π
❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❥✉st ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❧♦♦❦ ❛s ♥✐❝❡✦

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✹✳✶✹✿ ❧♦❣❛r✐t❤♠✐❝ s❝❛❧❡

❚❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ♥♦♥✲❧✐♥❡❛r ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✉♥✐ts ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛ ❧♦❣❛r✐t❤♠✐❝ s❝❛❧❡ ✿

x = g(t) = 10t .

❚❤❡♥✱ ❢♦r ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x)✱ s✉♣♣♦s❡ F ✐s ✐ts ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✳ ❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡✱ ❛s ✇❡ ❞✐❞ ❛❜♦✈❡✱ ❡①♣r❡ss
❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ y = f (10t ) ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ F ❄ ❲❡ ✇♦✉❧❞ ❧✐❦❡ t♦ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿
Z
f (10t ) dt = ...

❲❡ ♣r♦❝❡❡❞ ❛s ❜❡❢♦r❡✱ ❜② t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡✿


d(F ◦ g) dF 
′
=  · 10t = f (10t )10t ln 10 .
dt dx 
x=10t

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ Z
t
F (10 ) = f (10t ) · 10t ln 10 dt ,

❛♥❞✱ ❢✉rt❤❡r✱ Z
1
f (10t ) · 10t dt = F (10t ) .
ln 10
❯♥❢♦rt✉♥❛t❡❧②✱ t❤❡ ♣r❡s❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢❛❝t♦r 10t ✐♥s✐❞❡ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ s❡❡♠s t♦ ♥♦t ❛❧❧♦✇ ✉s t♦ ✜♥✐s❤ t❤❡ ❥♦❜
❛♥❞ ❡①♣r❡ss ❞✐r❡❝t❧② t❤❡ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ y = f (10t ) ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ F ✳ ❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♥❡❡❞ ❢✉rt❤❡r ❛♥❛❧②s✐s✳✳✳
✷✳✺✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✿ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ✶✷✽

✷✳✺✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✿ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s

❚❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✜rst✱ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿
Z Z 
1 
f (mx + b) dx = f (u) du
m u=mx+b

(mx + b)′ =m
❇❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤✐s ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s ❥✉st ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r✱ ✐t ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❢❛❝t♦r❡❞ ✐♥t♦ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❛s ✐t ✐s ♠♦✈❡❞ t♦ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r s✐❞❡✿

(sin(3x − 1))′ = cos(3x − 1) · (3x − 1)′

= cos(3x − 1) · 3
 ′
1
=⇒ sin(3x − 1) = cos(3x − 1)
3
Z
1
=⇒ sin(3x − 1) = cos(3x − 1) dx
3

❙♦✱ ♦✉r ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐s✱ ✐♥ tr✉t❤✱ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

Z Z 
′ 
f (mx + b) · (mx + b) dx = f (u) du
u=mx+b

◆♦✇✱ ❤♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✇✐t❤ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ ♥♦t ❥✉st ❧✐♥❡❛r ♦♥❡s❄

❏✉st ❛s ✇✐t❤ ♦t❤❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ✇❡✱ ❛❣❛✐♥✱ tr② t♦ ✏r❡✈❡rs❡✑ t❤❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✳

▲❡t✬s t❛❦❡ sin(x2 )✳ ■t ✐s ❡❛s② t♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ ❜② t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡ ✿

′
sin(x2 ) = cos(x2 ) · 2x .
❲❡ ✇♦✉❧❞ ❧✐❦❡ t♦ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ s✐♠✐❧❛r ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿
Z
sin(x2 ) dx =?
2
❇✉t ✇❡ ❞♦♥✬t r❡❝♦❣♥✐③❡ sin(x ) ❛s t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛♥② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇✳✳✳ ❈❛♥ ✇❡ s❡❡ ✇❤②❄ ■t✬s t❤❡ ❡①tr❛
′
❢❛❝t♦r g ✇❡ ❣❡t ❡✈❡r② t✐♠❡ ✇❡ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡ t♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ f ◦ g ✳

◆♦✇✱ ✇❡ ❞♦ r❡❝♦❣♥✐③❡ cos(x2 ) · 2x ❢r♦♠ t✇♦ ❧✐♥❡s ❛❜♦✈❡✦ ❚❤❡♥✱

Z
cos(x2 ) 2x dx = sin(x2 ) + C .

▼♦r❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s❄ ❍❡r❡ t❤❡② ❛r❡✿

Z Z
2 2 2 2
sin(x ) 2x dx = − cos(x ) + C, ex 2x dx = ex + C .

❲❤❛t ❞♦ t❤❡ t❤r❡❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ❤❛✈❡ ✐♥ ❝♦♠♠♦♥❄ ❲❡ s❡❡ ❛ ♣❛tt❡r♥✿

Z
cos (x2 ) ·2x dx = sin (x2 )
Z
sin (x2 ) ·2x dx = − cos (x2 )
Z
(x2 ) (x2 )
e ·2x dx = e
Z
? (x2 ) ·2x dx = ? (x2 )
✷✳✺✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✿ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ✶✷✾

❊✈❡r②t❤✐♥❣ ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❡①❝❡♣t ✇❤❛t❡✈❡r ✐s ❜❡❤✐♥❞ t❤❡s❡ q✉❡st✐♦♥ ♠❛r❦s✳

❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ ✇❤❛t ✐s ♠✐ss✐♥❣ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ r❡✇r✐t❡✿
Z
f (x2 ) · 2x dx = F (x2 ) + C ✇✐t❤ F ′ = f

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ F ✐s ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f ✳

❙♦✱ t♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t❡ t❤❡s❡✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ s♦❧✈❡ t❤✐s ♣r♦❜❧❡♠✿
◮ ●✐✈❡♥ f ✱ ✜♥❞ F ✇✐t❤ F ′ = f ✳
❚❤✐s ✐s✱ ♦❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ ❛❧s♦ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ✱ ❜✉t ♥♦t ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ x✦ ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤✐s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡❄ ▲❡t✬s
❞❡❝♦♠♣♦s❡✿
x 7→ x2 = u 7→ f (u) = z
❙♦✱ ❜♦t❤ f ❛♥❞ F ❛r❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ s♦♠❡ u✱ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r♠❡❞✐❛t❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✱ t❤❛t ✇❡✬✈❡ ♠❛❞❡ ✉♣✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ t♦ ✜♥❞ F ✱
✇❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t❡ f ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ u✿
Z
F (u) = f (u) du

❚❤✐s ✐s ❛ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✦

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✺✳✶✿ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ x2
❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡✿ Z √3
x2 ·2x dx = ?
|{z}
❞❡❝♦♠♣♦s❡

❚❤❡ ❦❡② st❡♣ ✐s t♦ ❜r❡❛❦ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❛♣❛rt✱ t♦ ✜♥❞ u, f, F ✳ ❙♦✱ u = x2 , f (u) = u1/3 ✳ ❚❤❡♥✱
Z Z 1
√ 1 u 3 +1
PF 3 4
F (u) = 3
u du = u du == 1
3 + C = u3 + C .
3
+1 4

❊✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ✜♥✐s❤❡❞✱ t❤✐s ✐s♥✬t t❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ✐t ❤❛s t♦ ❜❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ x✦ ❲❡ ♥❡❡❞
t♦ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ u = x2 ❜❛❝❦ ✐♥t♦ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿
3 2
34
F (x2 ) = x +C.
4

❋♦r ❛ ♠♦r❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s✱ ✇❡ r❡♣❧❛❝❡ x2 ✇✐t❤ g(x)✳ ❲❡ ❛r❡ ♣r❡♣❛r❡❞ t♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t❡ t❤✐s ✭❛♥❞ ♥♦t❤✐♥❣ ❡❧s❡✮✿
Z
f (g(x)) · g ′ (x) dx .

❚❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r ✐s F (g(x))✱ ✇❤❡r❡ F ✐s ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f ✿

F′ = f .

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✺✳✷✿ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② ❙✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥

●✐✈❡♥ ❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❛♥❞ ❛ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ g ✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

Z
f (g(x)) · g ′ (x) dx = F (g(x)) + C
✷✳✺✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✿ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ✶✸✵

✇❤❡r❡ F ✐s ❛♥② ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f✿

Z
F (u) = f (u) du

Pr♦♦❢✳

CR
(F (g(x)))′ == F ′ (g(x) · g ′ (x)
= f (g(x))g ′ (x) .

❈♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥✿ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✐s s❛t✐s✜❡❞✿

◮ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✏✐♥s✐❞❡✑ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ♣r❡s❡♥t ❛s ❛ ❢❛❝t♦r✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ❛s ❛ ♣r❡r❡q✉✐s✐t❡✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

Z
f( g(x) )· g ′ (x) dx
|{z} | {z }
✏✐♥s✐❞❡✑ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✺✳✸✿ ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡♦r❡♠

❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡ Z √
x3 + 1 · 3x2 dx .

❖❜s❡r✈❡ ✜rst t❤❛t t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐♥s✐❞❡ ✐s ♣r❡s❡♥t✿

(x3 + 1)′ = 3x2 .

❙♦✱ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ s❤♦✉❧❞ ✇♦r❦✿

❞❡❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✿ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥✿
Z
√ 1 2 3
f (u) = u =⇒ F (u) = u 2 du = u 2 + C
3
u = g(x) = x3 + 1 =⇒ g ′ (x) = 3x2
2 3
❜❛❝❦✲s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✿ F (g(x)) = (x3 + 1) 2 + C
3
◆♦t❡ ❤♦✇ ✇❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rt❡❞ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ t♦ ❛ s✐♠♣❧❡r ♦♥❡✱ ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ u✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✺✳✹✿ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥

❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡ Z √
x3 + 1 · x2 dx =?

❏✉st ♥♦t✐❝❡ t❤❛t (x3 + 1)′ = 3x2 ✱ ♥♦t x2 ✳ ❚❤❡ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥ ❞♦❡s♥✬t s❡❡♠ t♦ ❜❡ s❛t✐s✜❡❞ ❛♥②♠♦r❡✳✳✳
❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❥✉st ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦♥❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ❛♥❞ s♦✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✐s
t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✳ ❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ✐❣♥♦r❡ t❤✐s s❤♦rt❝✉t t❤♦✉❣❤✳

❲❡✬❧❧ tr② t♦ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② ❙✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❛♥②✇❛②✿

)
✜rst s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✿ u = x3 + 1 ✇❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rt t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ x
s❡❝♦♥❞ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✿ u′ = 3x2 t♦ ❛ ♥❡✇ ♦♥❡ ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ u
❚❤❡ ❤♦♣❡ ✐s t❤❛t t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ s✐♠♣❧❡r t❤❛♥ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧✳
✷✳✺✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✿ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ✶✸✶

❲❡ ❛❧r❡❛❞② ❤❛✈❡ ❛❧❧ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ ❤❡r❡✳ ❲❡ ❜r❡❛❦ ✇❤❛t✬s ✐♥s✐❞❡ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❛♣❛rt ❜✉t ♥♦t ✐♥ t❤❡ ♦❜✈✐♦✉s
✇❛②✿
√ √ 1
x3 + 1 = u, x2 = u′ .
3
◆♦✇ ✇❡ ❞❡❛❧ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✐ts❡❧❢✳
Z √ Z
√ 1
x3 + 1 x2 dx = u· du
| {z } 3
u ✐♥s✐❞❡
Z
1
❆ ♥❡✇ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✳
1
= u 2 du
3
PF 1 2 3
== u2 + C ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✜♥✐s❤❡❞✳
3 3
1 2 3
(x + 1) 2 + C ❇❛❝❦✲s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ u = x3 + 1 .
3
=
3 3
❆♥s✇❡r✿ Z √
2 3
x3 + 1 x2 dx = (x3 + 1) 2 + C .
9

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✺✳✺

❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡ Z √
x3 + 1 x2 dx .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✺✳✻

❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡ Z √
x4 + 1 x3 dx .

❲❡ ❝❛♥ r❡✲✇r✐t❡ ♦✉r t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛s ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

Z Z 

f (g(x)) · g ′ (x) dx =

f (u) du

u=g(x)

■♥ t❤✐s ✈❡rs✐♦♥✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ❝♦♥❢✉s✐♦♥ ❛❜♦✉t ✇❤❡t❤❡r t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✲❤❛♥❞ s✐❞❡ ❤❛s ❜❡❡♥ ❝❛rr✐❡❞
♦✉t✳
❚❤❡ s✐♠♣❧❡st ❦✐♥❞ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❢♦r ✇❤✐❝❤ t❤✐s ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ ❛❧✇❛②s ✇♦r❦s ✐♥✈♦❧✈❡s ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✳ ■❢

g(x) = mx + b, m 6= 0 ,

♦✉r ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❜❡❝♦♠❡s✿ Z Z 



f (mx + b) · m dx = f (u) du .

u=mx+b

❲❡ ❝♦♥s❡q✉❡♥t❧② r❡❝♦✈❡r t❤❡ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r ▲✐♥❡❛r ❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ✿

Z Z 
1 

f (mx + b) dx = f (u) du .
m 
u=mx+b
✷✳✺✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✿ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ✶✸✷

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✺✳✼✿ ♦♥❡✲❧✐♥❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥

❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡✿  
Z Z  
1 1 u 1
e3x dx = eu du = e3x + C .
 
= e + C
3  3  3
u=3x u=3x

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✺✳✽✿ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s

❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡✿ Z
ex sin(ex ) dx .

▲❡t✬s ❜r❡❛❦ ❞♦✇♥ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✱ sin(ex )✿

u = ex , y = sin u .

❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱

u′ = e x .
❯s❡ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦✿ Z Z
x x
e sin(e ) dx = sin u du ❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡✳

= − cos u + C ❙✉❜st✐t✉t❡✳

= cos ex + C .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✺✳✾

❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡✿ Z √
sin x · cos x dx .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✺✳✶✵

❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡✿ Z
x +x
ee dx .

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✺✳✶✶✿ ♥♦ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥

Z
tan x dx = ❲❤❛t✱ ♥♦ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥❄✦

Z
sin x
= dx ❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛ ❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ t❤♦✉❣❤✳

Z cos x
1
= sin x · dx ■t✬s ❛ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥✱ ✐♥ ❢❛❝t✳

Z cos x
= sin x (cos x)−1 dx ❙♦✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❛❢t❡r ❛❧❧✦

Z
= − (cos x)′ (cos x)−1 dx ❆♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥s✐❞❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ♣r❡s❡♥t✳

Z
= − (u)−1 du ❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❛♣♣❧✐❡s ✇✐t❤ u = cos x.

= − ln u + C ❲❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t❡✳

= − ln cos x + C . ❲❡ ❜❛❝❦✲s✉❜st✐t✉t❡✳
✷✳✻✳ ❈❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✶✸✸

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❲❡ ♠❛❦❡ s✉r❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s t❤❛t ✇❡ ❢❛❝❡ ❝❛♥

❜❡ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡❞ ✇✐t❤ t❤✐s ♠❡t❤♦❞✳

✷✳✻✳ ❈❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✻✳✶✿ ❢❛✐❧✉r❡ ❛❢t❡r s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥

▲❡t✬s t❛❦❡ ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤✐s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✿

Z Z
x2 1 2
xe dx = eu du = eu + C = ex + C .
2

■t ✇♦r❦s s♦ ✇❡❧❧✦ ❈❤❛♥❣✐♥❣ t❤❡ ♣♦✇❡r✱ x t♦ x2 ✱ r✉✐♥s t❤✐s ♥✐❝❡ ❛rr❛♥❣❡♠❡♥t✿

Z Z
2 x2
x e dx = ueu dx = ... ♥♦✇ ✇❤❛t❄

■♥ ❢❛❝t✱ ♥♦ ♣♦✇❡r ♦❢ x ♦t❤❡r t❤❛♥ 1 ✇✐❧❧ ❛❧❧♦✇ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿
Z Z Z Z
3 x2 4 x2 1/2 x2 2
x e dx = ? x e dx = ? x e dx = ? xπ ex dx = ?

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❉♦ ♥♦t r❡♣❧❛❝❡ x ✐♥ dx ✇✐t❤ u✱ dx 6= du✦

❲❡ st✐❧❧ ✇♦✉❧❞ ❧✐❦❡ t♦ ❜❡ ❛❜❧❡ t♦ ❝♦♥✈❡rt ❛♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ t♦ ❛ ♥❡✇ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✳ ■t ✐s ❛❧✇❛②s ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡✦ ❚❤❡ ❝❤❛❧❧❡♥❣❡
✐s ✇❤❛t t♦ ❞♦ ✇✐t❤ dx✳
❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t❧②✳ ❲❤❛t ❡①❛❝t❧② ❞♦ ✇❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t❡❄ ■♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✱
Z
k(x) dx ,
Z
✐t ❤❛s ❜❡❡♥ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ k(x)✱ ✇❤✐❧❡ ❛♥❞ dx s❡r✈❡ ❛s ♠❡r❡ ❜r❛❝❦❡ts✳ ❚❤✐s ❞♦❡s♥✬t ✇♦r❦ ❛♥②♠♦r❡✦ ❲❡ ♥❡❡❞
t♦ ♠❛❦❡ s❡♥s❡ ♦❢ dx✳ ❙✐❣♥✐✜❝❛♥t❧②✱ ✇❡ s✇✐t❝❤ ❢r♦♠ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t♦ ❛ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠✱ k(x) · dx✳ ❆s ♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞
✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷❉❈✲✹✱ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠ ❝♦♠❡s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿
dy
y = f (x) ❛t x = a =⇒ = f ′ (a) ,
dx
❛♥❞✱ ❢✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱
=⇒ dy = f ′ (a) · dx .
❚❤✐s ✐s ❛ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❡①tr❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✱ ♥♦t❤✐♥❣ ❜✉t ♥✉♠❜❡rs✱ ♦♥❝❡ t❤❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ♦❧❞
♦♥❡s ❤❛s ❜❡❡♥ s♣❡❝✐✜❡❞✿
✷✳✻✳ ❈❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✶✸✹

■♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✱ dx ✐s t❤❡ r✉♥ ❛♥❞ dy ✐s t❤❡ r✐s❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡✳ ❚❤❡② ❛r❡ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧s ♦❢ x ❛♥❞
y r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡♠ ✈❛r✐❡s ❢r♦♠ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ t♦ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ❢✉rt❤❡r ❞✐s❝✉ss❡❞ ✐♥
❈❤❛♣t❡r ✹✳

❇❛❝❦ t♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥✳

❙♦✱ dx ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ♦❢ x✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ s❡♣❛r❛t❡ ❢r♦♠✱ ❜✉t r❡❧❛t❡❞ t♦✱ x✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ f ′ (x) · dx ✐s ❥✉st
❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠ ♦♥ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ✐s ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧❧②
s✐♠♣❧❡❀ ✐t✬s ❛ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡✳

◆♦✇ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✳

❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ du u ✐s ❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ s❡♣❛r❛t❡

♦❢ ❢r♦♠✱ ❜✉t r❡❧❛t❡❞ t♦✱ u✳ ❙♦✱ ❝❤❛♥❣✐♥❣ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ♠❡❛♥s ❣♦✐♥❣
❢r♦♠ x t♦ u ❛♥❞ ❢r♦♠ dx t♦ du✳ ❍❛♥❞❧✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧s ✐s ❛ s❡♣❛r❛t❡ st❡♣ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣r♦❝❡ss ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣✐♥❣ t❤❡
✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✳

❘❡❝❛❧❧ ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡✱ ✐♥ t❤❡ ▲❡✐❜♥✐③ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✱ ✐s ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❡❞ ❛s✱ ❛♥❞ ✐t ✐s✱ ❛ ✏❝❛♥❝❡❧❧❛t✐♦♥✑ ♦❢ du ✭✇❤❡♥
✐t✬s ♥♦t ③❡r♦✮✿

dy dy 6 du
=
dx 6 du dx

❆ s✐♠✐❧❛r ✐❞❡❛ ❛♣♣❧✐❡s t♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s✳ ❲❡ t❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ s✇✐t❝❤ t♦ t❤❡
▲❡✐❜♥✐③ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✱ s✉❜❥❡❝t t♦ t❤❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✿

Z Z 

f (g(x)) · g ′ (x) dx =

f (u) du

u=g(x)

❛♥❞ Z Z
du
f (u) · 6 dx = f (u) du .
6 dx
◆♦t❡ ❤♦✇ dx ✏❝❛♥❝❡❧s✑✱ t✉r♥✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ x t♦ ♦♥❡ ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ u✳ ❲❡ t❛❦❡ t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛
♦♥❡ st❡♣ ❢✉rt❤❡r✳

❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✷✳✻✳✷✿ ❈❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ❱❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ♦❢ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❋♦r♠

❯♥❞❡r ❛ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ u = g(x) ✐♥ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✱ ✇❡ ❛❧s♦ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡✿

du = g ′ dx

❚❤✐s ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐s ✉s❡❞ ✕ ✐♥ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ t♦ u = g(x) ✕ ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❡ t❤❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✻✳✸✿ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐s t❤❡ ❣♦❛❧

▲❡t✬s ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ t♦ t❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥✿
Z
ex sin(ex ) dx .
✷✳✻✳ ❈❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✶✸✺

❲❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ ❛ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ t❤✐s t✐♠❡✿

du
u = ex =⇒ du = ex dx =⇒ dx =
ex
❙✉❜st✐t✉t❡ ❜♦t❤ t❤❡ ✜rst ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❧❛st ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ✐♥t♦ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✿
Z Z
du
x x
e sin(e ) dx = ex sin ex ❲❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❛♥❞ ❝❛♥❝❡❧✳
Z ex
= sin u du ❲❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ t❤❡ ✜rst✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐s ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❡✦
= − cos u + C ❚❤❡ r❡st ✐s ❛ ❜♦♥✉s✳
x
= − cos e + C .

❲✐t❤ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐♥ ❛♥② ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✱ ❡✈❡♥ t❤❡ ❦✐♥❞ t❤❛t✬s ♥♦t s✉❜❥❡❝t t♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥
❜② s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✻✳✹✿ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ♦♥❧②

▲❡t✬s ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡✿ Z
2
x2 ex dx = ?

❚❤❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❛s ❜❡❢♦r❡ ✭x ≥ 0✮✿

du
u = x2 =⇒ du = 2x dx =⇒ dx =
2x
❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ❛♥t✐❝✐♣❛t✐♥❣ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❝❛♥❝❡❧❧❛t✐♦♥ ♠✐❣❤t ♥♦t ❜❡ ❛s ❡❛s② ❛s ❧❛st t✐♠❡✱ ✇❡ ❛❧s♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡
s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ✭❧✐t❡r❛❧❧② t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✮✿
√
u = x2 =⇒ x = u.

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤r❡❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥s✿

✶✳ x2 = u
du
✷✳ dx =
√2x
✸✳ x = u
❙✉❜st✐t✉t❡✿ Z Z
2 x2
x e dx = x2 eu dx ★✶
Z
du
= x2 e u ★✷
Z 2x
√
2 u du
= u e √ ★✸
Z 2 u
1 √ u
= ue du .
2
❊✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❤❛s♥✬t ♠❛❞❡ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❡❛s✐❡r t♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t❡✱ t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs✐♦♥ ✐s
❝♦♠♣❧❡t❡✦

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❤❛✈❡ ❛♥② s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ✐♥ ❛♥② ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✻✳✺✿ ❜❛❞ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥

▲❡t✬s ♣✐❝❦ ❛ ✇r♦♥❣ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✿

Z
2
xex dx = ?
✷✳✻✳ ❈❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✶✸✻

❚❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝❤♦s❡♥ ❡✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ ✇❡ ❞♦♥✬t ❛♥t✐❝✐♣❛t❡ t❤❛t ✐t ✇✐❧❧ s✐♠♣❧✐❢② t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✿

#1. u = x3 .

❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ✐s ❢♦✉♥❞✿

du
#2. u = x3 =⇒ du = 3x2 dx =⇒ dx = .
3x2
❚❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ✐s ❢♦✉♥❞✿
#3. x = u1/3 .
❙✉❜st✐t✉t❡✿
Z Z
x2 1/3 )2
xe dx = xe(u dx ★✸
Z
2/3 du
= xeu ★✷
Z 3x2
2/3 du
= u1/3 eu 2 ★✸
3 (u1/3 )
Z
1 2/3
= u−1/3 eu du .
3
❖✉r ❝❤♦✐❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ ♥❡✇ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ✇❛s ✉♥✇✐s❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✻✳✻

❈❛rr② ♦✉t t❤❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ u = x4 ✐♥ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✻✳✼

❈❛rr② ♦✉t t❤❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ u=x ✐♥ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✻✳✽

▼❛❦❡ ✉♣ ②♦✉r ♦✇♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❛♥❞ ❝❛rr② ♦✉t t❤❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ u = x2 ✳ ❘❡♣❡❛t✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✻✳✾✿ ❝❧✉❡ ❢♦r ♥❡✇ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡

■❢ ✇❡ ❤♦♣❡ t♦ s✐♠♣❧✐❢② t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❜② s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ ✏✐♥s✐❞❡✑
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r✿
Z
√
x + 1 · x dx .

❲❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ u = x + 1✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ du = dx✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱

Z Z
√
x + 1 · x dx = u1/2 (u − 1) du ■s ✐t ❛♥② ❜❡tt❡r❄
Z Z
= u u du + u1/2 (−1) du
1/2
❨❡s✦
Z Z
= u u du − u1/2 du
3/2

2 2
= u5/2 − u3/2 + C
5 3
2 2
= (x + 1)5/2 − (x + 1)3/2 + C .
5 3
✷✳✻✳ ❈❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✶✸✼

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✻✳✶✵✿ ❧♦❣❛r✐t❤♠✐❝ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s

▲❡t✬s r❡✈✐s✐t t❤❡ ✐ss✉❡ ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡rt✐♥❣ ✉♥✐ts t♦ ❛ ❧♦❣❛r✐t❤♠✐❝ s❝❛❧❡ ✿

x = 10t .

❚❤❡♥✱
dx
dx = 10t ln 10 dt =⇒ dt = .
10t ln 10
❙✉❜st✐t✉t❡ ✐♥t♦ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❛♥❞ s✐♠♣❧✐❢②✿
Z Z Z
t dx 1 1
f (10 ) dt = f (x) t = f (x) dx .
10 ln 10 ln 10 x

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❡①♣r❡ss❡❞ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ y = f (10t ) ❛s ❛♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ x✳

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠♠❛r② ♦❢ ✇❤❛t ✐s ❣♦✐♥❣ ♦♥✳ ❲❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r ❞✐❛❣r❛♠ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥✲
t✐❛t✐♦♥✿ d

F (g(x)) −−−dx
−−−→ F ′ (g(x))g ′ (x)
 x
 
s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ u=g(x) ❈❘ ✇✐t❤ u=g(x)
y 
d

F (u) −−−du
−−−→ F ′ (u)
◆♦✇ ✇❡ r❡♠❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❞✐❛❣r❛♠ ✐♥t♦ ♦♥❡ ❛❜♦✉t ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② r❡✈❡rs✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❛rr♦✇s✿
R
 dx
F (g(x)) ←−−−−−−− F ′ (g(x))g ′ (x)
 x
 
s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ u=g(x) ❈❘ ✇✐t❤ u=g(x)
y 
R
 du
F (u) ←−−−−−−− F ′ (u)

❲❡ r❡✲♥❛♠❡ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥❝❡✿

R
 dx
F (g(x)) ←−−−−−−− f (g(x))g ′ (x)
x x
 
s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ u=g(x) ❈❘ ✇✐t❤ u=g(x)
 
R
 du
F (u) ←−−−−−−− f (u)

❚❤✉s t❤❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ♠❡t❤♦❞ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❣✐✈❡s ✉s ❛♥ ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❡ ✇❛② ♦❢ ❣❡tt✐♥❣ ❢r♦♠ t♦♣ r✐❣❤t
t♦ t♦♣ ❧❡❢t ✭✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ x✮✳ ❲❡ t❛❦❡ ❛ ❞❡t♦✉r ❜② ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❝❧♦❝❦✇✐s❡ ♣❛t❤ ❛r♦✉♥❞ t❤❡
sq✉❛r❡✿
✶✳ t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐♥ r❡✈❡rs❡
✷✳ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ u
✸✳ ❜❛❝❦✲s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✻✳✶✶✿ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ❞✐❛❣r❛♠

❚❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧

Z
cos(x2 ) 2x dx = sin(x2 ) + C
✷✳✼✳ ❈❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐♥ ❞❡✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✶✸✽

✐s ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇✿
R
2  dx= ?
sin(x ) ←−−−−−−−−− cos(x2 ) 2x
x x
 
s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ u=x2 ❈❘ ✇✐t❤ u=x2
 
R
 du
sin(u) ←−−−−−−− cos(u)

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✻✳✶✷

❊①❡❝✉t❡ t❤❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ u = ex ❢♦r t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✭❞♦♥✬t ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t✐♥❣ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✮✿
Z
sin(1 + ex ) dx .

✷✳✼✳ ❈❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐♥ ❞❡✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s

❆t t❤❡ ♥❡①t st❛❣❡✱ ✇❡ ❛rr✐✈❡ ❛t t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ q✉❡st✐♦♥✿

◮ ❲❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s ✇❤❡♥ ✇❡ ✉s❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ t♦ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s❄
❋✐rst✱ ♥♦t❤✐♥❣ ❤❛s t♦ ❝❤❛♥❣❡✳ ❆❢t❡r ❛❧❧✱ ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s✱ ❛❧❧ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ ✐s
❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✳ ❙♦✱ t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧
Z b
f (g(x))g ′ (x) dx ,
a

✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ✐♥❞❡✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✜rst✱ ❛s ✇❡ ❞✐❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥✱
Z
H(x) = f (g(x))g ′ (x) dx ,

✐❢ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡✳ ■❢ ✐t ✐s✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st st❡♣ ✐s ❛s s✐♠♣❧❡ ❛s ✐t ❣❡ts✿

Z b
f (g(x))g ′ (x) dx = H(b) − H(a) .
a

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✼✳✶✿ ✉s✐♥❣ ❋❚❈ ❢♦r ♦❧❞ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡

▲❡t✬s ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡✿ Z 1
ex sin(ex ) dx .
0
❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛❧r❡❛❞② ❢♦✉♥❞ t❤❡ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥✿
Z
ex sin(ex ) dx = − cos ex + C .

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ Z 1
ex sin(ex ) dx = − cos e1 − (− cos e0 ) = − cos e + cos 1 .
0
❉♦♥❡✦

❆ ❜❡tt❡r q✉❡st✐♦♥ ✐s✿

✷✳✼✳ ❈❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐♥ ❞❡✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✶✸✾

◮ ❲❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s t♦ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✉♥❞❡r ❛ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✱ ✐♥ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ t♦ t❤❡ s✉❜st✐✲
t✉t✐♦♥s ♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥❄
❚❤❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ✐s ❥✉st ❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✳ ■t✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ s❤r✐♥❦s✴str❡t❝❤❡s t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢
✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✿

❙♦✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ tr❛❝❦✱ t❤❡ ❡♥❞✲♣♦✐♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ ❜♦✉♥❞s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✱ ✉♥❞❡r ♦✉r tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✼✳✷✿ ✉s✐♥❣ ❋❚❈ ❢♦r ♥❡✇ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡

▲❡t✬s t❛❦❡ ❛ ❝❧♦s❡r ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✿

Z
ex sin(ex ) dx = − cos u + C = − cos ex + C
Z 1
ex sin(ex ) dx = − cos e1 − (− cos e0 ) = − cos e + cos 1
0

■t ✐s ❞♦♥❡ ✈✐❛ t❤❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ u = ex ✳ ❲❡ r❡❛❧✐③❡ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❝♦✉❧❞ ❤❛✈❡ ❥✉♠♣❡❞ ❢r♦♠ − cos u + C t♦
− cos e + cos 1 ❜② ♦♠✐tt✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❜❛❝❦✲s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ st❡♣ ✐♥ t❤❡ ✉♣♣❡r r✐❣❤t ❝♦r♥❡r✦ ■♥❞❡❡❞✿
e

cos u = − cos e + cos 1 .
1

❲❡ ❥✉st ♥❡❡❞ t♦ s❡❡ t❤❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ❜♦✉♥❞s ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s✱ ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ x ❛♥❞ u✿

x = 0 7→ u = e0 = 1
x = 1 7→ u = e1 = e

❚❤❡ ❜❛❝❦✲s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ❜❡❝♦♠❡s r❡❞✉♥❞❛♥t✳

❙♦✱ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ u = g(x)✱ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❝❤❛♥❣❡s ❢r♦♠
• [a, b] ❢♦r x t♦
• [g(a), g(b)] ❢♦r u✳
❊✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤t t❤❡ str❡t❝❤✴s❤r✐♥❦ ♠✐❣❤t ❜❡ ♥♦♥✲✉♥✐❢♦r♠✱ ✇❡ ♦♥❧② ❝❛r❡ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❡♥❞✲♣♦✐♥ts✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✼✳✸✿ ♥♦ ❜❛❝❦✲s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y = x2 cos x3 ❢r♦♠ 0 t♦ 2✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

Z 2
❆r❡❛ = x2 cos x3 dx .
0

❙✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ✜rst✿
du
u = x3 =⇒ du = 3x2 dx =⇒ dx = .
3x2
✷✳✼✳ ❈❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐♥ ❞❡✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✶✹✵

❚❤❡♥✱ Z Z Z
2 3 2 du 1
x cos x dx = x cos u 2 = cos u du .
3x 3

◆♦✇✱ ✇❤❛t ✇♦✉❧❞ t❤✐s ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ❧♦♦❦ ❧✐❦❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧❄ ▲❡t✬s ♠❛❦❡ ✐t ❝❧❡❛r ✇❤❛t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s
✇❡ ❛r❡ r❡❢❡rr✐♥❣ t♦✿
Z x=2 Z x=2 Z x=2
2 3 2 du 1
x cos x dx = x cos u 2 = cos u du .
x=0 x=0 3x 3 x=0

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ♠✐s♠❛t❝❤❡❞ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✦

■♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ✜① t❤❛t✱ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② ✜♥❞✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❜♦✉♥❞s ❢♦r u ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡✲
s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ❜♦✉♥❞s ❢♦r x✿
x = 0 7→ u = 03 = 0
x = 2 7→ u = 23 = 8
❙♦✱ [0, 2] ❢♦r x ❜❡❝♦♠❡s [0, 8] ❢♦r u✳ ❚❤❡♥✱
Z x=2 Z x=2 Z u=8
2 1 3 1
x cos x dx = cos u du = cos u du .
x=0 3 x=0 3 u=0

❚❤❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✐s ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❡✳

❲❡ ❞♦♥✬t ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❣♦ ❜❛❝❦ t♦ x ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ✜♥✐s❤ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥✿

Z u=8
u=8 
1 FTC
❆r❡❛ =

cos u du ==== sin u = sin 8 − sin 0 = sin 8 .
3 u=0 
u=0

■♥ s✉♠♠❛r②✱ ✇❡ s❤♦✇❡❞ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❛r❡❛s ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ r❡❣✐♦♥s ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡s❡ ❣r❛♣❤s✱
1
y = x2 cos x3 ❛♥❞ y = cos u ,
3
❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❢♦✉♥❞ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ♦♥❡✿

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠♠❛r②✿

❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✷✳✼✳✹✿ ❉❡✜♥✐t❡ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② ❙✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥
❯♥❞❡r ❛ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ u = g(x) ✐♥ ❛ ❞❡✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
Z b
g(b)
′

f (g(x)) · g (x) dx = F (u) = F (g(b)) − F (g(a)) ,
a g(a)
✷✳✼✳ ❈❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐♥ ❞❡✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✶✹✶

✇❤❡r❡ F ✐s ❛♥② ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f✳

Pr♦♦❢✳

❘❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ✿

Z Z 
′

f (g(x)) · g (x) dx = f (u) du = F (g(x)) .
u=g(x)

❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐♥ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦❧❧♦✇s ♥♦✇ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✼✳✺✿ ♥♦ ❜❛❝❦✲s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥

▲❡t✬s ❝❛rr② ♦✉t ❛ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐♥ ❛ ❞❡✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✇✐t❤♦✉t ❜❛❝❦✲s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✳ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r
Z π
cos2 x sin x dx .
0

❚❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ♣❛rt ✕ ❝❤♦♦s✐♥❣ ❛ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ✕ r❡♠❛✐♥s t❤❡ s❛♠❡✳ ❲❡ ♥♦t✐❝❡ ❛ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❝❤♦♦s❡
t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✐♥s✐❞❡ t♦ ❜❡ t❤❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❢♦r t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✿

cos2 x = (cos x)2 =⇒ u = cos x .

❚❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ st❡♣ ✐s t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ r❡st ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✿

du
u = cos x =⇒ du = − sin x dx =⇒ dx =
− sin x
❚❤❡ ♥❡①t st❡♣ ✐s t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ❜♦✉♥❞s ❢♦r u✿

x = π =⇒ u = cos π = −1
x = 0 =⇒ u = cos 0 = 1

❲❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rt t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ t♦ u ♥♦✇ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡ ✐t✿

Z π Z π
2
cos x sin x dx = (cos x)2 sin x dx
0
Z0 −1
du
= (u)2 sin x
− sin x
Z1 −1
du
= (u)2
1 −1
Z −1
=− u2 du
Z 11
= u2 du
−1
u=1
1 3 
= u
3 u=−1
1 3

= 1 − (−1)2
3
2
= .
3

❚❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s t♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ✇❤❡♥ ✇❡ ♣r♦❝❡❡❞ t♦ ❞❡✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤❡ ❡①tr❛ st❡♣
✷✳✽✳ ❚r✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥s ✶✹✷

✐s t❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s✱ ❢♦r ❡✐t❤❡r ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✿

R
dx ❋❚❈
f (g(x))g ′ (x) −−−−−−→ F (g(x)) −−−−−−−→ I
x 
 
s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ❈❘ u=g(x) || s❛♠❡✦
 y
R
du ❋❚❈
f (u) −−−−−−→ F (u) −−−−−−−→ I

❚❤✉s✱ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ♦❢ ❞❡✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✕ ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r ✕ ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♥♦ ♠❛tt❡r ✇❤❛t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡✳
❍❡r❡✬s ❛ ♠♦r❡ ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t ✇❛② t♦ ✇r✐t❡ ♦✉r ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿

Z x=b Z u=g(b)
′
f (g(x)) · g (x) dx = f (u) du
x=a u=g(a)

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐♥ ❞❡✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✇r✐tt❡♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ ▲❡✐❜♥✐③ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✿

Z b Z u(b)
du
f (u) · dx = f (u) du
a dx u(a)

✉♥❞❡r ❛ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ u = u(x)✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✼✳✻

❊①❡❝✉t❡ t❤❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ u = ex ❢♦r t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✭❞♦♥✬t ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t✐♥❣ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✮✿
Z 2
cos(1 − ex ) dx .
1

✷✳✽✳ ❚r✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥s

❇❛❝❦ t♦ ✐♥❞❡✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s✳✳✳

❲❤✐❝❤ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ t♦ ❝❤♦♦s❡ ♠✐❣❤t ♥♦t ❜❡ ❛❧✇❛②s ♦❜✈✐♦✉s✱ ❛♥❞ ✇❤❡♥ ✐t ✐s✱ ✐t ♠✐❣❤t ❧❡❛❞ t♦ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ t❤❛t
✐s♥✬t ❛♥② s✐♠♣❧❡r t❤❛t t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧✳ ❚❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ✐s ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧❧② ❝♦♠♠♦♥✳ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✿
Z
1
??? ??? eu du
2
տ u=ex ↑ u=x 2 ր
Z Z
x2 1 2/3
??? ←u=sin x xe dx u=x3 → u−1/3 eu du
3
u=x4
ւu=cos x ↓ ց Z
1 1/2
??? ??? u−1/2 eu du
4
❊✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❤❛s ❜❡❡♥ ❝❛rr✐❡❞ ♦✉t ❝♦rr❡❝t❧②✱ ✐t ♠✐❣❤t st✐❧❧ ❜❡ ❛ ❞❡❛❞ ❡♥❞✦
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✽✳✶

❈❛rr② ♦✉t t❤❡s❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥s✳

✷✳✽✳ ❚r✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥s ✶✹✸

❙♦♠❡t✐♠❡s ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❝♦♠❡ ✉♣ ✇✐t❤ ❡♥t✐r❡❧② ♥❡✇ ✐❞❡❛s✳✳✳

▲❡t✬s r❡✈✐s✐t t❤❡ q✉❡st✐♦♥ ❛❞❞r❡ss❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❝❤❛♣t❡r✱ ✇❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ ❛ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ♦❢ r❛❞✐✉s R❄
Z R √
❆r❡❛ = 2 R2 − x2 dx = πR2 .
−R

❚♦ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t❡ t❤✐s✿

Z √
R2 − x2 dx .

❍♦✇❄
❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✳✳✳ ▲❡t✬s tr② s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✦ ❚❤❡ ♦❜✈✐♦✉s ❝❤♦✐❝❡ ✐s✿

u = R2 − x2 =⇒ du = −2x dx .

❙✉❜st✐t✉t❡✿ Z √ Z Z Z r
√ du √ du 1 u
R2 − x2 dx = u = u √ =− du .
−2x 2
−2 R − u 2 R2 −u
❈❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐s ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❡❞ ❜✉t✱ ✉♥❢♦rt✉♥❛t❡❧②✱ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✐s ♥♦ s✐♠♣❧❡r t❤❛♥ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧✦
▲❡t✬s t❛❦❡ ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛♥❞✿ √
y= R 2 − x2 .
❲❤❛t ✐s ✐ts ❣r❛♣❤❄ ■t ✐s ✉♣♣❡r ❤❛❧❢ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ♦❢ r❛❞✐✉s R ❣✐✈❡♥ ❞✐r❡❝t❧② ✭❡①♣❧✐❝✐t❧②✮ ❛s t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤✐s
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ✐s ❛❧s♦ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② ❛ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ✭✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t❧②✮ ❜② x2 + y 2 = R2 . ❚❤❡r❡ ♠❛② ❜❡ ❛ t❤✐r❞ ♣♦ss✐❜✐❧✐t②✱
✐❢ ✇❡ ❥✉st ✜♥❞ ❛ ❜❡tt❡r ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✳✳✳
❖♥ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t✱ ✇❡ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡❞ ❛s ♠♦t✐♦♥ ✿ t✐♠❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ❛♥❞
❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s✳ ❆s ❛ r❡s✉❧t✱ t❤❡ ❞♦ts ❛♣♣❡❛r ❛t ❡q✉❛❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ♦❢ t✐♠❡✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧❧②✿

❲❤❛t ✇❡ ❝❛♥ s❡❡ ✐s ❤♦✇ ♠♦t✐♦♥ st❛rts ❢❛st✱ t❤❡♥ s❧♦✇s ❞♦✇♥ t♦ ❛❧♠♦st ③❡r♦ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♠✐❞❞❧❡✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥
❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t❡s ❛❣❛✐♥✳ ❇✉t ✇❤❛t ✐❢ ✇❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ✐♥st❡❛❞ ❛ s✐♠♣❧❡ r♦t❛t✐♦♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡❄ ❙✉❝❤ ❛ r♦t❛t✐♦♥ ✇♦✉❧❞
✷✳✽✳ ❚r✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥s ✶✹✹

♣r♦❣r❡ss t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ❛♥❣❧❡s ❛t ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t r❛t❡✱ s❤♦✇♥ ♦♥ r✐❣❤t✳ ❙♦✱ ♠❛②❜❡ t❤❡ ❛♥❣❧❡✱ s❛② t✱ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ ♦✉r
♥❡✇ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡❄ ❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❢♦r x ❛♥❞ y ❝♦♠❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❜❛s✐❝ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr②✿
(
x = R cos t ,
y = R sin t .

❚❤❡ r♦t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦✉♥t❡r❝❧♦❝❦✇✐s❡ st❛rt✐♥❣ ❢r♦♠ (R, 0) ❛♥❞ t r✉♥s ❢r♦♠ 0 t♦ π ✳

❆ ♥❡✇ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❤❛s ❛♣♣❡❛r❡❞ ♥❛t✉r❛❧❧②✿
x = R cos t

❚❤✐s ✐s ♦✉r s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✳

❚❤❡ ♠❛✐♥ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❢r♦♠ ♣r❡✈✐♦✉s ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❛t ✐♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦❧❞ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡
❣✐✈❡♥ ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥❡✇✱ ❛s ✐♥✿
u = x2 ,
❤❡r❡✱ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦❧❞✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ✇❤② s✉❝❤ ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐s ♦❢t❡♥ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛♥ ✐♥✈❡rs❡
s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✳ ◆♦ ♠❛tt❡r✦ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
t = cos−1 (x/R) ,
✇✐t❤
−π/2 ≤ t ≤ π/2 .
■♥ ❢❛❝t✱ t♦ ❝❛rr② ♦✉t t❤✐s ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✱ ❛❧❧ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ ✐s t❤✐s✿
dx = −R sin t dt .

❲❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ ❜✉t✱ ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ s✐♠♣❧✐❢②✱ ✇❡✬❧❧ ❛❧s♦ ♥❡❡❞ t❤❡ P②t❤❛❣♦r❡❛♥ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✭❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✮✿
sin2 t + cos2 t = 1 .

❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ t ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

Z √ Z √
R2 − x2 dx = R2 − cos2 t · (−R sin t dt) ❯s❡ P❚✳
Z
= R sin t · (−R sin t dt) ❈❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✜♥✐s❤❡❞✳
Z
= −R 2
sin2 t dt ❆ tr✐❣ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ♥❡①t✳
Z
2 1 − cos 2t
= −R dt
 Z 2 Z 
R2
=− dt − cos 2t dt
2  
R2 1
=− t − sin 2t .
2 2
✷✳✽✳ ❚r✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥s ✶✹✺

■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ✜♥✐s❤❡❞✳
❲❡ ✇♦♥✬t ❞♦ ❜❛❝❦✲s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ♦✉r ✐♥t❡r❡st ✐s ❛ ❞❡✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✳ ❲❡ ♦♥❧② ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ ❜♦✉♥❞s
❢♦r t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✳

❲❡ ✜♥❞ t❤❡♠ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♣✐❝t✉r❡ ❛❜♦✈❡✳ ❖r ❢r♦♠ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✿

x = −R =⇒ t = π ❛♥❞ x = R =⇒ t = 0
❙✉❜st✐t✉t❡✿ Z x=R √
❆r❡❛ ♦❢ ❛ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ♦❢ r❛❞✐✉s R = 2 · R2 − x2 dx
x=−R
2
  t=0
R 1 
= −2 · t − sin 2t 
2 2 
 t=π 
2 1 1
= −R 0 − sin(2 · 0) − (π + sin 2π)
2 2
= πR2 .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✽✳✷

▼♦❞✐❢② t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ❢♦r t❤❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ x = R sin t✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✽✳✸✿ ❞✐r❡❝t ♦r ✐♥✈❡rs❡

❘❡❝❛❧❧ ❤♦✇ ✇❡ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡❞ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✿ Z

2
x2 ex dx = ?

❚❤❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ✇❛s ❝❤♦s❡♥ t♦ ❜❡ u = x2 ❢r♦♠ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✇❡ ❞❡r✐✈❡❞ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r t✇♦ ✐t❡♠s✿
√
1. x2 = u 1. x u
=
du du
2. dx = −→ 2. dx = √
2x 2 u
√
3. x = u 3. x2 = u

❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✇❡ ❝♦✉❧❞ ❤❛✈❡ st❛rt❡❞ ✇✐t❤ ★✸ ✭t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡✮ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ r❡s✉❧t✦

❚❤❡ str❛t❡❣② ✐s s✉♠♠❛r✐③❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇ ✇✐t❤ t✇♦ ❡①tr❛ ♦♣t✐♦♥s✿

❚r✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❙✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥s

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ a > 0✳ ❚❤❡♥✿ √

• ❲❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s a2 − x2 ✱ ♦r s♦♠❡t✐♠❡s a2 − x2 ✱ ✉s❡ t❤❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✿

x = a sin t ♦r x = a cos t .
✷✳✽✳ ❚r✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥s ✶✹✻

√
• ❲❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s a2 + x2 ✱ ♦r s♦♠❡t✐♠❡s a2 + x2 ✱ ✉s❡ t❤❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✿

x = a tan t .
√
• ❲❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s x2 − a2 ✭♥♦t❡ t❤❡ s✐❣♥✮✱ ♦r s♦♠❡t✐♠❡s x2 − a2 ✱ ✉s❡ t❤❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✿

x = a sec t .

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦
❚❤✐s ✐s ♥♦t ❛ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛♥❞ ✐t ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❣✉❛r❛♥t❡❡ s✉❝✲

❝❡ss✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✽✳✹✿ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛t✐♦♥

▲❡t✬s s✐♠♣❧✐❢② t❤✐s✿ Z
(4 − x2 )3/2 dx .

❚❤❡ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ ♠❛t❝❤❡s ♦♣t✐♦♥ ✭✶✮✿

a2 − x2
4 − x2
=⇒ a = 2
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✇❡ tr②✿
x = 2 sin t .
❚❤❡♥✱
dx = 2 cos t dt .
❚❤✐s ✐s ♦✉r ❦❡② s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛t✐♦♥✿

4 − x2 = 4 − (2 sin t)2 = 4 − 4 sin2 t = 4(1 − sin2 t) = 4 cos2 t .

❙✉❜st✐t✉t❡✿ Z Z Z
3 3/2 2 3/2
(4 − x ) dx = (4 cos t) (2 cos t dt) = 16 cos4 t dt .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✽✳✺
❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤✐s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✿ Z
1
dx .
1 + x2

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✽✳✻
❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤✐s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✿ Z √
x2 − 1 dx .
✷✳✾✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② ♣❛rts✿ ♣r♦❞✉❝ts ✶✹✼

✷✳✾✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② ♣❛rts✿ ♣r♦❞✉❝ts

❚❤❡ Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❡①♣r❡ss❡s t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡✐r
❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✭❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s t❤❡♠s❡❧✈❡s✮✿

(f · g)′ = f ′ · g + f · g ′ .

❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ✏Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s✑ t❤❛t ✇♦✉❧❞ ❡①♣r❡ss t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐♥
t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡✐r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✭❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s t❤❡♠s❡❧✈❡s✮✿
Z
(f · g) dx = ?

▲❡t✬s ♥♦♥❡t❤❡❧❡ss tr② t♦ ❣❡t ✇❤❛t❡✈❡r ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❢r♦♠ P❘✳ ❲❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t❡ ✐t✿
Z Z
′
(f · g) dx = (f ′ · g + f · g ′ ) dx ❲❡ ✉s❡ ❋❚❈✳
Z
f ·g = (f ′ · g + f · g ′ ) dx
Z Z
= f · g dx + f · g ′ dx .
′

◆♦✇✱ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ❛r❡ ✈❡r② s✐♠✐❧❛r ❛♥❞ ❡✐t❤❡r ♦❢ t❤❡♠ ♠❛② ❜❡ s❡❡♥ ❛s t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ ❛ ❝❡rt❛✐♥ ♣r♦❞✉❝t✳
❲❡ ❞❡r✐✈❡ s♦♠❡t❤✐♥❣ ✉s❡❢✉❧ ❢r♦♠ t❤✐s✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✾✳✶✿ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② P❛rts

❋♦r t✇♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s f ❛♥❞ g✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

Z Z
′
f · g dx = f · g − f ′ · g dx

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ✉s❡ t❤❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✱

dh = h′ (x) dx .
❚♦ ♦❜t❛✐♥ ❛ ♠♦r❡ ❝♦♠♣❛❝t ✈❡rs✐♦♥✿

❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✷✳✾✳✷✿ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② P❛rts

❋♦r t✇♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s f ❛♥❞ g✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡

Z Z
f dg = f g − g df

❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐s tr❛❞✐t✐♦♥❛❧❧② r❡st❛t❡❞ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡s❡✱ ❝❤❛♥❣❡❞✱ ♥❛♠❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦r ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✿

Z Z
udv = uv − vdu

❲❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❛r❡ t♦ ❞❡❝✐❞❡ ✇❤✐❝❤ t❡❝❤♥✐q✉❡ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ t♦ ✉s❡✱ ✇❡ r❡❝♦❣♥✐③❡ t❤❛t ❢♦r ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② ♣❛rt ✇❡
❤❛✈❡ t♦ s❡❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛♥❞✿
✷✳✾✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② ♣❛rts✿ ♣r♦❞✉❝ts ✶✹✽

• ❛ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥✱ ❜✉t
• ♥♦ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✳
❚❤❡♥✿
• ❚❤❡ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ ✇♦♥✬t ✇♦r❦ ❢♦r Z
2
xex dx ,
❜✉t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ❢♦r t❤❛t✳
• ◆♦r ❢♦r Z
2
ex dx ,
❜✉t ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❧♦♦❦ ✐t ✉♣✳
• ❚❤❡ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ ♠✐❣❤t ✇♦r❦ ❢♦r Z
xex dx .

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✾✳✸✿ s♣❧✐t ✐♥t❡❣r❛♥❞

■❢ ✇❡ ❛r❡ t♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t❡ t❤✐s✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ♠❛t❝❤ ✐t ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✳ ❚❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ♠✉st ❜❡
❡q✉❛❧✿ Z
u dv
Z
x · ex dx.

❯♥❢♦rt✉♥❛t❡❧②✱ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ❛t ❧❡❛st t✇♦ ✇❛②s t♦ ♠❛t❝❤ t❤❡♠✿

• ✭❛✮ u = ex , dv = x dx✱ ❛♥❞
• ✭❜✮ u = x, dv = ex dx✳
❲❡✬❧❧ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❞♦ ❜♦t❤✳

✭❛✮ ❚♦ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ u ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ v ✿
u = ex =⇒ du = ex dx
Z
x2
dv = x dx =⇒ v = x dx =
2
■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♥❣ t♦ ✜♥❞ v ✐s t❤❡ ✜rst ♣❛rt ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ♣❛rt ✐s t❤❡ ♦♥❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿
Z Z Z
x2
x x2 x
udv = uv − vdu = e · − · e dx .
2 2
❯♥❢♦rt✉♥❛t❡❧②✱ ✇❡ ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r t❤❛t t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❧♦♦❦s ❡✈❡♥ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① t❤❛♥ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧✦ ■♥❞❡❡❞✱ t❤❡
♣♦✇❡r ♦❢ x ✇❡♥t ✉♣✳ ❇❡❢♦r❡ ❛tt❡♠♣t✐♥❣ ♦t❤❡r t❡❝❤♥✐q✉❡s✱ ❧❡t✬s tr② t♦ r❡✈❡rs❡ t❤❡ ❝❤♦✐❝❡ ♦❢ u ❛♥❞ v ✳

✭❜✮ ❖♥❝❡ ❛❣❛✐♥✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ u ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ v ✿

u=x =⇒ du =Zdx
dv = ex dx =⇒ v = ex dx = ex

❲❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ t❤❡s❡ ✐♥t♦ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿

Z Z Z
x
udv = uv − vdu = x · e − ex dx .

❲❡ ♣❛✉s❡ ❤❡r❡ t♦ st♦♣ ❛♥❞ ❛♣♣r❡❝✐❛t❡ t❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✐s s♦ ❧❡ss ❝♦♠♣❧❡① t❤❛♥ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧✦
❚❤❛t✬s ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡ ♣♦✇❡r ♦❢ x ✇❡♥t ❞♦✇♥✳ ❲❡ ✜♥✐s❤ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥✿
Z Z
x x
xe dx = x · e − ex dx = xex − ex + C .
✷✳✾✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② ♣❛rts✿ ♣r♦❞✉❝ts ✶✹✾

❚❤❡ ❧❡ss♦♥ s❡❡♠s t♦ ❜❡✿

• ❈❤♦♦s❡ ❢♦r u t❤❡ ♣❛rt ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛♥❞ t❤❛t ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❡❞ ❜② ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✳
• ❈❤♦♦s❡ ❢♦r dv t❤❡ ♣❛rt ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛♥❞ t❤❛t ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❡❞ ❜② ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥✱ ♦r ❛t ❧❡❛st ✇✐❧❧ r❡♠❛✐♥
❛s s✐♠♣❧❡✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✾✳✹✿ s♣❧✐t ✐♥t❡❣r❛♥❞

■♥t❡❣r❛t❡✿ Z
x2 ex dx .

❖♥❝❡ ❛❣❛✐♥✱ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ✭❛t ❧❡❛st✮ t✇♦ ✇❛②s t♦ ❝❤♦♦s❡ u ❛♥❞ dv ✿
• ✭❛✮ u = ex , dv = x2 dx✱ ❛♥❞
• ✭❜✮ u = x2 , dv = ex dx✳
❲❡✬❧❧ tr② ❜♦t❤✳

✭❛✮ ❲❡ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ u ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ v ✿

u = ex =⇒ du = ex dx
Z
x3
dv = x dx =⇒ v = x2 dx =
2
3
❊✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ du ✐s ❥✉st ❛s s✐♠♣❧❡ ❛s u✱ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ dv ❤❛s ♠❛❞❡ t❤✐♥❣s ✇♦rs❡✳ ■♥❞❡❡❞✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
Z Z Z
xx3 x3 x
udv = uv − vdu = e · − · e dx .
3 3
■t✬s ♥♦t s✐♠♣❧❡r ❛s t❤❡ ♣♦✇❡r ♦❢ x ❣♦❡s ✉♣✦ ❲❡ r❡✈❡rs❡ t❤❡ ❝❤♦✐❝❡ ♦❢ u ❛♥❞ v ✳

✭❜✮ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ u ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ v ✿

u = x2 =⇒ du =Z2x dx
dv = ex dx =⇒ v = ex dx = ex

❍❡r❡ dv ✐s s✐♠♣❧❡r t❤❛♥ u❀ t❤❛t✬s ❛ ❣♦♦❞ s✐❣♥✳ ❲❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ t❤❡s❡ ✐♥t♦ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿
Z Z Z
2 x
udv = uv − vdu = x · e − ex · 2x dx .

❆❣❛✐♥✱ ✇❡ ♣❛✉s❡ t♦ ❛♣♣r❡❝✐❛t❡ t❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ t❛s❦ ❤❛s ❜❡❡♥ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❡❞✦ ❚❤❛t✬s ❜❡❝❛✉s❡
t❤❡ ♣♦✇❡r ♦❢ x ✇❡♥t ❞♦✇♥✳ ❲❡ ✜♥✐s❤ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ✉s✐♥❣ t❤❡ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② P❛rts ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❛♥❞ t❤❡
r❡s✉❧t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✿
Z Z
2 x 2 x
x e dx = x · e − ex 2x dx = x2 ex − 2xex + 2ex + C .

❚❤❡ ❧❡ss♦♥ ✐s t❤❛t ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② ♣❛rts ♠✐❣❤t ❜r✐♥❣ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❛♥❞ ♠✐❣❤t r❡q✉✐r❡ ❛♥♦t❤❡r
❛♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② ♣❛rts✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✾✳✺

❆♣♣❧② t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦✉♥❞ ✐♥ t❤✐s ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ t♦ t❤❡ ♣r❡✈✐♦✉s ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ♣❛rt ✭❛✮✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✾✳✻

■♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ tr② t❤✐s ❞❡❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛♥❞✿ u = x, dv = xex ✳

✷✳✾✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② ♣❛rts✿ ♣r♦❞✉❝ts ✶✺✵

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✾✳✼✿ r❡❝✉rs✐♦♥

■♥t❡❣r❛t❡✿
Z
x3 sin x dx .

❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ t✇♦ ✇❛②s t♦ s♣❧✐t t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛♥❞✱ u ❛♥❞ dv ✱ ❜✉t ✇❡ ❛❧r❡❛❞② ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② ♣❛rt
3
✇✐❧❧ r❡❞✉❝❡ t❤❡ ♣♦✇❡r x✱ ✐❢ ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ u=x ✳ ❲❡ ❛r❡ ❧❡❢t ✇✐t❤ dv = sin x✳ ❚❤❡♥

u = x3 =⇒ du =Z3x2 dx
dv = sin x dx =⇒ v = sin x dx = − cos x

❇② ♣❛rts✿
Z Z Z
3 3
x sin x dx = uv − vdu = −x cos x − 3x2 · sin x dx .

❚❤❡ ❧❛st ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✐s ❛❧♠♦st ✐❞❡♥t✐❝❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ❜✉t t❤❡ ♣♦✇❡r ♦❢ x ✐s ❞♦✇♥ ❜② 1✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✾✳✽

❋✐♥✐s❤ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ❜② ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♥❣ ❜② ♣❛rts t✇♦ ♠♦r❡ t✐♠❡s✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✾✳✾✿ ❝❛♥✬t s♣❧✐t

■♥t❡❣r❛t❡✿
Z
cos−1 x dx .

❚❤❡r❡ s❡❡♠s t♦ ❜❡ ♥♦t❤✐♥❣ t♦ s♣❧✐t ✐♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛♥❞✦✳✳ ❚❤❡r❡ ✐s✿

1
u = cos−1 x =⇒ du = − √ dx
Z 1 − x2
dv = dx =⇒ v = dx = x

❇② ♣❛rts✿

Z Z
−1
cos x dx = uv − vdu
Z  
−1 1
= cos x · x − x − √ dx ❉♦♥❡ ✇✐t❤ ♣❛rts✳

Z 1 − x2
x
= x cos−1 x + √ dx ❇② s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✿ z = 1 − x2
Z 1 − x2
1 dz
= x cos−1 x + √ ⇒ dz = −2xdx
z −2
1
= x cos−1 x − z −1/2 dz
2
−1 1 z 1/2
= x cos x − +C ❇❛❝❦✲s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✳
2 1/2
√
= x cos−1 x − 1 − x2 + C.

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✾✳✶✵

❆♣♣❧② t❤❡ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② P❛rts ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ t♦ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✱

Z
xex dx ,
✷✳✶✵✳ ❆♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡s t♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✶✺✶

✇✐t❤ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❝❤♦✐❝❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✏♣❛rts✑✿

• ✭❛✮ x ❛♥❞ ex dx✱
• ✭❜✮ ex ❛♥❞ x dx✳

✷✳✶✵✳ ❆♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡s t♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥

▲❡t✬s s✉♠♠❛r✐③❡ ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ❛❜♦✉t ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ ✐t t♦ ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ❛❜♦✉t ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✳

❋✐rst✱ t❤❡ s✐♠✐❧❛r✐t✐❡s✳

❏✉st ❛s t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛ ❧✐st ♦❢ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛r② ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❧✐st ♦❢ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛r② ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s✳ ■♥ ❢❛❝t✱ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r
❝♦♠❡s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r✳

❍❡r❡ t❤❡② ❛r❡✿

Z
s ′ s−1 1 s+1
(x ) = sx xs dx = x + C, ❢♦r s 6= −1
Z s+1
1 1
(ln x)′ = dx = ln x + C
x Z x
x ′ x
(e ) = e ex dx = ex + C
Z
′
(sin x) = cos x cos x dx = sin x + C
Z
(cos x)′ = − sin x sin x dx = − cos x + C

■t✬s ❥✉st ❛ s❤♦rt ❧✐st ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❢♦r s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❙♦✱ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ ✐t ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧✐st
❛♥❞✱ ❛✉t♦♠❛t✐❝❛❧❧②✱ ✐ts ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✱ ❥✉st ❧✐❦❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✳ ■♥ ❡✐t❤❡r ❝❛s❡✱ t❤❡ ❧✐st ✐s ✈❡r② s❤♦rt✦

❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ❛❧r❡❛❞② ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ t✇♦✳ ❚❤❡ ♣r❡s❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ✏ +C ✑ ✐♥ ❡❛❝❤ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✐♥❞✐❝❛t❡s t❤❛t t❤❡
❛♥s✇❡r ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❆❧s♦✱ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❢♦r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ♦♥❧② r❡♠❛✐♥ ✈❛❧✐❞ ✇❤❡♥ ❧✐♠✐t❡❞
t♦ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✳
❏✉st ❛s t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ r✉❧❡s ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ r✉❧❡s ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ❝♦♠❡s✱
✐♥ ♣❛rt✱ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r✳

Z Z Z
′ ′ ′
❙❘ (f + g) = f + g (f + g) dx = f dx + g dx
Z Z
′ ′
❈▼❘ (cf ) = cf (cf ) dx = c f dx
Z Z 
′ ′ 1 
▲❈❘ (f (mx + b)) = mf (mx + b) f (mx + b) dx = f (t) dt
m t=mx+b

❚❤❡ ✇❛② ✇❡ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡s❡ r✉❧❡s ✐s ✈❡r② s✐♠✐❧❛r t♦ t❤❡ ♦♥❡ ❢♦r ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✿

• ❲❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t♦ ❜❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t❡❞ ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t✇♦ ✭❥✉st ❛s ✇❤❡♥ ✐t ✇❛s t♦ ❜❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡❞✮✱ ✇❡
s♣❧✐t t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✐♥t♦ t✇♦ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❞❡❛❧ ✇✐t❤ ❡✐t❤❡r ✭s✐♠♣❧❡r✮ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ s❡♣❛r❛t❡❧②✳

• ❲❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t♦ ❜❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t❡❞ ✐s ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❛♥♦t❤❡r ✭❥✉st ❛s ✇❤❡♥ ✐t ✇❛s t♦ ❜❡
❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡❞✮✱ ✇❡ ❢❛❝t♦r ✐t ♦✉t ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❞❡❛❧ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ r❡♠❛✐♥✐♥❣ ✭s✐♠♣❧❡r✮ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✳
✷✳✶✵✳ ❆♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡s t♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✶✺✷

❚❤❡ s✐♠✐❧❛r✐t✐❡s st♦♣ ❤❡r❡✦

❲❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥❄ ❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦♥❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ s❡♥s❡✳
◮ ❲❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t♦ ❜❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t❡❞ ✐s t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t✇♦ ✭✉♥❧✐❦❡ ✇❤❡♥ ✐t ✇❛s t♦ ❜❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥✲
t✐❛t❡❞✮✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥✬t s♣❧✐t t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✐♥t♦ t✇♦ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❞❡❛❧ ✇✐t❤ ❡✐t❤❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ s❡♣❛r❛t❡❧②✳
❚❤❡ r❡❛s♦♥ ✐s t❤❛t t❤❡ Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❝❛♥✬t ❜❡ ❡❛s✐❧② r❡✈❡rs❡❞✳✳✳ ✉♥❧❡ss ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s
✐s✱ ✐♥ ❢❛❝t✱ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ♦r ❝❛♥ ✜♥❞✳ ❚❤❛t✬s t❤❡ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② P❛rts ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿
Z Z
′
f g dx = f g − gf ′ dx

❆♥❞ ✇❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥❄ ❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦♥❡✱ ✉♥❧❡ss ②♦✉ ❛r❡ ✇✐❧❧✐♥❣ t♦ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t ❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥
❛s ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ❜② t❤❡ r❡❝✐♣r♦❝❛❧✳
◆♦✇✱ ✇❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❄ ❙❛♠❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ❛s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝ts✿
◮ ❲❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t♦ ❜❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t❡❞ ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ✭✉♥❧✐❦❡ ✇❤❡♥ ✐t ✇❛s t♦ ❜❡
❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡❞✮✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥✬t s♣❧✐t t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✐♥t♦ t✇♦ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❞❡❛❧ ✇✐t❤ ❡✐t❤❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ s❡♣❛r❛t❡❧②✳
❚❤❡ r❡❛s♦♥ ✐s t❤❛t t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❝❛♥✬t ❜❡ ❡❛s✐❧② r❡✈❡rs❡❞✳✳✳ ✉♥❧❡ss t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✐♥s✐❞❡ ✐s✱ ✐♥ ❢❛❝t✱ ♣r❡s❡♥t ❛s ❛ ❢❛❝t♦r✳ ❚❤❛t✬s t❤❡ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② ❙✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿
Z Z
′
(f ◦ g) · g dx = f du

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✵✳✶✿ r♦✉t✐♥❡

❈♦♠♣✉t❡✿ Z 1

x3 + 3ex − sin x dx .
0
■❣♥♦r❡ t❤❡ ❜♦✉♥❞s ❛t ✜rst✿
Z Z Z Z
3 x

SR 3 x
x + 3e − sin x dx ==== x dx + 3e dx + sin x dx
Z Z Z
CMR 3 x
==== x dx + 3 e dx + sin x dx
formulas x4
==== + 3 · ex − (− cos x) + C
4
simplify 1 4
==== x + 3ex + cos x + C .
4
❚❤❛t✬s t❤❡ ❤❛r❞ ♣❛rt✱ ✜♥❞✐♥❣ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✳ ◆♦✇ t❤❡ ❡❛s② ♣❛rt✿
Z 1
1
3 x

FTC 1 4 x

x + 3e − sin x dx ==== x + 3e + cos x
0 4
 0  
substitute 1 4 1 1 4 0
==== 1 + 3e + cos 1 + 0 + 3e + cos 0
4 4
1
==== + 3e + cos 1 − 0 − 3 − 1 .
4
❚❤❡ ❤❛r❞ ♣❛rt ✐s ❡❛s② ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥✱ ❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥✱ ♦r ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳
✷✳✶✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛s ♦❢ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ r❡❣✐♦♥s✿ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✶✺✸

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦
❚❤❡ ♠♦st ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ t♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ✉s✲

✐♥❣ t❤❡ t❛❜❧❡ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s✦

❚❤❡ ♠❛✐♥ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ✐s t❤❛t ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♥❡✈❡r ❢❛✐❧s ❜✉t ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ♠❛② ❢❛✐❧ ✐♥ t❤❡ s❡♥s❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧
♠✐❣❤t t✉r♥ ♦✉t t♦ ❜❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ♥❡✈❡r s❡❡♥ ❜❡❢♦r❡ ♦r ❡✈❡♥ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t❤❛t ♥♦✲♦♥❡ ❤❛s s❡❡♥ ❜❡❢♦r❡✦

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✵✳✷✿ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ✉s❡ t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛ t♦ r❡✲❞✐s❝♦✈❡r ✏❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r✑ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✕ st❛rt✐♥❣ ❛t t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ❡♥❞✳

❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♥❣ t❤✐s r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s t❤❡ ❧♦❣❛r✐t❤♠✿

Z x
1 1
❧❡❛❞✐♥❣ t♦ dt = ln x .
t 1 t
❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤✉s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ t❤❡ ❧♦❣❛r✐t❤♠ ✇✐t❤♦✉t r❡❢❡r❡♥❝❡ t♦ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳

❆❧s♦✱ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♥❣ t❤✐s ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s t❤❡ ❛r❝s✐♥❡✿

Z x
1 1
√ ❧❡❛❞✐♥❣ t♦ √ dt = sin−1 x .
1 − t2 0 1−t 2

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ t❤❡ ❛r❝s✐♥❡ ✇✐t❤♦✉t r❡❢❡r❡♥❝❡ t♦ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s✐♥❡✳

✷✳✶✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛s ♦❢ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ r❡❣✐♦♥s✿ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ♦♥❧② ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ♦✈❡r ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s s✉❝❤ ❛s [a, b]✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✶✳✶✿ ✇❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s t♦ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡
❈♦♥s✐❞❡r ❛❣❛✐♥ t❤✐s ❞❡❝❡♣t✐✈❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿
Z
1 ???
dx ==== ln |x| + C, x 6= 0 .
x
❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐s ❢❛❧s❡ ❛s st❛t❡❞✦ ■t ❤♦❧❞s ♦♥❧② ♦♥ ❡✐t❤❡r ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s
✱ s❡♣❛r❛t❡❧②✱ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥
1
♦❢ ✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ (−∞, 0) ❛♥❞ (0, ∞)✱ ❜✉t ♥♦t ♦♥ t❤❡ s❡t (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)✳ ❚❤✐s ♠❡❛♥s t❤❛t C ❝❛♥ ✈❛r② ❢r♦♠
x
t❤❡ ♦♥❡ t♦ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r✦ ■♥ ❢❛❝t✱ t❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿
(
ln |x| + C ❢♦r x < 0,
F (x) =
ln |x| + K ❢♦r x > 0.

■t ✐s ❡✈❡♥ ♠♦r❡ ❞❛♥❣❡r♦✉s t♦ ✐❣♥♦r❡ t❤❡ ❣❛♣ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ✇❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❞❡❛❧ ✇✐t❤ ❞❡✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s✳ ❋♦r
❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ♦♥❡ ♠✐❣❤t ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ t❤✐s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿

Z 1
1 
1 ??? 
dx ==== ln |x| = ln 1 − ln | − 1| = 0 .
−1 x 
−1

❚❤✐s ✐s ✉♥tr✉❡ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✐s ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡ ❛s ❛ ❧✐♠✐t✳ ■♥❞❡❡❞✱ f ✐s ♥♦t ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ♦♥ [−1, 1]
s✐♠♣❧② ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ✐t✬s ✉♥❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t x = 0✳ ❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ ❡✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ❛r❡❛s
s❡❡♠ t♦ ❝❛♥❝❡❧ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r✱ t❤✐s ✐s ❢❛❧s❡ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ❜♦t❤ ❛r❡✱ ✐♥ ❢❛❝t✱ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ✿
✷✳✶✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛s ♦❢ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ r❡❣✐♦♥s✿ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✶✺✹

❲❡ s❤♦✉❧❞♥✬t ❜❡❝❛s✉❛❧ ❛❜♦✉t ❞♦✐♥❣ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ✇✐t❤ ✐♥✜♥✐t✐❡s ✭❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✷✮✿

???
∞ − ∞ ==== 0 .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✶✳✷
❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ✇♦♥✬t ❜❡❝♦♠❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ✇❤❛t❡✈❡r ♥✉♠❜❡r ✇❡ ❛ss✐❣♥ t♦ x = 0✳

❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♥❡①t tr② t♦ ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ♦r✱ ❜❡tt❡r✱ ✉♥❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ r❡❣✐♦♥✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✶✳✸✿ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❜♦tt❧❡

❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ ❛♥ ✏✐♥✜♥✐t❡ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡✑✱ ❧✐❦❡ t❤❡ ♦♥❡ ❜❡❧♦✇✱ ♠✉st ❜❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡✿

❲❤② ♦r ✐♥ ✇❤❛t s❡♥s❡❄ ❚❤✐s r❡❣✐♦♥ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s ❛ ❣r♦✇✐♥❣ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ✭r❡❛❧✱ ✜♥✐t❡✮ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡s t❤❡ ❛r❡❛s ♦❢
✇❤✐❝❤ ❣r♦✇ t♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t②✳ ■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✐t ✇♦✉❧❞ t❛❦❡ ❛♥ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❛♠♦✉♥t ♦❢ ✇❛t❡r t♦ ✜❧❧ s✉❝❤ ❛ ❜♦tt❧❡✳

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❝♦♠❡ t♦ ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛s ♦❢ ✭s♦♠❡✮ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ r❡❣✐♦♥s✳ ❚❤✐s ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ♦✉r ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤✿

• ✏❊①❤❛✉st✑ ❛♥ ✉♥❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ r❡❣✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ r❡❣✐♦♥s✳

• ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡✐r ❛r❡❛s✳

• ❊①❛♠✐♥❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❛r❡❛s✳

■t✬s ♥♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✱ ✐♥ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❧❡✱ ❢r♦♠ ❡①❤❛✉st✐♥❣ ❛ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ✇✐t❤ ♣♦❧②❣♦♥s✳

❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ r❡str✐❝t ♦✉r ❛tt❡♥t✐♦♥ t♦ r❡❣✐♦♥s✿

✶✳ ✉♥❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ✭✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ✇✐❞❡✮✱ ❛♥❞

✷✳ ✉♥❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s ✭✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② t❛❧❧✮✳

❆s ✇❡ ♦♥❧② ❞❡❛❧ ✇✐t❤ r❡❣✐♦♥s ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡❞ ❜② ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱

✶✳ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ❝❛s❡ ✐s ❛❜♦✉t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✇✐t❤ ✉♥❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❞♦♠❛✐♥s ♦r✱ ❜❡tt❡r✱ ✉♥❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❞♦♠❛✐♥s ♦❢ ✐♥t❡✲
❣r❛t✐♦♥✱ ❛♥❞

✷✳ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ❛❜♦✉t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✇✐t❤ ✉♥❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ r❛♥❣❡s ✭✐✳❡✳✱ ✉♥❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✮✳

❊✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❝❧❛ss❡s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ✈❡r② ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✱ t❤❡ ✐ss✉❡ ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ y = 1/x
❞❡✜♥❡s t✇♦ ✐❞❡♥t✐❝❛❧ ✉♥❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ r❡❣✐♦♥s✿
✷✳✶✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛s ♦❢ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ r❡❣✐♦♥s✿ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✶✺✺

❲❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ❝❛s❡✿ ❛♥ ✉♥❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✶✳✹✿ ❝♦♥st❛♥t

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱

f (x) = k ♦♥ [a, ∞), k > 0 .
❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥ ❛❜♦✈❡ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ✇✐t❤ b > a ✭❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❢r♦♠ a t♦ b✮ ✐s ❡q✉❛❧
t♦ (b − a)k ✳ ❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱
❆r❡❛ = (b − a)k → +∞ ❛s b → +∞ .

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ str✐♣ ✐s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡✱ ❛s ❡①♣❡❝t❡❞✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✶✳✺✿ r❡❝✐♣r♦❝❛❧

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r ❛❣❛✐♥
f (x) = 1/x ♦♥ [1, ∞) .
❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✉♥❞❡r t❤✐s ❣r❛♣❤ ♦✈❡r t❤✐s r❛② ✐♥ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ✐s s❤♦✇♥ ❛❜♦✈❡✳

❚❤✐s ✉♥❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ r❡❣✐♦♥ ✐s ❡①❤❛✉st❡❞ ❜② ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ♦♥❡s✳ ❍♦✇❄ ❚❤❡ ♦❜✈✐♦✉s ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ ✐s t♦ ✉s❡ t❤❡
❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✳ ❚❤❡ ❝❤❛❧❧❡♥❣❡ ✐s t❤❛t ♦♥❡ ❤❛s t♦ ❜♦t❤ ♠❛❦❡ t❤❡ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡s t❤✐♥♥❡r ❛♥❞ t❤✐♥♥❡r ✭❛s
❜❡❢♦r❡✮ ❛♥❞ ♠❛❦❡ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ❡♥❞ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❡①t❡♥❞ ♠♦r❡ ❛♥❞ ♠♦r❡ t♦ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✳

✭◆♦t❡ t❤❛t ✇❤❡♥ h = 1✱ t❤✐s s✉♠ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛ s❡r✐❡s t♦ ❜❡ ❞✐s❝✉ss❡❞ ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✺✳✮
✷✳✶✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛s ♦❢ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ r❡❣✐♦♥s✿ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✶✺✻

❆♥ ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❡ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ ✐s t♦ r❡❧② ♦♥ ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❛❧r❡❛❞② ❦♥♦✇ ❛❜♦✉t ❛r❡❛s ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡
✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✐s ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞✳ ❚❤❡ ✉♥❞❡r❧②✐♥❣ r❛② ♦❢ t❤✐s r❡❣✐♦♥ ✐s ❡①❤❛✉st❡❞ ✇✐t❤ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✳ ❚❤❡② ❛❧❧
❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❧❡❢t ❜♦✉♥❞✱ 1✱ ❜✉t t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ❜♦✉♥❞✱ b✱ ✐s ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤✐♥❣ ✐♥✜♥✐t②✿

[1, b] ❧❡❛❞✐♥❣ t♦ [1, +∞) ❛s b → +∞ .

❚❤❡♥✱
Z b
1
dx = ln b − ln 1
1 x
→∞ ❛s b → +∞ .
❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✉♥❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ r❡❣✐♦♥ ✐s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡✳

■♥✐t✐❛❧❧②✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛t❡ ♦♥ r❛②s ❛s t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥s✿

(−∞, b] ❛♥❞ [a, +∞) .

❚❤❡ r❛②s ✇✐❧❧ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❜❡ ✏❡①❤❛✉st❡❞✑ ✇✐t❤ ❝❧♦s❡❞ ❛♥❞ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✱ ♦♥ ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✇❡ ❢❛❝❡ t❤❡ ✉s✉❛❧
❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✶✳✻✿ ♠♦r❡ r❡❝✐♣r♦❝❛❧ ♣♦✇❡rs

❲❡ ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r❡❞ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❜❛♥❞ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y = 1/x ✐s ♥❛rr♦✇✐♥❣ ❞♦✇♥ ❜✉t ♥♦t ❢❛st ❡♥♦✉❣❤ t♦
❛✈♦✐❞ ❣r♦✇✐♥❣ ✐ts ❛r❡❛ t♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t②✳ ❆ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ♥❛rr♦✇❡r str✐♣ ✇♦♥✬t ♥❡❝❡ss❛r✐❧② ❛✈♦✐❞ ❤❛✈✐♥❣ ❛♥
✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❛r❡❛✿ y = 1/(3x)✳ ■♥st❡❛❞✱ ❧❡t✬s tr②✱ ✐♥ ❝♦♥tr❛st✱ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t❤❛t ✐s ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ♠✉❝❤ ❢❛st❡r✳ ❍♦✇
❛❜♦✉t y = 1/x2 ❄ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
Z b
1 1
2
dx = − +1
1 x b
→1 ❛s b → +∞ .

❙♦✱ 1 ✐s t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✉♥❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ r❡❣✐♦♥✳ ■t✬s ✜♥✐t❡✦

■♥ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ t♦ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛s✱ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ❜❡ ❡①♣❧❛✐♥❡❞ ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ ♠♦t✐♦♥

✳ ■❢ ♦✉r ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡
2
❜✉t ❞❡❝❧✐♥✐♥❣ ❛s 1/x ✱ ✇❤❡r❡ x ✐s t✐♠❡✱ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❝♦✈❡r ♦✈❡r ❛♥ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ♣❡r✐♦❞ ♦❢ t✐♠❡ ✇✐❧❧
♥♦t ❜❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡✦

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✶✳✼✿ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧

❲❤❛t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞❡❝r❡❛s❡s ❢❛st❡r t❤❛♥ ❛❧❧ 1/xn , n = 1, 2, 3, ...❄ ■t✬s t❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❞❡❝❛② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✿
f (x) = e−x ♦♥ [1, ∞) .

❆❣❛✐♥✱ t❤❡ ✉♥❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ r❡❣✐♦♥ ✉♥❞❡r t❤✐s ❣r❛♣❤ ❛❜♦✈❡ t❤✐s r❛② ✐s ❡①❤❛✉st❡❞ ❜② ❡①❤❛✉st✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✉♥❞❡r❧②✐♥❣
r❛② ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✿

[1, b] ❧❡❛❞✐♥❣ t♦ [1, +∞) ❛s b → +∞ .

✷✳✶✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛s ♦❢ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ r❡❣✐♦♥s✿ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✶✺✼

❚❤❡♥✱
Z b
t♦t❛❧ ❛r❡❛ = lim e−x dx
b→+∞ 1

= lim (−e−b − (−e−1 ))

b→+∞
1
= .
e

❚❤❡ ♠❛✐♥ ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r② ✐s t❤❛t t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ ❛♥ ✉♥❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ r❡❣✐♦♥ ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❜❡ ❜❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ✦
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✶✳✽

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ♦✈❡r [1, ∞)✿
1
✶✳ y = 2
x
1
✷✳ y = √
x

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✶✳✾✿ s✐♥✉s♦✐❞

❲❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s♥✬t ❛❧❧ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡❄ ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✕ ♦✈❡r t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ✕ ✉♥❞❡r ❛ s✐♥✉s♦✐❞❄

❚❤❡ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ✐s ✐❞❡♥t✐❝❛❧✿

Z b
t♦t❛❧ ❛r❡❛ = lim cos x dx = lim (sin b − sin 0) ❉◆❊ .
b→+∞ 0 b→+∞

❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❡①✐st ❛♥❞✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ❛r❡❛✳

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

✏◆♦ ❛r❡❛✑ ✐s♥✬t t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❛s ✏③❡r♦ ❛r❡❛✑✳

❏✉st ❛s ✇✐t❤ ❛❧❧ ❧✐♠✐ts✱ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ t❤r❡❡ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ♦✉t❝♦♠❡s✿ ❚❤✐s ♠❛② ❜❡ ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r✱ ♦r ✐t ♠❛② ❜❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡✱ ♦r
✐t ♠❛② ❜❡ ✉♥❞❡✜♥❡❞✳

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠♠❛r②✳

❲❡ ✏❡①❤❛✉st✑ t❤❡ ✉♥❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥✱ (−∞, b] ♦r [a, ∞)✱ ✇✐t❤ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ♦♥❡s✳ ■❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
✐s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ♦♥ t❤❡s❡ ❝❧♦s❡❞ ❛♥❞ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❞♦♠❛✐♥s✱ ✇❡ t❤❡♥ ✏❡①❤❛✉st✑ ❛ ♣♦ss✐❜❧② ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ ♦✈❡r t❤✐s
❞♦♠❛✐♥ ✇✐t❤ ✜♥✐t❡ ♦♥❡s✿
✷✳✶✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛s ♦❢ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ r❡❣✐♦♥s✿ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✶✺✽

■❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤✐s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❡①✐sts✱ ✐t ✐s ❞❡♥♦t❡❞ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

■♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦✈❡r r❛②

Z b Z b
f (t) dt = lim f (t) dt
−∞ a→−∞ a

❛♥❞ Z Z
∞ b
f (t) dt = lim f (t) dt
a b→+∞ a

❚❤❡s❡ ❧✐♠✐ts✱ ♦❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡✳

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❊✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ s✉❣❣❡sts t❤❛t t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥

♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ r❛②✱ t❤✐s ✐s ♥♦t❤✐♥❣ ❜✉t

❛♥ ❛❜❜r❡✈✐❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✳

❲❡ ❛❧s♦ ❞❡✜♥❡ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦✈❡r t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ r❡❛❧ ❧✐♥❡ (−∞, ∞) ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦♥❡s ♦✈❡r r❛②s✱ ❛s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢
t✇♦ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✭❧✐♠✐ts✮ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✿
■♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦✈❡r ❧✐♥❡

Z ∞ Z 0 Z ∞
f (t) dt = f (t) dt + f (t) dt
−∞ −∞ 0

■♥ t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❧✐♠✐ts✱ ✇❡ ✉t✐❧✐③❡ t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦❢ ✐♥✜♥✐t✐❡s ❛s s❤♦rt❝✉ts ✭❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✷✮✿

( ♥✉♠❜❡r ) + (+∞) = +∞
( ♥✉♠❜❡r ) + (−∞) = −∞
(+∞) + (+∞) = +∞
(−∞) + (−∞) = −∞
✷✳✶✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛s ♦❢ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ r❡❣✐♦♥s✿ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✶✺✾

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✶✳✶✵✿ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✱
Z +∞ Z 0 Z ∞
x x
e dx = e dx + ex dx
−∞ −∞ Z 0 Z b
0
x
= lim e dx + lim ex dx
a→−∞ a b→+∞ 0

= lim (1 − ea ) + lim (eb − 1) dx .

a→−∞ b→+∞

❚❤❡ ✜rst ❧✐♠✐t ✐s 1 ❜✉t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❧✐♠✐t ✐s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❀ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ♦✉r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✐s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✶✳✶✶
❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t r❡♣❧❛❝✐♥❣ 0 ✐♥ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦✈❡r (−∞, +∞) ✇✐t❤ ❛♥② r❡❛❧ c ✇✐❧❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡
t❤❡ s❛♠❡ r❡s✉❧t✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✶✳✶✷
❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t r❡♣❧❛❝✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤
Z ∞ Z R
❄
f (t) dt == lim f (t) dt ,
−∞ R→∞ −R

✇♦♥✬t ❛❧✇❛②s ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ r❡s✉❧t✳

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✷✳✶✶✳✶✸✿ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ♦♥ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s

❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ❛❜♦✈❡ ❛r❡ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s✳ ❲❤❡♥ s✉❝❤ ❛
❧✐♠✐t ❡①✐sts✱ ♦r t❤❡ t✇♦ ❧✐♠✐ts ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❝❛s❡ ❡①✐st✱ ✇❡ s❛② t❤❛t t❤❡ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r
✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❀ ♦t❤❡r✇✐s❡ ✐t ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s✳

❚❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r t❡r♠✐♥♦❧♦❣② ✐s ❜♦rr♦✇❡❞ ❢r♦♠ ❧✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ✐t ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ✉s❡❞ ❛❣❛✐♥ ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✺✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✶✳✶✹✿ ❜❡❧❧ ❝✉r✈❡
❚❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦✈❡r (−∞, ∞) ❢♦❧❧♦✇s t❤❡ ❛❞❞✐t✐✈✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ t❤❛t ❝♦♠❡s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡
✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ ❛❞❞✐t✐✈✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛s✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ t❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t s✉❝❤ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❧♦♦❦s ❧✐❦❡✿

❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s e−x ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✐s ❦♥♦✇♥ t♦ ❜❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t✳

2

❙♦♠❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s s❤♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ❛❤❡❛❞ ♦❢ t✐♠❡✳

✷✳✶✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛s ♦❢ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ r❡❣✐♦♥s✿ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✶✻✵

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✶✶✳✶✺✿ ■♠♣r♦♣❡r ■♥t❡❣r❛❧s ♦❢ ❘❡❝✐♣r♦❝❛❧s ■

❋♦r ❛♥② a > 0✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡

 1−p
Z ∞
1 a ✇❤❡♥ p > 1,
dx = p − 1
a xp 
∞ ✇❤❡♥ 0 < p ≤ 1.

Pr♦♦❢✳
❋♦r p 6= 1✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
Z ∞ Z b
1 1
dx = lim dx ❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✳
a xp b→∞ xp
Za b
= lim x−p dx ❯s❡ P❋ ♥❡①t✳
b→∞ a b
1 
x−p+1 

= lim
b→∞ −p + 1 
a
1

= lim b−p+1 − a−p+1
−p + 1 b→∞
1  
−p+1 −p+1
= lim b −a .
−p + 1 b→∞
❚❤❡ r❡♠❛✐♥✐♥❣ ❧✐♠✐t ✐s 0 ✇❤❡♥ −p + 1 < 0✱ ❛♥❞ ✐t ✐s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ✇❤❡♥ −p + 1 > 0✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✶✳✶✻
❋✐♥✐s❤ t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧

• ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ✇❤❡♥ p > 1✱
• ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s ✇❤❡♥ 0 < p ≤ 1✳
◆♦✇✱ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ❝❛s❡✿ ✉♥❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❞♦♠❛✐♥s ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✶✳✶✼✿ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❛r❡❛
❈♦♥s✐❞❡r
1
♦♥ [0, 1) .
f (x) =
1−x
❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✉♥❞❡r t❤✐s ❣r❛♣❤ ♦✈❡r t❤✐s ❤❛❧❢✲♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✐♥ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ✐s s❤♦✇♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✉♥❞❡r t❤✐s ❣r❛♣❤ ♦✈❡r t❤✐s ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧❄ ❲❡ ❝❛♥ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✱
❡①❛❝t❧② ❛s ❛❧✇❛②s✱ ❛s ❧♦♥❣ ❛s 1 ✐s ♥♦t ❛♠♦♥❣ ✐ts s❛♠♣❧❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ✿
✷✳✶✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛s ♦❢ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ r❡❣✐♦♥s✿ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✶✻✶

❆❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❡❧②✱ ✇❡ t❛❦❡ ❛ ❤✐♥t ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ♦❢ ❝❛s❡ ✶✿ ❚❤✐s ✉♥❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ r❡❣✐♦♥ ✐s ❡①❤❛✉st❡❞ ❜②
❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ♦♥❡s✳ ❍♦✇❄ ❚❤❡ ✉♥❞❡r❧②✐♥❣ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✐s ❡①❤❛✉st❡❞ ✇✐t❤ ❝❧♦s❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✳ ❚❤❡② ❛❧❧ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡
s❛♠❡ ❧❡❢t ❜♦✉♥❞✱ a✱ ❜✉t t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ❜♦✉♥❞✱ b✱ ✐s ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤✐♥❣ 1✿

[0, b] ❧❡❛❞✐♥❣ t♦ [0, 1) ❛s b → 1.

❚❤❡♥✱
Z b
1
dx = − ln(1 − b) − ln 1
0 1−x
→∞ ❛s b → 1,
✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✉♥❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ r❡❣✐♦♥✳

❚❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ s✐♠♣❧② ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❛♣♣❧② t♦ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✉♥❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡♥❞s ♦❢
t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳ ■♥st❡❛❞✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ❛ r❡str✐❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t♦ ❛ s♠❛❧❧❡r✱ ❜✉t ❝❧♦s❡❞✱ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳

■♥✐t✐❛❧❧②✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛t❡ ♦♥ ❤❛❧❢✲♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ✿

(c, b] ❛♥❞ [a, c) .

❆s ②♦✉ s❡❡✱ t❤❡ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ✐s ✈❡r② s✐♠✐❧❛r t♦ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ❝❛s❡✱ ✇✐t❤ t❤✐s s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✿

[a, ∞) −→ [a, c) .

❏✉st ❛s t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r✱ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ✇✐❧❧ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❜❡ ✏❡①❤❛✉st❡❞✑ ✇✐t❤ ❝❧♦s❡❞ ❛♥❞ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✶✳✶✽✿ ✜♥✐t❡ ❛r❡❛

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r
1
f (x) = √ ♦♥ [0, 1) .
1−x
❊✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ t❤❡✐r ❣r❛♣❤s ❧♦♦❦ ❛❧♠♦st ✐❞❡♥t✐❝❛❧✱ t❤✐s ♦♥❡ ✐♥❝r❡❛s❡s s❧♦✇❡r t❤❛♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ♦♥❡✳ ❆❣❛✐♥✱
t❤❡ ✉♥❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ r❡❣✐♦♥ ✉♥❞❡r t❤✐s ❣r❛♣❤ ♦✈❡r t❤✐s ❤❛❧❢✲♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✐s ❡①❤❛✉st❡❞ ❜② ❡①❤❛✉st✐♥❣ t❤❡
✉♥❞❡r❧②✐♥❣ r❛② ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❝❧♦s❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✿ [0, b] ❛s b → 1✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

Z b
1
❆r❡❛ ♦❢ ✉♥❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ r❡❣✐♦♥ = lim dx √
b→1 0 1 − x
√ b

= lim −2 1 − x
b→1 
0

= 2.

❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ ❛♥ ✉♥❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ r❡❣✐♦♥ ♠❛② ❜❡ ✜♥✐t❡✦

✷✳✶✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛s ♦❢ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ r❡❣✐♦♥s✿ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✶✻✷

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✶✳✶✾✿ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡

❲❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s♥✬t ❛❧❧ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡❄ ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✉♥❞❡r ❛♥ ♦s❝✐❧❧❛t✐♥❣ ❣r❛♣❤✱ s✉❝❤ ❛s t❤✐s❄

1
y = sin
x

❲✐t❤ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ❧✐❦❡ t❤✐s✱ ♦♥❡ ❝❛♥ ❣✉❡ss t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❡①✐st ❛♥❞✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ❛r❡❛✳

❏✉st ❛s ✇✐t❤ ❛❧❧ ❧✐♠✐ts✱ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ t❤r❡❡ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ♦✉t❝♦♠❡s ❢♦r t❤❡s❡ ❛r❡❛s✿ ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r✱ ✐♥✜♥✐t②✱ ♦r ✉♥❞❡✜♥❡❞✳

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠♠❛r②✳

❲❡ ✏❡①❤❛✉st✑ t❤❡ ❤❛❧❢✲♦♣❡♥ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥✱ (a, b] ♦r [a, b)✱ ✇✐t❤ ❝❧♦s❡❞ ♦♥❡s✳ ■❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡
♦♥ t❤❡s❡ ❝❧♦s❡❞ ❛♥❞ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❞♦♠❛✐♥s✱ ✇❡ t❤❡♥ ✏❡①❤❛✉st✑ ❛ ♣♦ss✐❜❧② ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦✈❡r t❤✐s ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ✇✐t❤ ✜♥✐t❡
♦♥❡s✳

■❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤✐s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❡①✐sts✱ ✐t ✐s ❞❡♥♦t❡❞ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

■♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦✈❡r ❤❛❧❢✲♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s

Z b Z b
f (t) dt = lim f (t) dt
c a→c a
❛♥❞ Z Z
c b
f (t) dt = lim f (t) dt
a b→c a

❚❤❡s❡ ❧✐♠✐ts✱ ♦❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡✳

✷✳✶✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛s ♦❢ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ r❡❣✐♦♥s✿ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✶✻✸

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦
❚❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ✉♥❢♦rt✉♥❛t❡❧② ✐❞❡♥t✐❝❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ ♦♥❡

❢♦r ♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s✱ ❜✉t t❤✐s ✐s ♥♦t❤✐♥❣ ❜✉t ❛♥ ❛❜✲

❜r❡✈✐❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✳

❲❡ ❛❧s♦ ❞❡✜♥❡ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦✈❡r ❛♥ ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦♥❡s ♦✈❡r ❤❛❧❢✲♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✱ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡
❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ❛♥② c ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ a ❛♥❞ b✿
■♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦✈❡r ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧
Z b Z c Z b
f (t) dt = f (t) dt + f (t) dt
a a c

■♥ t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❧✐♠✐ts✱ ✇❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇ t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦❢ ✐♥✜♥✐t✐❡s ❛❜♦✈❡✳

❋♦r ❝❛s❡ ✷✱ ✇❡ r❡♣❡❛t t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ❝❛s❡ ✶✳
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✷✳✶✶✳✷✵✿ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ♦♥ ✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s
❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ❛❜♦✈❡ ❛r❡ ✭❛❧s♦✮ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s✳ ❲❤❡♥ t❤❡
❧✐♠✐t ❡①✐sts✱ ♦r t❤❡ t✇♦ ❧✐♠✐ts ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❝❛s❡ ❡①✐st✱ ✇❡ s❛② t❤❛t t❤❡ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r
✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❀ ♦t❤❡r✇✐s❡ ✐t ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✶✳✷✶
❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t r❡♣❧❛❝✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤
Z b Z b−ε
❄
f (t) dt == lim+ f (t) dt .
a ε→0 a+ε

✇♦♥✬t ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ r❡s✉❧t✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✶✳✷✷✿ ❤♦❧❡ ✐♥ ❞♦♠❛✐♥

❚❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦✈❡r ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ♠✐ss✐♥❣ ♣♦✐♥t ✐♥s✐❞❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇s ❛❞❞✐t✐✈✐t②
♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ t❤❛t ❝♦♠❡s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ ❛❞❞✐t✐✈✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛s✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ t❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t s✉❝❤ ❛♥
✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❧♦♦❦s ❧✐❦❡✿

❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s
1
p ,
|x|
❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✐s ❦♥♦✇♥ t♦ ❜❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t✳
✷✳✶✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛s ♦❢ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ r❡❣✐♦♥s✿ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✶✻✹

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✶✶✳✷✸✿ ■♠♣r♦♣❡r ■♥t❡❣r❛❧s ♦❢ ❘❡❝✐♣r♦❝❛❧s ■■

❋♦r ❛♥② a > 0✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡

 1−p
Z b
1 b ✇❤❡♥ 0 < p < 1,
dx = 1 − p
0 xp 
∞ ✇❤❡♥ p ≥ 1.

Pr♦♦❢✳

❋♦r p 6= 1✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
Z b Z b
1 1
p
dx = lim+ p
dx ❇② ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✳
0 x a→0
Za x b
= lim+ x−p dx ❲❡ ✉s❡ P❋ ♥❡①t✳
a→0 a b
1 
−p+1 
= lim+ x 
a→0 −p + 1 
a
1

= lim+ b−p+1 − a−p+1
−p + 1 
a→0

1 −p+1 −p+1
= b − lim+ a .
−p + 1 a→0

❚❤❡ r❡♠❛✐♥✐♥❣ ❧✐♠✐t ✐s 0 ✇❤❡♥ −p + 1 > 0✱ ❛♥❞ ✐t ✐s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ✇❤❡♥ −p + 1 < 0✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✶✳✷✹

❋✐♥✐s❤ t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✶✳✷✺

▼❛t❝❤ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛s ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ t❤❡♦r❡♠s ❛❜♦✉t ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❝✐♣r♦❝❛❧s✳ ❍✐♥t✿ ■t✬s
❛❜♦✉t s②♠♠❡tr②✳
Z b
1
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ dx✿
0 xp
• ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ✇❤❡♥ p > 1✱
• ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s ✇❤❡♥ 0 < p ≤ 1✳
❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠♠❛r② ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ t②♣❡s ♦❢ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ❢♦r t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿
✷✳✶✷✳ Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ♣r♦♣❡r ❛♥❞ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ❞❡✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✶✻✺

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✶✳✷✻

❲❤❛t ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ❝❛♥ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ✐ts ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡ t❛❦❡❄ ●✐✈❡ ❛♥
❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ✈❛❧✉❡✳

✷✳✶✷✳ Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ♣r♦♣❡r ❛♥❞ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ❞❡✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s

❚❤✉s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❡①t❡♥❞❡❞ t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥✿
• ❝❧♦s❡❞ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✱ s✉❝❤ ❛s [a, b]✱ t♦
• ❤❛❧❢✲♦♣❡♥✱ s✉❝❤ ❛s (a, b] ❛♥❞ [a, b)✱ ❛♥❞ ❛❧s♦ ♣♦ss✐❜❧② ✐♥✜♥✐t❡✱ s✉❝❤ ❛s (−∞, b] ❛♥❞ [a, ∞)✱ ❛♥❞ ❢✉rt❤❡r
t♦
• ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✱ s✉❝❤ ❛s (a, b)✱ ❛♥❞ ♣♦ss✐❜❧② ✐♥✜♥✐t❡✱ s✉❝❤ ❛s (−∞, +∞)✳
■t ✐s ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ t♦ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ✉♥✐❢♦r♠ tr❡❛t♠❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❝❛s❡s✿

❲❡ ♦✉t❧✐♥❡ ✐t ❜❡❧♦✇✳
■❢ ✇❡ ❞❡♥♦t❡ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❜② I ✱ ❛❧❧ t❤❡s❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ✇r✐tt❡♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✿
■♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦✈❡r ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧

Z
f dx
I

❚❤❡s❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ❤❛✈❡ ✐❞❡♥t✐❝❛❧ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s✳ ■♥ ❢❛❝t✱ t❤❡ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ❢♦❧❧♦✇ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡
❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐♥ t✉r♥ ❝♦♠❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts✳
❆s r❡❣✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❥♦✐♥❡❞ t♦❣❡t❤❡r ✈✐❛ ✉♥✐♦♥✱ t❤❡✐r ❛r❡❛s ❛r❡ ❛❞❞❡❞ ✕ ❡✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥s ♠❛② ❜❡ ✉♥❜♦✉♥❞❡❞✳
❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛❞❞✐t✐✈✐t② ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❛s ❜❡❢♦r❡✱ ❛s ❧♦♥❣ ❛s t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ❛r❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t✿
✷✳✶✷✳ Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ♣r♦♣❡r ❛♥❞ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ❞❡✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✶✻✻

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✶✷✳✶✿ ❆❞❞✐t✐✈✐t② ♦❢ ■♥t❡❣r❛❧s

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f ✐s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ♦✈❡r ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s I ❛♥❞ J t❤❛t s❤❛r❡ ♦♥❡ ♣♦✐♥t✳ ❚❤❡♥ f ✐s

✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ♦✈❡r I ∪ J✱ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

Z Z Z
f dx + f dx = f dx
I J I∪J

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✶✷✳✷✿ ■♥t❡❣r❛❜✐❧✐t②

■❢ f ✐s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ♦✈❡r ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ I ✱ t❤❡♥ ✐t ✐s ❛❧s♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ♦✈❡r ❛♥② ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ J ⊂ I ✳

❚❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ r✉❧❡s ❛r❡ ❛❧s♦ t❤❡ s❛♠❡✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✶✷✳✸✿ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ■♥t❡❣r❛❧s

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f ❛♥❞ g ❛r❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦✈❡r ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ I✳ ❚❤❡♥ s♦ ✐s f + g✱ ❛♥❞

✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
Z Z Z
(f + g) dx = f dx + g dx
I I I

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✶✷✳✹✿ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ■♥t❡❣r❛❧s

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f ✐s ❛♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ I✳ ❚❤❡♥ s♦ ✐s c·f ❢♦r ❛♥② r❡❛❧
✷✳✶✷✳ Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ♣r♦♣❡r ❛♥❞ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ❞❡✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✶✻✼

c✱ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
Z Z
(c · f ) dx = c · f dx
I I

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✷✳✺

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ t✇♦ t❤❡♦r❡♠s✳ ❍✐♥t✿ ❯s❡ t❤❡ r✉❧❡s ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✷✳✻

❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ❢♦r ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s❄

❚❤❡ ♠❛✐♥ ♣❛rt ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✐s ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❧✐♠✐ts✿

Z x Z x
lim dx ❛♥❞ lim dx .
x→b a x→∞ a

❚❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t✳ ❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛ ✇❛② t♦ ♣r❡❞✐❝t ✇❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s

✇✐t❤♦✉t ❡✈❛❧✉❛t✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t✳

❚❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✐s ❛ ♠❛ ❥♦r t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢r♦♠ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✷ ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷❉❈✲✶✮✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✶✷✳✼✿ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥❡ ❈♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡

❊✈❡r② ♠♦♥♦t♦♥❡ ❛♥❞ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✳ ❊✈❡r② ♠♦♥♦t♦♥❡ ❛♥❞

❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ❛t ✐♥✜♥✐t②✳

❲❡ ❛❧s♦ ❦♥♦✇ ❢r♦♠ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✷✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✶✷✳✽✿ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❚❤❡♦r❡♠

❆♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ♠♦♥♦t♦♥❡ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❡✐t❤❡r ❛❧❧ ♣♦s✐✲

t✐✈❡ ♦r ❛❧❧ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡✳

▲❡t✬s ❡①❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❡ r❡st ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ s✉❝❤ ❛s sin ❛♥❞ cos✿

❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✶✷✳✾✿ ❈♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ◆♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ■♥t❡❣r❛❧

■❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡✱ ✐ts ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ❛r❡ ❡✐t❤❡r ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t ♦r ✐♥✜♥✐t❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✷✳✶✵

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✳

❚❤❡♥✱ t♦ ❡st❛❜❧✐s❤ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ✉s❡ ❛ ❞✐r❡❝t ❝♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t❤❛t ❤❛s

❛ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✳ ❚❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ ❧❛r❣❡r✿

✷✳✶✷✳ Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ♣r♦♣❡r ❛♥❞ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ❞❡✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✶✻✽

❙✐♠✐❧❛r❧②✱ t♦ ❡st❛❜❧✐s❤ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ✉s❡ ❛ ❞✐r❡❝t ❝♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t❤❛t ❤❛s

❛ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥t ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✳ ❚❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ s♠❛❧❧❡r✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✷✳✶✶✿ ❝♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❢❛❝ts✿

Z ∞ Z ∞
1 1
❚❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ dx ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ dx ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s✳
1 x1/2 1 x1/3
Z ∞ Z ∞
1 1
❚❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ dx ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ dx ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✳
1 x3 1 x2
❚❤❡s❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥s ❝♦♠❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t✐❡s ❜❡❧♦✇✿

1/3 ≤ 1/2 ≤ 2 ≤3 =⇒

x1/3 ≤ x1/2 ≤ x2 ≤ x3 =⇒
1 1 1 1
≥ 1/2 ≥ ≥ 3 =⇒
Z x1/3 Z ∞x Z ∞x
2
Z ∞x
∞
1 1 1 1
1/3
dx ≥ 1/2
dx = ∞ > 2
dx ≥ dx
1 x 1 x 1 x 1 x3

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✷✳✶✷

❲❤❛t ❞♦❡s t❤❡ ♠✐❞❞❧❡ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t② ❣✐✈❡ ✉s❄

❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ❛♣♣❧✐❡s t♦ ❛❧❧ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✷✳✶✷✳✶✸✿ ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❢♦r ■♠♣r♦♣❡r ■♥t❡❣r❛❧s

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ I ✐s ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ ❛♥❞

0 ≤ f (x) ≤ g(x)

❢♦r ❛❧❧ x ✐♥ I✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ❢♦r ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ♦✈❡r I✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

• ■❢ t❤❡ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ f ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ❞♦❡s t❤❡ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧

♦❢ g✳
• ■❢ t❤❡ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ g ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ❞♦❡s t❤❡ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧
✷✳✶✷✳ Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ♣r♦♣❡r ❛♥❞ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ❞❡✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✶✻✾

♦❢ f ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
Z Z
0≤ f dx ≤ g dx .
I I

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✷✳✶✹

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✳

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡✳ ❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ❈♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥

♠❛❦❡s s❡♥s❡✿

❈♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢
✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧

Z
f dx < ∞
I

❉✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r
✐♥t❡❣r❛❧

Z
f dx = ∞
I

❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ r❡❛❞ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡s❡ s✐♠♣❧❡ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t✐❡s✿

Z Z
f dx ≥ g dx = ∞
I I

❛♥❞ Z Z
f dx ≤ g dx < ∞ .
I I

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✷✳✶✺

❲❤❛t ✐❢ ✇❡ ✉s❡ str✐❝t ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t✐❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✷✳✶✻

❲❤❛t ❝❛♥ ✇❡ ❞❡r✐✈❡ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡✴❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❝✐♣r♦❝❛❧

♣♦✇❡rs ❜❛s❡❞ ❡♥t✐r❡❧② ♦♥ t❤❛t ♦❢ 1/x❄ ❍✐♥t✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✷✳✶✼

❙t❛t❡ ❛♥❞ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❙q✉❡❡③❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦r ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s✳

✷✳✶✸✳ ❙❤♦♦t✐♥❣ ❛ ❝❛♥♥♦♥ ✶✼✵

✷✳✶✸✳ ❙❤♦♦t✐♥❣ ❛ ❝❛♥♥♦♥

▲❡t✬s r❡✈✐❡✇ ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ❛❜♦✉t ❢r❡❡ ✢✐❣❤t ❢r♦♠ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✷✳

❆ s♦❝❝❡r ❜❛❧❧ r♦❧❧✐♥❣ ♦♥ ❛ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ♣❧❛♥❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✿

❆ ♣✐♥❣✲♣♦♥❣ ❜❛❧❧ t❤r♦✇♥ ✉♣ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❛✐r ❣♦❡s ✉♣✱ s❧♦✇s ❞♦✇♥ ✉♥t✐❧ ✐t st♦♣s ❢♦r ❛♥ ✐♥st❛♥t✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t❡s
t♦✇❛r❞ t❤❡ s✉r❢❛❝❡✿

❲❤❛t ✐❢ ✇❡ ❞♦ ❜♦t❤✿ ❲❡ r♦❧❧ ❛ s♦❝❝❡r ❜❛❧❧ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧❧② ❛♥❞ t❤r♦✇ ❛ ♣✐♥❣✲♣♦♥❣ ❜❛❧❧ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧❧②❄ ▲❡t✬s tr② t♦
❢♦❧❧♦✇ ❜♦t❤ ❜❛❧❧s ❛t t❤❡ s❛♠❡ t✐♠❡✿

❲❡✬❞ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ✢② t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ❛✐r ❛s ✐❢ t❤r♦✇♥ ❛t ❛♥ ❛♥❣❧❡✦

❖✉r ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞✐♥❣ ✐s t❤❛t ❛ t❤r♦✇♥ ❜❛❧❧ ♠♦✈❡s ✐♥ ❜♦t❤ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛♥❞ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥s✱ s✐♠✉❧t❛♥❡♦✉s❧②
❛♥❞ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t❧②✿
✷✳✶✸✳ ❙❤♦♦t✐♥❣ ❛ ❝❛♥♥♦♥ ✶✼✶

❚❤❡ ❞②♥❛♠✐❝s ✐s ✈❡r② ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✿

✶✳ ■♥ t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✱ ❛s t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ❢♦r❝❡ ❝❤❛♥❣✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✱ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r r❡♠❛✐♥s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳
✷✳ ▼❡❛♥✇❤✐❧❡✱ t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t❧② ❝❤❛♥❣❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡ ♦❢ ❣r❛✈✐t②✳
▲❡t✬s ♥♦✇ ✉s❡ t❤❡s❡ ❞❡s❝r✐♣t✐♦♥s t♦ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ♠❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝❛❧❧②✳
❘❡❝❛❧❧ ❤♦✇ ✇❡ ✉s❡❞ t❤❡s❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts t♦ ✜♥❞ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✿
∆p pn+1 − pn ∆v vn+1 − vn
pn 7→ vn = = 7→ an = =
∆t h ∆t h

❍❡r❡ h = ∆t ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ t✐♠❡✳

❚❤❡s❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❤❛✈❡ ❛❧s♦ ❜❡❡♥ s♦❧✈❡❞ ❢♦r pn+1 ❛♥❞ vn+1 r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧② ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ♠♦❞❡❧ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
♦❢ t✐♠❡✿
an 7→ vn+1 = vn + han 7→ pn+1 = pn + hvn
❚❤❡s❡ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ✿ ❚❤❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥ts ❛r❡ ❜❡✐♥❣ ❛❞❞❡❞ ♦♥❡ ❛t ❛ t✐♠❡✳
❚❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t t❤❡ r❡s✉❧ts ♠✐❣❤t ❧♦♦❦ ❧✐❦❡✿

❚❤✐s t✐♠❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t✇♦ s✉❝❤ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✿ ♦♥❡ ❢♦r ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❡ ❢♦r ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧✳
❲❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝t t❤❡ ❈❛rt❡s✐❛♥ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♠♦st ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥t ✇❛②✿
• ❚❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ✐s ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧✳
• ❚❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s ✐s ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧✳
✷✳✶✸✳ ❙❤♦♦t✐♥❣ ❛ ❝❛♥♥♦♥ ✶✼✷

❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✇❡ ❛❜❛♥❞♦♥ t❤❡ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r y = f (x) s❡t✉♣✦ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤r❡❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ♥♦✇✿
✶✳ t ✐s t✐♠❡✳
✷✳ x ✐s t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥✱ t❤❡ ❞❡♣t❤✳
✸✳ y ✐s t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥✱ t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t✳
❊✐t❤❡r ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ s♣❛t✐❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥ t❤❡ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✳
❚❤❡✐r ❣r❛♣❤s ❛r❡ ♣❧♦tt❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇ ✭❧❡❢t✮✿

▼❡❛♥✇❤✐❧❡✱ t❤❡ ❛❝t✉❛❧ ♣❛t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❧ t❤r♦✉❣❤ s♣❛❝❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❛♣♣❡❛r t♦ ❛♥ ♦❜s❡r✈❡r ❛s ❛ ❝✉r✈❡ ✐♥ t❤❡✱ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧❧②
❛❧✐❣♥❡❞✱ xy ✲♣❧❛♥❡ ✭r✐❣❤t✮✳ ❆s t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ t✲❛①✐s✱ ✇❡ ♣r♦✈✐❞❡ t❤❡ t✐♠❡s ❜② ❧❛❜❡❧✐♥❣ ❛ ❢❡✇ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ tr❛❥❡❝t♦r②✳
❍✐st♦r✐❝❛❧❧②✱ ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❡r② ✜rst ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ✇❛s ✐♥ ❜❛❧❧✐st✐❝s✳
❇❡❢♦r❡ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s✱ ♦♥❡ ❤❛❞ t♦ r❡s♦rt t♦ tr✐❛❧ ❛♥❞ ❡rr♦r ❛♥❞ ✇❛t❝❤✐♥❣ ✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡ ❝❛♥♥♦♥❜❛❧❧s ✇❡r❡ ❧❛♥❞✐♥❣✳ ❆
✇❡❧❧✲❞❡s✐❣♥❡❞ t❡st ♠❛② ♣r♦✈✐❞❡ ♦♥❡ ✇✐t❤ ❛ t❛❜❧❡ ✭✐✳❡✳✱ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✮ t❤❛t ❣✐✈❡s t❤❡ s❤♦t ❧❡♥❣t❤ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ❛♥❣❧❡
♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❛rr❡❧✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ s✉❝❤ ❛ r❡❢❡r❡♥❝❡ t❛❜❧❡ ♠❛② ♣r♦✈❡ ✉s❡❧❡ss ✇❤❡♥ ♦♥❡ ✐s t♦ s❤♦♦t ❢r♦♠ ❛♥ ❡❧❡✈❛t❡❞
♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✱ ♦r ❛t ❛♥ ❡❧❡✈❛t❡❞ t❛r❣❡t✱ ♦r ♦✈❡r ❛♥ ♦❜st❛❝❧❡✳ ❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ❥✉st t♦♦ ♠❛♥② ♣❛r❛♠❡t❡rs✦
▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ♦♥❡ ♦❢ s✉❝❤ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠s✳
◮ P❘❖❇▲❊▼✿ ❋r♦♠ ❛ 200✲❢♦♦t ❡❧❡✈❛t✐♦♥✱ ❛ ❝❛♥♥♦♥ ✐s ✜r❡❞ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧❧② ❛t 200 ❢❡❡t ♣❡r s❡❝♦♥❞✳

❍♦✇ ❢❛r ✇✐❧❧ t❤❡ ❝❛♥♥♦♥❜❛❧❧ ❣♦❄

❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ♣❛t❤✦

▲❡t h = ∆t ❜❡ t❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ t✐♠❡✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡s❡ s✐① s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞
❢♦✉r t✐♠❡s✿
❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧
♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ xn yn
xn+1 − xn yn+1 − yn
✈❡❧♦❝✐t② vn = un = ❉◗
h h
vn+1 − vn un+1 − un
❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ an = bn = ❉◗
h h
✷✳✶✸✳ ❙❤♦♦t✐♥❣ ❛ ❝❛♥♥♦♥ ✶✼✸

◆♦✇✱ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♣✉r♣♦s❡ ♦❢ ♠♦❞❡❧✐♥❣ ❛♥❞ s✐♠✉❧❛t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐♦♥ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❣♦ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♦♣♣♦s✐t❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✳ ❲❡
❣♦ ✐♥ r❡✈❡rs❡✿ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥✳ ❲❤❡♥ ✇❡ s♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s✱
✇❡ ❡♥❞ ✉♣ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡s❡ ❢♦✉r r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ✭t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✮ ❢♦r ♦✉r s✐① s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✿

❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧
❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ an bn
✈❡❧♦❝✐t② vn+1 = vn + han un+1 = un + hbn ❘❙
♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ xn+1 = xn + hvn yn+1 = yn + hun ❘❙

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✸✳✶✿ ❤♦✇ ❢❛r

◆♦✇ ✐♥ t❤❡ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ❢r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❥✉st ♦♥❡ ❢♦r❝❡✱ t❤❡ ❣r❛✈✐t②✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧
❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ③❡r♦ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t ✭❢❡❡t ♣❡r s❡❝♦♥❞ sq✉❛r❡❞✮✿

a = 0, b = −32 .

❲❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ t❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ t✐♠❡✿

h = 0.1 .
◆❡①t✱ ✇❡ ❛❝q✉✐r❡ t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s✿
x y
✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✿ x0 = 0 y0 = 200
✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✿ v0 = 200 u0 = 0
❚❤❡s❡ ❢♦✉r ♥✉♠❜❡rs s❡r✈❡ ❛s t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ t❡r♠s ♦❢ ♦✉r ❢♦✉r s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✿

t✐♠❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧

t0 ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ a0 = 0 b0 = −32
✈❡❧♦❝✐t② v1 = 200 + 0.1 · 0 u1 = 0 + 0.1 · (−32)
♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ x1 = 0 + 0.1 · 200 y1 = 200 + 0.1 · 0
t1 = t0 + h ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ a1 = 0 b1 = −32
✈❡❧♦❝✐t② v2 = v1 + ha1 u2 = u1 + hb1
♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ x2 = x1 + hv1 y3 = y1 n + hu1
t2 = t1 + h ... ... ...

❚❤❡ ❢♦✉r ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❛r❡ ✐❞❡♥t✐❝❛❧ ❥✉st ❛s ❜❡❢♦r❡✿

❂❘❬✲✶❪❈✰❘❈❬✲✶❪✯❘✶❈✶

❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡♠ t♦ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❡✈❡r② h = 0.1 s❡❝♦♥❞✳ ❲❡ t❛❦❡ t❤❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t ♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❛❜♦✈❡✱
❝♦♣② ❛♥❞ ♣❛st❡ t❤❡ ❝♦❧✉♠♥s ❢♦r ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥✱ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✱ ❛♥❞ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✿
✷✳✶✸✳ ❙❤♦♦t✐♥❣ ❛ ❝❛♥♥♦♥ ✶✼✹

❖❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ✈❛❧✉❡s✱ ✇❡ r❡♣❧❛❝❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ a = 0✳

❚♦ ✜♥❞ ✇❤❡♥ ❛♥❞ ✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❧ ❤✐ts t❤❡ ❣r♦✉♥❞✱ ✇❡ s❝r♦❧❧ ❞♦✇♥ t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ r♦✇ ✇✐t❤ y ❝❧♦s❡ t♦ 0✳

■t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s ❛❜♦✉t t = 3.5✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ x ❛t t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ✐s ❛❜♦✉t x = 700✳

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡ t❤❡ x✲❝♦❧✉♠♥ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ y ✲❝♦❧✉♠♥ t♦ ♣❧♦t t❤❡ ♣❛t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❛♥♥♦♥❜❛❧❧✿

❲✐t❤ t❤❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❛s❦ ❛♥❞ ❛♥s✇❡r ❛ ✈❛r✐❡t② ♦❢ q✉❡st✐♦♥s ❛❜♦✉t s✉❝❤ ♠♦t✐♦♥✳ ❇✉t ✜rst✱ ❧❡t✬s
✐♥tr♦❞✉❝❡ t❤❡ ❛♥❣❧❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❛rr❡❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❛♥♥♦♥ ✐♥t♦ t❤❡ ♠♦❞❡❧✳

❚❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♦❢ 200 ❢❡❡t ♣❡r s❡❝♦♥❞ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❜❡❡♥ ✉s✐♥❣ ✐s t❤❡ ✏♠✉③③❧❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✑✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ s♣❡❡❞✱ s✱ ✇✐t❤ ✇❤✐❝❤
t❤❡ ❝❛♥♥♦♥❜❛❧❧ ❧❡❛✈❡s t❤❡ ♠✉③③❧❡ ✕ ♥♦ ♠❛tt❡r ✇❤❛t t❤❡ ❛♥❣❧❡✱ α✱ ✐s✳ ❚❤❛t✬s ✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❛♥❞
t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s ❝♦♠❡ ❢r♦♠✿
✷✳✶✸✳ ❙❤♦♦t✐♥❣ ❛ ❝❛♥♥♦♥ ✶✼✺

❚❤❡s❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❝♦♠❡ ❢r♦♠ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr② ✭❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✮✿

v0 = s cos α ❛♥❞ u0 = s sin α .

❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡♠ ❜❡❧♦✇ t♦ ♣r♦✈✐❞❡ t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s✿

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❢r❡❡❧② ❡♥t❡r t❤❡ ❞❛t❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✭❤✐❣❤❧✐❣❤t❡❞ ✐♥ ❣r❡❡♥✮✿

• t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ s♣❡❡❞

• t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❛♥❣❧❡

• t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥

• ❛❧❧ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥s

❚❤❡ r❡st ✐s ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❛s ❜❡❢♦r❡✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✸✳✷✿ ❧♦♥❣❡st s❤♦t

■t ✐s r❡❛❧❧② tr✉❡ t❤❛t 45 ❞❡❣r❡❡s ✐s t❤❡ ❜❡st ❛♥❣❧❡ t♦ s❤♦♦t ❢♦r ❛ ❧♦♥❣❡r ❞✐st❛♥❝❡✿

■t ❛♣♣❡❛rs t❤❛t t❤❡ ♦♥❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♠✐❞❞❧❡ ✐s t❤❡ ❜❡st✱ ❜✉t ✇❡ ❝❛♥✬t ♣r♦✈❡ t❤✐s ✇✐t❤ ❥✉st t❤❡ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧

♠❡t❤♦❞s✳ ◆♦✇✱ ✇❤❛t ✐❢ ✇❡ tr② t♦ s❤♦♦t ❢r♦♠ ❛ ❤✐❧❧ ❛❣❛✐♥✱ s❛②✱ 500 ❢❡❡t ❤✐❣❤❄
✷✳✶✸✳ ❙❤♦♦t✐♥❣ ❛ ❝❛♥♥♦♥ ✶✼✻

■t✬s ♥♦t t❤❡ ❜❡st ❛♥②♠♦r❡✦

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✸✳✸

❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❜❡st s❤♦t ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡❝♦♠❡ ♠♦r❡ ❛♥❞ ♠♦r❡ ✢❛t ❛s t❤❡ ❡❧❡✈❛t✐♦♥ ❣r♦✇s✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✸✳✹✿ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❣r❛✈✐t②

❲❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s ✐❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛✈✐t② s✉❞❞❡♥❧② ❞✐s❛♣♣❡❛rs❄ ■♥ t❤❡ ❝♦❧✉♠♥ ❢♦r t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ❥✉st
r❡♣❧❛❝❡ −32 ✇✐t❤ 0 ❛❢t❡r ❛ ❢❡✇ r♦✇s✿

❚❤❡ ❝❛♥♥♦♥❜❛❧❧ ✢✐❡s ♦✛ ♦♥ ❛ t❛♥❣❡♥t✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✸✳✺✿ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❣r❛✈✐t②

❲❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s ✐❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛✈✐t② st❛rts t♦ ✐♥❝r❡❛s❡❄ ▲❡t✬s ✐♥❝r❡❛s❡ t❤❡ ❞♦✇♥✇❛r❞ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ 1 ❢♦♦t ♣❡r
s❡❝♦♥❞ sq✉❛r❡❞ ♣❡r s❡❝♦♥❞✿

❚❤❡ tr❛❥❡❝t♦r② ❧♦♦❦s st❡❡♣❡r ❛♥❞ st❡❡♣❡r✱ ❜✉t ✐s t❤❡r❡ ❛ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡ ❄ ❲❡ ❝❛♥✬t ❛♥s✇❡r ✇✐t❤ ❥✉st
t❤❡ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ♠❡t❤♦❞s✳
✷✳✶✸✳ ❙❤♦♦t✐♥❣ ❛ ❝❛♥♥♦♥ ✶✼✼

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✸✳✻✿ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❣r❛✈✐t②

❲❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s ✐❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛✈✐t② ✐s ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ✐♥st❡❛❞❄ ❚❤❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ❛❧♦♥❣ ❛ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛ t❤❛t ❧✐❡s ♦♥ ✐ts
s✐❞❡✱ ♦❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✳ ❇✉t ✇❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ❜♦t❤ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ✭❞♦✇♥✮ ❛♥❞ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ✭❧❡❢t✮ ❢♦r❝❡s ♦❢ ❣r❛✈✐t②❄ ▲❡t✬s
♠♦❞✐❢② t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ❝♦❧✉♠♥s ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣❧② ❜② r❡♣❧❛❝✐♥❣ 0✬s ✇✐t❤ −32 ✐♥ t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥
❝♦❧✉♠♥✿

■s t❤✐s ❛ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✸✳✼

❊①♣❧❛✐♥ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧ts ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✳

■♥ s♣✐t❡ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ♥✉♠❡r♦✉s ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ♦♥❧② ❞♦ ♦♥❡ ❛t ❛ t✐♠❡✦ ❚❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥s ✇❡ ❞r❛✇ ❛r❡ ❛❧s♦ s♣❡❝✐✜❝
t♦ t❤❡s❡ s✐t✉❛t✐♦♥s ✭❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥s✱ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s✱ ❡t❝✳✮✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✸✳✽✿ ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s

❇❡❝❛✉s❡ ❡✈❡r②t❤✐♥❣ ✐s r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ r✉♥ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s ❞✐r❡❝t❧② t♦ s❡❡ ✇❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s✱ ❛s ✐♥
t❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✿
❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ an
✈❡❧♦❝✐t② vn+1 = vn + han
♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ xn+1 = xn + hvn
■s t❤❡r❡ ❛♥ ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥❄ ■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ❝❛♥ ✇❡ ❡①♣r❡ss xn ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ n❄

■❢ t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ③❡r♦✱ ✐t✬s ❡❛s②✿

an = 0 =⇒ vn = v0 = v =⇒ xn+1 = xn + hv .

❆❞❞✐♥❣ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ✐s ❥✉st ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥✿

xn = x0 + hvn .

■❢ t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ♥♦♥✲③❡r♦ ❜✉t ❝♦♥st❛♥t✱ ✐t✬s ♠♦r❡ ❝♦♠♣❧✐❝❛t❡❞✿

an = a =⇒ vn+1 = vn + ha .

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
vn = v0 + han .
✷✳✶✸✳ ❙❤♦♦t✐♥❣ ❛ ❝❛♥♥♦♥ ✶✼✽

◆❡①t✿
xn+1 = xn + hvn = xn + h(v0 + han) = xn + hv0 + h2 an .
❲❡ ❛r❡ ❛❞❞✐♥❣ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡rs✦

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✸✳✾

❋✐♥✐s❤ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥✳ ❍✐♥t✿ ❯s❡ ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢r♦♠ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✸✳✶✵

❲❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❧✐♥❡❛r❧②❄ ❍✐♥t✿ ❯s❡ ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢r♦♠ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶✳

❚❤❡ ❝❤❛❧❧❡♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✜♥❞✐♥❣ ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❢♦r s✉♠s ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✐s ❛❞❞r❡ss❡❞ ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✺✳
❚❤✐s ✐s ✇❤② ✇❡ ♥♦✇ t✉r♥ t♦ t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❝❛s❡✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ ✇❡ t❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❡✈❡r②t❤✐♥❣ ❛❜♦✈❡✿

h = ∆t → 0

❚❤❡ ❞✐s❛♣♣❡❛r❛♥❝❡ ♦❢ h ♠❛❦❡s ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ s✐♠♣❧❡r✦

❚❤✐s t✐♠❡✱ ✐♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ s✐① s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡s❡ s✐① ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t✐♠❡✿

x✱ t❤❡ ❞❡♣t❤✱ t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ v = x′ ✱ t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② a = v ′ ✱ t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥
y ✱ t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t✱ t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ u = y ′ ✱ t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② b = u′ ✱ t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥
❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ t✐♠❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t ❛s ❛ ♣❛r❛♠❡t❡r ❛♥②♠♦r❡✦
◆♦✇ t❤❡ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ❢r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧✿
a = 0, b = −g .

❋r♦♠ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✷✱ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇✿

✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ✐s ❧✐♥❡❛r✳ ❆♥❞ t❤❡ ♦♥❧② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s
❧✐♥❡❛r ✐s ❛ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧✳
✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳ ❆♥❞ t❤❡ ♦♥❧② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s
❝♦♥st❛♥t ✐s ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧✳
❲❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ ❛❜♦✉t ❢r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧ ✿
✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ x = x(t) ✐s ❧✐♥❡❛r✳
✷✳ ❚❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ y = y(t) ✐s q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝✳
❲❤❛t ♠❛❦❡s t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ❛r❡ t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s ✿
dx 
x0 ✱ t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❞❡♣t❤✱ x0 = x(0) v0 ✱ t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t ♦❢ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✱ v(0) = 
dt t=0
dy 
y0 ✱ t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❤❡✐❣❤t✱ y0 = y(0) u0 ✱ t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t ♦❢ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✱ u(0) = 
dt t=0
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

x = x0 +v0 t
1
y = y0 +u0 t − gt2
2

❚❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ❛❧❧♦✇ ✉s t♦ s♦❧✈❡ ❛ ✈❛r✐❡t② ♦❢ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠s ❛❜♦✉t ♠♦t✐♦♥✳ ❲❡ ❝❛rr② t❤✐s ♦✉t ❢♦r x ❛♥❞ y
s❡♣❛r❛t❡❧② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧ts ❛r❡ s❤♦✇♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t✿
✷✳✶✸✳ ❙❤♦♦t✐♥❣ ❛ ❝❛♥♥♦♥ ✶✼✾

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✸✳✶✶✿ ❤♦✇ ❢❛r

▲❡t✬s r❡✈✐s✐t t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ❛❜♦✉t ❛ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ s❤♦t ✇❡ s♦❧✈❡❞ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧❧②✳ ❖✉r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ❜❡❝♦♠❡✿

x = 200t
y = 200 −16t2

◆♦✇✱ ❛♥❛❧②t✐❝❛❧❧②✱ t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t ❛t t❤❡ ❡♥❞ ✐s 0✱ s♦ t♦ ✜♥❞ ✇❤❡♥ ✐t ❤❛♣♣❡♥❡❞✱ ✇❡ s❡t y = 0✱ ♦r

200 − 16t2 = 0 ,

❛♥❞ s♦❧✈❡ ❢♦r t✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ♦❢ ❧❛♥❞✐♥❣ ✐s✿

r √
200 5 2
t1 = = .
16 2
❚♦ ✜♥❞ ✇❤❡r❡ ✐t ❤❛♣♣❡♥❡❞✱ ✇❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ t❤✐s ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t ✐♥t♦ x❀ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✐s✿
√
5 2
x1 = 200t1 = 200 ≈ 707 .
2
❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ♠❛t❝❤❡s ♦✉r ❡st✐♠❛t❡✦

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷✳✶✸✳✶✷✿ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❣r❛✈✐t②

❲❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s ✐❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛✈✐t② ✐s ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣❄ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✐t ✐s ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ 1 ❢♦♦t ♣❡r s❡❝♦♥❞ sq✉❛r❡❞ ♣❡r
s❡❝♦♥❞✳ ❲✐t❤ t❤❡ t♦♦❧s ❞❡✈❡❧♦♣❡❞ ✐♥ t❤✐s ❝❤❛♣t❡r✱ ✐t✬s ❡❛s②✿
t2 gt2 t3
b = −g − t =⇒ u = u0 − gt − =⇒ y = y0 + u0 t − − .
2 2 6
❲❡ ❝♦♥✜r♠ t❤❛t t❤❡ tr❛❥❡❝t♦r② ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡❝♦♠❡ st❡❡♣❡r ❛♥❞ st❡❡♣❡r✳ ❲❡ ❛❧s♦ ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r t❤❛t t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦
✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡✦
 ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✸✿ ❲❤❛t ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❞♦ ✇✐t❤ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧
❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s

❈♦♥t❡♥ts
✸✳✶ ❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t✇♦ ❣r❛♣❤s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✽✵
✸✳✷ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❞❡♥s✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♠❛ss ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✽✽
✸✳✸ ❚❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✾✷
✸✳✹ ❚❤❡ r❛❞✐❛❧ ❞❡♥s✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♠❛ss ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✵✶
✸✳✺ ❚❤❡ ✢♦✇ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✢✉① ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✵✹
✸✳✻ ❚❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✇♦r❦ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✵✽
✸✳✼ ❚❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✶✺
✸✳✽ ◆✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✶✾
✸✳✾ ▲❡♥❣t❤s ♦❢ ❝✉r✈❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✸✵
✸✳✶✵ ❚❤❡ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠ ❢♦r ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥ t❤r❡❡ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✸✻
✸✳✶✶ ❱♦❧✉♠❡s ♦❢ s♦❧✐❞s ✈✐❛ t❤❡✐r ❝r♦ss✲s❡❝t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✹✹
✸✳✶✷ ❱♦❧✉♠❡s ♦❢ s♦❧✐❞s ♦❢ r❡✈♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✺✶

✸✳✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t✇♦ ❣r❛♣❤s

❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ t✇♦ ♠❛✐♥ ✇❛②s t♦ ❡♥t❡r ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s✿ t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ st✉❞② ♦❢ ❣❡♦♠❡tr② ✭✜♥❞✐♥❣ s❡❝❛♥t ❛♥❞
t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡s ♦❢ ❝✉r✈❡s✮ ❛♥❞ t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ st✉❞② ♦❢ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ✭✜♥❞✐♥❣ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛♥❞ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✮✳
❙✐♠✐❧❛r❧②✱ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ t✇♦ ♠❛✐♥ ✇❛②s t♦ ❡♥t❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s✿ t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ st✉❞② ♦❢ ❣❡♦♠❡tr② ✕ ✜♥❞✐♥❣ ❛r❡❛s
✉♥❞❡r ❝✉r✈❡s ✕ ❛♥❞ t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ st✉❞② ♦❢ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ✕ ✜♥❞✐♥❣ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛♥❞ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤❡s❡
❛r❡ t✇♦ ✈❡r② ❞✐st✐♥❝t ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ♦❢ r❡❝♦❣♥✐③✐♥❣ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✳
❚❤r♦✉❣❤♦✉t t❤✐s ❝❤❛♣t❡r✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❝❛rr② ♦✉t t❤✐s ❦❡② st❡♣ ✐♥ ❛ ✈❛r✐❡t② ♦❢ ❡♥t✐r❡❧② ♥❡✇ s✐t✉❛t✐♦♥s✳ ❇✉t ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧
st❛rt ✇✐t❤ s♦♠❡t❤✐♥❣ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✶✳✶✿ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ ❝✐r❝❧❡

■♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥✜r♠❡❞ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ ❛ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ♦❢ r❛❞✐✉s r ✐s A = πr2 ✉s✐♥❣ ♥♦t❤✐♥❣ ❜✉t ❛ s♣r❡❛❞✲
s❤❡❡t✳ ❆♥❞ ❧❛t❡r ✐♥ t❤❡ ❝❤❛♣t❡r✱ ✇❡ ✉s❡❞ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ t♦ ♣r♦✈✐❞❡ ❛ ♣r❡❝✐s❡ ❛♥s✇❡r✳ ❚❤❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥✱ ❤♦✇❡✈❡r✱
✇❛s♥✬t ❢✉❧❧② s❛t✐s❢❛❝t♦r② ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ✇❡ r❡❧✐❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ s②♠♠❡tr② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ t♦ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ ✐ts
❤❛❧❢ s♦ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ✐s t❤❡♥ t✇✐❝❡ t❤✐s ♥✉♠❜❡r✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s t♦♦ ❧✐♠✐t✐♥❣✳ ▲❡t✬s st❛rt ♦✈❡r✳

❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s t❤✐s t✐♠❡✱ ❢♦r t❤❡ t♦♣ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❜♦tt♦♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡✿
√ √
f (x) = 1 − x2 ❛♥❞ g(x) = − 1 − x2 , −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 .
❲✐t❤ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s✿
❂❙◗❘❚✭✶✲❘❈❬✲✷❪✂ ✷✮ ❛♥❞ ❂✲❙◗❘❚✭✶✲❘❈❬✲✷❪✂ ✷✮
✸✳✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t✇♦ ❣r❛♣❤s ✶✽✶

✇❡ ♣❧♦t ❜♦t❤✿

❲❡ ❧❡t t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ x r✉♥ ❢r♦♠ −1 t♦ 1 ❡✈❡r② 0.1 ❛♥❞ ❝♦✈❡r❡❞✱ ❜❡st ✇❡ ❝❛♥✱ t❤✐s ❝✐r❝❧❡ ✇✐t❤ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧
❜❛rs ❜❛s❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡s❡ s❡❣♠❡♥ts✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ✐s ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛s ♦❢
t❤❡ ❜❛rs✿ ❲❡ ❛❞❞ ❛ ❝♦❧✉♠♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✇✐❞t❤s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❛rs✱ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧② t❤❡♠ ❜② t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤ts✱ ♣❧❛❝❡ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t
✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❝♦❧✉♠♥✱ ❛♥❞ ✜♥❛❧❧② ❛❞❞ ❛❧❧ ❡♥tr✐❡s ✐♥ t❤✐s ❝♦❧✉♠♥✿

❚❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡ ❧♦❝❛t❡❞ ❛t x ✐s f (x) − g(x)✱ ❛♥❞ ✐ts ❛r❡❛ ✐s (f (x) − g(x)) · 0.1✳ ❲❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡
t❤❡s❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♥❡①t ❝♦❧✉♠♥ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❛❞❞ t❤❡♠✿

❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ = 3.1 .

■t ✐s ❝❧♦s❡ t♦ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡t✐❝❛❧ r❡s✉❧t ✇❡ ❡st❛❜❧✐s❤❡❞ ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶✿

❡①❛❝t ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ = π = 3.14159...

❖❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ ✇❡ r❡❛❧✐③❡ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❝♦✉❧❞ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐❢ ✇❡ t❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❞❛t❛ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ✜rst s♣r❡❛❞✲
s❤❡❡t✱ X
f (ci ) · 0.1 ,
i

❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ s✉❜tr❛❝t t❤❡ ❞❛t❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱

X
g(ci ) · 0.1 .
i

❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡
X X X

f (ci )0.1 − g(ci ) · 0.1 = f (ci ) − g(ci ) · 0.1 .
i i i

❚❤❡ ❝♦♠♠♦♥ s❡♥s❡ ❛❜♦✉t ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ✭✉♥s✐❣♥❡❞✮ ❧❡♥❣t❤s ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ❜❡❤❛✈❡ ✐s t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✉♥✐♦♥ ♦❢
t✇♦ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❧❡♥❣t❤s ♠✐♥✉s t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥✿

❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ P ∪ Q = ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ P + ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ Q − ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ P ∩ Q .

✸✳✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t✇♦ ❣r❛♣❤s ✶✽✷

■t ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ❛❞❞✐t✐✈✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤✳ ❚❤❡ ❧❛st t❡r♠ ❞✐s❛♣♣❡❛rs ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ♦✈❡r❧❛♣ ♦r ✐t ✐s ❥✉st ❛
♣♦✐♥t✳
■❢ ✇❡ ❜✉✐❧❞ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡s ♦♥ t♦♣ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✱ ✇❡ ❛r❡ ✐♥ ❛ s✐♠✐❧❛r s✐t✉❛t✐♦♥ ✕ ❢♦r t❤❡ ✭✉♥s✐❣♥❡❞✮ ❛r❡❛s✿

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✉♥✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ r❡❣✐♦♥s ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❛r❡❛s ♠✐♥✉s t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡
✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥✿
❛r❡❛ ♦❢ P ∪ Q = ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ P + ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ Q − ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ P ∩ Q .
■t ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ❛❞❞✐t✐✈✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛✳ ❚❤❡ ❧❛st t❡r♠ ❞✐s❛♣♣❡❛rs ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ♦✈❡r❧❛♣ ♦r ✐t ✐s ❥✉st ❛ ❝✉r✈❡✳
❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ✐s t❤❡♥ t♦ ❜❡ ❛♣♣❧✐❡❞ t♦ ❝✉r✈❡❞ r❡❣✐♦♥s✿

❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ♦✉r ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞✐♥❣ ♦❢ ❛r❡❛s ✐s ❧✐♠✐t❡❞ t♦ t❤♦s❡ ♦❢ r❡❣✐♦♥s ✉♥❞❡r ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❊✈❡♥ t❤❡♥✱ t❤❡
❛❞❞✐t✐✈✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛s ♦❢ t❤♦s❡ r❡❣✐♦♥s ❤❛s ❜❡❡♥ ♦♥❧② ❞❡♠♦♥str❛t❡❞ ❢♦r t❤❡ s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❝❛s❡ ✇❤❡♥ s✉❝❤ ❛ r❡❣✐♦♥
✐s ❝✉t ❜② ❛ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❧✐♥❡✿ Z Z Z
b c c
f dx + f dx = f dx .
a b a

❚❤✐s ❝❛s❡ ✐s ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇ ✭t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ ✐s x = b✮✿

❲❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ✐s ❝✉t ❜② ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❣r❛♣❤❄

✸✳✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t✇♦ ❣r❛♣❤s ✶✽✸

❲❡ ✇♦✉❧❞ ❧✐❦❡ t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ✿

❚❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❡❛s② t♦ s❡❡✿ ■❢ f (x) ≥ g(x) ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x ✐♥ [a, b]✱ t❤❡♥✿
Z b Z b Z b
P =R−Q= f dx − g dx = (f − g) dx .
a a a

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ss✉♠❡❞ t❤❡ ❛❞❞✐t✐✈✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛s ❛♥❞ ✉s❡❞ t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s✳
❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ❡✈❡r② t❡r♠ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐s t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✳ ■♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❥✉st✐❢② t❤❡ ❛❞❞✐t✐✈✐t② ❢♦r t❤❡
❛r❡❛s ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ st❛rt ❢r♦♠ s❝r❛t❝❤✳
❇❛❝❦ t♦ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s✳
❲❡ st❛rt✱ ❛s ❜❡❢♦r❡✱ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ✐♥t♦ n ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ♦❢ ♣♦ss✐❜❧② ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ❧❡♥❣t❤s✿
[x0 , x1 ], [x1 , x2 ], ..., [xn−1 , xn ] ,

✇✐t❤ x0 = a, xn = b✳

❚❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ P ❛r❡✿

x0 < x1 < x2 < ... < xn−1 < xn
❚❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ❛r❡✿
∆xi = xi − xi−1 , i = 1, 2, ..., n .
❚❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ P ❛r❡✿
c1 ✐♥ [x0 , x1 ], c2 ✐♥ [x1 , x2 ], ..., cn ✐♥ [xn−1 , xn ] .
✸✳✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t✇♦ ❣r❛♣❤s ✶✽✹

❚❤✐s t✐♠❡✱ ✇❡ ❢❛❝❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳

❲❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ✇✐t❤ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡s❡ ✇✐❞t❤s✿

▲❡t✬s t❛❦❡ ❛ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ it❤ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡✳ ■ts ✇✐❞t❤ ✐s✱ ❛s ❜❡❢♦r❡✱ ∆xi ✳ ◆♦✇✱ ✐ts t♦♣ ✐s f (ci ) ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❜♦tt♦♠
✐s g(ci ) ✭✐♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✮✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✐ts ❤❡✐❣❤t ✐s f (ci ) − g(ci )✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ✐ts ❛r❡❛ ✐s (f (ci ) − g(ci ))∆x2 ✳
❍❡♥❝❡✱ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡s ✐s✿
(f (c1 ) − g(c1 ))∆x1 + (f (c2 ) − g(c2 ))∆x2 + ... + (f (cn ) − g(cn ))∆xn .

❚❤❡ ❦❡② st❡♣ ✐s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✳ ❲❡ r❡❝♦❣♥✐③❡ t❤✐s ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ ❛s t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤✐s ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ f − g ✱
t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ✿
n
X
Σ (f − g) · ∆x = (f − g)(ci )∆xi .
i=1
| {z }
❛r❡❛s ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡s

■♥❞❡❡❞✱ ✐t ✐s ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥t t♦ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ t❡r♠ ❛s ✐❢ ✐t r❡❢❡rs t♦ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ f − g ✿

f (ck ) − g(ck ) = (f − g)(ck ) .

❚❤❡ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡s ✇❡ st❛rt❡❞ ✇✐t❤ ❛r❡ s❤♦✇♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✿

❲❡ ❝❛♥ st✐❧❧ ❣♦ ❜❛❝❦ ❛♥❞ ❡①♣❧❛✐♥ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ ❛r❡❛s✳ ■t✬s ❛s ✐❢ t❤❡
r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡s ❛r❡ ✜rst ❛❧✐❣♥❡❞ ✇✐t❤ y = f (x)✱ t❤❡♥ ❝✉t ❢r♦♠ ❜❡❧♦✇ ✇✐t❤ y = g(x)✱ s✉s♣❡♥❞❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❛✐r✱ ❛♥❞
t❤❡♥ ❞r♦♣♣❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✱ ❧✐❦❡ t❤✐s✿
✸✳✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t✇♦ ❣r❛♣❤s ✶✽✺

❲❤❛t ✇❡ s❡❡ ✐s t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f − g ✳

❲❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣❧②✿
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✸✳✶✳✷✿ ❛r❡❛ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ❣r❛♣❤s
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f ❛♥❞ g ❛r❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ✇✐t❤ f (x) ≥ g(x)
❢♦r ❛❧❧ x ✐♥ [a, b]✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦✈❡r
✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ t♦ ❜❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ♦❢
t❤❡✐r ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ♠❡s❤ ♦❢ t❤❡✐r ❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥s Pk ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤✐♥❣ 0
❛s k → ∞✱ ✇❤❡♥ ❛❧❧ t❤❡s❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ❡①✐st ❛♥❞ ❛r❡ ❛❧❧ ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r✿
❆r❡❛ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ f, g = lim Σ (f − g) · ∆x .
k→∞

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦
❯♥❧✐❦❡ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✏✉♥❞❡r✑ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✱ t❤✐s ♥✉♠❜❡r ❝❛♥✲
♥♦t ❜❡ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ❛s ❞❡✜♥❡❞✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✶✳✸
■❢ f ❛♥❞ g r❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s ♦❢ t✇♦ ♦❜❥❡❝ts✱ ✇❤❛t ❞♦❡s t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❄

❚❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ r❡♣❡❛ts t❤❛t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✳✶✳✹✿ ❆r❡❛ ❇❡t✇❡❡♥ ●r❛♣❤s ❛s ■♥t❡❣r❛❧
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f ❛♥❞ g ❛r❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ✇✐t❤ f (x) ≥ g(x) ❢♦r
❛❧❧ x ✐♥ [a, b]✳ ■❢ f − g ✐s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ f ❛♥❞
g ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦

Z b
❆r❡❛ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ f, g = (f − g) dx
a

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ✈❛r✐❡t② ♦❢ r❡❣✐♦♥s ✇❡ ✉s❡❞ t♦ ❜❡ ✉♥❛❜❧❡ t♦ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✶✳✺✿ ❛r❡❛ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛s
❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛s y = x2 ❛♥❞ y = 2x2 + 1 ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ x = 0 ❛♥❞
x = 1✳

■t ✐s ❝❧❡❛r t❤❛t g(x) = x2 ❛♥❞ f (x) = 2x2 + 1✱ ❛s ✇❡❧❧ ❛s a = 0 ❛♥❞ b = 1✳ ❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s
❛♥❞✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡✳ ❇❡❢♦r❡ ✇❡ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✱ ✇❡ ❥✉st ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❝♦♥✜r♠ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f
✐s ❛❜♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ g ✿
✸✳✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t✇♦ ❣r❛♣❤s ✶✽✻

❋♦r ❡✈❡r② x ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ 0 ❛♥❞ 1✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ x2 < 2x2 + 1 ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ 0 < x2 + 1✳ ❚❤✉s✱
Z Z Z 1
b 1 1 

1 1 4
❆r❡❛ = (2x2 + 1) − x 2 2 3 
(f − g) dx = dx = (x + 1) dx = x + x = + 1 = .
a 0 0 3  3 3
0

❙♦♠❡t✐♠❡s t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✐s ♥♦t ♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✶✳✻✿ ❛r❡❛ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛ ❛♥❞ ❛ ❧✐♥❡

❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤✐s ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥ ✐s ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛ y = x2 ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❧✐♥❡ y = 3✳

❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♥❡❡❞ s♦♠❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ t❤✐s t✐♠❡✱ t♦ ✜♥❞ a, b✿

√ √
❚❤❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥ ♣♦✐♥ts (x, y) s❛t✐s❢②✿ y = 3 = x2 ✳ ❚❤❡♥ a = − 3, b = 3✳ ❲❡ ❛❧s♦ r❡❛❧✐③❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡
s❦❡t❝❤ t❤❛t f (x) = 3 ❛♥❞ g(x) = x2 ✳ ❚❤❡♥✱
Z b
❆r❡❛ = (f − g) dx
a√
Z 3

= 3 − x2 dx
√
− 3
√3
1 
= 3x − x3 
3  √
− 3
   
√ 1√ 3 √ 1 √ 3
= 3 3− 3 − −3 3 − (− 3)
3 3
 
√ √
1 3
=2 3 3− 3
3
 √ √ 
=2 3 3− 3
√
= 4 3.

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✶✳✼✿ ❛r❡❛ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ x2 ❛♥❞ x3

❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ y = x2 ❛♥❞ y = x3 ✳

❖♥❝❡ ❛❣❛✐♥✱ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥ ♣♦✐♥ts ❜② s♦❧✈✐♥❣ x2 = x3 ✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ a = 0 ❛♥❞ b = 1✱ ✇❤✐❝❤
❝♦♥✜r♠s t❤❡ s❦❡t❝❤ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t x3 < x2 ✿
✸✳✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t✇♦ ❣r❛♣❤s ✶✽✼

❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
Z b
❆r❡❛ = (f − g) dx
a
Z 1


= x2 − x3 dx
0 1
1 3 1 4 
= x − x
3 4 
0
1 1
= −
3 4
1
= .
12

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✶✳✽✿ ❝✐r❝❧❡

▲❡t✬s r❡✈✐s✐t t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡✿

❚❤✐s t✐♠❡ ✇❡ ❞♦♥✬t ❤❛✈❡ t♦ s♣❧✐t ✐t ✐♥ ❤❛❧❢ ❛♥❞ r❡❧② ♦♥ ✐ts s②♠♠❡tr②❀ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ✐s t❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥

t✇♦ ❣r❛♣❤s✿
√ √
y= R 2 − x2 ❛♥❞ y = − R 2 − x2 .
❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ✐s f ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ✐s g✳ ❆❧s♦✱ a = −R, b = R✳ ❚❤❡♥✱

Z R √ √  Z R √
❆r❡❛ = R2 − x2 + R2 − x2 dx = 2 R2 − x2 dx = πR2 .
−R −R

❚❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✐s ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡❞ ✈✐❛ ❛ tr✐❣ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✱ ❥✉st ❛s ❜❡❢♦r❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✶✳✾

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ r❡❣✐♦♥s ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡s x2 +y 2 = 1 ❛♥❞ (x−1)2 +y 2 =
1✳
✸✳✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❞❡♥s✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♠❛ss ✶✽✽

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✶✳✶✵

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡s x = y2 ❛♥❞ x = y4✳

✸✳✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❞❡♥s✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♠❛ss

❚❤❡ ♠❡t❤♦❞ t❤❛t st❛rts t♦ s❤❛♣❡ ✉♣ ✐s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✳

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ q✉❛♥t✐t② Q ✏❝♦♥t❛✐♥❡❞✑ ✐♥ ❛ s♣❛❝❡ r❡❣✐♦♥ R✿ ❛r❡❛✱ ✈♦❧✉♠❡✱ ♠❛ss✱ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧✱
❝❤❛r❣❡✱ ❡t❝✳ ❚❤❡♥✿

✶✳ ❲❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ q✉❛♥t✐t② Q ❛s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ ✐ts ✈❛❧✉❡s Qi ♦✈❡r s✐♠♣❧❡r✱ ❛♥❞ s♠❛❧❧❡r✱ ♣❛rts ♦❢ R✳
✷✳ ❲❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t✱ ♦r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡✱ ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ✈✐❛ ❛ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r q✉❛♥t✐t②✱ ❡✳❣✳✱ ❛r❡❛ ✈✐❛ ❧❡♥❣t❤✱ ✈♦❧✉♠❡
✈✐❛ ❛r❡❛✱ ❡t❝✳

✸✳ ❲❡ r❡❝♦❣♥✐③❡ t❤❡ s✉♠ ❛s t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t❤❛t r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts s♦♠❡ ♦t❤❡r q✉❛♥t✐t② q s♣r❡❛❞
♦✈❡r t❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥✳

✹✳ ❚❤❡ q✉❛♥t✐t② Q ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ q✳

❚❤❡ ❧❛st st❡♣ ✐s ♥❡❝❡ss❛r② ♦♥❧② ✇❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ ❛♥ ✐❞❡❛❧✐③❡❞ s✐t✉❛t✐♦♥✳

❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡ t❤❡ ♠❡t❤♦❞ ✇✐t❤ ♦♥❡ ♠♦r❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✳

▲❡t✬s r❡❝❛❧❧ ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❞❡♥s✐t② ✇❛s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✷✳

❲❡ ❛r❡ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❛ ♠❡t❛❧ r♦❞✿

❚❤❡ r♦❞ ♠✐❣❤t ❜❡ ♥♦♥✲✉♥✐❢♦r♠✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ ❞❡♥s✐t② ✈❛r✐❡s ❜✉t ♦♥❧② ✐♥ t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱
t❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t ♠✐❣❤t ❤❛♣♣❡♥ ✇❤❡♥ t✇♦ ♠❡t❛❧s ❛r❡ ✭✐♠♣❡r❢❡❝t❧②✮ ♠❡❧t❡❞ ✐♥t♦ ❛ ♣✐❡❝❡ ♦❢ ❛❧❧♦②✿

❆♥♦t❤❡r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ✐s ♣❛rt✐❝❧❡s s✉s♣❡♥❞❡❞ ✐♥ ❛ ❧✐q✉✐❞ t❤❛t s❡tt❧❡s ✕ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ♦❢ ❣r❛✈✐t② ✕ ✐♥ ❛ ♣❛tt❡r♥ t❤❛t ✐s
❞❡♥s❡r ❛t t❤❡ ❜♦tt♦♠✿
✸✳✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❞❡♥s✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♠❛ss ✶✽✾

■♥ ❡✐t❤❡r ❝❛s❡✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛ ❧✐♥❡ ✭✇❡ ❝❛❧❧ ✐t t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✮ ✇✐t❤ ♥♦ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✐♥ ❞❡♥s✐t② ✐♥ t❤❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥s ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r
t♦ ✐t✳ ❲❡ t❤❡♥ ✐❣♥♦r❡ t❤♦s❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡♥s✐t② ❜❡❝♦♠❡s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r x ❞❡s✐❣♥❛t✐♥❣
t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛❧♦♥❣ t❤✐s ❧✐♥❡❀ ❤❡♥❝❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❞❡♥s✐t② y = l(x)✳
❚❛❦❡ ❛ s♠❛❧❧ ♣✐❡❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ r♦❞ ❛t ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ x✱ ∆x ❧♦♥❣✱ ❛♥❞ ❧❡t✬s ❝❛❧❧ ✐ts ♠❛ss ∆m✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ❢♦r t❤✐s ♣✐❡❝❡✱ ✇❡

❤❛✈❡✿
♠❛ss ∆m m(x + ∆x) − m(x)
▲✐♥❡❛r ❞❡♥s✐t② = = = .
❧❡♥❣t❤ ∆x ∆x

▲❡t✬s r❡✈❡rs❡ t❤✐s ❛♥❛❧②s✐s✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤✐s t✐♠❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❞❡♥s✐t② l ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥✱ ✇❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ♠❛ss ♦❢ t❤❡ r♦❞❄

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✷✳✶✿ t✇♦ ♣✐❡❝❡s

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ t✇♦ ♠❡t❛❧s ❤❛✈❡♥✬t ♠❡r❣❡❞ ❛t ❛❧❧✿

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ♠❛ss ✐s s✐♠♣❧② t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦✿ 1·1+2·1 = 3✳ ■t ✐s ❛❧s♦ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡s

✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡♥s✐t② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ l✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ❛ st❡♣✲❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ❛♥❞✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ l
♦✈❡r [0, 2]✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✷✳✷

❲❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ r♦❞s ❤❛✈❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤s 0.5 ❛♥❞ 1.5❄

■♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ ❥✉st ♣♦✐♥t✐♥❣ ♦✉t ✇❤❛t m ✐s✱ ❧❡t✬s st❛rt ❢r♦♠ s❝r❛t❝❤✳

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛♥ ❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ P✿

a = x0 ≤ c1 ≤ x1 ≤ ... ≤ cn ≤ xn = b ,
✸✳✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❞❡♥s✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♠❛ss ✶✾✵

✇✐t❤ t❤❡s❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤s ♦❢ s❡❣♠❡♥ts✿

∆xi = xi − xi−1 .

❲❡ ✜rst ✐♠❛❣✐♥❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ r♦❞ ✐s ❞✐✈✐❞❡❞ ✐♥t♦ s♠❛❧❧❡r ♣✐❡❝❡s s♦ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❞❡♥s✐t② ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ ✐s ❢♦✉♥❞ s❡♣❛r❛t❡❧②✿
F1 , F2 , ..., Fn ✿

❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ✇❡✐❣❤t ✐s s✐♠♣❧② t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

❚♦t❛❧ ✇❡✐❣❤t = F1 ∆x1 + F2 ∆x2 + ... + Fn ∆xn .

❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐s s✉✣❝✐❡♥t ❢♦r ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ✇❤❡♥ ❛♥ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ✐s s✉✣❝✐❡♥t✳

❍❡r❡✱ ✇❡ ❛ss✉♠❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❞❡♥s✐t② ✐s ❝❤❛♥❣✐♥❣ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧② ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❝✉t t❤❡ r♦❞ ✐♥t♦ t❤❡s❡ s♠❛❧❧ s❡❣♠❡♥ts ❜②
t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡s st❛rt✐♥❣ ❛t x = xi ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ s❛♠♣❧❡ ✐ts ❞❡♥s✐t② ❛t t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ci ✿

❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❞❡♥s✐t② ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ s❡❣♠❡♥t ✕ ✐❢ ✉♥✐❢♦r♠ ✕ ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② l(ci ) ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

▼❛ss ♦❢ it❤ s❡❣♠❡♥t = ❞❡♥s✐t② · ❧❡♥❣t❤ = l(ci ) · ∆xi .

❚❤❡♥✱
n
X
❚♦t❛❧ ♠❛ss = l(ci ) · ∆xi .
i=1

❲❡ r❡❝♦❣♥✐③❡ t❤✐s ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ ❛s t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❞❡♥s✐t② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r t❤✐s ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✿
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✸✳✷✳✸✿ ♠❛ss
■❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ l ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ s❡❣♠❡♥t [a, b]
✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❞❡♥s✐t②✱ t❤❡♥ ✐ts ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠

Σ l · ∆x

✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ♠❛ss ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❣♠❡♥t✳

◆♦✇✱ ✇❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ ❞❡♥s✐t② ✈❛r✐❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧②❄

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✷✳✹✿ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ ❞❡♥s✐t② ♦❢ ❛ r♦❞ ♦❢ ❧❡♥❣t❤ 2 ✐s ❝❤❛♥❣✐♥❣ ❧✐♥❡❛r❧②✿ ❢r♦♠ 1 t♦ 2✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡
❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ❞❡♥s✐t② ✐s ❝❧❡❛r❀ ✐t ✐s 1.5✳ ❲❡ ❥✉st ❛✈❡r❛❣❡✳ ▲❡t✬s ♠❛❦❡ s✉r❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♠❛❦❡s s❡♥s❡✿
✸✳✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❞❡♥s✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♠❛ss ✶✾✶

■t ❢♦❧❧♦✇s t❤❛t t❤❡ ♠❛ss ✐s 1.5 · 2 = 3✳ ■t ✐s ❛❧s♦ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ tr❛♣❡③♦✐❞ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡♥s✐t②
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ l(x) = 1 + x/2 ❛♥❞✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r [0, 2]✳

■❢ t❤❡ ❞❡♥s✐t② ✐s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ♠❛ss ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ s❡❣♠❡♥t ✕ ✇❤❡♥ s❤♦rt ❡♥♦✉❣❤ ✕ ✐s ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡❞ ❜② t❤❡
♠❛ss ♦❢ s✉❝❤ ❛ s❡❣♠❡♥t ♠❛❞❡ ❡♥t✐r❡❧② ♦❢ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧ ♦❢ ❞❡♥s✐t② l(ci )✿

▼❛ss ♦❢ it❤ s❡❣♠❡♥t ≈ ❞❡♥s✐t② · ❧❡♥❣t❤ = l(ci ) · ∆xi ,

❛♥❞ n
X
❚♦t❛❧ ♠❛ss ≈ l(ci ) · ∆xi = Σ l · ∆x .
i=1

❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ t❤❡ ♠❛ss ♦❢ t❤❡ r♦❞ ❛s t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t✱ ✐❢ ✐t ❡①✐sts✱ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥
✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ l✿
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✸✳✷✳✺✿ ♠❛ss
■❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ l ♦♥ s❡❣♠❡♥t [a, b] ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❞❡♥s✐t②✱ t❤❡♥ ✐ts
❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ Z b
l dx
a
✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ♠❛ss ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❣♠❡♥t✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✷✳✻✿ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛❣❛✐♥ ❛ r♦❞ ♦❢ ❧❡♥❣t❤ 2 ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❞❡♥s✐t② ❝❤❛♥❣✐♥❣ ❢r♦♠ 1 t♦ 2✱ ❜✉t q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝❛❧❧②✱
l(x) = x2 + 1✳ ❚❤❡ ♠❛ss ✐s ✐♠♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ t♦ ❣✉❡ss✿

❲❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✿

Z b Z 1
1
x3  4
▼❛ss = l dx = 2
(x + 1) dx = + x = .
a 0 3 0 3
✸✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss ✶✾✷

❍❡r❡ ✐s ❛♥♦t❤❡r ✇❛② t♦ ❡①♣❧❛✐♥ ♦✉r ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✳ ❲❡ r❡❛❧✐③❡ t❤❛t ❡✈❡r② ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ❤✐❣❤❡r ❞❡♥s✐t② s✐♠♣❧②
❝♦♥t❛✐♥s ♠♦r❡ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❥✉st s♣r❡❛❞ ✐t ♦✉t ✕ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧❧② ✕ ♠❛❦✐♥❣ ❛ ♣❧❛t❡ t❤❛t ✐s ✇✐❞❡r ❛t t❤✐s s♣♦t
❛♥❞ t❤✐♥♥❡r ❛t t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❧♦✇❡r ❞❡♥s✐t②✿

■♥ r❡✈❡rs❡✱ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ✐s ♠❛❞❡ ♦❢ ❛ s❤❡❡t ♦❢ ♠❡t❛❧✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s t❤❡♥ r♦❧❧❡❞ ✐♥t♦ ❛
♥♦♥✲✉♥✐❢♦r♠ r♦❞✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✷✳✼

❋✐♥❞ ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ♠❛ss ♦❢ ❛ r♦❞ ✇✐t❤ ❛♥ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧❧② ❣r♦✇✐♥❣ ❞❡♥s✐t② ❣r♦✇s✳

❚❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♣r♦✈✐❞❡s ❢✉rt❤❡r ✐♥s✐❣❤t✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ m(x) ✐s t❤❡ ✇❡✐❣❤t ♦❢ t❤❡ r♦❞ ❢r♦♠
a t♦ x✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❡ ❞❡♥s✐t②✿

m′ (x) = l(x) .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✷✳✽

■s ✐t ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣❢✉❧ t♦ s♣❡❛❦ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠❛ss ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ❧♦♥❣ r♦❞❄

✸✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss

❈❛♥ ✇❡ ♥♦✇ ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡ t❤✐s ♥♦♥✲✉♥✐❢♦r♠ r♦❞ ♦♥ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ s✉♣♣♦rt❄ ❚r✐❛❧ ❛♥❞ ❡rr♦r s✉❣❣❡st t❤✐s✿

❚❤❡ q✉❡st✐♦♥ ✐s ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤✐s ♣♦✐♥t✱ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss✱ ✐s t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ r♦t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡
♦❜❥❡❝t✳
❚❤❡ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s st❛rts ✇✐t❤ ❛ s✐♠♣❧❡st ❝❛s❡✱ s❡❡s❛✇✳ ❚✇♦ ♣❡rs♦♥s ♦❢ ❡q✉❛❧ ✇❡✐❣❤t ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ✐♥ ❛ st❛t❡ ♦❢ ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡
✇❤❡♥ ❧♦❝❛t❡❞ ❛t ❡q✉❛❧ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ s✉♣♣♦rt✿
✸✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss ✶✾✸

◆♦✇✱ ✇❤❛t ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡❞❄ ❲❤❛t ✐❢ ♦♥❡ ♣❡rs♦♥ ✐s ❤❡❛✈✐❡r t❤❛♥ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r❄ ❋r♦♠ ❡①♣❡r✐❡♥❝❡✱ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t

t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ♣❡rs♦♥ s❤♦✉❧❞ s✐t ❢❛rt❤❡r ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡ t❤❡ ❜❡❛♠✿

■♥ ❢❛❝t✱ ✐❢ t❤❡ ♣❡rs♦♥ ✐s t✇✐❝❡ ❛s ❤❡❛✈② ❛s t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r✱ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r s❤♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ t✇✐❝❡ ❛s ❧♦♥❣✦

❈♦♥✈❡rs❡❧②✱ ✐❢ ♦♥❡ ♣❡rs♦♥ s✐ts ❢❛rt❤❡r ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r t❤❛♥ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ♦❢ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ✇❡✐❣❤t✱ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ♣❡rs♦♥

s❤♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ ❥♦✐♥❡❞ ❜② ❛♥♦t❤❡r ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡ t❤❡ ❜❡❛♠✳

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ s❤♦rt❡r ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ✐s a ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s♠❛❧❧❡r ✇❡✐❣❤t ✐s m✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡❞✱ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡s ❛r❡ a ❛♥❞ 2a
❛♥❞ ✇❡✐❣❤ts ❛r❡ 2m ❛♥❞ m✳ ❲❡ ❡①♣r❡ss t❤✐s ❞❛t❛ ✈✐❛ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ✿

(a)(2m) = (2a)(m) .

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤✐s ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥✿

❞✐st❛♥❝❡ · ✇❡✐❣❤t

❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ♠♦♠❡♥t✱ ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ t♦ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t ❛♥❞ t♦ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉♣♣♦rt✳ ❚❤✐s ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ✐s ❛❧s♦ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡

❧❡✈❡r ✳

▲❡t✬s ❛❞❞ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✳

❲❡ t❤❡♥ r❡❛❧✐③❡ t❤❛t ✐t ✐s t❤❡ s✐❣♥❡❞ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ x✲❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡✱ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦❜❥❡❝t t❤❛t ♠❛tt❡rs✳ ❲❡ s✐♠♣❧②

r❡✲✇r✐t❡ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✿

(−a)(2m) + (2a)(m) = 0 .
✸✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss ✶✾✹

❚❤❡♥✱
♠♦♠❡♥t = ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ · ✇❡✐❣❤t
❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❛ss✉♠❡ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛♥ ♦❜❥❡❝t ❛t ❡✈❡r② ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❜✉t t❤❡ r❡st ♦❢ t❤❡♠ ❤❛✈❡ 0 ♠❛ss✳ ❚❤❡
❜❛❧❛♥❝❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡❝♦♠❡s✿
... + (−2a)(0) + (−a)(2m) + (0)(0) + (a)(0) + (2a)(m) + ... = 0 .

❚❤✐s ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ❜r✐♥❣s ✉s t♦ t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ ❝♦♠❜✐♥✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✇❡✐❣❤ts ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡s ✐♥ ❛ ♣r♦♣♦rt✐♦♥❛❧ ♠❛♥♥❡r
✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♥tr✐❜✉t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r ✇❡✐❣❤t t♦ t❤❡ ♦✈❡r❛❧❧ ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡✳ ❚❤❡ ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
s✐♠♣❧② s❛②s t❤❛t t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ ❛❧❧ ♠♦♠❡♥ts ✐s 0✳
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✸✳✸✳✶✿ ✇❡✐❣❤ts
❲❡ ❝❛❧❧ ❛ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ✇❡✐❣❤ts ❛♥② ❝♦❧❧❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs m1 , ..., mn
❝❛❧❧❡❞ ✇❡✐❣❤ts ❛ss✐❣♥❡❞ t♦ n ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s ✇✐t❤ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s a1 , ..., an ♦♥ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✳

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✸✳✸✳✷✿ t♦t❛❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t

❚❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ✇❡✐❣❤ts ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥ ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞
t♦ ❜❡ t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠♦♠❡♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ✇❡✐❣❤ts✱ ✐✳❡✳✱
X
mi ai .
i

❚❤❡ ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ st❛t❡s t❤❛t ✐ts t♦t❛❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t ✐s ③❡r♦✳

❲❡ ♥♦✇ ❣♦ ❜❛❝❦ t♦ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠✿

◮ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ✇❡✐❣❤ts ❛r❡ ❧♦❝❛t❡❞ ♦♥ ❛ ❜❡❛♠✱ ✇❤❡r❡ ❞♦ ✇❡ ♣✉t t❤❡ s✉♣♣♦rt ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦
❜❛❧❛♥❝❡ ✐t❄
■t ✇❛s ❡♥t✐r❡❧② ♦✉r ❞❡❝✐s✐♦♥ t♦ ♣❧❛❝❡ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥ ♦❢ ♦✉r x✲❛①✐s ❛t t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss✳ ❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡
❡st❛❜❧✐s❤❡❞ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ❢r♦♠ t❤❛t ❝❤♦✐❝❡ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ♠♦✈❡ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥ ❛♥②✇❤❡r❡✳

❲❡ ❥✉st ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❡①❡❝✉t❡ ❛ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss ✭❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦❧❞
❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠✮ ✐s ❧♦❝❛t❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t ✇✐t❤ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ c ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ ♥❡✇
❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ it❤ ♦❜❥❡❝t ✐s
ci = ai + c .
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❤❛s t❤✐s ❢♦r♠✿
X
mi (ci − c) = 0 .
i
✸✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss ✶✾✺

❲❡ r❡✇r✐t❡✿ X X
mi ci = c mi .
i i

❚❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ♠❛② ❜❡ s❡❡♥ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

◮ ❚❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ✇❡✐❣❤t ✐s ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛t❡❞ ❛t c✳
❍❡♥❝❡ t❤❡ ♥❛♠❡✳
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✸✳✸✳✸✿ ♠♦♠❡♥t
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ✇❡✐❣❤ts m1 , ..., mn ❧♦❝❛t❡❞ ❛t c1 , ..., cn ♦♥ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✳
❋♦r ❛ ❣✐✈❡♥ ♣♦✐♥t c ❛♥❞ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ i✱ t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t

mi (ci − c)

✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ it❤ ✇❡✐❣❤t✬s ♠♦♠❡♥t ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ c✳ ❚❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠♦♠❡♥ts✱
X
mi (ci − c) ,
i

✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ c✳ ❚❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss ♦❢ t❤✐s s②st❡♠
♦❢ ✇❡✐❣❤ts ✐s s✉❝❤ ❛ ♣♦✐♥t c t❤❛t t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ c ✐s ③❡r♦✳

❖❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ ✐❢ c = 0✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ♦❧❞ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✸✳✹✿ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss ❜② tr✐❛❧ ❛♥❞ ❡rr♦r
❋♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t❤✐s ✐♥s✐❣❤t✱ ❧❡t✬s ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss ♦❢ ❛♥ ♦❜❥❡❝t✳ ❚❤❡ ♠❡t❤♦❞ ❛♠♦✉♥ts t♦ tr✐❛❧ ❛♥❞
❡rr♦r✳ ❲❡ ❥✉st ♠♦✈❡ c ✇❤✐❧❡ ✇❛t❝❤✐♥❣ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t✿
✸✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss ✶✾✻

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✸✳✺

❲❤❛t ✐❢ ✇❡ ❛❧❧♦✇ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ mi t♦ ❜❡ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡❄ ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ❛♥❞ ♦❢ c❄

❚♦ ♠❛❦❡ ♦✉r t❛s❦ ❡❛s✐❡r✱ ✇❡ s♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r c✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✳✸✳✻✿ ❈❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ▼❛ss

■❢ c ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss ♦❢ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ✇❡✐❣❤ts✱ t❤❡♥ ✇❡

❤❛✈❡✿
P
mi ci
c = Pi
i mi

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✸✳✼

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

t♦t❛❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t
❈❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss =
t♦t❛❧ ♠❛ss

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✸✳✽✿ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛

❆r♠❡❞ ✇✐t❤ t❤✐s ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ q✉✐❝❦❧② ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡rs ♦❢ ♠❛ss ♦❢ ♦❜❥❡❝ts✳ ❇❡❧♦✇ ✐s t❤❡ s❤❛♣❡ ❢r♦♠
t❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✿

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✸✳✾✿ t✇♦ ♦❜ ❥❡❝ts

▲❡t✬s t❡st t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r ❛ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❥✉st t✇♦ ♦❜❥❡❝ts✳

❋✐rst✱ s✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t✇♦ ✐❞❡♥t✐❝❛❧ ✇❡✐❣❤ts ❧♦❝❛t❡❞ ❛t a ❛♥❞ b✳ ❚❤❡♥

ma + mb a+b
c= = .
m+m 2
❙♦✱ ♥♦ ♠❛tt❡r ✇❤❛t t❤❡ ✇❡✐❣❤t ✐s✱ t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss ❧✐❡s ❤❛❧❢✇❛② ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ t✇♦ ♦❜❥❡❝ts✱ ❛s ❡①♣❡❝t❡❞✳

❲❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ ✇❡✐❣❤ts ❛r❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t❄ ❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❣✉❡ss t❤❛t t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ❝❧♦s❡r t♦ t❤❡ ❤❡❛✈✐❡r
♦❜❥❡❝t✳ ❇✉t ❜② ❤♦✇ ♠✉❝❤❄ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ m ❛♥❞ 2m✳ ❲❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡✿
ma + 2mb a + 2b 1 2
c= = = a + b.
m + 2m 3 3 3
■t✬s t✇✐❝❡ ❛s ❝❧♦s❡ t♦ t❤❡ ❤❡❛✈✐❡r ♦❜❥❡❝t ✭❜♦tt♦♠ ❧❡❢t✮✿
✸✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss ✶✾✼

■♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ t❤❡ ♣r♦♣♦rt✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ✐s t❤❡ ♣r♦♣♦rt✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✇❡✐❣❤t✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✸✳✶✵

■❢ α ❛♥❞ β ❛r❡ t❤❡ s❤❛r❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ✇❡✐❣❤t✱ ✇❤❡r❡ ✐s t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss ♦❢ t❤✐s t✇♦✲♦❜❥❡❝t s②st❡♠❄

▼♦r❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧❧②✱ t❤❡ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss ♦❢ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ r❡✲✇r✐tt❡♥✿
P
mi ci X mi
c = Pi = P ci .
i mi i j mj

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✳

❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✸✳✸✳✶✶✿ ❲❡✐❣❤t❡❞ ❆✈❡r❛❣❡

■❢ c ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss ♦❢ ❛ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ✇❡✐❣❤ts ✇✐t❤ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s

❛t ci ✱ ✇❡✐❣❤ts mi ✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ✇❡✐❣❤t M ✱ t❤❡♥

X
c= µi c i ,
i

✇❤❡r❡ µi ❛r❡ t❤❡ r❡❧❛t✐✈❡ ✇❡✐❣❤ts

✿

mi
µi = .
M

❲❡ st❛rt t♦ ♥♦t✐❝❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ♥✉♠❡r♦✉s ❜❧♦❝❦s ♣❧❛❝❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❜❛r st❛rt t♦ ❧♦♦❦ ❧✐❦❡ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✦
❚❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❧♦❝❦s ♣❧❛❝❡❞ ❛t t❤❛t ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✳ ❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ❜❡ s❡❡♥ ❛s t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❞❡♥s✐t② ♦❢ ❛ r♦❞✳
◆❡①t✱ ❧❡t✬s ✐♠❛❣✐♥❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❞❡♥s✐t② ✈❛r✐❡s ✐♥ ❛ ♠♦r❡ ✉♥♣r❡❞✐❝t❛❜❧❡ ✇❛②✳
❲❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ✇❛② ❛s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥ ✕ ❛♥ ❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ P ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥✿

a = x0 ≤ c1 ≤ x1 ≤ ... ≤ xn−1 ≤ cn ≤ xn = b

❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❞❡♥s✐t② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ l ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ t❡r♠s l(ci )∆xi r❡♣r❡s❡♥t✐♥❣ t❤❡
✇❡✐❣❤t ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❛r❡ ❢♦r♠❡❞✳✳✳ ❜✉t ♥♦t s✐♠♣❧② ❛❞❞❡❞ t❤✐s t✐♠❡✿
✸✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss ✶✾✽

❊❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ t❡r♠s ✐s ❛ ✇❡✐❣❤t ♣❧❛❝❡❞ ♦♥ t♦♣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡❞ ❛s ❛ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✐t ✐s ❛ss✉♠❡❞

t❤❛t t❤❡ ✇❡✐❣❤t ♦❢ t❤❡ it❤ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡ ✐s ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛t❡❞ ❛t ci ✳ ❚❤❡ ❧❡✈❡r ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ ✇❡✐❣❤t ✐s ❛❧s♦ s❤♦✇♥✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡

t♦t❛❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t ♦❢ t❤✐s s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ✇❡✐❣❤ts ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ s♦♠❡ c ✐s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

X X X
mi (ci − c) = l(ci ) · ∆xi (ci − c) = l(ci )(ci − c) · ∆xi .
i i i

❍❛✈❡ ✇❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡❞ ❛ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ❛s ❜❡❢♦r❡❄ ❲❡❧❧✱ t❤✐s ✐s♥✬t t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦❢ l✦ ▲❡t✬s tr② t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

✭❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ♦♥ ♦✉r ❝❤♦✐❝❡ ♦❢ c✮✿

f (x) = l(x)(x − c) .
❚❤❡♥✱ ✐♥❞❡❡❞✱ ✇❡ ❢❛❝❡ ✐ts ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠✿

X
mi (ci − c) = Σ f · ∆x .
i

❏✉st ❛s ❛❜♦✈❡✱ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ✇❡✐❣❤ts t❤❛t ♠❛❦❡s ✉♣ t❤❡ r♦❞ ✐s ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡❞ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t ✐s ③❡r♦✿

Σ l(x)(x − c) · ∆x = 0 .

❲❡ ❛rr✐✈❡ t♦ ❛ s✐♠✐❧❛r ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✳✸✳✶✷✿ ❈❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ▼❛ss ✕ ❉✐s❝r❡t❡ ❈❛s❡

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = l(x) ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ci , i = 1, 2, ..., n✱ ♦❢
❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b]✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ✇❡✐❣❤ts l(ci )∆xi , i = 1, 2, ..., n✱
❤❛s ✐ts ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss ❛t t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ♣♦✐♥t✿

Σ l(x)x · ∆x
c=
Σ l(x) · ∆x

❲❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r❡❞ ✐s t❤❛t t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ♦❢ ❜❛❧❛♥❝✐♥❣ ❛ r♦❞ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❞❡♥s✐t② ✐s ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t t♦ t❤❡

♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ♦❢ ❜❛❧❛♥❝✐♥❣ t❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥ ❜❡❧♦✇ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡♥s✐t② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿
✸✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss ✶✾✾

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✸✳✶✸✿ ♣✐❡❝❡ ♦❢ ❝✐r❝❧❡

▲❡t✬s t❡st t❤✐s ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ♦♥ s♦♠❡ r❡❣✐♦♥s ❝✉t ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ✉♥✐t ❝✐r❝❧❡✿

■♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✹✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♦✛❡r ♠♦r❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✸✳✶✹
Pr♦✈❡ t❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ ❞❡♥s✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ r♦❞ ✐s str✐❝t❧② ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ✭♦r ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣✮✱ ✐ts ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss ❝❛♥♥♦t ❜❡
✐♥ t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r✳

❚❤❡ ♥❡①t st❡♣ ✐s t♦ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✇❡✐❣❤ts ❛ss✐❣♥❡❞ t♦ ❡✈❡r② ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✳ ■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤❡
❞✐str✐❜✉t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✇❡✐❣❤t ✐s ♥♦ ❧♦♥❣❡r ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t❛❧✳
❲❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❧❡❛r♥❡❞ ✐s t❤❛t t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ s♦♠❡ c ✐s ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡❞ ❜②
t❤❛t ♦❢ t❤✐s s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ✇❡✐❣❤ts✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠✱
X X
mi (ci − c) = l(ci ) · ∆xi (ci − c) = Σ f · ∆x ,
i i

♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
f (x) = l(x)(x − c) .
❚❤❡ ❜❡❛♠ ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❜❡ ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡❞ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❜❡ ③❡r♦ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✱ ❜✉t
✐t ❞♦❡s ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❞✐♠✐♥✐s❤ t♦ ③❡r♦ ❛s ✇❡ r❡✜♥❡ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥s✳ ❚❤✐s ♠❡❛♥s t❤❛t t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ t❤✐s
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ③❡r♦✳
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✸✳✸✳✶✺✿ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = l(x) ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ♦♥ s❡❣♠❡♥t [a, b]
❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ❞❡♥s✐t② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ❢♦r ❛ ❣✐✈❡♥ ♣♦✐♥t c✱ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧
Z b
l(x)(x − c) dx
a

✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❣♠❡♥t ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ c✳ ❚❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss
♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❣♠❡♥t ✇✐t❤ ❞❡♥s✐t② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ l ✐s s✉❝❤ ❛ ♣♦✐♥t c t❤❛t t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t
✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ c ✐s ③❡r♦✳

❏✉st ❛s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ ❝❛s❡✱ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ s♦❧✈❡❞ ❢♦r c✿
✸✳✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss ✷✵✵

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✳✸✳✶✻✿ ❈❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ▼❛ss ✕ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❈❛s❡

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = l(x) ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ♦♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b]✳
■❢ t❤❡ ♠❛ss ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❣♠❡♥t ✐s ♥♦t ③❡r♦✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss ✐s✿

Rb
l(x)x dx
c = Ra b
a
l(x) dx

Pr♦♦❢✳
❋✐rst✱ ✇❡ ♥♦t❡ t❤❛t y = l(x)(x − c) ✐s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❜② P❘✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ✉s❡ ❙❘ ❛♥❞ ❈▼❘ t♦ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡

❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿
Z b Z b Z b
0= t♦t❛❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t = l(x)(x − c) dx = l(x)x dx + c l(x) dx .
a a a
◆♦✇ s♦❧✈❡ ❢♦r c✳

❖♥❝❡ ❛❣❛✐♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

t♦t❛❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t
❈❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss =
t♦t❛❧ ♠❛ss

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✸✳✶✼
❙❤♦✇ t❤✐s t❤❡♦r❡♠ ✐♠♣❧✐❡s t❤❡ ♣r❡✈✐♦✉s ♦♥❡✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✸✳✶✽✿ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ ❞❡♥s✐t② ♦❢ ❛ r♦❞ ♦❢ ❧❡♥❣t❤ 2 ✐s ❝❤❛♥❣✐♥❣ ❧✐♥❡❛r❧②✿ ❢r♦♠ 1 t♦ 2✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ l(x) = x/2 + 1✳

❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ ♠❛ss ✐s 3✳ ■t ✇❛s ❢♦✉♥❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥ ❜❛s❡❞ ♦♥ ❛ ❝♦♠♠♦♥ s❡♥s❡ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s✳ ❚❤❛t✬s t❤❡

❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥✳ ◆♦✇✱ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛t♦r✳ ▼❡r❡ ❝♦♠♠♦♥ s❡♥s❡ ✇♦♥✬t ❤❡❧♣ t❤✐s t✐♠❡❀ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞

t♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t❡✿
Z 2 Z 2
l(x)x dx = (x/2 + 1)x dx
0 Z0 2
= (x2 /2 + x) dx
0 2

= x3 /6 + x2 /2


0

= 8/6 + 4/2

= 10/3 .
✸✳✹✳ ❚❤❡ r❛❞✐❛❧ ❞❡♥s✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♠❛ss ✷✵✶

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss ✐s

10 10
c= ÷3= .
3 9
❙❧✐❣❤t❧② t♦ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r✳✳✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✸✳✶✾

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss ♦❢ ❛ r♦❞ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r❧② ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❞❡♥s✐t②✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✸✳✷✵

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss ♦❢ ❛ ♣❧❛t❡ ❝✉t ❢r♦♠ ❛ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ♦❢ r❛❞✐✉s 1 ❝❡♥t❡r❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥ ❜② t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡s x = a
❛♥❞ x = b✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✸✳✷✶

❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ♦❜❥❡❝t❄

✸✳✹✳ ❚❤❡ r❛❞✐❛❧ ❞❡♥s✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♠❛ss

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ♥❡①t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛♥ ❛❧❧♦② t❤❛t ✐s r♦t❛t❡❞ ❛s ✐t ❤❛r❞❡♥s✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✐ts ❞❡♥s✐t② ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ✭♦♥❧②✮ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡
❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r✳

❚❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❡✛❡❝t ✐s ♣r♦❞✉❝❡❞ ❜② st✐rr✐♥❣ ❛ ❧✐q✉✐❞✳

■♥ ❡✐t❤❡r ❝❛s❡✱ ✇❡ ✐❣♥♦r❡ t❤❡ ❞❡♣t❤ ❛♥❞ ❛❧❧ ✇❡ s❡❡ ✐s ❛ ❞✐s❦✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ❢♦r ❛♥② r❛❞✐❛❧ ❧✐♥❡ ✭✇❡ ♣✐❝❦ ♦♥❡ ❛♥❞
❝❛❧❧ ✐t t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✮ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✐♥ ❞❡♥s✐t② ✐♥ t❤❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥s ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r t♦ ✐t✳ ❲❡ t❤❡♥ ✐❣♥♦r❡ t❤♦s❡
❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡♥s✐t② ❜❡❝♦♠❡s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r x ❞❡s✐❣♥❛t✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ t♦ t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r
❛❧♦♥❣ t❤✐s ❧✐♥❡❀ ❤❡♥❝❡ t❤❡ r❛❞✐❛❧ ❞❡♥s✐t② y = r(x)✳
❍❡r❡ ❛r❡ ❛ ❢❡✇ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ♦❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿
✸✳✹✳ ❚❤❡ r❛❞✐❛❧ ❞❡♥s✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♠❛ss ✷✵✷

❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♣r♦✈✐❞❡ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s s✐♠✐❧❛r t♦ t❤❡ ♦♥❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥ t♦ ❞❡✜♥❡ t❤❡ ♠❛ss ♦❢ s✉❝❤ ❛♥ ♦❜❥❡❝t✳
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ r❛❞✐❛❧ ❞❡♥s✐t② r ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥✱ ✇❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ♠❛ss ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐s❦❄
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✹✳✶✿ t✇♦ ♣✐❡❝❡s

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ t✇♦ ♠❡t❛❧s ✇✐t❤ ❞❡♥s✐t✐❡s 2 ♦♥ t❤❡ ✐♥s✐❞❡ ❛♥❞ 1 ♦♥ t❤❡ ♦✉ts✐❞❡ ❤❛✈❡♥✬t ♠❡r❣❡❞ ❛t ❛❧❧✳ ❚❤❡
♦❜❥❡❝t ✐s s✐♠♣❧② ❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ❞✐s❦ ♦❢ r❛❞✐✉s 1 ❛♥❞ ❛ ✇❛s❤❡r ❛r♦✉♥❞ ✐t ♦❢ t❤✐❝❦♥❡ss 1✿

❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ ♠❛ss ✐s s✐♠♣❧② t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠❛ss ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐s❦ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♠❛ss ♦❢ t❤❡ ✇❛s❤❡r✿

▼❛ss = 2 · ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐s❦ +1 · ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✇❛s❤❡r

2
=2·π·1 +1 · (π · 22 − π · 12 ) .

■t✬s 5π ✳

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❥✉st r❡♣❧❛❝❡ t❤❡ ❞✐s❦ t❤❛t ❤❛s ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t t❤✐❝❦♥❡ss ❛♥❞ ❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❞❡♥s✐t② ✇✐t❤ ♦♥❡ t❤❛t ❤❛s ❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡
t❤✐❝❦♥❡ss ❛♥❞ ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❞❡♥s✐t②✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ✉s❡ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥✳ ■♥st❡❛❞ ✇❡ st❛rt ❢r♦♠
s❝r❛t❝❤✳
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛♥ ❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ P ♦❢ t❤❡ r❛❞✐✉s✿

a = x0 ≤ c1 ≤ x1 ≤ ... ≤ cn ≤ xn = b

❍❡r❡✱ ✇❡ ❝✉t t❤❡ ❞✐s❦ ✐♥t♦ s♠❛❧❧ ✇❛s❤❡rs ❜② t❤❡ ❝②❧✐♥❞❡rs st❛rt✐♥❣ ❛t x = xi ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ s❛♠♣❧❡ ✐ts ❞❡♥s✐t② ❛t
t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ci ✿

❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❞❡♥s✐t② ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ ✇❛s❤❡r ✕ ✇❤❡♥ ✉♥✐❢♦r♠ ✕ ✐s r(ci ) ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿


▼❛ss ♦❢ it❤ ✇❛s❤❡r = ❞❡♥s✐t② · ❛r❡❛ = r(ci ) · πx2i − πx2i−1 ,

s✐♥❝❡ t❤❡ ✐♥s✐❞❡ r❛❞✐✉s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✇❛s❤❡r ✐s xi−1 ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♦✉ts✐❞❡ ✐s xi ✳
✸✳✹✳ ❚❤❡ r❛❞✐❛❧ ❞❡♥s✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♠❛ss ✷✵✸

❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
n
X

▼❛ss ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐s❦ = r(ci ) · π x2i − x2i−1
i=1

❚❤✐s ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐s ✜♥❡ ❢♦r ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s ❜✉t ✐t ✐s ♥♦t t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦❢ ❛♥② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✦
❆ ❝❧❡✈❡r tr✐❝❦ ✐s t♦ ❝❤♦♦s❡ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s t♦ ❜❡ t❤❡ ♠✐❞✲♣♦✐♥ts✿
1
ci = (xi + xi−1 ) .
2
❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❢❛❝t♦r t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t✇♦ sq✉❛r❡s ❛♥❞ s✐♠♣❧✐❢②✿
n
X n
X
▼❛ss ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐s❦ = r(ci ) · π(xi + xi−1 )(xi − xi−1 ) = 2π r(ci )ci · ∆xi .
i=1 i=1

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦❢ ❛ s✐♠♣❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

▼❛ss ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐s❦ = 2πΣ xr(x) · ∆x .

❞❡♥s✐t② ✈❛r✐❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧② ❄

❲✐t❤ t❤✐s ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r②✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❞❞r❡ss t❤❡ q✉❡st✐♦♥✿ ❲❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡
❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ♠❛ss ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ ✇❛s❤❡r ✕ ✇❤❡♥ t❤✐♥ ❡♥♦✉❣❤ ✕ ✐s ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ♠❛ss ♦❢ s✉❝❤ ❛ ✇❛s❤❡r ♠❛❞❡
❡♥t✐r❡❧② ♦❢ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧ ♦❢ ❞❡♥s✐t② r(ci )✿


▼❛ss ♦❢ it❤ ✇❛s❤❡r ≈ ❞❡♥s✐t② · ❛r❡❛ = r(ci ) · πx2i − πx2i−1 .

❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❣♦ t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✿

n
X n
X


❚♦t❛❧ ♠❛ss ≈ r(ci ) · π x2i − x2i−1 = 2π r(ci )ci · ∆xi .
i=1 i=1

❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ t❤❡ ♠❛ss ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐s❦ ❛s t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s❀ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✿
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✸✳✹✳✷✿ ♠❛ss ♦❢ ❞✐s❦
■❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ r ♦♥ s❡❣♠❡♥t [0, b] ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛ r❛❞✐❛❧ ❞❡♥s✐t②✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡
❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ♠❛ss ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐s❦ ♦❢ r❛❞✐✉s b✿
Z b
▼❛ss = 2π xr(x) dx .
0

❖♥❝❡ ❛❣❛✐♥✱ ✇❡ r❡❛❧✐③❡ t❤❛t ❡❛❝❤ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ❤✐❣❤❡r ❞❡♥s✐t② s✐♠♣❧② ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s ♠♦r❡ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❥✉st
s♣r❡❛❞ ✐t ♦✉t ✕ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧❧② ✕ ♠❛❦✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❞✐s❦ t❤✐❝❦❡r ❛t t❤✐s s♣♦t ❛♥❞ t❤✐♥♥❡r ❛t t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧♦✇❡r ❞❡♥s✐t②✳
✸✳✺✳ ❚❤❡ ✢♦✇ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✢✉① ✷✵✹

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✹✳✸✿ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ ❞❡♥s✐t② ♦❢ ❛ ❞✐s❦ ♦❢ r❛❞✐✉s 2 ✐s ❝❤❛♥❣✐♥❣ ❧✐♥❡❛r❧②✿ ❢r♦♠ 1 t♦ 2✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡
❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ❞❡♥s✐t② ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥ t❤❡ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡ ❛r❡❛s✱ ❛s s❤♦✇♥ ❛❜♦✈❡✳

❚❤❡ ♠❛ss ♠✉st ❤❛✈❡ s♦♠❡t❤✐♥❣ t♦ ❞♦ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s s✉r❢❛❝❡ ♦❢ r❡✈♦❧✉t✐♦♥✳✳✳ ▲❡t✬s ✐♥t❡❣r❛t❡✿
Z b
▼❛ss = 2π xr(x) dx
Z 2a
=π x(2 − x/2) dx
0
Z 2
=π (2x − x2 /2) dx
0 2
2 3

= π(x − x /6)
0
2 3
= π(2 − 2 /6)
8π
= .
3

✸✳✺✳ ❚❤❡ ✢♦✇ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✢✉①

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❛t❡r ✢♦✇s ✐♥ ❛ ❝❛♥❛❧✿

❍♦✇ ♠✉❝❤ ✇❛t❡r ✐s ❝r♦ss✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❧✐♥❡ ♣❡r ✉♥✐t ♦❢ t✐♠❡❄ ❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ✐❣♥♦r❡ t❤❡ ❞❡♣t❤ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤✐s ✈✐❡✇
❢r♦♠ ❛❜♦✈❡✿

❲❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ✇❛t❡r ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❛t ❛❧❧ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s✱ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ❛♠♦✉♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ✇❛t❡r t❤❛t ❤❛s ❝r♦ss❡❞
✸✳✺✳ ❚❤❡ ✢♦✇ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✢✉① ✷✵✺

t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡✱ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ✢✉① F ✱ ✐s t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② v t✐♠❡s t❤❡ ✇✐❞t❤ W ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝r♦ss✲s❡❝t✐♦♥✿

F =v·W .

❚❤❡ ✢♦✇ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♠❛② ✈❛r② ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐♥❣ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✭♥♦t t✐♠❡✦✮✳ ❲❡ ❛ss✉♠❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡
❛❧♦♥❣ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡s ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧ t♦ t❤❡ ✇❛❧❧s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❛♥❛❧✳ ❲❡ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡ t❤❡ ♣r♦❝❡ss ❜② ✐♠❛❣✐♥✐♥❣ t❤❛t ❛ ♥❛rr♦✇ str✐♣
♦❢ r❡❞ ❞②❡ ✐s ❛♣♣❧✐❡❞ ❛❝r♦ss t❤❡ ❝❛♥❛❧ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❛❢t❡r✱ s❛②✱ ♦♥❡ ♠✐♥✉t❡ ✇❡ s❡❡ ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ❞✐❡ ❤❛s ♣r♦❣r❡ss❡❞✿

❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ✢✉① t❤❡♥❄

❚♦ ❜❡❣✐♥ ✇✐t❤✱ ✇❡ ❛ss✉♠❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ✢♦✇ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ✭♦♥❡ ❞❡❣r❡❡ ♦❢ ❢r❡❡❞♦♠ ❛❣❛✐♥✮✱
t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❛❝r♦ss t❤❡ ❝❛♥❛❧✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛ ❧✐♥❡ ✕ ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ ✐t t♦ ❜❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ♦♥ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s
✕ ✇✐t❤ ♥♦ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✐♥ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐♥ t❤❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥s ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r t♦ ✐t✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = v(x)
♦❢ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r x ✐♥ [a, b]✳
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤✐s t✐♠❡ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② v ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✱ ✇❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ✢✉①❄
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✺✳✶✿ t✇♦ ❣❛t❡s

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t✇♦ s❡♣❛r❛t❡ ❝❛♥❛❧s s✐❞❡ ❜② s✐❞❡✱ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s 1 ❛♥❞ 2 ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ✇✐❞t❤ 1✿

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ✐s s✐♠♣❧② t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦✿ 1 · 1 + 2 · 1 = 3✳ ■t ✐s ❛❧s♦ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦
r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡s ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ v ✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ❛ st❡♣✲❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ❛♥❞✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡
✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ l ♦✈❡r [0, 2]✳

■♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ ❥✉st ♣♦✐♥t✐♥❣ ♦✉t t❤❛t t❤❡ ✢✉① ✐s ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s♣❡❡❞ ✭✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ♥♦t
t✐♠❡✦✮✱ ❧❡t✬s st❛rt ❢r♦♠ s❝r❛t❝❤✳
❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛♥ ❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ P ✿

a = x0 ≤ c1 ≤ x1 ≤ ... ≤ cn ≤ xn = b

❲❡ ✜rst ✐♠❛❣✐♥❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❝❛♥❛❧ ✐s ❞✐✈✐❞❡❞ ✐♥t♦ ❝❤❛♥♥❡❧s ♦r ❧♦❝❦s s♦ t❤❛t t❤❡ ✢♦✇ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② t❤r♦✉❣❤ ❡❛❝❤ ✐s
❢♦✉♥❞ s❡♣❛r❛t❡❧②✿ F1 , F2 , ..., Fn ✿
✸✳✺✳ ❚❤❡ ✢♦✇ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✢✉① ✷✵✻

❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ✢♦✇ ✐s s✐♠♣❧②

t♦t❛❧ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ = F1 ∆x1 + F2 ∆x2 + ... + Fn ∆xn .

❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐s s✉✣❝✐❡♥t ❢♦r ♣r❛❝t✐❝❛❧ ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s✳

❚♦ ✜♥❞ ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r ❛♥ ✐❞❡❛❧✐③❡❞ s✐t✉❛t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡ ♦♥✳
❲❡ ✇♦✉❧❞ ❧✐❦❡ t♦ ✜♥❞ ❛ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ❤❡r❡✳ ❲❡ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ✢♦✇ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✈❛r✐❡s ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t❛❧❧② ♦✈❡r t❤❡
❣❛t❡s t❤❛t ❞✐✈✐❞❡ t❤❡ ❝❛♥❛❧✬s ❝r♦ss✲s❡❝t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤❡ ❝❛♥❛❧ ✐s ❝✉t ✐♥t♦ s❡❣♠❡♥ts ❜② t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ st❛rt✐♥❣ ❛t x = xi ❛♥❞
s❛♠♣❧❡❞ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛t t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ci ✐s v(ci )✿

❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
❋❧✉① t❤♦✉❣❤ it❤ s❡❣♠❡♥t = ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② · ✇✐❞t❤ = v(ci ) · ∆xi .
❚❤❡♥✱
n
X
❚♦t❛❧ ✢✉① = v(ci ) · ∆xi .
i=1

❲❡ r❡❝♦❣♥✐③❡ t❤✐s ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ ❛s t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠✱ Σ v · ∆x✱ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r t❤✐s ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✳
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✸✳✺✳✷✿ ✢♦✇ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②
■❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ v ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ s❡❣♠❡♥t [a, b]
✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛ ✢♦✇ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✱ t❤❡♥ ✐ts ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ✢✉① ✿

❋❧✉① = Σ v · ∆x .

❲❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ ✢♦✇ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✈❛r✐❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧②❄

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✺✳✸✿ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❛♥❛❧ ♦❢ ✇✐❞t❤ 2 ✐s ❝❤❛♥❣✐♥❣ ❧✐♥❡❛r❧②✿ ❢r♦♠ 1 t♦ 2✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢
t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ❝❧❡❛r❀ ✐t ✐s 1.5✳

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ✐s 1.5 · 1 = 1.5✳ ■t ✐s ❛❧s♦ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ v(x) = 1 + x ❛♥❞✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ v ♦✈❡r [0, 2]✳

❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✢✉① t❤r♦✉❣❤ ❡❛❝❤ s❡❣♠❡♥t ✕ ✇❤❡♥ s❤♦rt ❡♥♦✉❣❤ ✕ ✐s ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ✇❛t❡r
♠♦✈✐♥❣ ❡♥t✐r❡❧② ❛t t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② v(ci )✿

❱♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ it❤ s❡❣♠❡♥t ≈ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② · ✇✐❞t❤ = v(ci ) · ∆xi .

✸✳✺✳ ❚❤❡ ✢♦✇ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✢✉① ✷✵✼

❚❤❡♥✱
n
X
❋❧✉① = ❚♦t❛❧ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ≈ v(ci ) · ∆xi .
i=1

❲❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ t❤❡ ✢✉① ♦❢ t❤❡ r♦❞ ❛s t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t✱ ✐❢ ✐t ❡①✐sts✱ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢
v✳
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✸✳✺✳✹✿ ✢✉①
■❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ v ♦♥ s❡❣♠❡♥t [a, b] ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛ ✢♦✇ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐♥ ❛ ❝❛♥❛❧✱
t❤❡♥ ✐ts ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ✢✉① ♦❢ t❤❡ ✢♦✇✿

Z b
❋❧✉① = v dx .
a

❍❡r❡ ✐s ❛♥♦t❤❡r ✇❛② t♦ ❡①♣❧❛✐♥ t❤✐s r❡s✉❧t✳ ❲❡ ❝❛♥ t❛❦❡ ♦✉r ❝❛♥❛❧✱ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ✇❛t❡r ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✱ ❛♥❞ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❡
❛ ❝❛♥❛❧ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ✢✉① ❜✉t ❛❝♦♥st❛♥t ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✳ ❍♦✇ ✐s ✐t ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡❄ ❲❡ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ❤✐❣❤❡r
✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛s ♦♥❡ t❤❛t ❤❛s ♠♦r❡ ✇❛t❡r✳

❚❤❡ ✜rst ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ ✐s t♦ s♣r❡❛❞ t❤❡ ✇❛t❡r ♦✉t ✕ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧❧② ✕ ♠❛❦✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❝❛♥❛❧ ❞❡❡♣❡r ❛t t❤✐s s♣♦t ❛♥❞ s❤❛❧❧♦✇❡r
❛t t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❧♦✇❡r ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✿

❚❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ ✐s t♦ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ❤✐❣❤❡r ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛s s✐♠♣❧② ♦♥❡ ✇✐t❤ ❞❡♥s❡r ❧✐q✉✐❞✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✺✳✺
❲❤❛t ✐❢ t❤✐s ✐s ❛♥ ♦❝❡❛♥✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ ❝r♦ss✲s❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ♦✉r ✏❝❛♥❛❧✑ ✐s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ✇✐❞❡❄

❆ ✈❛r✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ✐s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ♥♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ ✇❛t❡r ✢♦✇s t❤r♦✉❣❤ ❛ ♣✐♣❡ ✿

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ ✢♦✇ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✈❛r✐❡s ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐♥❣ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ t♦ t❤❡ ♣✐♣❡✬s ✇❛❧❧✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱
t❤❡ ✇❛t❡r ♠❛② ❣♦ s❧♦✇❡r ♥❡①t t♦ t❤❡ ✇❛❧❧ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢r✐❝t✐♦♥✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❝✐r❝✉❧❛r ♣❛tt❡r♥ ❛❣❛✐♥✳✳✳

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✸✳✺✳✻✿ ✢✉①

■❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ v ♦♥ s❡❣♠❡♥t [0, R] ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛
Z R
✢♦✇ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② t❤r♦✉❣❤ ❛

♣✐♣❡ ♦❢ r❛❞✐✉s R✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ 2π xv(x) dx ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ✢✉①✳
0
✸✳✻✳ ❚❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✇♦r❦ ✷✵✽

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✺✳✼

❋♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛s ❞❡✈❡❧♦♣❡❞ ✐♥ t❤✐s ❝❤❛♣t❡r✱ ❥✉st✐❢② t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✳

✸✳✻✳ ❚❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✇♦r❦

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ ❜❛❧❧ ✐s ❞r♦♣♣❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r♦✉♥❞ ❢r♦♠ ❛ ❝❡rt❛✐♥ ❤❡✐❣❤t✿

❚❤✐s ♣❤❡♥♦♠❡♥♦♥ ✐s t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛✈✐t❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❢♦r❝❡✳ ❚❤✐s ❢♦r❝❡ ✐s ❞✐r❡❝t❡❞ ❞♦✇♥✱ ❥✉st ❛s t❤❡ ♠♦✈❡♠❡♥t
♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❧✳ ❚❤❡ ✇♦r❦ ❞♦♥❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❧ ❜② t❤✐s ❢♦r❝❡ ❛s ✐t ❢❛❧❧s ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ ✭s✐❣♥❡❞✮ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡ ♦❢ t❤❡
❢♦r❝❡✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ ✇❡✐❣❤t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❧✱ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ✭s✐❣♥❡❞✮ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ t♦ t❤❡ ❣r♦✉♥❞✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t✳
❆❧❧ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ✐s ✐❣♥♦r❡❞ ❛s ✉♥r❡❧❛t❡❞ t♦ t❤❡ ❣r❛✈✐t②✳
❚❤❡ ♥❡❡❞ ❢♦r ✉s✐♥❣ t❤❡ s✐❣♥❡❞ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ D ❛♥❞ ❢♦r❝❡ F ✐s r❡✈❡❛❧❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ ♠♦✈✐♥❣ ❛♥ ♦❜❥❡❝t ✉♣
❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❣r♦✉♥❞✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✇♦r❦ W ♣❡r❢♦r♠❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❣r❛✈✐t❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❢♦r❝❡ ✐s ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡✦

❖❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ✐♥ ❡✐t❤❡r ❝❛s❡ ✐s ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛①✐s ✇❡ ❛ss✐❣♥ t♦ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ ♦❢ ♠♦t✐♦♥✳
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❛r❡ t♦ ♠♦✈❡ ❢r♦♠ ♣♦✐♥t a ♦♥ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s t♦ ♣♦✐♥t b > a✳ ❲❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡ F ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✱ t❤❡ ✇♦r❦
W ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡ F t✐♠❡s t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❝♦✈❡r❡❞ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ a ❛♥❞ b✿

W = F · (b − a) .

❚❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡ ♠❛② ✈❛r② ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐♥❣ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ a ❛♥❞ b✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✻✳✶✿ ♣❤②s✐❝s

❚❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❢♦r❝❡s ♠❛② ❜❡ t❤❡s❡✿ s♣r✐♥❣✱ ❣r❛✈✐t❛t✐♦♥✱ ❛✐r ♣r❡ss✉r❡✳
✸✳✻✳ ❚❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✇♦r❦ ✷✵✾

■♥ t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ❛♥ ♦❜❥❡❝t ❛tt❛❝❤❡❞ t♦ ❛ s♣r✐♥❣✱ t❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡ ✐s ♣r♦♣♦rt✐♦♥❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ ✭s✐❣♥❡❞✮ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡
♦❜❥❡❝t t♦ ✐ts ❡q✉✐❧✐❜r✐✉♠ ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ❍♦♦❦❡✬s ▲❛✇ ✿

F (x) = −kx .

❆✇❛② ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❣r♦✉♥❞✱ t❤❡ ❣r❛✈✐t② ✐s ♣r♦♣♦rt✐♦♥❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ r❡❝✐♣r♦❝❛❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ sq✉❛r❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ♦❢
t❤❡ ♦❜❥❡❝t t♦ t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡t ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ◆❡✇t♦♥✬s ▲❛✇ ♦❢ ●r❛✈✐t❛t✐♦♥ ✿

k
F (x) = − .
x2
❚❤❡ ♣r❡ss✉r❡ ❛♥❞✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ♠❡❞✐✉♠✬s r❡s✐st❛♥❝❡ t♦ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ♠❛② ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❧②✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✻✳✷✿ tr❛❝t✐♦♥

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡ ✐s tr❛❝t✐♦♥✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❛t t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ t✇♦ ❞✐st✐♥❝t str✐♣s✿ ♦♥❡ ✐s s♠♦♦t❤❡r ❛♥❞ t❤❡
♦t❤❡r r♦✉❣❤❡r✳

❚❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡ t❛❦❡s ✕ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ a = 0 ❛♥❞ b = 2 ✕ ♦♥❧② t✇♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ✈❛❧✉❡s 1 ❛♥❞ 2 s✇✐t❝❤✐♥❣ ❛t c = 1✳
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ✇♦r❦ ✐s s✐♠♣❧② t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ♦✈❡r ❡✐t❤❡r ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❣♠❡♥ts✿ 1 · 1 + 2 · 1 = 3✳ ■t ✐s
❛❧s♦ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡s ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ F ✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ❛ st❡♣✲❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱
❛♥❞✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ l ♦✈❡r [0, 2]✳

❋♦r t❤❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❝❛s❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛♥ ❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ P ✿

a = x0 ≤ c1 ≤ x1 ≤ ... ≤ cn ≤ xn = b
✸✳✻✳ ❚❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✇♦r❦ ✷✶✵

❚❤❡ ♣❛t❤ ✐s ❞✐✈✐❞❡❞ ✐♥t♦ s♠❛❧❧ s❡❣♠❡♥ts ❜② x = xi ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡ ✐s s❛♠♣❧❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ci ✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡
❢♦r❝❡ ♦♥ ❡❛❝❤ s❡❣♠❡♥t ✕ ✐❢ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ✕ ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ F (ci ) ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

❲♦r❦ ♦♥ it❤ s❡❣♠❡♥t = ❢♦r❝❡ · ❧❡♥❣t❤ = F (ci ) · ∆xi .

❚❤❡♥✱
n
X
❚♦t❛❧ ✇♦r❦ = F (ci ) · ∆xi .
i=1

❖♥❝❡ ❛❣❛✐♥✱ ✇❡ r❡❝♦❣♥✐③❡ t❤✐s ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ ❛s t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠✱ Σ F · ∆x✱ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r t❤✐s
♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✳

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✸✳✻✳✸✿ ✇♦r❦

■❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ F ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ s❡❣♠❡♥t [a, b]
✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛ ❢♦r❝❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡♥ ✐ts ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ✇♦r❦ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡
♦✈❡r ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b]✿
❲♦r❦ = Σ F · ∆x .

❲❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡ ✈❛r✐❡s ✏❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧②✑❄

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✻✳✹✿ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡ ✐s ❝❤❛♥❣✐♥❣ ❧✐♥❡❛r❧② ♦✈❡r t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [0, 2]✿ ❢r♦♠ 1 t♦ 2✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡
❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ❢♦r❝❡ ✐s ❝❧❡❛r❀ ✐t ✐s 1.5✳

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ✇♦r❦ ✐s 1.5 · 2 = 3✳ ■t ✐s ❛❧s♦ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ F (x) = 1 + x/2 ❛♥❞✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r [0, 2]✳ ❲❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢
t❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡ ✐s ♥♦♥✲❧✐♥❡❛r✱ t❤❡ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t ❢❛✐❧s✳

❚❤❡ ✇♦r❦ ♦♥ ❡❛❝❤ s❡❣♠❡♥t ✐s ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ✇♦r❦ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡ ❜❡✐♥❣ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❧② ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ F (ci )✿

❲♦r❦ ♦♥ it❤ s❡❣♠❡♥t ≈ ❢♦r❝❡ · ❧❡♥❣t❤ = F (ci ) · ∆xi .

❚❤❡♥✱
n
X
❚♦t❛❧ ✇♦r❦ ≈ F (ci ) · ∆xi .
i=1

❲❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ t❤❡ ✇♦r❦ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡ ❛s t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t✱ ✐❢ ✐t ❡①✐sts✱ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧
♦❢ F✳
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✸✳✻✳✺✿ ✇♦r❦
■❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ F ♦♥ s❡❣♠❡♥t [a, b] ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛ ❢♦r❝❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡♥ ✐ts
❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ✇♦r❦ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡ ♦✈❡r ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b]✿
Z b
❲♦r❦ = F dx .
a
✸✳✻✳ ❚❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✇♦r❦ ✷✶✶

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✻✳✻

❍♦✇ ♠✉❝❤ ✇♦r❦ ❞♦❡s ✐t t❛❦❡ t♦ ♠♦✈❡ ❛♥ ♦❜❥❡❝t ❛tt❛❝❤❡❞ t♦ ❛ s♣r✐♥❣ s ✉♥✐ts ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❡q✉✐❧✐❜r✐✉♠❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✻✳✼

❍♦✇ ♠✉❝❤ ✇♦r❦ ❞♦❡s ✐t t❛❦❡ t♦ ♠♦✈❡ ❛♥ ♦❜❥❡❝t s ✉♥✐ts ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ❛ ♣❧❛♥❡t❄

❆s ❛ s✉♠♠❛r②✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ s♦❧✈❡❞ t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ♦❢ ✜♥❞✐♥❣ ❛ ❝❡rt❛✐♥ q✉❛♥t✐t② W ✕ ✇♦r❦✱ ✢♦✇✱ ❛♥❞ ♠❛ss ✕ ✐♥ ❛♥
✐❞❡♥t✐❝❛❧ ♠❛♥♥❡r✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛♥ ❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ P ✿

a = x0 ≤ c1 ≤ x1 ≤ ... ≤ cn ≤ xn = b

❲❡ ❞✐✈✐❞❡ t❤❡ ♣❛t❤ ✐♥t♦ s♠❛❧❧ s❡❣♠❡♥ts ❜② x = xi ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ s❛♠♣❧❡ q✉❛♥t✐t② F ✕ t❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡✱ ♦r t❤❡ ✢♦✇ s♣❡❡❞✱
♦r t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❞❡♥s✐t② ✕ ❛t t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ci ✿

❚❤❡♥ t❤✐s q✉❛♥t✐t②✱ F (ci )✱ ♦♥ ❡❛❝❤ s❡❣♠❡♥t ✐s ✉s❡❞ t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ W ✿

Wi = F (ci ) · ∆xi .

❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡❞ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ W ♦✈❡r t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ s❡❣♠❡♥t ✐s

X n
X
Wi = F (ci ) · ∆xi ,
i i=1

✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦❢ F ♦✈❡r t❤✐s ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤❡ ❡①❛❝t ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ♦❢ W ✐s t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡s❡
❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ♦❢ F ✿
Z b
W = F dx .
a

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❈♦♥tr❛r② t♦ t❤❡ ✉♥✐✜❡❞ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ ♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❤❡r❡✱

t❤❡ tr❡❛t♠❡♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤r❡❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ❛r❡ s✉❜st❛♥✲
t✐❛❧❧② ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ✐♥ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥ 3 ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✹❍❉✲✺ ❛♥❞
✹❍❉✲✻✮✿
• ❚❤❡ ✇♦r❦ ✐s ❛♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦✈❡r ❛ ❝✉r✈❡✳

• ❚❤❡ ✢♦✇ ✐s ❛♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦✈❡r ❛ s✉r❢❛❝❡✳

• ❚❤❡ ♠❛ss ✐s ❛♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦✈❡r ❛ s♦❧✐❞✳

✸✳✻✳ ❚❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✇♦r❦ ✷✶✷

❲❡ ♥♦✇ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ❛ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t s❡t✉♣✳✳✳

❲❡ ❛rr✐✈❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ♦❢ ❛ s✐♠♣❧❡ ✭✏❛❞❞✐t✐✈❡✑✮ ♣r♦♣❡rt② ♦❢ ✇♦r❦✿

◮ ❲❤❡♥ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ t✇♦ s❡❣♠❡♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ tr✐♣✱ t❤❡ ✇♦r❦ t♦ ♠♦✈❡ t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ t✇♦ ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ t❤❡
✇♦r❦ r❡q✉✐r❡❞ t♦ ♠♦✈❡ t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ✜rst ♣❧✉s t❤❡ ✇♦r❦ r❡q✉✐r❡❞ t♦ ♠♦✈❡ t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞✳

❲❡ ❛r❡ t♦ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ❛ s✐t✉❛t✐♦♥ ✇❤❡♥

◮ ❚✇♦ ♦❜❥❡❝ts✱ ♣♦ss✐❜❧② ✐❞❡♥t✐❝❛❧✱ ✉♥❞❡r ❛ ❢♦r❝❡✱ ♣♦ss✐❜❧② ❝♦♥st❛♥t✱ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❜❡ ♠♦✈❡❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t
❞✐st❛♥❝❡s✳
❚❤❡♥ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ s✉❝❤ ❛ s❤♦rt❝✉t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✻✳✽✿ ❜r✐❝❦s

❆♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ s✉❝❤ ❛ t❛s❦ ✐s st❛❝❦✐♥❣ ❜r✐❝❦s✿

❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✇♦r❦ ✕ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❡rs♦♥ ❛❝t✐♥❣ ❛❣❛✐♥st t❤❡ ❣r❛✈✐t② ✕ ✐s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

W = M · 0 · h + M · 1 · h + M · 2 · h + M · 3 · h,

✇❤❡r❡ M ✐s t❤❡ ✇❡✐❣❤t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜r✐❝❦ ❛♥❞ h ✐s ✐ts ❤❡✐❣❤t✳

❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ♣♦ss✐❜✐❧✐t② t❤❛t t❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡ ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❜✉t t❤❡ ♦❜❥❡❝t ❝❛♥✬t ❜❡ t❤♦✉❣❤t ♦❢ ❛s ❛
♣♦✐♥t ❛♥②♠♦r❡✳ ■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ♣❛rts ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦❜❥❡❝t ✇✐❧❧ tr❛✈❡❧ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ❞✐st❛♥❝❡s✳ ❚❤✐s s✐t✉❛t✐♦♥
✐s♥✬t ❝♦✈❡r❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✇♦r❦✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✻✳✾✿ ❝✉❜✐❝❛❧ t❛♥❦

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❛r❡ t♦ ✜❧❧ ❛ t❛♥❦ ✇✐t❤ w×w ❜❛s❡ ❛♥❞ ❤❡✐❣❤t h ✇✐t❤ ✇❛t❡r ✕ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❜♦tt♦♠✿

❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ✇♦r❦ r❡q✉✐r❡❞ ❛ss✉♠✐♥❣ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❞❡♥s✐t② ✐s 1❄

❲❡ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❡ t❤❛t ✇❛t❡r ❛♣♣❡❛rs ❛t t❤❡ ❜♦tt♦♠ ✐♥ t❤✐♥ s❧✐❝❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❡❛❝❤ ✐s ❞❡❧✐✈❡r❡❞ t♦ t❤❡ ❛♣♣r♦♣r✐❛t❡
❤❡✐❣❤t✳ ❚❤❡② ❝♦♠❡ ❢r♦♠ ❛♥ ❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ P
[0, h]✳ ❚❤✐s ♠❡❛♥s t❤❛t t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ✐s ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧✳
♦❢
❚❤❡ it❤ s❧✐❝❡ ✐s ❛ sq✉❛r❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡s x = xi−1 ❛♥❞ x = xi ✳ ■ts t❤✐❝❦♥❡ss ✐s ∆xi = xi − xi−1 ❛♥❞
2
✐ts ✇❡✐❣❤t ✐s w · ∆xi ✳ ◆♦✇✱ t❤❡ it❤ s❧✐❝❡ ✐s ❞❡❧✐✈❡r❡❞ t♦ ❤❡✐❣❤t ci ✳ ❚❤❡ ✇♦r❦ t♦ ❞♦ s♦ ✐s

w2 ∆xi · ci .
✸✳✻✳ ❚❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✇♦r❦ ✷✶✸

❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ✇♦r❦ ✐s ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡❞ ❜②✿

n
X
❲♦r❦ ≈ w2 ci · ∆xi .
i=1

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✿

Z h
h2
❲♦r❦ = w 2
x dx = w2 .
0 2
❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ♠❛t❝❤❡s t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ t❤❛t t❤❡ ✇♦r❦ r❡q✉✐r❡❞ ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❛s t❤❡ ✇♦r❦ t♦ ♠♦✈❡ t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ❛♠♦✉♥t
♦❢ ✇❛t❡r✱ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ w2 h✱ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❜♦tt♦♠ t♦ t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡ t❛♥❦✱ h/2✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✻✳✶✵

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❛r❡ t♦ ✜❧❧ ❛ ❝②❧✐♥❞r✐❝❛❧ t❛♥❦ ✇✐t❤ ❜❛s❡ ♦❢ r❛❞✐✉s R ❛♥❞ ❤❡✐❣❤t h ✇✐t❤ ✇❛t❡r ❢r♦♠ t❤❡
❜♦tt♦♠✳ ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ✇♦r❦ r❡q✉✐r❡❞❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✻✳✶✶

❲❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❝r♦ss✲s❡❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ t❛♥❦ ❤❛✈❡ ❛r❜✐tr❛r② ✭❜✉t ✐❞❡♥t✐❝❛❧✮ s❤❛♣❡❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✻✳✶✷

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ ❝❤❛✐♥ ♦❢ ✇❡✐❣❤t M ❛♥❞ ❧❡♥❣t❤ h ✐s t♦ ❜❡ ♣✉❧❧❡❞ ❛❧❧ t❤❡ ✇❛② ✉♣ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❣r♦✉♥❞❄ ❲❤❛t ✐s
t❤❡ ✇♦r❦ r❡q✉✐r❡❞❄

■♥ t❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ❛❜♦✈❡✱ t❤❡ ✇♦r❦ ✐s r❡♣❡t✐t✐✈❡✳ ❲❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ ❝r♦ss✲s❡❝t✐♦♥ ✈❛r✐❡s ✐♥ s❤❛♣❡ ❛♥❞ s✐③❡❄
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✻✳✶✸✿ s♣❤❡r✐❝❛❧ t❛♥❦

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❛r❡ t♦ ✜❧❧ ❛ s♣❤❡r✐❝❛❧ t❛♥❦ ♦❢ r❛❞✐✉s R ✇✐t❤ ✇❛t❡r ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❜♦tt♦♠✿

❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ✇♦r❦ r❡q✉✐r❡❞❄

❲❡ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❡ t❤❛t ✇❛t❡r ❛♣♣❡❛rs ❛t t❤❡ ❜♦tt♦♠ ✐♥ t❤✐♥ s❧✐❝❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❡❛❝❤ ✐s ❞❡❧✐✈❡r❡❞ t♦ t❤❡
✸✳✻✳ ❚❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✇♦r❦ ✷✶✹

❛♣♣r♦♣r✐❛t❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t✳ ❚❤❡② ❝♦♠❡ ❢r♦♠ ❛♥ ❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ P ♦❢ [−R, R]✳ ❚❤❡ it❤ s❧✐❝❡ ✐s ❛ ❞✐s❦
❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡s x = xi−1 ❛♥❞ x = xi ✳ ■ts t❤✐❝❦♥❡ss ✐s ∆xi = xi − xi−1 ✱ r❛❞✐✉s ri ✭t♦ ❜❡ ❢♦✉♥❞✮✱ ❛♥❞
2
✐ts ✇❡✐❣❤t ✐s πri · ∆xi ✳

◆♦✇✱ t❤❡ it❤ s❧✐❝❡ ✐s ❞❡❧✐✈❡r❡❞ t♦ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ci ✭❞❡♣✐❝t❡❞ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡✮✱ ❝♦✈❡r✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [−R, ci ]✳ ❚❤❡
❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t ✐s✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ R + ci ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✇♦r❦ t♦ ❞♦ s♦ ✐s

πri2 ∆xi · (R + ci ) .

❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ✇♦r❦ ✐s ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

n
X
❲♦r❦ ≈ πri2 (R + ci ) · ∆xi .
i=1

▲❡t✬s ✜♥❞ t❤❡ r❛❞✐✉s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❧✐❝❡✳ ❋r♦♠ t❤❡ P②t❤❛❣♦r❡❛♥ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

ri2 = R2 − c2i .

❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✿

Z R
✇♦r❦ =π (R2 − x2 )(R + x) dx
Z−R
R

=π R3 − x2 R + R2 x − x3 dx
−R
  R
1 1 1
= π R 3 x − x3 R + R 2 x2 − x4 

3 2 4 
  −R 
4 1 4 41 1 4 4 1 4 41 1 4
= π R − R + R − R − π −R + R + R − R
3 2 4 3 2 4
4
= πR4 .
3
❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ♠❛t❝❤❡s t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ t❤❛t t❤❡ ✇♦r❦ r❡q✉✐r❡❞ ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❛s t❤❡ ✇♦r❦ t♦ ♠♦✈❡ t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ❜❛❧❧ ♦❢
4 3
✇❛t❡r✱ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ πR ✱ s♦ t❤❛t ✐ts ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss ♠♦✈❡s ❢r♦♠ −R t♦ 0✳
3

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✻✳✶✹

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❛r❡ t♦ ✜❧❧ ❛ ✏♣❛r❛❜♦❧♦✐❞✑ t❛♥❦ ❛❝q✉✐r❡❞ ❜② r♦t❛t✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y = x2 ❛r♦✉♥❞ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✱
✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧✱ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❜♦tt♦♠✳ ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ✇♦r❦ r❡q✉✐r❡❞❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✻✳✶✺

❲❤❛t ✇♦r❦ ✐s ♥❡❡❞❡❞ t♦ ♣✉❧❧ ❛❧❧ t❤❡ ✇❛② ✉♣ ❛ ❝❤❛✐♥ ❤❛♥❣✐♥❣ ❞♦✇♥ ✐❢ ✐t ✐s 10 ❢❡❡t ❧♦♥❣ ❛♥❞ 20 ♣♦✉♥❞s
❤❡❛✈②❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✻✳✶✻

❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✇♦r❦ r❡q✉✐r❡❞ ♦✈❡r ❛♥ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ❧♦♥❣ tr✐♣❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✻✳✶✼

❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ ✇♦r❦ r❡q✉✐r❡❞ t♦ ♠♦✈❡ ❛♥ ♦❜❥❡❝t ♣✐❡❝❡ ❜② ♣✐❡❝❡✱ ❛s ❛❜♦✈❡✱ ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❛s t❤❡ ✇♦r❦
r❡q✉✐r❡❞ t♦ ♠♦✈❡ t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ♦❜❥❡❝t ❛s ✐❢ ✐ts t♦t❛❧ ♠❛ss ✐s ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛t❡❞ ❛t ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ♣♦✐♥t✱ ✐ts ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢
♠❛ss✳
✸✳✼✳ ❚❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✷✶✺

✸✳✼✳ ❚❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

❲❤❛t ❞♦ t❤❡s❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ❤❛✈❡ ✐♥ ❝♦♠♠♦♥❄

❆ ❝❡rt❛✐♥ q✉❛♥t✐t②✱ f ✱ ✐s ✏s♣r❡❛❞✑ ❛r♦✉♥❞ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s ✐♥ s♣❛❝❡❀ ❢♦r ♥♦✇✱ ✐t ✐s ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✳ ❚❤✐s
q✉❛♥t✐t② ♠❛② ❜❡✿ ❧❡♥❣t❤✱ ❛r❡❛✱ ❞❡♥s✐t②✱ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✱ ❢♦r❝❡✳ ❲❤❡♥ t❤❡ q✉❛♥t✐t② ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t ✇✐t❤✐♥ ❛ s❡❣♠❡♥t ♦❢
t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧②✐♥❣ t❤✐s ✈❛❧✉❡ ❜② t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤✐s ♣✐❡❝❡✱ ∆x✱ ❣✐✈❡s ✉s ❛ ♥❡✇ ❜✉t st✐❧❧ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r q✉❛♥t✐t②✿

q✉❛♥t✐t② f f · ∆x Σf · ∆x
❧❡♥❣t❤ ❛r❡❛ t♦t❛❧ ❛r❡❛

❧✐♥❡❛r ❞❡♥s✐t② ♠❛ss t♦t❛❧ ♠❛ss

✢♦✇ r❛t❡ ✢✉① t♦t❛❧ ✢✉①

❢♦r❝❡ ✇♦r❦ t♦t❛❧ ✇♦r❦

❲❤❡♥ t❤❡ q✉❛♥t✐t② f ✈❛r✐❡s ❢r♦♠ s❡❣♠❡♥t t♦ s❡❣♠❡♥t ♦✈❡r t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ ✐t ✐s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❜② ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ❲❤❡♥
t❤✐s ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✐s ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t❛❧✱ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ f ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❡r♠s f · ∆x✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f✳ ❲❤❡♥ t❤✐s ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✱ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ f ✐s ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡❞ ❜② t❤✐s ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ❛♥❞✱
❛t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t✱ ✐t ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ f ♦✈❡r [a, b]✳
◆♦✇✱ t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ✈❛❧✉❡✳

❘❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❛t t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥ ✭♦r t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡✮ ♦❢ ❛ q✉❛♥t✐t② ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② n ♥✉♠❜❡rs y1 , ..., yn ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ t♦ ❜❡ t❤❡
❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿
y1 + y2 + ... + yn
▼❡❛♥ = .
n
❍♦✇ s❤♦✉❧❞ ✇❡ ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥ ♦❢ ❛ q✉❛♥t✐t② t❤❛t ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧② s♣r❡❛❞ ♦✈❡r ❛ ❧✐♥❡ s❡❣♠❡♥t✱ s❛② [a, b]❄
❚❤❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛t♦r ✇♦✉❧❞ ❤❛✈❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② t❡r♠s✦

▲❡t✬s st❛rt ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ ❛ ✇❡✐❣❤t❡❞ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡✳ ❲❡ ❛ss✉♠❡ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ n ✇❡✐❣❤ts✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ n ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs
m1 , ..., mn ✇✐t❤
m1 + ... + mn = 1 .
❚❤❡♥ ❢♦r ❛♥② ❣✐✈❡♥ n ♥✉♠❜❡rs y1 , ..., yn ✱ ✇❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ t❤❡✐r ✇❡✐❣❤t❡❞ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

n
X
❲❡✐❣❤t❡❞ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ = m1 y1 + m2 y2 + ... + mn yn = mi yi .
i=1

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✼✳✶

❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥ ✐s t❤❡ ✇❡✐❣❤t❡❞ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ✇✐t❤ mi = 1/n ❢♦r ❛❧❧ i✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✼✳✷✿ s❝♦r❡s

❚❤❡ ✇❡✐❣❤t❡❞ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ♠❛② ❛♣♣❡❛r ✇❤❡♥ ♦♥❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡s t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ s❝♦r❡ ✐♥ ❛ ❝❧❛ss ❛❢t❡r s❡✈❡r❛❧ ❛ss✐❣♥♠❡♥ts
♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ✇❡✐❣❤ts✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ t❤✐s ♠❛② ❜❡ t❤❡ ❣r❛❞❡ ❜r❡❛❦❞♦✇♥✿
• 20%
♣❛rt✐❝✐♣❛t✐♦♥✿
• q✉✐③③❡s✿30%
• ♠✐❞t❡r♠✿ 20%
• ✜♥❛❧ ❡①❛♠✿ 30%
❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ s❝♦r❡ ✐s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✇❡✐❣❤t❡❞ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✜✈❡ s❝♦r❡s✿

❚❖❚❆▲ = .20 × P + .30 × Q + .20 × M + .30 × F .

✸✳✼✳ ❚❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✷✶✻

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✼✳✸✿ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss❄

❘❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❛t ✐❢ c ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss ♦❢ ❛ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ✇❡✐❣❤ts ✇✐t❤ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s ❛t yi ❛♥❞
r❡❧❛t✐✈❡ ✇❡✐❣❤ts mi ✱ t❤❡♥ X
c= mi yi .
i

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ✇❡✐❣❤t❡❞ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡✱ ✐♥ t❤✐s ❝❛s❡✱ ❛s t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss ♦❢ t❤❡ s②st❡♠✳

❚❤❡ ♥❡✇ s❡t✉♣ ✐s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

◮ ❆ s✉❜st❛♥❝❡ ✐s ✉♥✐❢♦r♠❧② ❞✐str✐❜✉t❡❞ ♦✈❡r ❛ s❡❣♠❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡✳
❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ ✇❡✐❣❤t ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❣♠❡♥t ✐s ♣r♦♣♦rt✐♦♥❛❧ t♦ ✐ts ✇✐❞t❤✳
❲❡ ❛r❡✱ t❤❡♥✱ ❥✉st✐✜❡❞ t♦ ✉s❡ t❤❡s❡ ✇✐❞t❤s ❛s s✉❜st✐t✉t❡s ❢♦r t❤❡ ✇❡✐❣❤ts ✐♥ t❤❡ ✇❡✐❣❤t❡❞ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s
t❤❡ ♠❛✐♥ ✐❞❡❛✿
◮ ❊❛❝❤ ✇❡✐❣❤t mi ✐s t❤❡ r❡❧❛t✐✈❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✇❤❡r❡ yi ♦❢ t❤❡ q✉❛♥t✐t② ✐s ❧♦❝❛t❡❞✳
❲❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ ❛♥ ❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ P ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✿

a = x0 ≤ c1 ≤ x1 ≤ ... ≤ cn ≤ xn = b

❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ✇r✐t❡ t❤❡ r❡❧❛t✐✈❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤s✿

∆xi
mi = .
b−a
▲❡t✬s s✉❜st✐t✉t❡✿ n n
X ∆xi 1 X
❲❡✐❣❤t❡❞ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ = yi = yi · ∆xi .
i=1
b−a b − a i=1

❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ ✐❢ t❤❡s❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❛r❡ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✱

f (ci ) = yi ,

t❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿ n
1 X
❲❡✐❣❤t❡❞ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ = f (ci ) · ∆xi .
b − a i=1

❚❤✐s s✉♠ ✐s t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✸✳✼✳✹✿ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
❚❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥
♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ✐s ❞❡♥♦t❡❞ ❛♥❞ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
1
f¯ = Σ f · ∆x .
b−a

■t ✐s✱ ✐♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ f ♣❡r ✉♥✐t ♦❢ ❧❡♥❣t❤✳

✸✳✼✳ ❚❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✷✶✼

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦
❚❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ♠❛ss ♦❢ ❛ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ✇❡✐❣❤ts ✐s ♥♦t t❤❡

s❛♠❡ ❛s t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✇❡✐❣❤ts✳

❲❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t❛❧❧② ❜✉t ✏❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧②✑❄

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✼✳✺✿ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❧✐♥❡❛r✱ ❢r♦♠ 1 t♦ 2 ♦✈❡r t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [0, 2]✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡
✈❛❧✉❡ ✐s ❝❧❡❛r❀ ✐t ✐s 1.5✳

❲❤❡r❡ ❞♦❡s ✐t ❝♦♠❡s ❢r♦♠❄ ❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ 3✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧
♦❢ f ♦✈❡r [0, 2]✱ ❞✐✈✐❞❡❞ ❜② ✐ts ❧❡♥❣t❤✱ 2✳

❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❛s ❛♥ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡✳ ❚❤✐s ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ❥✉st✐✜❡s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣
❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✸✳✼✳✻✿ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

❚❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ♦✈❡r ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ✐s ❞❡♥♦t❡❞ ❛♥❞
❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿ Z b
1
f¯ = f dx .
b−a a

❚♦ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡✱ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ❤♦✇ ♦♥❡ ❧❡✈❡❧s ❛♥ ✉♥❡✈❡♥ s✉r❢❛❝❡ ♦❢ s❛♥❞✿

❚❤❡ ❛♠♦✉♥t ♦❢ s❛♥❞ ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡✳

❚❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ❞❡♣t❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❝❛♥❛❧ ✐s ❛♥♦t❤❡r ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛t✐♦♥✿

✸✳✼✳ ❚❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✷✶✽

❇♦t❤ ❝❛♥❛❧s ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❛♠♦✉♥t ♦❢ ✇❛t❡r✳

❚❤✉s✱ ❜② ✏❛✈❡r❛❣✐♥❣✑ ✇❡ ♠❡❛♥ r❡♣❧❛❝✐♥❣ ❛♥② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ y = f (x)✱ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ y = f¯✱ ❝❤♦s❡♥ s♦
t❤❛t t❤❡ t✇♦ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✿
Z b
f¯ · (b − a) = f dx .
a

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✼✳✼

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ st❛t❡♠❡♥t✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✳✼✳✽✿ Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❆✈❡r❛❣❡

❖✈❡r ❛ ❣✐✈❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

• ❚❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉♠ ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡s✿

f + g = f¯ + ḡ .

• ❚❤❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ✐s t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡✿

cf = cf¯ .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✼✳✾

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✼✳✶✵

❲❤❛t ❝❛♥ ②♦✉ s❛② ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ♦❢ ✭❛✮ ❛♥ ♦❞❞ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r [−r, r]✱ ✭❜✮ ❛♥ ❡✈❡♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r
[−r, r]✱ ✭❝✮ ❛ ♣❡r✐♦❞✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥❄

❲❡ ❝❛♥ r❡✇r✐t❡ t❤❡ t❛❜❧❡ ✇✐t❤ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✇❡ st❛rt❡❞ t❤❡ s❡❝t✐♦♥✿

Z b Z b
1
f f dx f dx
a b−a a

❧❡♥❣t❤ t♦t❛❧ ❛r❡❛ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤

❧✐♥❡❛r ❞❡♥s✐t② t♦t❛❧ ♠❛ss ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❞❡♥s✐t②

✢✉① t♦t❛❧ ✢✉① ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ✢✉①

❢♦r❝❡ t♦t❛❧ ✇♦r❦ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ❢♦r❝❡

❆❧❧ ❤❛✈❡ ❜❡❡♥ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❝❤❛♣t❡r ❡①❝❡♣t ❢♦r t❤❡ ✜rst ✐t❡♠ t❤❛t ❝♦♠❡s ❢r♦♠ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✷✳
✸✳✽✳ ◆✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✷✶✾

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✼✳✶✶

❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ ❛♥ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧❄

✸✳✽✳ ◆✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥

❚♦ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ✐♥ t❤✐s ❝❤❛♣t❡r✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤♦s❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s✳
❚❤✐s ✐s ❛♥ ✐❞❡❛❧ ♦✉t❝♦♠❡✿ Z 1
2
x3  13 03 1
❆r❡❛ = 2
x dx =  = − = .
0 3 0 3 3 3
❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛♥ ❡①❛❝t ♥✉♠❜❡r✳
❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ s✉❝❤ ❛♥ ♦✉t❝♦♠❡ ✐s ❛♥ ❡①❝❡♣t✐♦♥✱ ♥♦t ❛ r✉❧❡✦ ❙♦♠❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ❞♦ ♥♦t ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s s♦
t❤❛t ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❥✉st ♣❧✉❣ ✐♥ t❤❡ t✇♦ ✈❛❧✉❡s✳ ❈♦♥✈❡rs❡❧②✱ s♦♠❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❤❛✈❡ ❜❡❡♥ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s
♦♥❧②✱ s✉❝❤ ❛s✿ Z
2 2
erf(x) = √ e−x dx .
π
❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ♦t❤❡r ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✦
❲❤❛t ❞♦ ✇❡ ❞♦❄ ❚❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r ✐s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✳ ■t ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ✈✐❛ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥
s✉♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ t❤❡s❡ s✉♠s s❡r✈❡ ❛s ✐ts ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s✳
❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❛ss✉♠❡ ❜❡❧♦✇ t❤❛t ❛❧❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ♠❡❛♥s t❤❛t ❛♥② ❝❤♦✐❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s
❢♦r t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ✐s ❡q✉❛❧❧② ✈❛❧✐❞✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✽✳✶✿ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ s❝❤❡♠❡s

▲❡t✬s r❡✈✐❡✇ t❤❡ ✇❛②s ✇❡ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ t❤✐s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ f (x) = x2 ♦✈❡r [0, 1]✿
Z 1
f dx .
0

❲❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s t♦ ❜❡ n = 4 ✇✐t❤ ❡q✉❛❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ♦❢ ❧❡♥❣t❤ h = 1/4✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡✱
❛s t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✱ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t✲❡♥❞ ♦r t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✲❡♥❞ ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✿
✸✳✽✳ ◆✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✷✷✵

❆t t❤♦s❡ ♣♦✐♥ts✱ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡❞✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t✲❡♥❞ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ L4 ✿

• −− | −− | −− | −− •
x 0 1/4 1/2 3/4 1
2
x 0 1/16 1/4 9/16 1
L4 0 · 1/4 + 1/16 · 1/4 + 1/4 · 1/4 + 9/16 · 1/4 ≈ 0.22

❲❡✱ ❢✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ r❡❛❧✐③❡ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❛r❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❢♦r t❤✐s ❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♣❛rt✐✲

t✐♦♥✳ ■ts ❢♦✉r ✈❛❧✉❡s ❛r❡ s❤♦✇♥ ❛t ❜♦tt♦♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❛❜❧❡✳

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

■t ✐s ❜❡tt❡r t♦ ❛✈♦✐❞ ✏❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♥❣ ✇✐t❤ ❛♣♣r♦①✐✲

♠❛t✐♦♥s✑ ❛♥❞ r❡♣❧❛❝❡ t❤❡ ❧❛st ♥✉♠❜❡r ✇✐t❤ ✐ts ❡①❛❝t
✈❛❧✉❡✿
7
L4 = = .21875 .
32

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✽✳✷

❈r❡❛t❡ ❛ t❛❜❧❡ ♦❢ ✈❛❧✉❡s ❢♦r t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❢♦r t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ❡♥❞s✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✽✳✸✿ ♠✐❞✲♣♦✐♥t ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ❝❤♦♦s❡ t❤❡ ♠✐❞✲♣♦✐♥ts ❛s t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✿

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠✐❞✲♣♦✐♥t ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ M4 ❢♦r t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✿

• −− | −− | −− | −− •
x 1/8 3/8 5/8 7/8
f (x) = x2 (1/8)2 (3/8)2 (5/8)2 (7/8)2
M4 (1/8)2 · 1/4 + (3/8)2 · 1/4 + (5/8)2 · 1/4 + (7/8)2 · 1/4 = 0.328125

■t ✐s ♠✉❝❤ ❝❧♦s❡r t❤❛♥ L4 t♦ t❤❡ tr✉❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✱ 1/3✳

✸✳✽✳ ◆✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✷✷✶

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✽✳✹

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ♣r❡✈✐♦✉s❧② ✉s❡❞ ❛ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t t♦ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛t❡ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❢♦r Ln ✳ ❈r❡❛t❡ ❛
s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t t♦ ❛✉t♦♠❛t❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❢♦r Rn ❛♥❞ Mn ✳

❚❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t ❛❧❧ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ❤❛✈❡ ✐♥ ❝♦♠♠♦♥✿ ❲❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ ❛ ♣♦✐♥t ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡s
✐ts ♣✐❡❝❡ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ s❡❣♠❡♥t✳ ❚❤❡ t❤r❡❡ ♠❛✐♥ ❝❤♦✐❝❡s ❛r❡ s❤♦✇♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❲❤❛t ✐❢ ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ t✇♦ ♣♦✐♥ts ✕ ❛t t❤❡ ❡♥❞ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❜❡❣✐♥♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✕ ❛♥❞ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ t❤✐s ♣✐❡❝❡
♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ✇✐t❤ ❛ s❧♦♣❡❞ ❧✐♥❡❄ ■t ✐s✱ ✐♥ ❢❛❝t✱ t❤❡ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡✦ ❚❤✐s t❤✐r❞ ✇❛② t♦ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡
❛r❡❛ ✐s s❤♦✇♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❢❛r r✐❣❤t✳
■♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ ❛ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ tr❛♣❡③♦✐❞✳ ■ts ❛r❡❛ ✐s t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤s ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❜❛s❡s ✭✈❡rt✐❝❛❧✮
♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t ✭❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧✮✿

❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ tr❛♣❡③♦✐❞ ♦✈❡r t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [xk−1 , xk ] ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦

f (xk−1 ) + f (xk )
h.
2
❚❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ ❛❧❧ n ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ tr❛♣❡③♦✐❞ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❛♥❞ ❞❡♥♦t❡❞ ❜② Tn✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✽✳✺

❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t Tn ✐s t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ♦❢ Ln ❛♥❞ Rn ✳

✸✳✽✳ ◆✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✷✷✷

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✽✳✻✿ Tn
▲❡t✬s ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ s✉♠ T4 ❢♦r t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✳ ❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❞❛t❛ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❛❞❞ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t❡r♠s✿

f (xk−1 )h + f (xk )h

❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✿

• −− | −− | −− | −− •
x 0 1/4 1/2 3/4 1
x2 0 1/16 1/4 9/16 1
0 · 1/4 + 1/16 · 1/4 ≈ 0.016
1/16 · 1/4 + 1/4 · 1/4 ≈ 0.079
1/4 · 1/4 + 9/16 · 1/4 ≈ 0.203
9/16 · 1/4 + 1 · 1/4 ≈ 0.391
s✉♠ ≈ 0.689
T4 ❤❛❧❢ ≈ 0.345

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s ♥♦t ❛ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✽✳✼

❈r❡❛t❡ ❛ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t t♦ ❛✉t♦♠❛t❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ Tn ✳

❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❢♦r t❤❡ ❢♦✉r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s✿

n
X

Ln = f a + (i − 1)h h
i=1
n
X

Rn = f a + ih h
i=1
X n


Mn = f a + (i − 1)h + h/2 h
i=1 
n 
X 1


Tn = f a + (i − 1)h + f a + ih h
i=1
2

❚❤❡ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥s ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ s❡♥s❡✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✳✽✳✽✿ ❈♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ❙✉♠s

■❢ f ✐s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ♦♥ [a, b]✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ❛♥❞ t❤❡

tr❛♣❡③♦✐❞ s✉♠ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ t♦ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ f✿

Z b
Ln , R n , M n , T n → f dx ❛s n → ∞.
a

❖♥❧② t❤❡ ❧❛st ♣❛rt ♥❡❡❞s ♣r♦♦❢✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✽✳✾

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ ♠✐ss✐♥❣ ♣❛rt✳ ❍✐♥t✿ ❚❤❡ ❙q✉❡❡③❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✳

✸✳✽✳ ◆✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✷✷✸

❍♦✇ ✇❡❧❧ ❞♦ t❤❡s❡ ❢♦✉r ♣❡r❢♦r♠❄

• ◗✉❡st✐♦♥✿ ❋♦r ❛ ❣✐✈❡♥ n✱ ❤♦✇ ❝❧♦s❡ ❛r❡ ✇❡ t♦ t❤❡ tr✉❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧❄
• ❆♥s✇❡r✿ ❲❡ ❞♦♥✬t ❦♥♦✇✱ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❝❛♥✬t ❦♥♦✇✱ ✇✐t❤♦✉t s♦♠❡ ❛ ♣r✐♦r✐ ❦♥♦✇❧❡❞❣❡✳
■❢ ✇❡ ❦♥❡✇ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✱ ✇❡ ✇♦✉❧❞♥✬t ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ ✐t✦
❱❛r✐♦✉s ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦rs ♦❢ f ❛r❡ s❤♦✇♥ ❛❧♦♥❣ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❡rr♦r ✭②❡❧❧♦✇✮ ♦❢ Ln ✿

❙✐♥❝❡ ❛❧❧ ❢♦✉r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ❛r❡❛s✱ t❤❡ ❡rr♦rs ❛r❡ ❛❧s♦ s❡❡♥ ❛s ❝❡rt❛✐♥ ❛r❡❛s✿

❚❤❡ s✐♠♣❧❡st ❛ ♣r✐♦r✐ ❦♥♦✇❧❡❞❣❡ ❛❜♦✉t ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ✐ts ♠♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t②✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✳✽✳✶✵✿ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ❙✉♠s ♦❢ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥❡ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

✶✳ ■❢ f ✐s ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ♦♥ [a, b]✱ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t✲❡♥❞ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ✉♥❞❡r❡st✐♠❛t❡s t❤❡

✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✱ ✇❤✐❧❡ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✲❡♥❞ s✉♠ ♦✈❡r❡st✐♠❛t❡s ✐t✿

Z b
f ր =⇒ Ln ≤ f dx ≤ Rn .
a

✷✳ ❲❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣✱ t❤❡ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t✐❡s ❛r❡ r❡✈❡rs❡❞✿

Z b
f ց =⇒ Ln ≥ f dx ≥ Rn .
a

■♥ ❡✐t❤❡r ❝❛s❡✱ t❤❡ tr✉❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ I ❧✐❡s ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ Rn ❛♥❞ Ln ✳ ■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✸✳✽✳✶✶✿ ■♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❢♦r ■♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥❡ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥

■❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ♠♦♥♦t♦♥❡✱ t❤❡♥

Z b
f dx ❧✐❡s ✇✐t❤✐♥ ❡✐t❤❡r [Ln , Rn ] ♦r [Rn , Ln ] .
a
✸✳✽✳ ◆✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✷✷✹

❚❤❡ st❛t❡♠❡♥t ✐s t❤❡ ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡✱ ♥♦t ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡✱ tr✉t❤✦

❲❤✐❧❡ t❤❡ ❧❛st r❡s✉❧t r❡❧✐❡s ♦♥ ♠♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ✭❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f ✮✱ ❢♦r t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r t✇♦ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s✱ ❛
s✐♠✐❧❛r r❡s✉❧t r❡❧✐❡s ♦♥ ❝♦♥❝❛✈✐t② ✭❛♥❞ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f ✮✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✳✽✳✶✷✿ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ❙✉♠s ♦❢ ❈♦♥✈❡① ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

✶✳ ■❢ f ✐s ❝♦♥❝❛✈❡ ❞♦✇♥ ♦♥ [a, b]✱ t❤❡ tr❛♣❡③♦✐❞ s✉♠ ✉♥❞❡r❡st✐♠❛t❡s t❤❡ ✐♥t❡✲

❣r❛❧✿
Z b
f ⌢ =⇒ Tn ≤ f dx .
a
✷✳ ▼❡❛♥✇❤✐❧❡✱ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦♥❝❛✈❡ ✉♣✱ t❤❡ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t② ✐s r❡✈❡rs❡❞✿

Z b
f ⌣ =⇒ Tn ≥ f dx .
a

❲❡ t❤✉s ❤❛✈❡ ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r❡❞ ❤♦✇ t❤❡s❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ❡rr ✐♥ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥s ✉♥❞❡r ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ❝✐r❝✉♠st❛♥❝❡s✳
❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ t❤❡ tr✉❡ ♠❡❛s✉r❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ q✉❛❧✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❡ ❛❝t✉❛❧ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡
❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✿

 
 
❊rr♦r =  ■♥t❡❣r❛❧ − ❆♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ 

❙✐♥❝❡ ✇❡ ❞♦♥✬t ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✱ ✇❡ ❞♦♥✬t ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡rr♦r❀ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ♦♥❧② ❡st✐♠❛t❡
✐t✳ ❲✐t❤ t❤✐s ❡st✐♠❛t❡✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❡st❛❜❧✐s❤ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡♥✬t ❞❡✈✐❛t❡❞ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ tr✉t❤ t♦♦ ❢❛r✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✽✳✶✸

❊st✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ❡rr♦r ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ♠♦♥♦t♦♥❡✳

▲❡t✬s t❛❦❡ ❛ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ ❧❡❢t✲❡♥❞ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦♥ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ ♦♥❧② ✈❛❧✉❡ t❤❛t ♠❛tt❡rs✱
f (xk )✱ ✐s ❦♥♦✇♥✳ ❇❡②♦♥❞ t❤❛t✱ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❝❛♥ ❡①❤✐❜✐t ❛ ✈❛r✐❡t② ♦❢ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦rs✱ ✐♥❝❧✉❞✐♥❣ ❢❛st ❣r♦✇t❤✳ ❚❤❡
❢❛st❡r f ❣r♦✇s ♣❛st xk ✱ t❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡r ✐s t❤❡ ❡rr♦r ♦❢ Ln ✳ ❆s t❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❣r♦✇t❤ ✐s ❧✐♠✐t❧❡ss✱ s♦ ✐s ♦✉r ❡rr♦r
✭❧❡❢t✮✿

❈❛♥ ✇❡ ❝♦♥tr♦❧ t❤❡ s✐③❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡rr♦r❄ ❨❡s✱ ✐❢ ✇❡ ❛r❡ ❛✇❛r❡ ♦❢ ✕ ❛ ♣r✐♦r✐ ✕ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦♥ t❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❣r♦✇t❤
♦❢ f ✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✳ ■❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s ❧❡ss t❤❛♥ s♦♠❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r K ✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ✐s
❧❡ss t❤❛♥ K ❛♥❞✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ✇✐❧❧ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ st❛② ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ ✇✐t❤ s❧♦♣❡ K ✭r✐❣❤t✮✳ ❚❤✐s ❧✐♥❡ ✐s t❤❡
✇♦rst✲❝❛s❡ s❝❡♥❛r✐♦✳
◆♦t❡ t❤❛t s✉❝❤ ❛ r❡str✐❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❡①♣❡❝t❡❞ t♦ ❜❡ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ f ′ ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡
❊①tr❡♠❡ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✭❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✷✮✳
❇❡❧♦✇✱ ✇❡ ♣r♦✈✐❞❡ ❛ ❜♦✉♥❞ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❡rr♦r✿
✸✳✽✳ ◆✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✷✷✺

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✳✽✳✶✹✿ ❊rr♦r ❇♦✉♥❞ ♦❢ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ❙✉♠s ■

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛♥❞ ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x ✐♥ [a, b] ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

|f ′ (x)| ≤ K1 ,

❢♦r s♦♠❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r K1 ✳ ❚❤❡♥

 Z b 
  K1 (b − a)2
 Sn − f dx ≤ ,

a
 2n

✇❤❡t❤❡r Sn ✐s t❤❡ ❧❡❢t Ln (f ) ♦r t❤❡ r✐❣❤t Rn (f ) ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦❢ f ✳

Pr♦♦❢✳

■❢ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛♥ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✱

f ′ (x) ≤ K ,

♦♥ t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ [a, b]✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛♥ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❡rr♦r ♦♥ ❡❛❝❤ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✜rst✿
 Z xk 
  1 1
f dx ≤ (K∆x) · ∆x = K∆x2 ,
 
f (xk )∆x −
 xk−1  2 2

❛s t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤✐s tr✐❛♥❣❧❡✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ ❛♥ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❡rr♦r ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t✲❡♥❞ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠
♦✈❡r t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✿
 Z b 
 
En = Ln − f dx
 a 
Xn−1 n−1 Z xk
X 
 
= f (xk )∆x − f dx
 
 k=0 k=0 xk−1
n−1 Z !
X xk 
 
= f (xk )∆x − f dx 
 xk−1 
k=0 
n−1 
X Z xk 
❇② t❤❡ ❚r✐❛♥❣❧❡ ■♥❡q✉❛❧✐t② ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✷.
 
≤ f (xk )∆x − f dx
 xk−1 
k=0
n−1
X 1
≤ K∆x2
k=0
2
n−1  2
X 1 b−a
= K
k=0
2 n
n−1
X 1 (b − a)2
= K
k=0
2 n2
1 (b − a)2
= K .
2 n

❙♦✱ ❛♥ ❛ ♣r✐♦r✐ ❜♦✉♥❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❣✐✈❡s ❛♥ ❛ ♣r✐♦r✐ ❜♦✉♥❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❡rr♦r✳
■❢ ♥♦✇ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ s❛② s♦♠❡t❤✐♥❣ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ✉♥❦♥♦✇♥ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥✿
❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✸✳✽✳✶✺✿ ■♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❢♦r ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ■♥t❡❣r❛❧

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛♥❞ ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x ✐♥ [a, b] ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

|f ′ (x)| ≤ K1 ,
✸✳✽✳ ◆✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✷✷✻

❢♦r s♦♠❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r K1 ✳ ▲❡t

K1 (b − a)2
En = .
2n
❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧
Z b
f dx
a
❧✐❡s ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✿

 
Sn − En , Sn + En ,

✇❤❡t❤❡r Sn ✐s t❤❡ ❧❡❢t Ln (f ) ♦r t❤❡ r✐❣❤t Rn (f ) ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦❢ f✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✽✳✶✻✿ ❡rr♦r ❜♦✉♥❞ ♦❢ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s

▲❡t✬s t❡st t❤✐s t❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧

Z 1
x2 dx = 1/3 ,
0

✇✐t❤ L4 = 0.22 ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ♣r❡✈✐♦✉s❧②✳ ❋✐rst✱ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿

f (x) = x2 =⇒ f ′ (x) = 2x .

❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡✱ ♦❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱

K1 = 2 .
◆❡①t✱
2(1 − 0)2 2
E4 = = = 0.25 .
2·4 8
❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✬s ✈❛❧✉❡ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✿

[L4 − E4 , L4 + E4 ] = [0.22 − 0.25, 0.22 + 0.25] = [−0.03, 0.45] .

❆ ✈❡r② ❝r✉❞❡ ❜✉t ❝♦rr❡❝t ❡st✐♠❛t❡✦

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛❣❛✐♥✱ t♦ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✲❡♥❞ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥✱ r❡s✉❧t✐♥❣ ✐♥ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❛♠❡
s✐③❡ ❜✉t ❝❡♥t❡r❡❞ ❛r♦✉♥❞ R4 ✿

[R4 − E4 , R4 + E4 ] = [0.47 − 0.25, 0.47 + 0.25] = [0.22, 0.72] .

❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ s✐♥❝❡ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ I ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❜❡❧♦♥❣s t♦ ❜♦t❤ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✱ ✐t ❜❡❧♦♥❣s t♦ t❤❡✐r ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥✿

[−0.03, 0.45] ∩ [0.22, 0.72] = [0.22, 0.45] .

❙✐♠✐❧❛r❧②✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ I ✇✐t❤✐♥

[L10 − E10 , L10 + E10 ] = [0.29 − 0.1, 0.29 + 0.1] = [0.19, 0.39] .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✽✳✶✼

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✉s✐♥❣ R10 ✳

❋♦r ❝♦♥tr❛st✱ ❧❡t✬s t❛❦❡ ❛ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ ♠✐❞✲♣♦✐♥t ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥✳ ❋✐rst s✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❛t f ✐s ❧✐♥❡❛r✿
✸✳✽✳ ◆✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✷✷✼

❊✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡s ❛r❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✱ t❤❡ ❡rr♦r ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡✱ ③❡r♦✳ ■t ❛♣♣❡❛rs t❤❡♥ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❞♦❡s♥✬t
♠❛tt❡r✦

▲❡t✬s ♥♦✇ ❛❞❞ ❝♦♥❝❛✈✐t②✿

❚❤❡ ❡rr♦r ✐s♥✬t ③❡r♦ ❛s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ❝❛s❡✳ ❚❤✐s ♦❜s❡r✈❛t✐♦♥ s✉❣❣❡sts t❤❛t t❤❡ ❡rr♦r ✐s ✏❝r❡❛t❡❞✑ ❜② t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞
❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f ✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✽✳✶✽

❲❤❛t ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❞♦❡s ✐t ♠❛❦❡ ✐❢ f ✐s ❝♦♥❝❛✈❡ ❞♦✇♥ ✐♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ ✉♣❄

❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛st t❤❡♦r❡♠ ✇❛s t♦ ✉s❡ ❛ ❜♦✉♥❞ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ t♦ ♠❛❦❡ s✉r❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞♦❡s♥✬t
❞❡✈✐❛t❡ t♦♦ ❢❛r ❢r♦♠ ✐ts ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ✭♦♥ ❡❛❝❤ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✮✳ ❙✐♠✐❧❛r❧②✱ t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥❡①t t❤❡♦r❡♠
✐s t♦ ✉s❡ ❛ ❜♦✉♥❞ ❢♦r t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ t♦ ♠❛❦❡ s✉r❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❞❡✈✐❛t❡ t♦♦ ❢❛r ❢r♦♠ ✐ts
❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥✳ ❲❡ ❛❝❝❡♣t t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✇✐t❤♦✉t ♣r♦♦❢✳
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✳✽✳✶✾✿ ❊rr♦r ❇♦✉♥❞ ♦❢ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ❙✉♠s ■■

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x ✐♥ [a, b]✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡

|f ′′ (x)| ≤ K2 ,
✸✳✽✳ ◆✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✷✷✽

❢♦r s♦♠❡ r❡❛❧ K2 ✳ ❚❤❡♥

 Z b 
  K2 (b − a)3
Mn (f ) − f dx ≤ ,

a
 24n2

❛♥❞  
Z b
  K2 (b − a)3
Tn (f ) − f dx ≤ .

a
 12n2

❙♦✱ ❛♥ ❛ ♣r✐♦r✐ ❜♦✉♥❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❣✐✈❡s ❛♥ ❛ ♣r✐♦r✐ ❜♦✉♥❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❡rr♦r✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✽✳✷✵

❙✉❣❣❡st ❛ s✐♠✐❧❛r t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦r Ln ❛♥❞ Rn ✳ ❍✐♥t✿ ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ✇♦rst✲❝❛s❡ s❝❡♥❛r✐♦❄

❚❤✉s✱ t❤❡ tr✉❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❧✐❡s ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤✐s ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✿
[Mn − En , Mn + En ] ,
✇❤❡r❡
K2 (b − a)3
En = .
24n2
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✽✳✷✶✿ ❡rr♦r ❜♦✉♥❞ ♦❢ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡❞

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥✜r♠ t❤✐s r❡s✉❧t ❢♦r Z 1

x2 dx = 1/3
0
❛♥❞ M4 = 0.328125 ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ♣r❡✈✐♦✉s❧②✳ ❋✐rst✱ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✿

f (x) = x2 =⇒ f ′ (x) = 2x =⇒ f ′′ (x) = 2 .

❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡✱ ♦❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱

K2 = 2 .
◆❡①t✱
2(1 − 0)3 2
E4 = 2
= = 0.0052083333...
24 · 4 24 · 16
❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✬s ✈❛❧✉❡ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✿

[M4 − E4 , M4 + E4 ] = [0.328125 − 0.0052083..., 0.328125 + 0.0052083...] = [0.329166..., 0.333333...] .

■t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s t♦ ❜❡ ❡①❛❝t❧② t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ❡♥❞ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳ ❚❤❡ r❡❛s♦♥ ✐s t❤❛t K2 ✐s♥✬t ❛♥ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ ❜✉t t❤❡
❡①❛❝t ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✽✳✷✷✿ ♠♦r❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ❡rr♦r ❜♦✉♥❞

❆ ♠♦r❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ✐s✿ Z 1

x3 dx = 1/4 .
0
❋✐rst✱ t❤❡ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✇✐t❤ n = 4✿
M4 = (1/8)3 · 1/4 + (3/8)3 · 1/4 + (5/8)3 · 1/4 + (7/8)3 · 1/4 = 0.2421875 .
❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✿
f (x) = x3 =⇒ f ′ (x) = 3x2 =⇒ f ′′ (x) = 6x .
❲❡ ♥❡❡❞ K2 t♦ s❛t✐s❢②✿
K2 ≥ |f ′′ (x)| = 6x, ❢♦r ❛❧❧ 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 .
✸✳✽✳ ◆✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✷✷✾

❚❤❡ ❝❤♦✐❝❡ ✐s t❤❡♥ ♦❜✈✐♦✉s✿

K2 = 6 .
◆❡①t✱ t❤❡ ❡rr♦r ❜♦✉♥❞✿
K2 (b − a)3 6(1 − 0)3 6
E4 = 2
= 2
= = 0.015625 .
24n 24 · 4 24 · 16
❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✬s ✈❛❧✉❡ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✿

[M4 − E4 , M4 + E4 ] = [0.242 − .016, 0.242 + 0.016] = [0.226, 0.258] .

■t ✐s✳

◆♦t❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❡①✐st❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ K2 ✐s ❣✉❛r❛♥t❡❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❊①tr❡♠❡ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞ f ′′ ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✽✳✷✸✿ ❤♦✇ t♦ ❣✉❛r❛♥t❡❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝②

❆t t❤❡ ♥❡①t✱ ♠♦r❡ ♣r❛❝t✐❝❛❧✱ ❧❡✈❡❧✱ ✇❡ ❛r❡ ❛s❦❡❞ t♦ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝②✳ ❋♦r
❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ s✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❦♥♦✇ ✇✐t❤✐♥ 0.1 t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✿
Z 1
x3 dx .
0

❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r ❛❜♦✈❡ ❛♣♣❧✐❡s ❛s E = 0.015625 < 0.1✳

❲❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♥❡❡❞s t♦ ❜❡ 0.01❄ ❚❤❡♥ n = 4 ✐s t♦♦ s♠❛❧❧✦ ▲❡t✬s tr② n = 5✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
K2 (b − a)3 6(1 − 0)3 6
E5 = = = = 0.01 .
24 · 52 24 · 52 24 · 25

❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❡ t❤❛t ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❡♥s✉r❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❡rr♦r ✐s ❧❡ss t❤❛♥ s♦♠❡ ε > 0✱ ✇❡ s✐♠♣❧② ♥❡❡❞
t♦ ✜♥❞ n t❤❛t s❛t✐s✜❡s✿ 3
6(1 − 0)
≤ ε.
24 · n2

■♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ ✇❡ ❛r❡ s♦❧✈✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t②✿

K2 (b − a)3
En = ≤ ε.
24n2

❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✸✳✽✳✷✹✿ ❊st✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❊rr♦r ♦❢ ◆✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x ✐♥ [a, b] ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡

|f ′′ (x)| ≤ K2 ,

❢♦r s♦♠❡ r❡❛❧ K2 ✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ❢♦r ❛♥② ❣✐✈❡♥ ε > 0✱ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧

Z b
f dx
a

❧✐❡s ✇✐t❤✐♥ ε ❢r♦♠ Mn ♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞

r
K2 (b − a)3
n≥ .
24ε
✸✳✾✳ ▲❡♥❣t❤s ♦❢ ❝✉r✈❡s ✷✸✵

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✽✳✷✺

❈r❡❛t❡ ❛ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t t♦ ❛✉t♦♠❛t❡ t❤❡s❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s✳

✸✳✾✳ ▲❡♥❣t❤s ♦❢ ❝✉r✈❡s

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ s✉❝❝❡ss❢✉❧❧② ✉s❡❞ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐♦♥ t♦ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ ❛♥❞✱ ❛t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t✱ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡

❛r❡❛s ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ■t ✇♦✉❧❞ ❜❡✱ ❤♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ❛ ❣r❛✈❡ ♠✐st❛❦❡ t♦ t❤✐♥❦ t❤❛t t❤❡ st❡♣ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

♣r♦❞✉❝❡❞ ❜② t❤✐s ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐♦♥ ❝❛♥ s❡r✈❡ ❛s ❛♥ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐ts❡❧❢✿

❚❤❡ r❡❛s♦♥ ✐s r❡✈❡❛❧❡❞ ✇❤❡♥ ✇❡ ✇❛t❝❤ ❤♦✇ s♣❡❝t❛❝✉❧❛r❧② t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛ ❢❛✐❧s ✇❤❡♥ ❛♣♣❧✐❡❞ t♦ ❝♦♠♣✉t✐♥❣ t❤❡

❧❡♥❣t❤s ♦❢ ❝✉r✈❡s✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✾✳✶✿ str❛✐❣❤t ❧✐♥❡

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ❛ ✈❡r② s✐♠♣❧❡ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ y = f (x) = x ♦✈❡r [0, 1]✳ ❚❤❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡

❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ s❡❣♠❡♥ts ❧♦♦❦s ❥✉st ❛s ❣♦♦❞ ❛s t❤❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✿

❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡❞ ❢♦r ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ n = 10 ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ♦❢ ❡q✉❛❧ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t ❡♥❞s ❛s

s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✳

√
❆ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ❛♣♣❡❛rs ✇❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ ❛❝t✉❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✳ ❚❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ❣r❛♣❤ ✐s 2 ❜②

t❤❡ P②t❤❛❣♦r❡❛♥ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✳ ▼❡❛♥✇❤✐❧❡✱ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ s❡❣♠❡♥ts t❤❛t ♠❛❦❡ ✉♣ t❤❡

❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t✐♥❣ st❡♣ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s 1❀ ✐t✬s s✐♠♣❧② t❤❡ ❜♦tt♦♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜✐❣ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡✳ ❚♦♦ ❧♦✇✦
✸✳✾✳ ▲❡♥❣t❤s ♦❢ ❝✉r✈❡s ✷✸✶

❖♥❡ ♠❛② tr② t♦ ✜① t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ❜② ❛❞❞✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ s❡❣♠❡♥ts t♦ ♦✉r ❡st✐♠❛t❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢
t❤❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ ❜❡❝♦♠❡s 2❀ ✐t✬s s✐♠♣❧② t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r t✇♦ s✐❞❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜✐❣
tr✐❛♥❣❧❡✳ ❚♦♦ ❤✐❣❤✦ ■t ✐s ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t t❤❛t t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ✇♦♥✬t ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ❡✈❡♥ ✐❢ ✇❡ st❛rt t♦ r❡✜♥❡ t❤❡ ♣❛r✲
t✐t✐♦♥✳ ■♥ ❝♦♥tr❛st✱ t❤❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡✱ Ln ✱ ✐s ❣❡tt✐♥❣ ❜❡tt❡r ❛s ✇❡ ✐♥❝r❡❛s❡ n✳

❚♦p ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ t❤❡ r❡❛s♦♥ ❢♦r t❤✐s ❞✐s❝r❡♣❛♥❝②✱ ❧❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ y = g(x) = x/2✳ ■ts ❛❝t✉❛❧ ❧❡♥❣t❤
✐s 12 + (1/2)2 ≈ 1.19 ❜② t❤❡ P②t❤❛❣♦r❡❛♥ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✳ ❚❤❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ s❡❣♠❡♥ts ✐s
st✐❧❧ ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ 1 ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♦♥❡ ✇✐t❤ ❜♦t❤ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛♥❞ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ s❡❣♠❡♥ts ✐s 1.5✳ ❚❤❡ ❡st✐♠❛t❡s ❛r❡ st✐❧❧
♦✛ ❜✉t t❤❡② ❛r❡ ❝❧♦s❡r t♦ t❤❡ tr✉t❤✦

❲❤❛t ❡①♣❧❛✐♥s t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡❄ ❚❤❡ s❧♦♣❡✳ ❚♦ ❝♦♥✜r♠ t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛✱ ❥✉st t❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ ✇✐t❤ ③❡r♦ s❧♦♣❡✳
❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ ✐ts ❛❝t✉❛❧ ❧❡♥❣t❤✦

■♥ ❢❛❝t✱ t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r f ✐s ✈❡r② s✐♠♣❧❡✿

q q
▲❡♥❣t❤ = ❜❛s❡ 2 + ❤❡✐❣❤t 2
= ❜❛s❡ 2 + ( ❜❛s❡ · s❧♦♣❡ )2 .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✾✳✷

❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥s r❡♠❛✐♥ ✈❛❧✐❞ ♥♦ ♠❛tt❡r ✇❤❛t ❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ [0, 1] ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✾✳✸

❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ st❡♣ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ❛♥② ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ [a, b] ✐s b − a✳

❚❤❡ ❧❡ss♦♥ ✐s t❤❛t t❤❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ✕ ✉♥❧✐❦❡ t❤❡ ♦♥❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡
❣r❛♣❤ ✕ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❞❡♣❡♥❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✾✳✹✿ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ ❝✐r❝❧❡

❇✉t ✜rst✱ ❧❡t✬s ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ❛s t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ❲❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢
t❤❡ ✉♣♣❡r ❤❛❧❢ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✉♥✐t ❝✐r❝❧❡ ❜② ✜rst r❡♣r❡s❡♥t✐♥❣ ✐t ❛s t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ s✐♠♣❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿
√
f (x) = 1 − x2 .
✸✳✾✳ ▲❡♥❣t❤s ♦❢ ❝✉r✈❡s ✷✸✷

❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ✐s s✐♠♣❧❡✿ P❧❛❝❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡✱ ❝♦♥♥❡❝t t❤❡♠ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡❧② ❜② ❡❞❣❡s✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥
❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❝✉r✈❡ ♠❛❞❡ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❡❞❣❡s✳

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❧✐st ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ x ✐♥ t❤❡ ✜rst ❝♦❧✉♠♥✿

x0 , x1 , ..., xn ,

❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❧✐st ♦❢ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ y ✐♥ t❤❡ ♥❡①t ❝♦❧✉♠♥✿

y0 = f (x0 ), y1 = f (x1 ), ..., yn = f (xn ) .

■♥ t❤❡ t❤✐r❞ ❝♦❧✉♠♥✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❣♠❡♥ts ✈✐❛ t❤❡ ❉✐st❛♥❝❡ ❋♦r♠✉❧❛ ✿
p
lk = (xk+1 − xk )2 + (yk+1 − yk )2 .

❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿

❂❙◗❘❚✭✭❘❈❬✲✷❪✲❘❬✲✶❪❈❬✲✷❪✮✂ ✷✰✭❘❈❬✲✶❪✲❘❬✲✶❪❈❬✲✶❪✮✂ ✷✮

❆s ✇❡ ✐♥❝r❡❛s❡ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ s❡❣♠❡♥ts✱ n✱ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t t❤❛t ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ t♦ ❜❡ ❝♦rr❡❝t✱ π ✱ ✐s ❜❡✐♥❣ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡❞✳
❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ s❡❡ ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✹ ❛ ❜❡tt❡r ✇❛② t♦ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t ❝✉r✈❡s ❛♥❞ ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧❧② t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡✳

❲❡✱ ❥✉st ❛s ❛❧✇❛②s✱ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ s✐t✉❛t✐♦♥✳

❲❡ s✐♠♣❧② ❤❛✈❡ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡✳ ❙✉❝❤ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s s❡❡♥ ❛s ❛ ✏❝✉r✈❡✑ ✐❢ ✇❡ ♣r♦❝❡❡❞ ❢r♦♠
♣♦✐♥t t♦ ♣♦✐♥t ❛❧♦♥❣ ❛ str❛✐❣❤t ❧✐♥❡✳ ❚❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤s ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ s❡❣♠❡♥ts ❛r❡ ❢♦✉♥❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❉✐st❛♥❝❡ ❋♦r♠✉❧❛✱ ❥✉st
❛s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✳ ■t ✐s t❤✐s s✐♠♣❧❡✦

◆♦✇✱ s♦♠❡t❤✐♥❣ ♠♦r❡ s♣❡❝✐✜❝✳ ❲❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡s❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ❢♦r♠ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡
♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ [a, b]❄
❚❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s t♦ ❡❛❝❤ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [xk−1 , xk ], k = 1, 2, ..., n ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ❣♦❡s ✭❥✉♠♣s✮
❢r♦♠ (xk−1 , f (xk−1 )) t♦ (xk , f (xk ))✳ ❲❡ t❤❡♥ ❝♦♥str✉❝t ❛ s❧♦♣❡❞ s❡❣♠❡♥t ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ♣♦✐♥ts✿

■t ✐s t❤❡ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡ ✦ ❆ r✐❣❤t tr✐❛♥❣❧❡ ✐s ❢♦r♠❡❞ ❜② t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ s❡❣♠❡♥ts✿

✸✳✾✳ ▲❡♥❣t❤s ♦❢ ❝✉r✈❡s ✷✸✸

• ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ [xk−1 , xk ]✱ ❛♥❞

• ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❢r♦♠ f (xk−1 ) t♦ f (xk )✱ ♦r ✈✐❝❡ ✈❡rs❛✳
❚❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤s ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ s✐❞❡s ❛r❡✿
• ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ✭❜❛s❡✱ t❤❡ r✉♥✮✿ h = xk − xk−1 = ∆xk ✱ ❛♥❞
• ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ✭❤❡✐❣❤t✱ t❤❡ r✐s❡✮✿ |f (xk ) − f (xk−1 )| = ∆yk ✳
❚❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡❞❣❡ ✭t❤❡ ❤②♣♦t❡♥✉s❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡✮ ✐s t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿
q q
∆x2k + ∆yk2 = ∆x2k + (f (xk ) − f (xk−1 ))2 .

❚❤✉s✱ t❤❡ ❢✉❧❧ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ tr✐♣ ❛❧♦♥❣ t❤❡s❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

n q
X n q
X
❚♦t❛❧ ❧❡♥❣t❤ = 2 2
∆xk + ∆yk = ∆x2k + (f (xk ) − f (xk−1 ))2
k=1 k=1

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✾✳✺✿ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛

❲❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛ y = x2 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 1✱ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❲❤❛t ✐❢ ♥♦✇ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❝✉r✈❡✱ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y = f (x) ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b]❄ ❚❤❡s❡
❡st✐♠❛t❡s ❛r❡ ❡①❛❝t ✐♥ t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r f ✳
❲❡ ✇✐❧❧✱ ❥✉st ❛s ❜❡❢♦r❡✱ ✉s❡ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ t♦ s♣❧✐t t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ ✐♥t♦ s♠❛❧❧❡r ♣✐❡❝❡s ❜✉t t❤❡♥ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧
❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡s❡ ♣✐❡❝❡s ♥♦t ✇✐t❤ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ s❡❣♠❡♥ts ❜✉t ✇✐t❤ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡s✳
✸✳✾✳ ▲❡♥❣t❤s ♦❢ ❝✉r✈❡s ✷✸✹

▲❡t✬s ❞❡✜♥❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y = f (x) ♦✈❡r t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b]✳
❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ ❢✉❧❧ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ✐s ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ ❛❧❧ n ♦❢ t❤♦s❡✱ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
n q
X
❧❡♥❣t❤ ≈ Ln = ∆x2k + (f (xk ) − f (xk−1 ))2 .
k=1

❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤✐s s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡✦
❲❡ ✇♦✉❧❞ ♣r❡❢❡r✱ ❤♦✇❡✈❡r✱ t♦ ❝♦♥♥❡❝t t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛ ❜❛❝❦ t♦ t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❛♥❞ t♦ t❤❡ ♠❛❝❤✐♥❡r②
t❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❞❡✈❡❧♦♣❡❞✳ ❯♥❢♦rt✉♥❛t❡❧②✱ t❤✐s ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❧♦♦❦ ❧✐❦❡ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✦
❲❤❛t ✐s ♠✐ss✐♥❣ ✐s ∆xk ❛s ❛ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ✐♥ ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❡r♠s✳ ❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❝r❡❛t❡ ✐t ❜② ♠❛♥✐♣✉❧❛t✐♥❣ t❤❡
❢♦r♠✉❧❛✳
❲❡ ❝❛♥ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ✐♥s✐❣❤t ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❡❛r❧✐❡r ❞✐s❝✉ss✐♦♥✿ ❚❤❡r❡ ♠✉st ❜❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f ♣r❡s❡♥t✳ ❚❤✐s ♠❡❛♥s
t❤❛t ✇❡ ♠✉st s❡❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ✐♥ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✦ ❲❤❡r❡ ✐s ✐t❄ ❲❡ s❡❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❜✉t ♥♦t t❤❡
❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✳ ❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❝r❡❛t❡ ✐t ❜② ♠❛♥✐♣✉❧❛t✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✳
❚❤❡ t✇♦ ❣♦❛❧s ♠❛t❝❤ ✉♣✿ ❲❡ ❞✐✈✐❞❡ ❛♥❞ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧② ❡❛❝❤ t❡r♠ ❜② ∆xk ✳ ❚✇♦ ❜✐r❞s ✇✐t❤ ♦♥❡ st♦♥❡✿
n q
X
❙✉♠ ♦❢ ❧❡♥❣t❤s = ∆x2k + (f (xk ) − f (xk−1 ))2
k=1
n q
X ∆xk
= ∆x2k + (f (xk ) − f (xk−1 ))2 ·
k=1 s
∆xk
n
X 1
= 2
(∆x2k + (f (xk ) − f (xk−1 ))2 ) · ∆xk ❍❡r❡ ✐s ∆xk .
k=1 s
∆x k
n  2
X f (xk ) − f (xk−1 )
= 1+ · ∆xk . ❍❡r❡ ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✳
k=1
∆x k

❇✉t t❤✐s ✐s st✐❧❧ ♥♦t t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠✳ ❚❤❡ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ t❤❛t ♣r❡❝❡❞❡s ∆xk ✇♦✉❧❞ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❜❡ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢
s♦♠❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡♥✬t s♣❡❝✐✜❡❞ t❤♦s❡ ②❡t ❛♥❞ t❤❛t✬s
❛ ❣♦♦❞ ♥❡✇s ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ♥♦✇ ✐t ✐s ♦✉r ❝❤♦✐❝❡✦
❲❡ ❛♣♣❧②✱ ❛s ✇❡✬✈❡ ❞♦♥❡ ♠❛♥② t✐♠❡s ❜❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ▼❡❛♥ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✳ ❚❤❡r❡ ✐s s♦♠❡ ck ✐♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧
[xk−1 , xk ] s✉❝❤ t❤❛t t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡ ❛t t❤❛t ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡ ♦✈❡r
t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✿
f (xk ) − f (xk−1 )
= f ′ (ck ) .
∆xk
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱
n q
X
❙✉♠ ♦❢ ❧❡♥❣t❤s = 1 + (f ′ (ck ))2 · ∆xk .
k=1

❋✐♥❛❧❧②✱ t❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ [a, b] ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s c1 , ..., cn ❀
t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s✿ q
g(x) = 1 + (f ′ (x))2 .

❏✉st ❛s ❢♦r t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✭♠❛ss✱ ✇♦r❦✱ ❡t❝✳✮✱ t❤❡ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ❛❜♦✈❡ r❡✈❡❛❧s t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t✳
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✸✳✾✳✻✿ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ ❝✉r✈❡
❚❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ y = f (x) ♦❢ ❛ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
♦✈❡r ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ t♦ ❜❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✿
Z bq
▲❡♥❣t❤ = 1 + (f ′ )2 dx
a
✸✳✾✳ ▲❡♥❣t❤s ♦❢ ❝✉r✈❡s ✷✸✺

✐❢ ✐t ❡①✐sts✳

◆♦t❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐ts❡❧❢ ✐s ❛❜s❡♥t ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✦ ❚❤❛t✬s ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞❛❜❧❡ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ♦♥❧② t❤❡ s❤❛♣❡

✭❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✮ ❛♥❞ ♥♦t t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ♠❛tt❡rs ❢♦r t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡✳ ■♥ ❢❛❝t✱ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ❢r♦♠

❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷❉❈✲✺ t❤❛t ✐❢ f ′ = g′✱ t❤❡♥ f =g+C ❛♥❞ ✐ts ❣r❛♣❤ ❤❛s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✳✾✳✼✿ ▲❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ ❈✉r✈❡

■❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✱ t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜②

t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ y = f (x) ♦✈❡r [a, b] ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞✳

Pr♦♦❢✳

❲❡ ♥❡❡❞ t❤❡ ❡①tr❛ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥ t♦ ❡♥s✉r❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ▼❡❛♥ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛♣♣❧✐❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t✐♥❣ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
✐s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✾✳✽✿ ❝✐r❝✉♠❢❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❝✐r❝❧❡

■t ✐s t✐♠❡ t♦ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❝✐r❝✉♠❢❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ♦❢ r❛❞✐✉s R ✐s 2πR✳

❲❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t✱ ❛❣❛✐♥✱ t❤❡ ✉♣♣❡r ❤❛❧❢ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ❜② t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✿

√
y = f (x) = R 2 − x2 .

❚❤❡♥✱
x
f ′ (x) = − √ .
R2 − x2
❲❡ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿

Z bq
❍❛❧❢ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ = 1 + (f ′ (x))2 dx
a s
Z R  2
x
= 1 + −√ dx
R 2 − x2
−R
Z Rr
x2
= 1+ 2 dx
−R r R − x2
Z R
R2
= dx
−R R 2 − x2
Z R
1
=R· √ dx
−R R 2 − x2
= ...

= R·π. ❱✐❛ tr✐❣ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✳

✸✳✶✵✳ ❚❤❡ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠ ❢♦r ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥ t❤r❡❡ ✷✸✻

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✾✳✾

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❣♠❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛ y = x2 ❢r♦♠ (0, 0) t♦ (1, 1)✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✾✳✶✵

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❣♠❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ y = x3 ❢r♦♠ (0, 0) t♦ (1, 1)✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✾✳✶✶

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❣♠❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ y = sin x ❛❜♦✈❡ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [0, π]✳

✸✳✶✵✳ ❚❤❡ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠ ❢♦r ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥ t❤r❡❡

❲❡ ♣✉rs✉❡❞ t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ ❛ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠ ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ tr❛♥s✐t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠

• ❣❡♦♠❡tr② ✿ ♣♦✐♥ts✱ ❧✐♥❡s✱ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡s✱ ❝✐r❝❧❡s✱ ♣❧❛♥❡s✱ ❝✉❜❡s✱ s♣❤❡r❡s✱ ❡t❝✳✱ t♦
• ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ✿ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✱ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✱ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ❡t❝✳
❚❤✐s ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ ❛❧❧♦✇s ✉s t♦ s♦❧✈❡ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠s ✕ s✉❝❤ ❛s ✜♥❞✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t✇♦ ♣♦✐♥ts ✕
✇✐t❤♦✉t ♠❡❛s✉r✐♥❣✳
❘❡❝❛❧❧ ❤♦✇✱ ❢♦r ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥ 2✱ t❤❡ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠ ✐s ❜✉✐❧t✿

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝❡✿
❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ P ←→ ♣❛✐r (x, y).

❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ ✐t ✇♦r❦s✿

✸✳✶✵✳ ❚❤❡ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠ ❢♦r ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥ t❤r❡❡ ✷✸✼

❲❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡ ✇✐t❤ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥ 3✳ ❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ♠✉❝❤ ♠♦r❡ ❣♦✐♥❣ ♦♥✿

■t ✐s ❜✉✐❧t ✐♥ s❡✈❡r❛❧ st❛❣❡s✿

✶✳ ❚❤r❡❡ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ ❛①❡s ❛r❡ ❝❤♦s❡♥✿ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✱ t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ z ✲❛①✐s✳
✷✳ ❚❤❡ t✇♦ ❛①❡s ❛r❡ ♣✉t t♦❣❡t❤❡r ❛t t❤❡✐r ♦r✐❣✐♥s s♦ t❤❛t ✐t ✐s ❛ 90✲❞❡❣r❡❡ t✉r♥ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥
♦❢ ♦♥❡ ❛①✐s t♦ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥❡①t ✕ ❢r♦♠ x t♦ y t♦ z t♦ x✳
✸✳ ❯s❡ t❤❡ ♠❛r❦s ♦♥ t❤❡ ❛①✐s t♦ ❞r❛✇ ❛ ❣r✐❞✳

❆❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❡❧②✱ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ✐s ❜✉✐❧t ❢r♦♠ t❤r❡❡ ❝♦♣✐❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❈❛rt❡s✐❛♥ ♣❧❛♥❡✿ t❤❡ xy ✲♣❧❛♥❡✱ t❤❡ yz ✲♣❧❛♥❡✱ ❛♥❞
t❤❡ zx✲♣❧❛♥❡✳ ❚❤❡② ❛r❡ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ ♣❧❛♥❡s✳
✸✳✶✵✳ ❚❤❡ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠ ❢♦r ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥ t❤r❡❡ ✷✸✽

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡✱ ❛s ❜❡❢♦r❡✱ ❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ t❤❡✐r ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥s✿

❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ P ←→ tr✐♣❧❡ (x, y, z)

■t ✇♦r❦s ✐♥ ❜♦t❤ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥s✳

❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ s✉♣♣♦s❡ P ✐s ❛ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✐♥ t❤✐s s♣❛❝❡✳ ❲❡ t❤❡♥ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ t❤r❡❡ ♣❧❛♥❡s t♦ t❤❛t
❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✕ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ✕ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s t❤❡
t❤r❡❡ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s ♦❢ P ✱ s♦♠❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs x✱ y ✱ ❛♥❞ z ✿

❚❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ yz ✲♣❧❛♥❡ ✐s ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ❛❧♦♥❣ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✱ ❡t❝✳ ❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ♥❡❛r❡st ♠❛r❦ t♦ s✐♠♣❧✐❢② t❤❡
t❛s❦✳
❈♦♥✈❡rs❡❧②✱ s✉♣♣♦s❡ x, y, z ❛r❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✳
• ❋✐rst✱ ✇❡ ♠❡❛s✉r❡ x ❛s t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ yz ✲♣❧❛♥❡ ✕ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡
✐♥ t❤❡ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ✕ ❛❧♦♥❣ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ❛♥❞ ❝r❡❛t❡ ❛ ♣❧❛♥❡ ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧ t♦ t❤❡ yz ✲♣❧❛♥❡✳
• ❙❡❝♦♥❞✱ ✇❡ ♠❡❛s✉r❡ y ❛s t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ xz ✲♣❧❛♥❡ ❛❧♦♥❣ t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s ❛♥❞ ❝r❡❛t❡ ❛ ♣❧❛♥❡ ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧
t♦ t❤❡ xz ✲♣❧❛♥❡✳
• ❚❤✐r❞✱ ✇❡ ♠❡❛s✉r❡ z ❛s t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ xy ✲♣❧❛♥❡ ❛❧♦♥❣ t❤❡ z ✲❛①✐s ❛♥❞ ❝r❡❛t❡ ❛ ♣❧❛♥❡ ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧ t♦
t❤❡ xy ✲♣❧❛♥❡✳
❚❤❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ t❤r❡❡ ♣❧❛♥❡s ✕ ❛s ✐❢ t❤❡s❡ ✇❡r❡ t❤❡ t✇♦ ✇❛❧❧s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✢♦♦r ✐♥ ❛ r♦♦♠ ✕ ✐s ❛ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥
P = (x, y, z) ✐♥ t❤❡ s♣❛❝❡✿
✸✳✶✵✳ ❚❤❡ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠ ❢♦r ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥ t❤r❡❡ ✷✸✾

❚❤✐s 3✲❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ❈❛rt❡s✐❛♥ s♣❛❝❡ ✱ ♦r t❤❡ 3✲s♣❛❝❡✳
❖♥❝❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠ ✐s ✐♥ ♣❧❛❝❡✱ ✐t ✐s ❛❝❝❡♣t❛❜❧❡ t♦ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛s tr✐♣❧❡s ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❛♥❞ ✈✐❝❡

✈❡rs❛✳ ■♥ ❢❛❝t✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ✇r✐t❡✿

P = (x, y, z) .

❖♥❡ ❝❛♥ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ t❤❡ 3✲s♣❛❝❡ ❛s ❛ st❛❝❦ ♦❢ ♣❧❛♥❡s✱ ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ❥✉st ❛ ❝♦♣② ♦❢ ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡

♣❧❛♥❡s✿

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ✉s❡ t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛ t♦ r❡✈❡❛❧ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r♥❛❧ str✉❝t✉r❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s♣❛❝❡✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✳✶✵✳✶✿ P❧❛♥❡s P❛r❛❧❧❡❧ t♦ ❈♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ P❧❛♥❡s

✶✳ ■❢ L ✐s ❛ ♣❧❛♥❡ ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧ t♦ t❤❡ xy ✲♣❧❛♥❡✱ t❤❡♥ ❛❧❧ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥ L ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡
z ✲❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡✳ ❈♦♥✈❡rs❡❧②✱ ✐❢ ❛ ❝♦❧❧❡❝t✐♦♥ L ♦❢ ♣♦✐♥ts ❝♦♥s✐sts ♦❢ ❛❧❧ ♣♦✐♥ts
✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ z ✲❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡✱ L ✐s ❛ ♣❧❛♥❡ ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧ t♦ t❤❡ xy ✲♣❧❛♥❡✳

✷✳ ■❢ L ✐s ❛ ♣❧❛♥❡ ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧ t♦ t❤❡ yz ✲♣❧❛♥❡✱ t❤❡♥ ❛❧❧ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥ L ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡

x✲❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡✳ ❈♦♥✈❡rs❡❧②✱ ✐❢ ❛ ❝♦❧❧❡❝t✐♦♥ L ♦❢ ♣♦✐♥ts ❝♦♥s✐sts ♦❢ ❛❧❧ ♣♦✐♥ts

✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ x✲❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡✱ L ✐s ❛ ♣❧❛♥❡ ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧ t♦ t❤❡ yz ✲♣❧❛♥❡✳

✸✳ ■❢ L ✐s ❛ ♣❧❛♥❡ ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧ t♦ t❤❡ zx✲♣❧❛♥❡✱ t❤❡♥ ❛❧❧ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥ L ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡

y ✲❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡✳ ❈♦♥✈❡rs❡❧②✱ ✐❢ ❛ ❝♦❧❧❡❝t✐♦♥ L ♦❢ ♣♦✐♥ts ❝♦♥s✐sts ♦❢ ❛❧❧ ♣♦✐♥ts

✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ y ✲❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡✱ L ✐s ❛ ♣❧❛♥❡ ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧ t♦ t❤❡ zx✲♣❧❛♥❡✳
✸✳✶✵✳ ❚❤❡ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠ ❢♦r ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥ t❤r❡❡ ✷✹✵

❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❝♦♠♣❛❝t ✇❛② t♦ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡s❡ ♣❧❛♥❡s✿

x = k, y = k, ♦r z = k,

❢♦r s♦♠❡ r❡❛❧ k✳

❘❡❧❛t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ✉s❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ✇❛② ❛s ❜❡❢♦r❡ ❜✉t ✇✐t❤ ♠♦r❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✳ ❆ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ♣r♦❝❡ss❡s ❛ tr✐♣❧❡ ♦❢

♥✉♠❜❡rs (x, y, z) ❛s t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t ❛♥❞ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s ❛♥ ♦✉t♣✉t✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s✿ ❨❡s ♦r ◆♦✳ ■❢ ✇❡ ❛r❡ t♦ ♣❧♦t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢

❛ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥✱ t❤✐s ♦✉t♣✉t ❜❡❝♦♠❡s✿ ❛ ♣♦✐♥t ♦r ♥♦ ♣♦✐♥t✳

❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ❧❡t✬s tr② ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥s ❛❜♦✈❡✿

✐♥♣✉t r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ♦✉t♣✉t

❚❘❯❊
(x, y, z) 7→ x = 2? −−−−−−→ P❧♦t (x, y, z) .


❋❆▲❙❊
y
❉♦♥✬t ♣❧♦t✳

❖♥❧② t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ x✲❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ 2 ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ♣❧♦tt❡❞✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✶✵✳✷✿ ♣❧❛♥❡

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤✐s r❡❧❛t✐♦♥✿

✐♥♣✉t r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ♦✉t♣✉t

❚❘❯❊
(x, y, z) 7→ x + y + z = 2? −−−−−−→ P❧♦t (x, y, z) .


❋❆▲❙❊
y
❉♦♥✬t ♣❧♦t✳

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❞♦ ✐t ❜② ❤❛♥❞✿

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ✉s❡✱ ❛s ❜❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ s❡t✲❜✉✐❧❞✐♥❣ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ✿

{(x, y, z) : ❛ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥ ♦♥ x, y, z} .

❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛ s✉❜s❡t ♦❢ R2 ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜②✿

{(x, y, z) : x + y + z = 2} .

❲❡ ❛❝❝❡♣t t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✇✐t❤♦✉t ♣r♦♦❢✿

✸✳✶✵✳ ❚❤❡ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠ ❢♦r ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥ t❤r❡❡ ✷✹✶

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✳✶✵✳✸✿ P❧❛♥❡

❊✈❡r② ♣❧❛♥❡ t❤r♦✉❣❤ ❛ ♣♦✐♥t (h, k, l) ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② t❤❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥✿

A(x − h) + B(y − k) + C(z − l) = 0 .

■♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
✶✳ ♣❧❛♥❡ ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧ t♦ t❤❡ yz ✲♣❧❛♥❡✿ B = C = 0
✷✳ ♣❧❛♥❡ ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧ t♦ t❤❡ zx✲♣❧❛♥❡✿ A = C = 0
✸✳ ♣❧❛♥❡ ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧ t♦ t❤❡ xy ✲♣❧❛♥❡✿ A = B = 0
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✶✵✳✹✿ ❡q✉❛❧ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡

❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ♣❧♦t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ♠♦r❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① r❡❧❛t✐♦♥❄ ▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤✐s✿

✐♥♣✉t r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ♦✉t♣✉t

❚❘❯❊
(x, y, z) 7→ x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1? −−−−−−→ P❧♦t (x, y, z) .


❋❆▲❙❊
y

❉♦♥✬t ♣❧♦t✳

❲❡ t❡st ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ tr✐♣❧❡s (x, y, z) ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❤❡❧♣ ♦❢ ❛ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t✳ ❏✉st ❛s ❜❡❢♦r❡✱ ✐♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ t❡st✐♥❣
✇❤❡t❤❡r x2 + y 2 + z 2 ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ 1✱ ✇❡ ❝❤❡❝❦ ✇❤❡t❤❡r ✐t ✐s ✇✐t❤✐♥ ❛ s♠❛❧❧ ✜①❡❞ ♥✉♠❜❡r✱ s✉❝❤ ❛s 0.001✱
❢r♦♠ 1 ❜❡❢♦r❡ ✇❡ ♣❧♦t ✐t✳ ❚❤❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t ✐s ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡❞ s❡♣❛r❛t❡❧② ❢♦r s❡✈❡r❛❧ ❞✐st✐♥❝t ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ z ✿

❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ♣✉t t❤❡s❡ t♦❣❡t❤❡r ❛s s❤❡❡ts ♦❢ ♣❛♣❡r ✭❢❛r r✐❣❤t✮✳ ❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ❧♦♦❦s ❧✐❦❡ ❛ s✉r❢❛❝❡❀ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧
❞❡♠♦♥str❛t❡ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ s♣❤❡r❡✳

◆♦✇ t❤❛t ❡✈❡r②t❤✐♥❣ ✐s ♣r❡✲♠❡❛s✉r❡❞✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ s♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠s ❜② ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛❧❧② ♠❛♥✐♣✉❧❛t✐♥❣
❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s✳
❚❤❡ ✜rst ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ t❛s❦ ✐s ✜♥❞✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡✳ ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s P ❛♥❞ Q ✐♥ t❡r♠s
♦❢ t❤❡✐r ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s (x, y, z) ❛♥❞ (x′ , y ′ , z ′ )❄
❋♦r ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥ 2✱ ✇❡ ✉s❡❞ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ 1✲❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ ❝❛s❡✳ ❲❡ ❢♦✉♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥
t✇♦ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ ❛s t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡ ✕ ✇✐t❤ ✐ts s✐❞❡s ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧ t♦ t❤❡ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡
❛①❡s ✕ t❤❛t ❤❛s t❤❡s❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ❛t t❤❡ ♦♣♣♦s✐t❡ ❝♦r♥❡rs✿
✸✳✶✵✳ ❚❤❡ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠ ❢♦r ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥ t❤r❡❡ ✷✹✷

❙✐♠✐❧❛r❧②✱ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t✇♦ ♣♦✐♥ts ✐♥ s♣❛❝❡ ❛s t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜♦① ✕ ✇✐t❤
✐ts ❡❞❣❡s ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧ t♦ t❤❡ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ ❛①❡s ❛♥❞ s✐❞❡s ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧ t♦ t❤❡ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ ♣❧❛♥❡s ✕ t❤❛t ❤❛s t❤❡s❡ ♣♦✐♥ts
❛t t❤❡ ♦♣♣♦s✐t❡ ❝♦r♥❡rs✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✳✶✵✳✺✿ ❉✐st❛♥❝❡ ❋♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r ❉✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥ 3

❚❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ♣♦✐♥ts ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② t❤❡✐r ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s P = (x, y, z) ❛♥❞ Q=
(x′ , y ′ , z ′ ) ✐s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

p
d(P, Q) = (x − x′ )2 + (y − y ′ )2 + (z − z ′ )2

Pr♦♦❢✳

❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ 1✲❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ ❝❛s❡ s❡♣❛r❛t❡❧② ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤r❡❡ ❛①❡s✱ ❛s
❢♦❧❧♦✇s✳ ❚❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡
• ❜❡t✇❡❡♥x ❛♥❞ x′ ♦♥ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ✐s |x − x′ |✱
′ ′
• ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ y ❛♥❞ y ♦♥ t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s ✐s |y − y |✱ ❛♥❞
′ ′
• ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ z ❛♥❞ z ♦♥ t❤❡ z ✲❛①✐s ✐s |z − z |✳
′ ′ ′
❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ s❡❣♠❡♥t ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts P = (x, y, z) ❛♥❞ Q = (x , y , z ) ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♦❢ t❤✐s ✏❜♦①✑✳
■ts s✐❞❡s ❛r❡✿ |x−x |✱ |y −y |✱ ❛♥❞ |z −z |✳ ❖✉r ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ❜❡❧♦✇ ❢♦❧❧♦✇s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ P②t❤❛❣♦r❡❛♥ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠
′ ′ ′

❛♣♣❧✐❡❞ t✇✐❝❡✿ ❲❡ ✜rst ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦♣♣♦s✐t❡ ❢❛❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜♦① ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ t❤❡
❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠❛✐♥ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✱ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

d(P, A) = |x − x′ | d(A, B) = |y − y ′ | =⇒ d(P, B)2 = (x − x′ )2 + (y − y ′ )2

d(P, B)2 = (x − x′ )2 + (y − y ′ )2 d(B, Q) = |z − z ′ | =⇒ d(P, Q)2 = d(P, B)2 + d(B, Q)2
= (x − x′ )2 + (y − y ′ )2 + (z − z ′ )2

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✶✵✳✻

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❛t ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ❝❛s❡ t❤❡ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡ ✐s ✐♥❞❡❡❞ ❛ r✐❣❤t tr✐❛♥❣❧❡✳

❆ tr❡❛t♠❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ t❛s❦✱ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✐s ♣♦st♣♦♥❡❞ ✉♥t✐❧ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✹❍❉✲✶✳
❚❤✐s ✐s ♦✉r ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❡❞ ❛❜♦✈❡✿
✸✳✶✵✳ ❚❤❡ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠ ❢♦r ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥ t❤r❡❡ ✷✹✸

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✳✶✵✳✼✿ ❙♣❤❡r❡

❚❤❡ s♣❤❡r❡ ♦❢ r❛❞✐✉s R>0 ❝❡♥t❡r❡❞ ❛t ❛ ♣♦✐♥t (h, k, l)✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦❧❧❡❝t✐♦♥

♦❢ ❛❧❧ ♣♦✐♥ts R ✉♥✐ts ❛✇❛② ❢r♦♠ (h, k, l)✱ ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② t❤❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥✿

(x − h)2 + (y − k)2 + (z − l)2 = R2 .

Pr♦♦❢✳

■t ❢♦❧❧♦✇s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❉✐st❛♥❝❡ ❋♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥ 3✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✳✶✵✳✽✿ ❈②❧✐♥❞❡r

❚❤❡ ❝②❧✐♥❞❡r ♦❢ r❛❞✐✉s R>0 ❝❡♥t❡r❡❞ ❛r♦✉♥❞ t❤❡ z ✲❛①✐s✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦❧❧❡❝t✐♦♥

♦❢ ❛❧❧ ♣♦✐♥ts R ✉♥✐ts ❛✇❛② ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❛①✐s ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧❧②✱ ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② t❤❡

r❡❧❛t✐♦♥✿

x2 + y 2 = R 2 .

Pr♦♦❢✳

■t ❢♦❧❧♦✇s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❉✐st❛♥❝❡ ❋♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r ❉✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥ 2✳

❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ s❡ts ♦❢ ❛❧❧ ♣♦✐♥ts 1 ✉♥✐t ❛✇❛② ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥ ❛r❡ ♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇✱ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥s ♦❢
t❤❡ s♣❛❝❡ n = 1, 2, 3✿
❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥✿ 1 2 3

❞✐st❛♥❝❡ =1 |x| = 1 x2 + y 2 = 1 x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1

s❡t✿ t✇♦ ♣♦✐♥ts ❝✐r❝❧❡ s♣❤❡r❡

✐ts ✏s✐③❡✑✿ ◆✴❆ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ❛r❡❛

❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ≤1 |x| ≤ 1 x2 + y 2 ≤ 1 x2 + y 2 + z 2 ≤ 1

s❡t✿ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❞✐s❦ ❜❛❧❧

✐ts ✏s✐③❡✑✿ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ❛r❡❛ ✈♦❧✉♠❡

❚❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ❧✐st ✐s ❛ ❧✐st ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜✉✐❧❞✐♥❣ ❜❧♦❝❦s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ✏❝❡❧❧s✑✳ ❚❤❡② ❛r❡ ♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇✱ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥s ♦❢
t❤❡ ❝❡❧❧s m = 0, 1, 2, 3✿
✸✳✶✶✳ ❱♦❧✉♠❡s ♦❢ s♦❧✐❞s ✈✐❛ t❤❡✐r ❝r♦ss✲s❡❝t✐♦♥s ✷✹✹

❚❤❡ tr❛♥s✐t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤r❡❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s t♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ❞✐s❝✉ss❡❞ ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✹✳
❲❡ s❡❡ ❤♦✇ ♠✉❝❤ ❤❛r❞❡r ✐t ✐s t♦ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡ t❤✐♥❣s ✐♥ t❤❡ 3✲❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ s♣❛❝❡✳ ❚❤❛t✬s ✇❤② ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♥❡❡❞ ❛
❢✉rt❤❡r ❞❡✈❡❧♦♣♠❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ tr❡❛t♠❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ✐❞❡❛s ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✹ ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✹P❈✲✷✮✳

✸✳✶✶✳ ❱♦❧✉♠❡s ♦❢ s♦❧✐❞s ✈✐❛ t❤❡✐r ❝r♦ss✲s❡❝t✐♦♥s

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❝♦♠❡ t♦ ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ ❛r❡❛s ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ ❧❡♥❣t❤s✳

■♥❞❡❡❞✱ ✐❢ ✇❡ r❡❛rr❛♥❣❡ t❤❡s❡ ♣❡♥❝✐❧s ❜② ♠♦✈✐♥❣ ❡❛❝❤ ✉♣ ♦r ❞♦✇♥✱ t❤❡② ✇✐❧❧ st✐❧❧ ❝♦✈❡r t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❛r❡❛✿

❚❤✐s ❢❛❝t ✐s ♠❡❛♥t t♦ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ s✐t✉❛t✐♦♥✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❢♦✉r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s f, g, F, G t❤❛t ❤❛✈❡
♥♦t❤✐♥❣ t♦ ❞♦ ✇✐t❤ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r ❡①❝❡♣t t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ✕ ♦♥ t❤❡ xy ✲♣❧❛♥❡ ✕ ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡✿

f (x) − g(x) = F (x) − G(x) ,

❢♦r ❛❧❧ x ✐♥ [a, b]✳ ▲❡t✬s ❝♦♠♣❛r❡✿ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ f ❛♥❞ g ✈s✳ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ F ❛♥❞ G✳ ❊❛❝❤ ♣❛✐r ♦❢
❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❛r❡❛s ♦✈❡r s♦♠❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t
✭s❛♠❡ ♣❡♥❝✐❧✮✳

❚❤❛t ✐s ✇❤② t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ♦✈❡r ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ [a, b] t❤❛t ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛s ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ❡✐t❤❡r ♣❛✐r ♦❢
❣r❛♣❤s ❛r❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡✿
Σ (f − g) · ∆x = Σ (F − G) · ∆x ,
✸✳✶✶✳ ❱♦❧✉♠❡s ♦❢ s♦❧✐❞s ✈✐❛ t❤❡✐r ❝r♦ss✲s❡❝t✐♦♥s ✷✹✺

♦✈❡r ❛♥② ❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ P✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✕ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛s ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ✕ ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧ t♦♦✿

Z b Z b
(f − g) dx = (F − G) dx .
a a

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✶✶✳✶✿ ❡q✉❛❧ ❛r❡❛s

❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ y = x2 + 1 ❛♥❞ y = x2 + 2 ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❛s t❤❛t ♦❢ t❤❡ sq✉❛r❡ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❈♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥✿

◮ ❚❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❝r♦ss✲s❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ r❡❣✐♦♥ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❜② y = f (x) ❛♥❞ y = g(x) ✐s t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧
s❡❣♠❡♥t [g(x), f (x)] ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ x✱ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤s ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ s❡❣♠❡♥ts✱ f (x) − g(x)✱ ❛✛❡❝t t❤❡
❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥✳

▲❡t✬s ♥♦✇ ❣♦ ✉♣ ✐♥ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❡①❛♠✐♥❡ t❤❡ ❝r♦ss✲s❡❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❛ s♦❧✐❞ ❛♥❞ ✜♥❞ ♦✉t ✇❤❛t t❤❡② t❡❧❧ ✉s ❛❜♦✉t
t❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s s♦❧✐❞✳

❇✉t ✜rst✱ ✇❤❛t ✐s ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ❄ ❚❤❡ q✉❡st✐♦♥ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ❛❞❞r❡ss❡❞ ✐♥ ❢✉❧❧ ♦♥❧② ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✹ ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✹❍❉✲✺✮✳ ❋♦r
♥♦✇✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ r❡❧② ♦♥ ❛ s✐♠♣❧✐❢②✐♥❣ ❛ss✉♠♣t✐♦♥✳

❲❡ ❞♦ ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ s✉❝❤ ❛ s✐♠♣❧❡ s♦❧✐❞ ❛s ❛ ❜♦①✳ ■t ✐s V = w · d · h✱ ✇❤❡r❡ w ✐s
2
t❤❡ ✇✐❞t❤✱ d t❤❡ ❞❡♣t❤✱ ❛♥❞ h t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t✳ ❲❡ ❛❧s♦ ✏❦♥♦✇✑ t❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❝②❧✐♥❞❡r✱ V = πR h✱ ✇❤❡r❡ R ✐s
✐ts r❛❞✐✉s ❛♥❞ h ✐s t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t✳

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❣❛✐♥ ✐♥s✐❣❤t ❢r♦♠ t❤✐s✿

❱♦❧✉♠❡ = ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❛s❡ · ❤❡✐❣❤t

■♥❞❡❡❞✱ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❛s❡ ✐s✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✱ A = wd ❛♥❞ A = πR2 ✳ ❚❤❡ s❛♠❡ ✐s tr✉❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ ♣r✐s♠✳

❲❤❛t ❞♦ t❤❡② ❛❧❧ ❤❛✈❡ ✐♥ ❝♦♠♠♦♥❄ ❚❤❡ ❜❛s❡ ✐s ❛ r❡❣✐♦♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ♠✐❣❤t ❦♥♦✇ ✐ts ❛r❡❛ A
✭❛♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✮✳ ❚❤✐s r❡❣✐♦♥ ✐s ❧✐❢t❡❞ ♦✛ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ t♦ t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t h✳ ❇❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ♣❧❛♥❡ r❡❣✐♦♥s ❧✐❡s ❛
❝②❧✐♥❞❡r✲❧✐❦❡ s♦❧✐❞✿
✸✳✶✶✳ ❱♦❧✉♠❡s ♦❢ s♦❧✐❞s ✈✐❛ t❤❡✐r ❝r♦ss✲s❡❝t✐♦♥s ✷✹✻

❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❛ss✉♠❡ t❤❛t ✐ts ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ✐s✿

V = A · h.

❏✉st ❛s ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❜❡❡♥ ✉s✐♥❣ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡s t♦ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ s❧✐❝❡s ♦❢ ♣❧❛♥❡ r❡❣✐♦♥s✱ t❤❡s❡ ✏s❤❡❧❧s✑ ✇✐❧❧ ❛♣♣r♦①✲
✐♠❛t❡ s❧✐❝❡s ♦❢ s♦❧✐❞s✳

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❛t✱ ✐♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ ❛ st❛❝❦ ♦❢ ♣❡♥❝✐❧s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ st❛❝❦ ♦❢ ❝♦✐♥s✳ ■❢ ✇❡ r❡❛rr❛♥❣❡ t❤❡s❡ ❝♦✐♥s ❜② ♠♦✈✐♥❣
t❤❡♠ s✐❞❡ t♦ s✐❞❡✱ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ✇✐❧❧ r❡♠❛✐♥ t❤❡ s❛♠❡✿

❲❡ r❡❛❧✐③❡ t❤❛t ✇❡ s❤♦✉❧❞ tr② t♦ ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ ✈♦❧✉♠❡s ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ ❛r❡❛s✳ ■t ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ❈❛✈❛❧✐❡r✐ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❧❡ ✿

■❢ t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❝r♦ss✲s❡❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t✇♦ s♦❧✐❞s ✐♥ t❤❡ s♣❛❝❡

❤❛✈❡ ❡q✉❛❧ ❛r❡❛s✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡✐r ✈♦❧✉♠❡s ❛r❡ ❛❧s♦ ❡q✉❛❧✳

❚♦ ❝♦♥✜r♠ t❤❛t t❤✐s ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❧❡ ♠❛❦❡s s❡♥s❡✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ♠❛t❝❤ ✐t ✇✐t❤ ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ ❛r❡❛ ✐♥
t❡r♠s ♦❢ ❧❡♥❣t❤s✿

r❡❣✐♦♥s ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ 
■❢ t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❝r♦ss✲s❡❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t✇♦ −− −−
s♦❧✐❞s ✐♥ t❤❡ s♣❛❝❡

❧❡♥❣t❤s 
❛r❡❛s 
❤❛✈❡ ❡q✉❛❧ −− − −✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡✐r −− −− ❛r❡ ❛❧s♦ ❡q✉❛❧✳
❛r❡❛s ✈♦❧✉♠❡s

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ♦✉r s♦❧✐❞ S ✐s ❧♦❝❛t❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❈❛rt❡s✐❛♥ 3✲s♣❛❝❡✳ ■ts ❝r♦ss✲s❡❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ S ✇✐t❤
t❤❡ ✈❛r✐♦✉s ♣❧❛♥❡s✱ ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧❧② t❤❡ ♦♥❡s ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧ t♦ t❤❡ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ ♣❧❛♥❡s✳ ❲❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ t❤♦s❡ ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧ t♦ t❤❡
yz ✲♣❧❛♥❡ ❛♥❞✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r t♦ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✳ ❚❤✉s✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ❛❧❧ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❝r♦ss✲s❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤✐s
s♦❧✐❞ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ t♦ ❛❧❧ ✈❛❧✉❡s x ❛s t❤❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ S ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ♣❧❛♥❡s t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t x ♦♥
t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✳ ❊❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡♠ ✐s ❛ ♣❧❛♥❡ r❡❣✐♦♥ ❛♥❞✱ ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ❈❛✈❛❧✐❡r✐ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❧❡✱ ♦♥❧② ✐ts ❛r❡❛ ❛✛❡❝ts t❤❡
✈♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥✿
✸✳✶✶✳ ❱♦❧✉♠❡s ♦❢ s♦❧✐❞s ✈✐❛ t❤❡✐r ❝r♦ss✲s❡❝t✐♦♥s ✷✹✼

❲❡ ❞❡♥♦t❡ t❤✐s ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝r♦ss✲s❡❝t✐♦♥ ❛t x ❜② A(x)✳ ■t ✐s s✐♠♣❧② ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ x✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✶✶✳✷✿ ❝②❧✐♥❞❡r

❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❝②❧✐♥❞❡r ♦❢ r❛❞✐✉s R ❛♥❞ ❤❡✐❣❤t h❄

■t ✐s ❧♦❝❛t❡❞ ✐♥ ♦✉r 3✲s♣❛❝❡✱ ❜✉t ❛❧❧ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❦♥♦✇ ✐s ✐ts ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥s✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡

A(x) = πR2 .

❇② t❤❡ ❈❛✈❛❧✐❡r✐ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❧❡✱ t❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❝②❧✐♥❞❡r ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❛s t❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❜♦① t❤❡ ❝r♦ss✲
s❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ❛ sq✉❛r❡ ✇✐t❤ ❛r❡❛ πR2 ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t✿

❱♦❧✉♠❡ = πR2 · h .

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥✜r♠ t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❈❛✈❛❧✐❡r✐ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❧❡ ✈✐❛ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✳
❲❡ ♣❧❛❝❡ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s s♦♠❡❤♦✇ ❛❧♦♥❣ t❤❡ s♦❧✐❞✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ s♦❧✐❞ S ❧✐❡s ❡♥t✐r❡❧② ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ s♦♠❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ♣❧❛♥❡s
x = a ❛♥❞ x = b✳ ❲❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡ ✇✐t❤ ❛♥ ❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ P ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b]✿

a = x0 ≤ c1 ≤ x1 ≤ ... ≤ xn = b

❚❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ♣❧❛♥❡s x = xi ❝✉t t❤❡ s♦❧✐❞ ✐♥t♦ n s❧✐❝❡s✳ ❚❤❡ it❤ s❧✐❝❡ ✐s ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✳ ❚❤❡
❝r♦ss✲s❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ S ❝r❡❛t❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ♣❧❛♥❡ x = ci ✐s ❛ ♣❧❛♥❡ r❡❣✐♦♥❀ ✐ts ❛r❡❛ ✐s A(ci )✿
✸✳✶✶✳ ❱♦❧✉♠❡s ♦❢ s♦❧✐❞s ✈✐❛ t❤❡✐r ❝r♦ss✲s❡❝t✐♦♥s ✷✹✽

❲❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝t ❛ ♥❡✇ s♦❧✐❞ ❢r♦♠ t❤✐s ♣❧❛♥❡ r❡❣✐♦♥ ❜② ❣✐✈✐♥❣ ✐t ❛ t❤✐❝❦♥❡ss ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ ∆xi = xi − xi−1 ✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✐ts
✈♦❧✉♠❡ ✐s A(ci ) · ∆xi ✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
n
X
❚♦t❛❧ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ = A(ci ) · ∆xi .
i=1

❚❤✐s ✈❛❧✉❡s ✐s t❤❡♥ r❡❝♦❣♥✐③❡❞ ❛s t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦❢ y = A(x) ♦✈❡r [a, b]✿ Σ A · ∆x✳ ❚❤❡✐r ❧✐♠✐t ✐s t❤❡
❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✳
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✸✳✶✶✳✸✿ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ s♦❧✐❞
❚❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ ❛ s♦❧✐❞ ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ t♦ ❜❡ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧
Z b
A(x) dx ,
a

✐❢ ✐t ❡①✐sts✱ ✇❤❡r❡ A(c) ✐s t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✭✐❢ ✐t ❡①✐sts✮ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s♦❧✐❞ ❛♥❞
t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ x = c✳

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦
❚❤❡ ❛r❡❛ A(x) ✐ts❡❧❢✱ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ x✱ ✐s ✉♥❞❡rst♦♦❞✱ ❛♥❞
♠❛② ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❜❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞✱ ❛s ❛ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✳

❚❤✉s✱ t❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛✿

✸✳✶✶✳ ❱♦❧✉♠❡s ♦❢ s♦❧✐❞s ✈✐❛ t❤❡✐r ❝r♦ss✲s❡❝t✐♦♥s ✷✹✾

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✶✶✳✹✿ s♣❤❡r❡

❚❤❡ ❝r♦ss✲s❡❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ s♣❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡s✿

▼♦r❡ ♣r❡❝✐s❡❧②✱ t❤❡ ❝r♦ss✲s❡❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❧ ❛r❡ ❞✐s❦s ❛♥❞ ✐t ✐s t❤❡ ❛r❡❛s ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❞✐s❦s t❤❛t ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞
t♦ ✜♥❞✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ r❛❞✐✉s ♦❢ t❤✐s ❝✐r❝❧❡ ❛t x ✐s r✳ ❲❤❛t ✐s ✐t❄ ▲❡t✬s t❛❦❡ ❛ s✐❞❡ ✈✐❡✇✿

❚❤❡♥
x2 + r 2 = R 2 .
❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❝✐r❝❧❡ ✐s✿
√ 2
A(x) = π R 2 − x2 = π(R2 − x2 ) .

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱
Z R Z R   R

1 4
❱♦❧✉♠❡ = R2 − x 2
dx = π R2 x − x3  = πR3 .

A(x) dx = π
−R −R 3  3
−R

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❞♦♥❡ ❛❧❧ ♣r❡❧✐♠✐♥❛r② ✇♦r❦ t♦ ❛♥s✇❡r t❤❡ q✉❡st✐♦♥✿ ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❝r♦ss✲s❡❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡
❝✐r❝❧❡s t❤❛t ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ❢r♦♠ s❧✐❝❡ t♦ s❧✐❝❡❄
✸✳✶✶✳ ❱♦❧✉♠❡s ♦❢ s♦❧✐❞s ✈✐❛ t❤❡✐r ❝r♦ss✲s❡❝t✐♦♥s ✷✺✵

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✸✳✶✶✳✺✿ s♦❧✐❞ ♦❢ r❡✈♦❧✉t✐♦♥

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ y = f (x) s❛t✐s✜❡s f (x) ≥ 0 ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x ✐♥ [a, b]✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ s♦❧✐❞ ♦❢ r❡✈♦❧✉t✐♦♥
♦❢ f ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ s❡t ✐♥ t❤❡ xyz ✲s♣❛❝❡✿
p
{(x, y, z) : y 2 + z 2 ≤ f (x) } .

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✳✶✶✳✻✿ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ ❙♦❧✐❞ ♦❢ ❘❡✈♦❧✉t✐♦♥

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ y = f (x) s❛t✐s✜❡s f (x) ≥ 0 ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x ✐♥ [a, b]✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ t❤❡
s♦❧✐❞ ♦❢ r❡✈♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ♦❢ f ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ✐s✿
Z b
V = πf (x)2 dx .
a

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✶✶✳✼
Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✳

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦
❊✈❡♥ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❝r♦ss✲s❡❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡s✱ t❤❡② ♠❛②

❝❤❛♥❣❡ ❢r♦♠ s❧✐❝❡ t♦ s❧✐❝❡ ✐♥ ✇❛②s t❤❛t ❛r❡ s♦ ❝♦♠✲

♣❧❡① t❤❛t ✇❡ ♠❛② ❤❛✈❡ t♦ t✉r♥ t♦ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ✐♥t❡✲

❣r❛t✐♦♥✳

■♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ ❝r♦ss✲s❡❝t✐♦♥s ❝❛♥ ❤❛✈❡ ❛♥② ❣❡♦♠❡tr② ♦r t♦♣♦❧♦❣② ✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✶✶✳✽
❉❡s❝r✐❜❡ t❤❡ ❝r♦ss✲s❡❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ s✉r❢❛❝❡s✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✶✶✳✾✿ ♣②r❛♠✐❞

▲❡t✬s ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ♣②r❛♠✐❞ ✭✐✳❡✳✱ ♦♥❡ ✇✐t❤ ✐ts ❤❡✐❣❤t ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r t♦ ✐ts ❜❛s❡✮ t❤❛t ❤❛s
❛ sq✉❛r❡ ❜❛s❡ ✇✐t❤ s✐❞❡ 2h ❛♥❞ ❤❡✐❣❤t h✳ ■ts ❝r♦ss✲s❡❝t✐♦♥s ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧ t♦ t❤❡ ❜❛s❡ ❛r❡ sq✉❛r❡s ✿
✸✳✶✷✳ ❱♦❧✉♠❡s ♦❢ s♦❧✐❞s ♦❢ r❡✈♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ✷✺✶

❚❤❡ s✐❞❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ sq✉❛r❡ ❧♦❝❛t❡❞ x ✉♥✐ts ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❜❛s❡ ✐s 2(h − x)❀ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱
Z Z h
h h 
2 2
❱♦❧✉♠❡ = A(x) dx = 2
2(h − x) dx = − (h − x)  = h3 .
3
0 0 3  3
0

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✶✶✳✶✵

▼♦❞✐❢② t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ♣②r❛♠✐❞ ✇✐t❤ sq✉❛r❡ ❜❛s❡ ✇✐t❤ s✐❞❡ Q ❛♥❞
❤❡✐❣❤t h✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✶✶✳✶✶

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ❝♦♥❡ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❝✐r❝✉❧❛r ❜❛s❡ ♦❢ r❛❞✐✉s R ❛♥❞ ❤❡✐❣❤t h✳

❲❡ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ✐♥ t❤✐s s❡❝t✐♦♥ t❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ ❛ s♦❧✐❞ ✈✐❛ ✐ts ❝r♦ss✲s❡❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ r❡❧✐❡s ♦♥ t❤❡ ❝②❧✐♥❞r✐❝❛❧
s❧✐❝❡s t♦ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ s♦❧✐❞✳ ❚❤❡s❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♦❜❥❡❝ts ❛r❡ t♦ ❜❡ r❡♣❧❛❝❡❞ ✇✐t❤ tr✉❡ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛r② ❜✉✐❧❞✐♥❣
❜❧♦❝❦s ♦❢ s♦❧✐❞s ✕ ❜r✐❝❦s ❛♥❞ ❜♦①❡s ✕ t♦ ❢♦❧❧♦✇ t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠✳ ❚❤❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✐s
♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✹ ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✹❍❉✲✺✮✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✶✶✳✶✷

✭❛✮ Pr♦✈❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ✇♦r❦ ♥❡❡❞❡❞ t♦ ✜❧❧ ✕ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❜♦tt♦♠ ✕ ❛ t❛♥❦ ❧♦❝❛t❡❞ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡s x = 0
❛♥❞ x = h ✭t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ✐s ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧✮ ❛♥❞ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ ✐ts ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❝r♦ss✲s❡❝t✐♦♥ ❛t ❤❡✐❣❤t x ❡q✉❛❧
Z h
t♦ A(x) ✐s A(x)x dx✳ ✭❜✮ ❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t t❤✐s ✇♦r❦ ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ ✇♦r❦ ♥❡❡❞❡❞ t♦ ♠♦✈❡ t❤✐s ♠❛ss ❢r♦♠
0
❤❡✐❣❤t 0 t♦ t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss ♦❢ t❤❡ t❛♥❦✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✶✶✳✶✸

❙❡t ✉♣ ❜✉t ❞♦ ♥♦t ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❢♦r t❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❜♦① W × D × H
✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ ✐ts ❝r♦ss✲s❡❝t✐♦♥s✳

✸✳✶✷✳ ❱♦❧✉♠❡s ♦❢ s♦❧✐❞s ♦❢ r❡✈♦❧✉t✐♦♥

■♥ t❤✐s s❡❝t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ♠♦r❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① s✉r❢❛❝❡s ♦❢ r❡✈♦❧✉t✐♦♥✳

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r ❛♥ ♦❜❥❡❝t t❤❛t ✐s r♦t❛t❡❞ ❛s ✐t ❤❛r❞❡♥s✿
✸✳✶✷✳ ❱♦❧✉♠❡s ♦❢ s♦❧✐❞s ♦❢ r❡✈♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ✷✺✷

❚❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❡✛❡❝t ✐s ♣r♦❞✉❝❡❞ ❜② ✉s✐♥❣ ❛ ❝✉tt✐♥❣ t♦♦❧ ♦♥ ❛ ❤❛r❞ ♦❜❥❡❝t ❛s ✐t ✐s ❜❡✐♥❣ r♦t❛t❡❞✳
▲❡t✬s r♦t❛t❡ ❛ ❝✉r✈❡✳ ■❢ t❤✐s ❝✉r✈❡ ✐s ❛ ❝✐r❝❧❡✱ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ♦❢ t❤❡ r♦t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s s✐♠✐❧❛r t♦ ❛ s❧✐♥❦②✿

▼❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝❛❧❧②✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❝✉r✈❡ ❛♥❞ ❛ ❧✐♥❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ xy ✲♣❧❛♥❡✱ ✇❡ ❛❞❞ t❤❡ z ✲❛①✐s✱ t❤❡♥ ✇❡ r♦t❛t❡ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡
❛r♦✉♥❞ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t✐♥❣ 3✲s♣❛❝❡✱ ♦♥❡ ♣♦✐♥t ❛t ❛ t✐♠❡✳

❊❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s ❛ ❝✐r❝❧❡✳ ❚♦❣❡t❤❡r t❤❡s❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡s ❢♦r♠ ❛ s✉r❢❛❝❡✳ ❚❤✐s s✉r❢❛❝❡ ❜♦✉♥❞s
❛ s♦❧✐❞✳ ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s s♦❧✐❞❄
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤✐s ❝✉r✈❡ ✐s s✐♠♣❧② t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
y = f (x) ≥ 0, a ≤ x ≤ b ,

❛♥❞ s✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ ✐s t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ♦r t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s✿

✸✳✶✷✳ ❱♦❧✉♠❡s ♦❢ s♦❧✐❞s ♦❢ r❡✈♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ✷✺✸

❆s t❤❡ ❝❤♦✐❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ✐s ❡❛s✐❧② ❛❞❞r❡ss❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❈❛✈❛❧✐❡r✐ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❧❡✱ ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s✳
▲❡t✬s ❜❡ ❝❧❡❛r ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❛r❡ t❛❧❦✐♥❣ ❛❜♦✉t✳ ❚❤❡ s✉r❢❛❝❡ ❝r❡❛t❡❞ ❜② ❛ r♦t❛t❡❞ ❝✉r✈❡ ❤❛s ♥♦ ✈♦❧✉♠❡❀ t❤❡ s♦❧✐❞
✐t ✕ ♣❛rt✐❛❧❧② ✕ ❜♦✉♥❞s ❞♦❡s✳ ❋♦r t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ f ✱ t❤✐s s♦❧✐❞ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s ❡✈❡r② ♣♦✐♥t (x, y, z) t❤❛t
s❛t✐s✜❡s✿
• ■ts ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ✭♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧❧②✮ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s ✐s ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ a ❛♥❞ x ✉♥✐ts✳
• ■ts ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ✭♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧❧②✮ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ xz ✲♣❧❛♥❡ ✐s ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ f (b) ❛♥❞ f (x) ✉♥✐ts✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✶✷✳✶

❉❡s❝r✐❜❡ t❤❡ s♦❧✐❞ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ f ✳

❚❤❡ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❈❛✈❛❧✐❡r✐ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❧❡ ✐s ❜❛s❡❞ ♦♥ ❝✉tt✐♥❣ t❤❡ s♦❧✐❞ ✐♥t♦ ❞✐s❦s✳
❖❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ ✐t ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ✉s❡❞ ❢♦r ❡✐t❤❡r ❝❛s❡✳ ■♥st❡❛❞✱ ✇❡ st❛rt ❢r♦♠ s❝r❛t❝❤ ❛♥❞ ♣✉rs✉❡ t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ ❝✉tt✐♥❣ t❤❡
s♦❧✐❞ ✐♥t♦ ✇❛s❤❡rs ✭r✐♥❣s✮✳
❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ✉s❡✱ ❤♦✇❡✈❡r✱ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❢❛❝t ♣r❡✈✐♦✉s❧② ❞❡r✐✈❡❞ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❈❛✈❛❧✐❡r✐ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❧❡✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✳✶✷✳✷✿ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ ❲❛s❤❡r

❚❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ ❛ ✇❛s❤❡r ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ✐♥♥❡r r❛❞✐✉s r✱ t❤❡ ♦✉t❡r r❛❞✐✉s R✱ ❛♥❞ t❤✐❝❦♥❡ss
h ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❝②❧✐♥❞❡rs✿

❱♦❧✉♠❡ = πR2 h − πr2 h = πh(R2 − r2 ) .

❲❡ ❥✉st s✉❜tr❛❝t t❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡s ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❝②❧✐♥❞❡rs✿

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✶✷✳✸✿ ♣❡❞❡st❛❧

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ ♦❜❥❡❝t ✐s s✐♠♣❧② t❤❡ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ❞✐s❦ ♦❢ r❛❞✐✉s 1 ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✇❛s❤❡r ❛r♦✉♥❞ ✐t ♦❢ t❤✐❝❦♥❡ss
1✿
✸✳✶✷✳ ❱♦❧✉♠❡s ♦❢ s♦❧✐❞s ♦❢ r❡✈♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ✷✺✹

❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ✐s s✐♠♣❧② t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐s❦ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✇❛s❤❡r✿

❱♦❧✉♠❡ = 2 · ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐s❦ +1 · ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✇❛s❤❡r

= 2 · π · 12 +1 · (π · 22 − π · 12 ) .

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✸✳✶✷✳✹✿ ②✉rt

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ t❤✐❝❦♥❡ss ✐s ❝❤❛♥❣✐♥❣ ❧✐♥❡❛r❧② ❢r♦♠ 1 t♦ 2✿

❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s ♦❜❥❡❝t❄ ❊✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❈❛✈❛❧✐❡r✐ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❧❡✱ ✇❡

✇✐❧❧ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ❛❣❛✐♥✳✳✳

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛♥ ❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ P ♦❢ t❤❡ r❛❞✐✉s✿

a = x0 ≤ c1 ≤ x1 ≤ ... ≤ cn ≤ xn = b
❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❣♠❡♥ts✿

∆xi = xi − xi−1 .
❍❡r❡✱ ✇❡ ❝✉t t❤❡ s♦❧✐❞ ✐♥t♦ t❤✐♥ ✇❛s❤❡rs ❜② t❤❡ ❝②❧✐♥❞❡rs st❛rt✐♥❣ ❛t ♣♦✐♥ts x = xi ♦♥ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥

s❛♠♣❧❡ ✐ts ❤❡✐❣❤t ❛t t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ci ✿

✸✳✶✷✳ ❱♦❧✉♠❡s ♦❢ s♦❧✐❞s ♦❢ r❡✈♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ✷✺✺

❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ ✇❛s❤❡r ✐s f (ci )✱ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

▼❛ss ♦❢ it❤ ✇❛s❤❡r = r❛❞✐✉s · ❛r❡❛ = f (ci ) · πx2i − πx2i−1 ,

s✐♥❝❡ t❤❡ ✐♥s✐❞❡ r❛❞✐✉s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✇❛s❤❡r ✐s xi−1 ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♦✉ts✐❞❡ ✐s xi ✳

❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

n
X

❚♦t❛❧ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ = f (ci ) · π x2i − x2i−1
i=1

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ✉s❡ t❤✐s ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s✳

❲❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ s♦❧✐❞ ✐s♥✬t ❛❝t✉❛❧❧② ♠❛❞❡ ♦❢ ✇❛s❤❡rs ❛♥❞ ✐ts t❤✐❝❦♥❡ss ✈❛r✐❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧②❄
❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ ✇❛s❤❡r ✕ ✇❤❡♥ t❤✐♥ ❡♥♦✉❣❤ ✕ ✐s ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ s✉❝❤ ❛ ✇❛s❤❡r ✇✐t❤
t❤❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❤❡✐❣❤t f (ci )✿


♠❛ss ♦❢ it❤ ✇❛s❤❡r ≈ r❛❞✐✉s · ❛r❡❛ = f (ci ) · πx2i − πx2i−1 .

❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
n
X

❚♦t❛❧ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ≈ f (ci ) · π x2i − x2i−1 .
i=1
❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✇❛s❤❡rs ❜✉✐❧t ♦♥ t♦♣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤✐s t✐♠❡✱ ❥✉st ❛s ♦♥ s❡✈❡r❛❧
♦❝❝❛s✐♦♥s ❜❡❢♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❞♦ ♥♦t r❡❝♦❣♥✐③❡ t❤✐s ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ ❛s t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦❢ ❛♥② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r t❤✐s ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✱
✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s s✉♣♣♦s❡❞ t♦ ❜❡✿
Xn
g(ci ) · ∆xi
i=1
❢♦r s♦♠❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ g ✳
❋❛❝t♦r✐♥❣ t❛❦❡s ✉s ♦♥❡ st❡♣ ❝❧♦s❡r t♦ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿
n
X
t♦t❛❧ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ≈ πf (ci )(xi + xi−1 ) · ∆xi .
i=1

❲❡ ❥✉st ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❞♦ s♦♠❡t❤✐♥❣ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ t❡r♠ (xi + xi−1 )✳✳✳

❲❡ ❜❛❝❦ ✉♣ ❛ ❜✐t❀ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡♥✬t ❝❤♦s❡♥ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✦ ▲❡t✬s ❛ss✉♠❡ t❤❛t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡
❝❤♦✐❝❡ ♦❢ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ✐s ♦✉rs✳ ▲❡t✬s ❝❤♦♦s❡ t❤❡ ♠✐❞✲♣♦✐♥ts✿
1
ci = (xi + xi−1 ) .
2
❚❤❡♥✱
n
X
❚♦t❛❧ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ≈ 2π f (ci )ci · ∆xi .
i=1
✸✳✶✷✳ ❱♦❧✉♠❡s ♦❢ s♦❧✐❞s ♦❢ r❡✈♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ✷✺✻

❚❤✐s t✐♠❡✱ ✇❡ ❞♦ r❡❝♦❣♥✐③❡ t❤✐s ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ ❛s t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦❢ ❛ s✐♠♣❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ t❤❡
✈♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s♦❧✐❞ ❛s t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✿

2πΣxf (x) ∆x .

■t ✐s ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t t♦ ❝♦♥✜r♠ t❤❛t t❤✐s ♥❡✇ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ♠❛t❝❤❡s t❤❡ ♦❧❞ ♦♥❡✳
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✸✳✶✷✳✺✿ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ ❙♦❧✐❞ ♦❢ ❘❡✈♦❧✉t✐♦♥

●✐✈❡♥ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ♦♥ s❡❣♠❡♥t [a, b]✱ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦

t❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s♦❧✐❞ ♦❢ r❡✈♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ♦❜t❛✐♥❡❞ ❜② r♦t❛t✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f✿

Z b
❱♦❧✉♠❡ = 2π xf (x) dx .
a

Pr♦♦❢✳

❋♦r s✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t②✱ ✇❡ ❛ss✉♠❡ t❤❛t f ✐s ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣✳ ❲❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❈❛✈❛❧✐❡r✐
♣r✐♥❝✐♣❧❡✳ ❚❤❡ ❝r♦ss✲s❡❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ s♦❧✐❞ ❛❧♦♥❣ t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s ❛r❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡s❀ s♣❡❝✐✜❝❛❧❧②✱ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢
t❤❡ s✉r❢❛❝❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ y = q ✐s ❛ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ♦❢ r❛❞✐✉s f −1 (q)✳

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ s♦❧✐❞ s✇❡♣t ❜② t❤✐s ❝✉r✈❡✳ ❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤✐s✿
Z f −1 (a)
2
❱♦❧✉♠❡ = π f −1 (y) dy .
f −1 (b)

❲❡ ❛♣♣❧② ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② ❙✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ x = f −1 (y)✳ ❚❤❡♥✿

Z a
❱♦❧✉♠❡ = π x2 f ′ (x) dx .
b

❲❡ ❛♣♣❧② ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② P❛rts ✇✐t❤ u = x2 , dv = f ′ dx✳ ❚❤❡♥✿

a Z !
 a
❱♦❧✉♠❡ = π x2 f (x) −

2xf (x) dx
 b
b Z b
2 2
= πa f (a) − πb f (b) + 2π xf (x) dx .
a

❚❤❡ ❡①tr❛ t❡r♠s ❝♦♠❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞✐s❦ ❛t t❤❡ ❜♦tt♦♠ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❝②❧✐♥❞❡r ✐♥ t❤❡ ♠✐❞❞❧❡ t♦ ❜❡ r❡♠♦✈❡❞✿
✸✳✶✷✳ ❱♦❧✉♠❡s ♦❢ s♦❧✐❞s ♦❢ r❡✈♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ✷✺✼

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✶✷✳✻

▼♦❞✐❢② t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ f✳

 ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✹✿ ❙❡✈❡r❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s

❈♦♥t❡♥ts
✹✳✶ ❆ ❜❛❧❧ ✐s t❤r♦✇♥✳✳✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✺✽
✹✳✷ P❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡s ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✻✹
✹✳✸ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✼✹
✹✳✹ ■♥tr♦❞✉❝t✐♦♥ t♦ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦❢ s❡✈❡r❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✽✺
✹✳✺ ❚❤❡ ❝❡♥tr♦✐❞ ♦❢ ❛ ✢❛t ♦❜❥❡❝t ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✾✸
✹✳✻ ❈♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠s❀ ♣♦❧❛r ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✾✼
✹✳✼ ❱❡❝t♦rs ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✵✼
✹✳✽ ❍♦✇ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❡♠❡r❣❡ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✶✷
✹✳✾ ❚❤❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♣❧❛♥❡ C ✐s t❤❡ ❊✉❝❧✐❞❡❛♥ s♣❛❝❡ R2 ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✶✾
✹✳✶✵ ▼✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡rs✿ C ✐s♥✬t ❥✉st R2 ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✷✸
✹✳✶✶ ❉✐s❝r❡t❡ ❢♦r♠s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✷✽
✹✳✶✷ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✸✼

✹✳✶✳ ❆ ❜❛❧❧ ✐s t❤r♦✇♥✳✳✳

▲❡t✬s r❡✈✐❡✇ ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❧❡❛r♥❡❞ ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷❉❈✲✸ ❛❜♦✉t ♠♦t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ❜❛❧❧ ✭♦r ❛ ❝❛♥♥♦♥❜❛❧❧✮✳
❲❤❡♥ ❛ ❜❛❧❧ ✐s t❤r♦✇♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❛✐r ✉♥❞❡r ❛♥ ❛♥❣❧❡✱ ✐t ♠♦✈❡s ✐♥ ❜♦t❤ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛♥❞ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥s✱
s✐♠✉❧t❛♥❡♦✉s❧② ❛♥❞ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t❧②✳ ❚❤❡ ❞②♥❛♠✐❝s ✐s ✈❡r② ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✳ ■♥ t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✱ ❛s t❤❡r❡ ✐s
♥♦ ❢♦r❝❡ ❝❤❛♥❣✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✱ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r r❡♠❛✐♥s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✿

▼❡❛♥✇❤✐❧❡✱ t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t❧② ❝❤❛♥❣❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❣r❛✈✐t②✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t ♦♥ t❤❡
t✐♠❡ ✐s q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝✿
✹✳✶✳ ❆ ❜❛❧❧ ✐s t❤r♦✇♥✳✳✳ ✷✺✾

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤r❡❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✿

• t ✲ t✐♠❡✳
• x ✲ t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥✱ t❤❡ ❞❡♣t❤✱ t❤❛t ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥ t✐♠❡✳
• y ✲ t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥✱ t❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t✱ t❤❛t ❛❧s♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥ t✐♠❡✳
❚❤❡ ♣❛t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❧ ✇✐❧❧ ❛♣♣❡❛r t♦ ❛♥ ♦❜s❡r✈❡r ✕ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ❛♥❣❧❡ ✕ ❛s ❛ ❝✉r✈❡✳ ■t ✐s ♣❧❛❝❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡
xy ✲♣❧❛♥❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥❡❞ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧❧②✿

❋✐rst✱ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✳

❲❡ ✉s❡❞ t❤❡s❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✿
❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧
♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ xn yn
xn+1 − xn yn+1 − yn
✈❡❧♦❝✐t② vn = un =
h h
vn+1 − vn un+1 − un
❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ an = bn =
h h
✇❤❡r❡ h ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ t✐♠❡✳
❚❤❡s❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❝❛♥ ♥♦✇ ❜❡ s♦❧✈❡❞ ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❜❡ ❛❜❧❡ t♦ ♠♦❞❡❧ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✐♠❡✳ ❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t
✐s t❤❡s❡ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❢♦r t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ✿

❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧
❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ an bn
✈❡❧♦❝✐t② vn+1 = vn + han un+1 = un + hbn
♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ xn+1 = xn + hvn yn+1 = yn + hun

Pr♦❜❧❡♠✿ ❋r♦♠ ❛ 200✲❢❡❡t ❡❧❡✈❛t✐♦♥✱ ❛ ❝❛♥♥♦♥ ✐s ✜r❡❞ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧❧② ❛t 200 ❢❡❡t ♣❡r s❡❝♦♥❞✳ ❍♦✇ ❢❛r ✇✐❧❧ t❤❡
❝❛♥♥♦♥❜❛❧❧ ❣♦❄
✹✳✶✳ ❆ ❜❛❧❧ ✐s t❤r♦✇♥✳✳✳ ✷✻✵

❚❤❡ ♣❤②s✐❝s ✐s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

• ❍♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧✿ ❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ❢♦r❝❡✱ ❤❡♥❝❡ an = 0 ❢♦r ❛❧❧ n✳
• ❱❡rt✐❝❛❧✿ ❚❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡ ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❛♥❞ bn = −g ❢♦r ❛❧❧ n✳ ❍❡r❡ g ✐s t❤❡ ❣r❛✈✐t❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❝♦♥st❛♥t✿

g = 32 ❢t✴s❡❝2 .

◆❡①t✱ ✇❡ ❛❝q✉✐r❡ t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s✿

• ❚❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✿ x0 = 0 ❛♥❞ y0 = 200✳
• ❚❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✿ v0 = 200 ❛♥❞ u0 = 0✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✶✳✶✿ ❤♦✇ ❢❛r

❚♦ ✜♥❞ ✇❤❡♥ ❛♥❞ ✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❧ ❤✐ts t❤❡ ❣r♦✉♥❞✱ ✇❡ s❝r♦❧❧ ❞♦✇♥ t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ r♦✇ ✇✐t❤ y ❝❧♦s❡st t♦ 0✿

■t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s s♦♠❡t✐♠❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t = 3.5 ❛♥❞ t = 3.6 s❡❝♦♥❞s✱ s❛② t1 = 3.55 s❡❝♦♥❞s✳ ❙❡❝♦♥❞✱ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s
♦❢ x ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤✐s t✐♠❡ ♣❡r✐♦❞ ❛r❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ x = 700 ❛♥❞ x = 720 ❢❡❡t✱ s❛②✱ x1 = 710 ❢❡❡t✳ ❲❡ ❛❧s♦ ♣❧♦t
t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ x ❛♥❞ y ❛s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t ♦♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✳

❚❤❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t ✐s ❝♦♥str✉❝t❡❞ ❢♦r x ❛♥❞ y s❡♣❛r❛t❡❧②✱ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✳ ❚❤❡ t✐♠❡ ✐s ✐♥ t❤❡ ✜rst ❝♦❧✉♠♥
♣r♦❣r❡ss✐♥❣ ❢r♦♠ 0 ❡✈❡r② 0.05✳ ❚❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s ✐♥ t❤❡ ♥❡①t✱ 0 ❛♥❞ −32✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✳ ■♥ t❤❡
♥❡①t ❝♦❧✉♠♥✱ t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ❡♥t❡r❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ t♦♣ ❝❡❧❧✱ 200 ❛♥❞ 0 r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✳ ❇❡❧♦✇✱ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②
✐s ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ❛s ❛ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r❡✈✐♦✉s ❝♦❧✉♠♥✱ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿

❂❘❬✲✶❪❈✰✭❘❈❬✲✷❪✲❘❬✲✶❪❈❬✲✷❪✮✯❘❬✲✶❪❈❬✲✶❪

■♥ t❤❡ ♥❡①t ❝♦❧✉♠♥✱ t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❡♥t❡r❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ t♦♣ ❝❡❧❧✱ 0 ❛♥❞ 200 r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✳ ❇❡❧♦✇✱ t❤❡
❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ❛s ❛ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r❡✈✐♦✉s ❝♦❧✉♠♥✱ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿

❂❘❬✲✶❪❈✰✭❘❈❬✲✸❪✲❘❬✲✶❪❈❬✲✸❪✮✯❘❈❬✲✶❪

❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧ts ❛r❡ s❤♦✇♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

✹✳✶✳ ❆ ❜❛❧❧ ✐s t❤r♦✇♥✳✳✳ ✷✻✶

❚♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ t♦ t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ❢r♦♠ t❤✐s ❞❛t❛✱ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❞✉r✐♥❣ ✇❤✐❝❤ t❤❡ ❝❛♥♥♦♥❜❛❧❧
❤✐t t❤❡ ❣r♦✉♥❞✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ y = 0✳ ❲❡ ❣♦ ❞♦✇♥ t❤❡ y ❝♦❧✉♠♥ ✉♥t✐❧ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ❝❧♦s❡st t♦ 0❀ ✐t ✐s y = 1.2✳
❲❡ t❤❡♥ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ x❀ ✐t ✐s x = 700✳

P❧♦tt✐♥❣ x ❛❣❛✐♥st y ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s t❤❡ ♣❛t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❛♥♥♦♥❜❛❧❧✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✶✳✷

❯♥❞❡r t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s✱ s♦❧✈❡ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧❧② t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ♦❢ ❤✐tt✐♥❣ ❛ t❛r❣❡t 500 ❢❡❡t ❛✇❛②✳

❲❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❝❛s❡ ♥♦✇✿

• ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧✿ x′′ = 0
• ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧✿ y ′′ = −g
❲❡ st❛rt ❛t t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♣❧❛❝❡ ❛s ❛❜♦✈❡✿
x′′ = 0, x′ (0) = 200, x(0) = 0
y ′′ = −g, y ′ (0) = 0, y(0) = 200

❙✐♥❝❡ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✐s ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t❡ t❤❡s❡✳ ❚❤❡♥ ❢♦r ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
Z
′
x = 0 dt = Cx ,

✇❤❡r❡ Cx ✐s ❛♥② ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳ ◆❡①t✱ ❢♦r t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧✱

Z
′
y = −g dt = −gt + Cy ,

✇❤❡r❡ Cy ✐s ❛♥② ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳

❙✐♥❝❡ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✱ ✇❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t❡ t❤❡s❡✳ ❚❤❡♥ ❢♦r ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
Z Z
′
x= x dt = Cx dt = Cx t + Kx ,
✹✳✶✳ ❆ ❜❛❧❧ ✐s t❤r♦✇♥✳✳✳ ✷✻✷

✇❤❡r❡ Kx ✐s ❛♥② ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳ ◆❡①t✱ ❢♦r t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧✱

Z Z
′
y= y dx = (−gt + Cy ) dt = − 12 gt2 + Cy t + Ky ,

✇❤❡r❡ Ky ✐s ❛♥② ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳

❚❤✉s✱ t❤❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤✐s s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ✐s✿

x = C x t + Kx ,
y = − 12 gt2 + C y t + Ky .

❆♥② ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ❞②♥❛♠✐❝s ✐s ❢♦✉♥❞ ❜② s♣❡❝✐❢②✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦✉r ❝♦♥st❛♥ts✿
Cx , Cy , , Kx , Ky .

❚❤❡ ♣❤②s✐❝s ♦❢ t❤❡ s✐t✉❛t✐♦♥ ❛❧❧♦✇s ✉s t♦ ❛ss✐❣♥ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣s t♦ t❤❡s❡ ❢♦✉r ❝♦♥st❛♥ts✳ ❋✐rst✱

x′ = Cx =⇒ x′ (0) = Cx ,
y ′ = −gt + Cy =⇒ y ′ (0) = Cy .

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱
• Cx ✐s t❤❡ ✭❝♦♥st❛♥t✮ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t ♦❢ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②❀
• Cy ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t ♦❢ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✳
◆❡①t✱
x = Cx t + Kx =⇒ x(0) = Kx ,
y = − 21 gt2 + Cy t + Ky =⇒ y(0) = Ky .
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱
• Kx ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✭❞❡♣t❤✮❀
• Ky ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✭❤❡✐❣❤t✮✳
❚❤✉s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

❉❡♣t❤ = ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❞❡♣t❤ + ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② · t✐♠❡

❍❡✐❣❤t = ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❤❡✐❣❤t + ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② · t✐♠❡ − 21 g · t✐♠❡ 2

❲❡ ✉s❡❞ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s t♦ s♦❧✈❡ ❛ ✈❛r✐❡t② ♦❢ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠s ❛❜♦✉t ♠♦t✐♦♥✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✶✳✸✿ ❤♦✇ ❢❛r

❋r♦♠ ❛ 200✲❢❡❡t ❡❧❡✈❛t✐♦♥✱ ❛ ❝❛♥♥♦♥ ✐s ✜r❡❞ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧❧② ❛t 200 ❢❡❡t ♣❡r s❡❝♦♥❞✳ ❍♦✇ ❢❛r ✇✐❧❧ t❤❡
❝❛♥♥♦♥❜❛❧❧ ❣♦❄

❚❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s✿

• t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✿ 0 ❛♥❞ 200✳
• t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✿ 200 ❛♥❞ 0✳
✹✳✶✳ ❆ ❜❛❧❧ ✐s t❤r♦✇♥✳✳✳ ✷✻✸

❚❤❡♥ ♦✉r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ❜❡❝♦♠❡✿

x = 200t ,
y = 200 −16t2 .
Pr❡✈✐♦✉s❧② ✇❡ s♦❧✈❡❞ t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛❧❧② ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✳ ❚❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t ❛t t❤❡ ❡♥❞ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✢✐❣❤t ✐s y1 = 0✱
s♦ t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ t✐♠❡✱ ✇❡ s❡t y = 200 − 16t2 = 0 ❛♥❞ s♦❧✈❡ ❢♦r t✿
r
200
t1 = ≈ 3.54 .
16
❲❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ t❤✐s ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t ✐♥t♦ x t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ❞❡♣t❤✿
√
5 2
x1 = 200t1 = 200 ≈ 707 .
2

❲❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✐♠❡❄ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

dx
= vx ,
dt
dy
= vy −gt .
dt
❆❞❞✐♥❣ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s t♦ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r t✇♦ ❛❧❧♦✇s ✉s t♦ s♦❧✈❡ ♠♦r❡ ♣r♦❢♦✉♥❞ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠s✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✶✳✹✿ ✐♠♣❛❝t

■♥ t❤❡ s❡tt✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ❤♦✇ ❤❛r❞ ❞♦❡s t❤❡ ❜❛❧❧ ❤✐t t❤❡ ❣r♦✉♥❞❄

❋✐rst✱ ✇❡ ❡①❛♠✐♥❡ t❤❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t✳ ■♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s ✭✐✳❡✳✱
t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts✮ t♦ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s✳ ❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r x′ ✐s✿
❂✭❘❈❬✲✷❪✲❘❬✲✶❪❈❬✲✷❪✮✴✭❘❈❬✲✸❪✲❘❬✲✶❪❈❬✲✸❪✮
❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r y ′ ✐s✿
❂✭❘❈❬✲✷❪✲❘❬✲✶❪❈❬✲✷❪✮✴✭❘❈❬✲✹❪✲❘❬✲✶❪❈❬✲✹❪✮
❚❤❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦rs r❡❢❡r t♦ t❤❡ ❝♦❧✉♠♥ t❤❛t ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s t❤❡ t✐♠❡✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛t♦r r❡❢❡rs t♦ t❤❡ ❝♦❧✉♠♥s
t❤❛t ❝♦♥t❛✐♥ x ❛♥❞ y r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✳

▲♦♦❦✐♥❣ ❛t t❤❡ s❛♠❡ r♦✇ ❛s ❜❡❢♦r❡✱ ✇❡ s❡❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛t t❤❡ ♠♦♠❡♥t ♦❢ ✐♠♣❛❝t ✐s
❜❡t✇❡❡♥ −110.4 ❛♥❞ −113.6 ❢❡❡t ♣❡r s❡❝♦♥❞✳

◆♦✇✱ t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✳ ❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❢♦r t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s t❛❦❡ t❤✐s ❢♦r♠✿
dx
= 200 ,
dt
dy
= −32t .
dt
▲❡t✬s ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛t t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ♦❢ ❝♦♥t❛❝t✳ ❲❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ✇❡✬✈❡ ❢♦✉♥❞✱
√
5 2
t1 = ,
2
✹✳✷✳ P❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡s ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ ✷✻✹

✐♥t♦ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❢♦r ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✿

dx 
 = 200,
dt t=t1 √
dy  5 2
 = −32t1 = −32 ≈ −112 .
dt t=t1 2
❚❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r ♠❛t❝❤❡s ♦✉r ❡st✐♠❛t❡✳

❇✉t ✇❤✐❝❤ ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ♥✉♠❜❡rs r❡♣r❡s❡♥t ❤♦✇ ❢❛st t❤❡ ❜❛❧❧ ❤✐ts t❤❡ ❣r♦✉♥❞❄ ■t ✐s t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ✐❢ t❤❡
❜❛❧❧ ❤✐ts t❤❡ ✭❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧✮ s✉r❢❛❝❡✱ ❛♥❞ ✐t ✐s t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ✐❢ t❤✐s ✐s ❛ ✇❛❧❧✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❛♥s✇❡r s❤♦✉❧❞
❜❡ ❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ t❤❡② s❤♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡❞ ✈✐❛ t❤❡ P②t❤❛❣♦r❡❛♥ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✿

❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ ✐♠♣❛❝t ✐s ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡❞ ❜② t❤✐s ♥✉♠❜❡r✿

p
2002 + (−112)2 ≈ 229 .

✹✳✷✳ P❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡s ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✷✳✶✿ ❜❛❧❧

■♠❛❣✐♥❡ ❛ ♣❡rs♦♥ ♦❜s❡r✈✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✢✐❣❤t ♦❢ ❛ t❤r♦✇♥ ❜❛❧❧ ❛s ✐t ♣❛ss❡s ❜②✿

■s t❤❡r❡ ❛♥♦t❤❡r ✇❛② t♦ ❝❛♣t✉r❡ t❤✐s ✢✐❣❤t❄ ■♠❛❣✐♥❡ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ t✇♦ ♠♦r❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❡rs✿
• ❚❤❡ ✜rst ♦♥❡ ✭r❡❞✮ ✐s ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r♦✉♥❞ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ♣❛t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❧ ❛♥❞ ❝❛♥ ♦♥❧② s❡❡ t❤❡ ❢♦r✇❛r❞
♣r♦❣r❡ss ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❧✳
• ❚❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ♦♥❡ ✭❣r❡❡♥✮ ✐s ❜❡❤✐♥❞ t❤❡ t❤r♦✇ ❛♥❞ ❝❛♥ s❡❡ ♦♥❧② t❤❡ r✐s❡ ❛♥❞ ❢❛❧❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❧✳
✹✳✷✳ P❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡s ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ ✷✻✺

■❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ♠❛❦❡ r❡❝♦r❞s ♦❢ ✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❧ ✇❛s ❛t ✇❤❛t t✐♠❡✱ t❤❡② ❝❛♥ ✉s❡ t❤❡ t✐♠❡ st❛♠♣s t♦ ♠❛t❝❤ t❤❡
t✇♦ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ♣❧♦t t❤✐s ♣♦✐♥t ♦♥ t❤❡ xy ✲♣❧❛♥❡✳ ❚❤❡s❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ✇✐❧❧ ❢♦r♠ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❧✬s tr❛❥❡❝t♦r②✱
✇❤❛t t❤❡ ✜rst ♦❜s❡r✈❡r s❛✇✳ ■t ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡✳

❈✉r✈❡s ❛r❡♥✬t r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❛s ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ■♥ ❢❛❝t✱ y ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❞❡♣❡♥❞ ♦♥ x ❛♥②♠♦r❡✱ ❜✉t t❤❡② ❛r❡
r❡❧❛t❡❞ t♦ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r✳ ❚❤❡ ❧✐♥❦ ✐s ❡st❛❜❧✐s❤❡❞ ❜② ♠❡❛♥s ♦❢ ❛♥♦t❤❡r ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✱ t✳ ❙♦✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s
t❤❛t ❤❛✈❡ ♥♦t❤✐♥❣ t♦ ❞♦ ✇✐t❤ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r ❡①❝❡♣t t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉ts ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ♠❛t❝❤❡❞✳
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✹✳✷✳✷✿ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡
❆ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ ✐s ❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❛♠❡
✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✿
(
x = f (t)
y = g(t)

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❈❛rt❡s✐❛♥ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ♣♦✐♥ts t♦ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤✐s ❝✉r✈❡✿


(x, y) = f (t), g(t)

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✷✳✸
❊①♣❧❛✐♥ ❤♦✇ ❛ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡ ✐s ❛ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✷✳✹✿ ♣❧♦tt❡r

❆ ❝✉r✈❡ ♠❛② ❜❡ ♣❧♦tt❡❞ ♦♥ ❛ ♣✐❡❝❡ ♦❢ ♣❛♣❡r ❜② ❤❛♥❞ ♦r ❜② ❛ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡r ❜② t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ♠❡t❤♦❞✳ ❆ ♣❡♥
✐s ❛tt❛❝❤❡❞ t♦ ❛ r✉♥♥❡r ♦♥ ❛ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❜❛r✱ ✇❤✐❧❡ t❤❛t ❜❛r s❧✐❞❡s ❛❧♦♥❣ ❛ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ r❛✐❧ ❛t t❤❡ ❜♦tt♦♠
❡❞❣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛♣❡r✿
✹✳✷✳ P❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡s ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ ✷✻✻

❚❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡r ❝♦♠♠❛♥❞s t❤❡ ♥❡①t ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❜♦t❤ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✳ ❆t ❡❛❝❤ ♠♦♠❡♥t ♦❢ t✐♠❡ t✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❜❛r ✭❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♣❡♥✮ ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② x = f (t)✳
✷✳ ❚❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❡♥ ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② y = g(t)✳

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❚❤✐s ✈✐❡✇ ♦❢ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡s ✐s ♠♦st ✉s❡❢✉❧ ✇✐t❤✐♥

t❤❡ ❢r❛♠❡✇♦r❦ ♦❢ ♠✉❧t✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ s♣❛❝❡s ❛♥❞ ✈❡❝✲
t♦rs✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✷✳✺✿ str❛✐❣❤t ❧✐♥❡s

▲❡t✬s ❡①❛♠✐♥❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ❛❧♦♥❣ ❛ str❛✐❣❤t ❧✐♥❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ xy ✲♣❧❛♥❡✳

❋✐rst ✇❡ ❣♦ ❛❧♦♥❣ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✳ ❚❤❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ✐s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❜② ❛ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✐♠❡✿
x = 2t + 1 .

❲❡ ❛r❡ ♠♦✈✐♥❣ 2 ❢❡❡t ♣❡r s❡❝♦♥❞ t♦ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t st❛rt✐♥❣ ❛t x = 1✳ ❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ ❛ ❢❡✇ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s✿

❙❡❝♦♥❞ ✇❡ ❣♦ ❛❧♦♥❣ t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s✳ ❚❤❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ✐s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❜② ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✐♠❡✿
y = 3t + 2 .

❲❡ ❛r❡ ♠♦✈✐♥❣ 3 ❢❡❡t ♣❡r s❡❝♦♥❞ ✉♣ st❛rt✐♥❣ ❛t y = 2✳ ❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ ❛ ❢❡✇ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s✿

◆♦✇✱ ✇❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❛r❡ ❥✉st t✇♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ✈✐❡✇s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ t✇♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ♦❜s❡r✈❡rs❄
❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿ (
x = 2t + 1 ,
y = 3t + 2 .
❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ ❛ ❢❡✇ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s✿
✹✳✷✳ P❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡s ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ ✷✻✼

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✷✳✻

❊①♣❧❛✐♥ ✇❤② t❤❡s❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ❧✐❡ ♦♥ ❛ str❛✐❣❤t ❧✐♥❡✳ ❍✐♥t✿ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡s✳

❖❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ t❤❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ♠❡t❛♣❤♦r ✕ x ❛♥❞ y ❛r❡ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ s♣❛❝❡ ✕ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ s✉♣❡rs❡❞❡❞✳ ■♥ ❝♦♥tr❛st
t♦ t❤✐s ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤✱ ✇❡ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ t✇♦ q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s ❛♥❞ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s t❤❛t ♠✐❣❤t ❤❛✈❡ ♥♦t❤✐♥❣ t♦ ❞♦ ✇✐t❤ ❡❛❝❤
♦t❤❡r ✭❡①❝❡♣t ❢♦r t✱ ♦❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✮✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✷✳✼✿ ❝♦♠♠♦❞✐t✐❡s tr❛❞❡r

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ ❝♦♠♠♦❞✐t✐❡s tr❛❞❡r ❢♦❧❧♦✇s t❤❡ ♠❛r❦❡t✳ ❲❤❛t ❤❡ s❡❡s ✐s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿
• t ✲ t✐♠❡
• x ✲ t❤❡ ♣r✐❝❡ ♦❢ ✇❤❡❛t ✭s❛②✱ ✐♥ ❞♦❧❧❛rs ♣❡r ❜✉s❤❡❧✮
• y ✲ t❤❡ ♣r✐❝❡ ♦❢ s✉❣❛r ✭s❛②✱ ✐♥ ❞♦❧❧❛rs ♣❡r t♦♥✮
❲❡ s✐♠♣❧② ❤❛✈❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ✕ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧❧② ✕ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡♠ s❡♣❛r❛t❡❧②✳

❋✐rst✱ ❧❡t✬s ✐♠❛❣✐♥❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ♣r✐❝❡ ♦❢ ✇❤❡❛t ✐s ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣✿

x ց
❚❤❡ ❞❛t❛ ❝♦♠❡s t♦ t❤❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❡r ✐♥ ❛ ♣✉r❡✱ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ❢♦r♠✳ ❚♦ s✐♠✉❧❛t❡ t❤✐s s✐t✉❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ t♦ ♠❛❦❡
t❤✐s s♣❡❝✐✜❝✱ ♦♥❡ ❝❛♥ ❝❤♦♦s❡ ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✱ ❢♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✿
1
x = f (t) = .
t+1
❚♦ s❤♦✇ s♦♠❡ ❛❝t✉❛❧ ❞❛t❛✱ ✇❡ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡ x ❢♦r s❡✈❡r❛❧ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t✿

t x
0 1.00
1 0.50
2 0.33
❲✐t❤ ♠♦r❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ❛❝q✉✐r❡❞ ✐♥ ❛ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ♣❧♦t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦♥ t❤❡ tx✲♣❧❛♥❡✿
✹✳✷✳ P❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡s ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ ✷✻✽

❆t t❤✐s ♣♦✐♥t✱ ✇❡ ❝♦✉❧❞✱ ✐❢ ♥❡❡❞❡❞✱ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ ❛✈❛✐❧❛❜❧❡ ❛♣♣❛r❛t✉s t♦ st✉❞② t❤❡ s②♠♠❡tr✐❡s✱ t❤❡
♠♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t②✱ t❤❡ ❡①tr❡♠❡ ♣♦✐♥ts✱ ❡t❝✳ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳

❙❡❝♦♥❞✱ s✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ♣r✐❝❡ ♦❢ s✉❣❛r ✐s ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣✿

y րց

❚♦ ♠❛❦❡ t❤✐s s♣❡❝✐✜❝✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❝❤♦♦s❡ ❛♥ ✉♣s✐❞❡✲❞♦✇♥ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛✿

y = g(t) = −(t − 1)2 + 2 .

❲❡ t❤❡♥ ❛❣❛✐♥ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡ y ❢♦r s❡✈❡r❛❧ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t✿

t y
0 1.00
1 2.00
2 1.00

❲✐t❤ ♠♦r❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ❛❝q✉✐r❡❞ ✐♥ ❛ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t✱ ✇❡ ♣❧♦t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦♥ t❤❡ ty ✲♣❧❛♥❡✿

❲❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ tr❛❞❡r ✐s ✐♥t❡r❡st❡❞ ✐♥ ✜♥❞✐♥❣ ❤✐❞❞❡♥ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥s ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❝♦♠♠♦❞✐t✐❡s✳ ▲❡t✬s
❝♦♠❜✐♥❡ t❤❡ ❞❛t❛ ✜rst✿

t x t y t x y
0 1.00 0 1.00 0 1.00 1.00
❛♥❞ −→
1 0.50 1 2.00 1 0.50 2.00
2 0.33 2 1.00 2 0.33 1.00

❙✐♥❝❡ t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t t ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡✱ ✇❡ ❣✐✈❡ ✐t ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ❝♦❧✉♠♥✳ ❚❤❡r❡ s❡❡♠s t♦ ❜❡ t✇♦ ♦✉t♣✉ts✳ ❆ ❜❡tt❡r
✐❞❡❛ ✐s t♦ s❡❡ ♣❛✐rs (x, y)✿
t ( x , y )
0 ( 1.00 , 1.00 )
1 ( 0.50 , 2.00 )
2 ( 0.33 , 1.00 )
❆ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ x ✐s ♣❛✐r❡❞ ✉♣ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ y ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡② ❛♣♣❡❛r ❛❧♦♥❣ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ t ✐♥ ❜♦t❤ ♣❧♦ts✳

❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡ t❤❡ t✇♦ ♣❧♦ts ❄ ❆s t❤❡ t✇♦ ♣❧♦ts ❛r❡ ♠❛❞❡ ♦❢ ✭✐♥✐t✐❛❧❧②✮ ❞✐s❝♦♥♥❡❝t❡❞ ♣♦✐♥ts ✕ (t, x)
❛♥❞ (t, y) ✕ s♦ ✐s t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ♣❧♦t✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s t♦ ❡❛❝❤ ♣❛✐r✿
✹✳✷✳ P❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡s ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ ✷✻✾

❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ t✦ ❆s t❤❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❢♦r ❜♦t❤ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ♦♥❧② t❤❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s
❛♣♣❡❛r✳ ■♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ ♣❧♦tt✐♥❣ ❛❧❧ ♣♦✐♥ts (t, x, y)✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ❜❡❧♦♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ 3✲❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ s♣❛❝❡✱ ✇❡ ❥✉st ♣❧♦t
(x, y) ♦♥ t❤❡ xy ✲♣❧❛♥❡ ✕ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ t✳ ■t✬s ❛ ✏s❝❛tt❡r ♣❧♦t✑ ❝♦♥♥❡❝t❡❞ t♦ ♠❛❦❡ ❛ ❝✉r✈❡✿

❚❤❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ♠❛tt❡rs✦ ❙✐♥❝❡ t ✐s ♠✐ss✐♥❣✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ♠❛❦❡ s✉r❡ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ✐♥ ✇❤✐❝❤ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ✇❡ ❛r❡
♠♦✈✐♥❣ ❛♥❞ ✐♥❞✐❝❛t❡ t❤❛t ✇✐t❤ ❛♥ ❛rr♦✇✳ ■❞❡❛❧❧②✱ ✇❡ ❛❧s♦ ❧❛❜❡❧ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ✐♥❞✐❝❛t❡ ♥♦t ♦♥❧②
✏✇❤❡r❡✑ ❜✉t ❛❧s♦ ✏✇❤❡♥✑✿

❚❤✉s✱ t❤✐s ✐s ♠♦t✐♦♥✱ ❥✉st ❛s ❜❡❢♦r❡✱ ❜✉t t❤r♦✉❣❤ ✇❤❛t s♣❛❝❡❄ ❆♥ ❛❜str❛❝t s♣❛❝❡ ♦❢ ♣r✐❝❡s t❤❛t ✇❡✬✈❡
♠❛❞❡ ✉♣✳ ❚❤❡ s♣❛❝❡ ✐s ❝♦♠♣r✐s❡❞ ♦❢ ❛❧❧ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ♣r✐❝❡s✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ ❛ ♣♦✐♥t (x, y) st❛♥❞s ❢♦r
❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ♣r✐❝❡s✿ x ❢♦r ✇❤❡❛t ❛♥❞ y ❢♦r s✉❣❛r✳

❍♦✇ ♠✉❝❤ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❞②♥❛♠✐❝s ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ♣r✐❝❡s ❝♦♥t❛✐♥❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❝❛♥
✇❡ r❡❝♦✈❡r ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ❣r❛♣❤❄ ❆ ❧♦t✳ ❲❡ ❝❛♥ s❤r✐♥❦ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧❧② t♦ ❞❡✲❡♠♣❤❛s✐③❡ t❤❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡
♦❢ y ❛♥❞ t♦ r❡✈❡❛❧ t❤❡ q✉❛❧✐t❛t✐✈❡ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ♦❢ x✱ ❛♥❞ ✈✐❝❡ ✈❡rs❛✿
✹✳✷✳ P❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡s ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ ✷✼✵

❲❡ s❡❡ t❤❡ ❞❡❝r❡❛s❡ ♦❢ x ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡❛s❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❞❡❝r❡❛s❡ ♦❢ y ✳ ■♥ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡ ❞❡♥s✐t②
♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ✐♥❞✐❝❛t❡s t❤❡ s♣❡❡❞ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✷✳✽✿ ❛❜str❛❝t

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❞♦ t❤✐s ✐♥ ❛ ❢✉❧❧② ❛❜str❛❝t s❡tt✐♥❣✳ ❲❤❡♥ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ f, g ✱ ❛r❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❜② t❤❡✐r r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡
❧✐sts ♦❢ ✈❛❧✉❡s ✭✐♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s✮✱ t❤❡② ❛r❡ ❡❛s✐❧② ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡❞ ✐♥t♦ ❛ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡✱ F ✳ ❲❡ ❥✉st ♥❡❡❞
t♦ ❡❧✐♠✐♥❛t❡ t❤❡ r❡♣❡❛t❡❞ ❝♦❧✉♠♥ ♦❢ ✐♥♣✉ts✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿

t x = f (t) t y = g(t)
0 1 0 5
1 2 1 −1
& = ?
2 3 2 2
3 0 3 3
4 1 4 0

❲❡ r❡♣❡❛t t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉ts ❝♦❧✉♠♥ ✕ ♦♥❧② ♦♥❝❡ ✕ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ r❡♣❡❛t t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉ts ♦❢ ❡✐t❤❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ❋✐rst r♦✇✿

f : 0 7→ 1 & g : 0 7→ 5 =⇒ F : 0 7→ (0, 5)

❙❡❝♦♥❞ r♦✇✿
f : 1 7→ 2 & g : 1 7→ −1 =⇒ F : 1 7→ (2, −1)
❆♥❞ s♦ ♦♥✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥✿

t x = f (t) t y = g(t) t P = (f (t) , g(t))

0 1 0 5 0 (1 , 5)
1 2 1 −1 1 (2 , −1)
❛♥❞ −→
2 3 2 2 2 (3 , 2)
3 0 3 3 3 (0 , 3)
4 1 4 0 4 (1 , 0)

❆s ②♦✉ ❝❛♥ s❡❡✱ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♥♦ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ❝❛rr✐❡❞ ♦✉t ❛♥❞ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ♥❡✇ ❞❛t❛✱ ❥✉st t❤❡ ♦❧❞
❞❛t❛ ❛rr❛♥❣❡❞ ✐♥ ❛ ♥❡✇ ✇❛②✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✐t ✐s ❜❡❝♦♠✐♥❣ ❝❧❡❛r t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧✐st ✐s ❛❧s♦ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s♦♠❡ ❦✐♥❞✳

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❚❤❡ ❡♥❞ r❡s✉❧t ✐s♥✬t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛♥② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳

✹✳✷✳ P❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡s ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ ✷✼✶

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✷✳✾✿ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t

❚❤✐s ✐s ❛ s✉♠♠❛r② ♦❢ ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡ ✐s ❢♦r♠❡❞ ❢r♦♠ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞ ✐♥ ❛ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t✳
❚❤❡ t❤r❡❡ ❝♦❧✉♠♥s ✕ t ✱ x✱ ❛♥❞ y ✕ ❛r❡ ❝♦♣✐❡❞ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st t✇♦ ❛r❡ ✉s❡❞ t♦ ❝r❡❛t❡ ❛ ❝❤❛rt✿

❚❤✐s ❝❤❛rt ✐s t❤❡ ♣❛t❤ ✕ ♥♦t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ✕ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡✳ ◆♦t❡ ❛❧s♦ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ ✐s♥✬t t❤❡
❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛♥② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ♦♥❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❛s t❤❡ ❱❡rt✐❝❛❧ ▲✐♥❡ ❚❡st ✐s ✈✐♦❧❛t❡❞✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✷✳✶✵✿ ♣❛tt❡r♥

P❧♦tt✐♥❣ ❛ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡ ♠❛② r❡✈❡❛❧ ❛ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t✇♦ q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s✿

P❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡s ❛r❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✦

❚❤✐s ✐❞❡❛ ❝♦♠❡s ✇✐t❤ ❝❡rt❛✐♥ ♦❜❧✐❣❛t✐♦♥s ✭❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✮✳ ❋✐rst✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ♥❛♠❡ ✐t✱ s❛② F✳ ❙❡❝♦♥❞✱ ❛s ✇❡
❝♦♠❜✐♥❡ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✇❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r t❤✐s ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥✿

♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡

(
x = f (t)
F = (f, g) :
y = g(t)

◆❡①t✱ ✇❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❄ ■t ✐s t✳ ❆❢t❡r ❛❧❧✱ t❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t ♦❢ ❜♦t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐♥✈♦❧✈❡❞✳
❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❄ ■t ✐s t❤❡ ✏❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥✑ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉ts ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ x ❛♥❞ y✳
❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ ❤♦✇ t♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡ t❤❡s❡❀ ✇❡ ❢♦r♠ ❛ ♣❛✐r✱ P = (x, y)✳ ❚❤✐s P ✐s ❛ ♣♦✐♥t ♦♥ t❤❡ xy ✲♣❧❛♥❡✦
❚♦ s✉♠♠❛r✐③❡✱ ✇❡ ❞♦ ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❞♦♥❡ ♠❛♥② t✐♠❡s ❜❡❢♦r❡ ✭❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥✱ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥✱ ❡t❝✳✮ ✕ ✇❡ ❝r❡❛t❡
❛ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ t✇♦ ♦❧❞ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❲❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❞✐❛❣r❛♠♠❛t✐❝❛❧❧② ❛s ❛ ❜❧❛❝❦ ❜♦① t❤❛t
✹✳✷✳ P❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡s ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ ✷✼✷

♣r♦❝❡ss❡s t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t ❛♥❞ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉t✿

✐♥♣✉t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦✉t♣✉t

t → f → x

◆♦✇✱ ✇❤❛t ✐❢ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ g✿

✐♥♣✉t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦✉t♣✉t

t → g → y

❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t F = (f, g)❄ ❚♦ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t ✐t ❛s ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ✏✇✐r❡✑ t❤❡✐r ❞✐❛❣r❛♠s
t♦❣❡t❤❡r s✐❞❡ ❜② s✐❞❡✿

t → f → x
|| l
t → g → y
■t ✐s ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t ♦❢ f ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❛s t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t ♦❢ g✳ ❋♦r t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉ts✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡ t❤❡♠
❡✈❡♥ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡② ❛r❡ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ♥❛t✉r❡✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❞✐❛❣r❛♠ ♦❢ ❛ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

ր t → f → x ց
(f, g) : t → t (x, y) → P
ց t → g → y ր

❲❡ s❡❡ ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ t ✐s ❝♦♣✐❡❞ ✐♥t♦ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ♣r♦❝❡ss❡❞ ❜② t❤❡♠ ✐♥ ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧✱ ❛♥❞ ✜♥❛❧❧②
t❤❡ t✇♦ ♦✉t♣✉ts ❛r❡ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡❞ t♦❣❡t❤❡r t♦ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ♦✉t♣✉t✳ ❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ❝❛♥ ❜❡ s❡❡♥ ❛❣❛✐♥ ❛s ❛ ❜❧❛❝❦
❜♦①✿
t → F → P
❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❢r♦♠ ❛❧❧ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ s❡❡♥ s♦ ❢❛r ✐s t❤❡ ♥❛t✉r❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉t✳

❲❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ✐♠❛❣❡ ✭t❤❡ r❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛❧✉❡s✮ ♦❢ F = (f, g)❄ ■t ✐s s✉♣♣♦s❡❞ t♦ ❜❡ ❛ r❡❝♦r❞✐♥❣ ♦❢ ❛❧❧ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡
♦✉t♣✉ts ♦❢ F✳ ❚❤❡ t❡r♠✐♥♦❧♦❣② ✉s❡❞ ✐s ♦❢t❡♥ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t t❤♦✉❣❤✳

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✹✳✷✳✶✶✿ ♣❛t❤ ♦❢ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡

❚❤❡ ♣❛t❤ ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡ x = f (t), y = g(t) ✐s t❤❡ s❡t ♦❢ ❛❧❧ s✉❝❤ ♣♦✐♥ts
P = (f (t), g(t)) ♦♥ t❤❡ xy ✲♣❧❛♥❡✳

❚❤❡ ♣❛t❤ ✐s t②♣✐❝❛❧❧② ❛ ❝✉r✈❡✳ ❲❡ ♣❧♦t s❡✈❡r❛❧ ♦❢ t❤❡♠ ❜❡❧♦✇✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✷✳✶✷✿ ♣❛t❤

■♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ t❤❡ t✇♦ ♣r♦❝❡ss❡s✱ x = x(t) ❛♥❞ y = y(t)✱ ❛r❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t✳ ❲❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡ t❤❡♠ t♦ s❡❡
t❤❡ ♣❛t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦❜❥❡❝t ❜② ♣❧♦tt✐♥❣ (x, y) ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ t✱ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ♠❛② ❜❡ ✉♥❡①♣❡❝t❡❞✿
✹✳✷✳ P❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡s ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ ✷✼✸

❲❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ F = (f, g)❄ ❆s ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ❢r♦♠ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶✱ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s s✉♣♣♦s❡❞ t♦ ❜❡
❛ r❡❝♦r❞✐♥❣ ♦❢ ❛❧❧ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ✐♥♣✉ts ❛♥❞ ♦✉t♣✉ts ♦❢ F ✳ ❲❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉ts ❛r❡ 2✲❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧❄
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✹✳✷✳✶✸✿ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡
❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡ x = f (t), y = g(t) ✐s t❤❡ s❡t ♦❢ ❛❧❧ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡
❢♦r♠✿
(t, x, y) = (t, f (t), g(t))
✐♥ t❤❡ txy ✲s♣❛❝❡✳

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ✐s ❜✉✐❧t ❢r♦♠ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦✿

• t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ x = f (t) ♦♥ t❤❡ tx✲♣❧❛♥❡ ✭t❤❡ ✢♦♦r✮✱ ❛♥❞
• t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y = g(t) ♦♥ t❤❡ ty ✲♣❧❛♥❡ ✭t❤❡ ✇❛❧❧ ❢❛❝✐♥❣ ✉s✮✳
■t ✐s ❛ ❝✉r✈❡ ✐♥ s♣❛❝❡✱ ❛❦✐♥ t♦ ❛ ♣✐❡❝❡ ♦❢ ✇✐r❡✿

❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ s❤❛❞♦✇ ♦❢ t❤✐s ✇✐r❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✢♦♦r ✐s t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ x = f (t) ✭❧✐❣❤t ❢r♦♠ ❛❜♦✈❡✮✳ ■❢ t❤❡ ❧✐❣❤t ✐s ❜❡❤✐♥❞ ✉s✱
t❤❡ s❤❛❞♦✇ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✇❛❧❧ ✐♥ ❢r♦♥t ✐s t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ y = g(t)✳ ■♥ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥✱ ♣♦✐♥t✐♥❣ ❛ ✢❛s❤❧✐❣❤t ❢r♦♠ r✐❣❤t t♦ ❧❡❢t
✹✳✸✳ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✷✼✹

✇✐❧❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ t❤❡ ♣❛t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ xy ✲♣❧❛♥❡✳

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠♠❛r② ♦❢ t❤❡ t❡r♠✐♥♦❧♦❣②✿

t②♣❡s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡s ♠♦t✐♦♥

t❤❡ s❡t ♦❢ ❛❧❧ ♦✉t♣✉ts✿ ✐♠❛❣❡ r❛♥❣❡ ♣❛t❤ tr❛❥❡❝t♦r②

✹✳✸✳ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s

❆♥② ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✇✐t❤ t✇♦ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❛♥❞ ♦♥❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ st✉❞✐❡❞ ✐♥ t❤✐s ♠❛♥♥❡r✿

a = wd ♦r z = x + y .

❙✉❝❤ ❛♥ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✳ ❚❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

g(w, d) = wd ♦r f (x, y) = x + y .

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✸✳✶✿ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s

▲❡t
f (x, y) = x + y .
❲❡ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡ t❤✐s ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❋✐rst✱ ❜② ❝❤❛♥❣✐♥❣ ✕ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t❧② ✖ t❤❡ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✱ ✇❡
❝r❡❛t❡ ❛ t❛❜❧❡ ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ✭❧❡❢t✮✳ ❲❡ ❝❛♥✱ ❢✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ ❝♦❧♦r t❤✐s ❛rr❛② ♦❢ ❝❡❧❧s ✭♠✐❞❞❧❡✮ s♦ t❤❛t t❤❡
❝♦❧♦r ♦❢ t❤❡ (x, y)✲❝❡❧❧ ✐s ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ z ✿

❚❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ z ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ❜❡ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡❞ ❛s t❤❡ ❡❧❡✈❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ♣♦✐♥t ❛t t❤❛t ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✭r✐❣❤t✮✳

❙♦✱ t❤❡ ♠❛✐♥ ♠❡t❛♣❤♦r ❢♦r ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ t❡rr❛✐♥ ✿

❊❛❝❤ ❧✐♥❡ ✐♥❞✐❝❛t❡s ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❡❧❡✈❛t✐♦♥✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✸✳✷✿ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡

❚❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❈❛rt❡s✐❛♥ ♣❧❛♥❡ ❝r❡❛t❡s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡
❢r♦♠ ❛ ♣♦✐♥t (x, y) t♦ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥✿ p
z = x2 + y 2 .
✹✳✸✳ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✷✼✺

❙❧✐❣❤t❧② s✐♠♣❧❡r ✐s t❤❡ sq✉❛r❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❢r♦♠ ❛ ♣♦✐♥t (x, y) t♦ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥✿
z = x2 + y 2 .

❲❡ ❝r❡❛t❡ ❛ t❛❜❧❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t ✐♥ ❛ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿
❂❘❈✶✂ ✷✰❘✶❈✂ ✷

❲❡ t❤❡♥ ❝♦❧♦r t❤❡ ❝❡❧❧s✿

❚❤❡ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ z ❛r❡ ✐♥ ❜❧✉❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ❛r❡ ✐♥ r❡❞✳ ❚❤❡ ❝✐r❝✉❧❛r ♣❛tt❡r♥ ✐s ❝❧❡❛r✳

❚❤❡ ♣❛tt❡r♥ s❡❡♠s t♦ ❜❡ ♠❛❞❡ ❢r♦♠ ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr✐❝ ❝✐r❝❧❡s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ r❛❞✐✐ t❤❛t ✈❛r② ✇✐t❤ z ✿

❋♦r ❡❛❝❤ z ✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ x ❛♥❞ y ✳

❲❡ ❛❧s♦ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ p ❞✐❛❣r❛♠♠❛t✐❝❛❧❧② ❛s ❛ ❜❧❛❝❦ ❜♦① t❤❛t ♣r♦❝❡ss❡s t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉ts ❛♥❞ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s t❤❡
♦✉t♣✉t✿
✐♥♣✉ts ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦✉t♣✉t
x
ց
p → z
ր
y
■♥st❡❛❞✱ ✇❡ ✇♦✉❧❞ ❧✐❦❡ t♦ s❡❡ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ✐♥♣✉t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✱ (x, y)✱ ❞❡❝♦♠♣♦s❡❞ ✐♥t♦ t✇♦✱ x ❛♥❞ y ✱ t♦ ❜❡ ♣r♦❝❡ss❡❞
❜② t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛t t❤❡ s❛♠❡ t✐♠❡ ✿
(x, y) → p → z
❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❢r♦♠ ❛❧❧ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ s❡❡♥ s♦ ❢❛r ✐s t❤❡ ♥❛t✉r❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t✳
❙♦✱ ❡✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ ✇❡ s♣❡❛❦ ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✱ t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ r❡♠❛✐♥s t❤❡ s❛♠❡✿
◮ ❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛ s❡t ✭❞♦♠❛✐♥✮ ❛♥❞ ❛♥♦t❤❡r ✭❝♦❞♦♠❛✐♥✮ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛ss✐❣♥s t♦ ❡❛❝❤ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t ♦❢
t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ❛♥ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✳
❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ✐s r❡✢❡❝t❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ✇❡ ✉s❡✿
F :X→Z
♦r
F
X −−−−→ Z
✹✳✸✳ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✷✼✻

❆ ❝♦♠♠♦♥ ✇❛② t♦ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✕ ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧❧② ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ s❡ts ❝❛♥♥♦t ❜❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❜②
♠❡r❡ ❧✐sts ✕ ✐s t♦ ❞r❛✇ s❤❛♣❡❧❡ss ❜❧♦❜s ❝♦♥♥❡❝t❡❞ ❜② ❛rr♦✇s✿

■♥ ❝♦♥tr❛st t♦ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ❤♦✇❡✈❡r✱ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ✐s ❛ s✉❜s❡t ♦❢ t❤❡ (x, y)✲♣❧❛♥❡✳
❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❢♦r f (x, y) = x + y ✿

(0, 0) → 0, (0, 1) → 1, (1, 0) → 1, (1, 1) → 2, (1, 2) → 3, (2, 1) → 3, ...

❊❛❝❤ ❛rr♦✇ ❝❧❡❛r❧② ✐❞❡♥t✐✜❡s t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t ✭❛♥ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ X✮ ♦❢ t❤✐s ♣r♦❝❡❞✉r❡ ❜② ✐ts ❜❡❣✐♥♥✐♥❣ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉t
✭❛♥ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ Z✮ ❜② ✐ts ❡♥❞✳

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉t ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ F ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t ✐s x✿
■♥♣✉t ❛♥❞ ♦✉t♣✉t ♦❢
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
F (x, y) = z
♦r
F : (x, y) → z
■t r❡❛❞s✿ ✏ F ♦❢ (x, y) ✐s z ✑✳

❲❡ st✐❧❧ ❤❛✈❡✿
F( ✐♥♣✉t )= ♦✉t♣✉t

❛♥❞
F : ✐♥♣✉t → ♦✉t♣✉t .

❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t r❡❧❛t✐♦♥s✳ ❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ t❤r❡❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s r❡❧❛t❡❞ t♦ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r✱ ❜✉t t❤✐s r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ✉♥❡q✉❛❧✿
❚❤❡ t✇♦ ✐♥♣✉t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❝♦♠❡ ✜rst ❛♥❞✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉t ✐s ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ♦♥ t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t✳ ❚❤❛t ✐s ✇❤② ✇❡
s❛② t❤❛t t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉ts ❛r❡ t❤❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✇❤✐❧❡ t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉t ✐s t❤❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✸✳✸✿ ✢♦✇❝❤❛rts r❡♣r❡s❡♥t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ❢♦r ❛ ❣✐✈❡♥ ✐♥♣✉t (x, y)✱ ✇❡ ✜rst s♣❧✐t ✐t✿ x ❛♥❞ y ❛r❡ t❤❡ t✇♦ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ✐♥♣✉ts✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✇❡
❞♦ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡❧②✿
• ❛❞❞ x ❛♥❞ y✱
• ♠✉❧t✐♣❧② ❜② 2✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥
• sq✉❛r❡✳
❙✉❝❤ ❛ ♣r♦❝❡❞✉r❡ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥t❧② ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡❞ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ✏✢♦✇❝❤❛rt✑✿

(x, y) → x+y → u → u·2 → z → z2 → v

❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❝♦♠❡ ❢r♦♠ ♠❛♥② s♦✉r❝❡s ❛♥❞ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❡①♣r❡ss❡❞ ✐♥ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ❢♦r♠s✿

• ❛ ❧✐st ♦❢ ✐♥str✉❝t✐♦♥s ✭❛♥ ❛❧❣♦r✐t❤♠✮

• ❛♥ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛

• ❛ ❧✐st ♦❢ ♣❛✐rs ♦❢ ✐♥♣✉ts ❛♥❞ ♦✉t♣✉ts

• ❛ ❣r❛♣❤
✹✳✸✳ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✷✼✼

• ❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥

❆♥ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❡①❡♠♣❧✐✜❡❞ ❜② z = x2 y ✳ ■♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ♣r♦♣❡r❧② ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝❡ t❤✐s ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡

❣✐✈❡ ✐t ❛ ♥❛♠❡✱ s❛② f✱ ❛♥❞ ✇r✐t❡✿
f (x, y) = x2 y .
▲❡t✬s ❡①❛♠✐♥❡ t❤✐s ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✿

❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s

z = f ( x, y ) = x2 y
↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑↑
♥❛♠❡✿ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t

✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✸✳✹✿ ♣❧✉❣ ✐♥ ✈❛❧✉❡s

■♥s❡rt ♦♥❡ ✐♥♣✉t ✈❛❧✉❡ ✐♥ ❛❧❧ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❜♦①❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ✐♥ t❤♦s❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡s✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

2x2 y − 3y + 7
f (x) = ,
y 3 + 2x + 1
❝❛♥ ❜❡ ✉♥❞❡rst♦♦❞ ❛♥❞ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡❞ ✈✐❛ t❤✐s ❞✐❛❣r❛♠✿

22 −3 +7
f () = .
3 + 2 + 1

❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ f (3, 0) ✐s ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡❞✿

2
  23 ✵ − 3
✵ +7
f 3 ,
✵ = 3
.

✵ +2 3 +1

■♥ s✉♠♠❛r②✱

◮ ✏ x✑ ❛♥❞ ✏ y ✑ ✐♥ ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ s❡r✈❡ ❛s ♣❧❛❝❡❤♦❧❞❡rs ❢♦r✿ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✱ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✱ ❛♥❞ ✇❤♦❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳

❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ st✉❞② ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s❄ ❲❡ ✉s❡ ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ❛❜♦✉t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ s✐♥❣❧❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✳

❆❜♦✈❡ ✇❡ ❧♦♦❦❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡s ♦❢ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❡❧❡✈❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉r❢❛❝❡s✳ ❆♥ ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❡ ✐❞❡❛ ✐s ❛ s✉r✈❡②✐♥❣
♠❡t❤♦❞✿

◮ ■♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ st✉❞② ❛ t❡rr❛✐♥✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛t❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ t✇♦ ♠❛✐♥ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥s✳

■♠❛❣✐♥❡ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❞r✐✈❡ s♦✉t❤✲♥♦rt❤ ❛♥❞ ❡❛st✲✇❡st s❡♣❛r❛t❡❧②✱ ✇❛t❝❤✐♥❣ ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ❡❧❡✈❛t✐♦♥ ❝❤❛♥❣❡s✿

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❡✈❡♥ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❡ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❞r✐✈❡ ❛r♦✉♥❞ ❛ ❝✐t② ♦♥ ❛ ❤✐❧❧ ❛♥❞ t❤❡s❡ tr✐♣s ❢♦❧❧♦✇ t❤❡ str❡❡t ❣r✐❞✿
✹✳✸✳ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✷✼✽

❊❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ tr✐♣s ❝r❡❛t❡s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s✐♥❣❧❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✱ x ♦r y✳

❚♦ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡✱ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ♣❧♦t ♦❢ F (x, y) = sin(xy) ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t✿

❲❡ ♣❧♦t t❤❡ s✉r❢❛❝❡ ❛s ❛ ✏✇✐r❡✲❢r❛♠❡✑ ♦♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✳ ❊❛❝❤ ✇✐r❡ ✐s ❛ s❡♣❛r❛t❡ tr✐♣✳

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ t❤❡ s❧✐❝❡s ❝✉t ❜② t❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ♣❧❛♥❡s ❛❧✐❣♥❡❞ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❛①❡s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ s✉r❢❛❝❡
t❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ F✿

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✸✳✺✿ s❛❞❞❧❡

▲❡t✬s ♣❧♦t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

z = xy .
✹✳✸✳ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✷✼✾

❚❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥s ❧♦♦❦ ❧✐❦❡ ✇❤❡♥ ♣❧♦tt❡❞ ❢♦r ✈❛r✐♦✉s z ✬s❀ t❤❡② ❛r❡ ❝✉r✈❡s ❝❛❧❧❡❞
❤②♣❡r❜♦❧❛s ✿

■♥st❡❛❞✱ ✇❡ ✜① ♦♥❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t ❛ t✐♠❡✳

❲❡ ✜① y ✜rst✿
♣❧❛♥❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❝✉r✈❡
y=2 z = x · 2 ❧✐♥❡ ✇✐t❤ s❧♦♣❡ 2
y=1 z = x · 1 ❧✐♥❡ ✇✐t❤ s❧♦♣❡ 1
y=0 z = x · 0 = 0 ❧✐♥❡ ✇✐t❤ s❧♦♣❡ 0
y = −1 z = x · (−1) ❧✐♥❡ ✇✐t❤ s❧♦♣❡ 1
y = −2 z = x · (−2) ❧✐♥❡ ✇✐t❤ s❧♦♣❡ − 2
❚❤❡ ✈✐❡✇ s❤♦✇♥ ❜❡❧♦✇ ✐s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s✿

❚❤❡ ❞❛t❛ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ❧✐♥❡ ❝♦♠❡s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ x✲❝♦❧✉♠♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t ❛♥❞ ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ z ✲❝♦❧✉♠♥s✳
❚❤❡s❡ ❧✐♥❡s ❣✐✈❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡s ♦❢ ❡❧❡✈❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤✐s t❡rr❛✐♥ ✐♥ ❛ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱ s❛②✱ ❡❛st✲✇❡st ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s
❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t t♦ ❝✉tt✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ❜② ❛ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ♣❧❛♥❡ ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧ t♦ t❤❡ xz ✲♣❧❛♥❡✳

❲❡ ✜① x s❡❝♦♥❞✿
♣❧❛♥❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❝✉r✈❡
x=2 z = 2 · y ❧✐♥❡ ✇✐t❤ s❧♦♣❡ 2
x=1 z = 1 · y ❧✐♥❡ ✇✐t❤ s❧♦♣❡ 1
x=0 z = 0 · y = 0 ❧✐♥❡ ✇✐t❤ s❧♦♣❡ 0
x = −1 z = (−1) · y ❧✐♥❡ ✇✐t❤ s❧♦♣❡ 1
x = −2 z = (−2) · y ❧✐♥❡ ✇✐t❤ s❧♦♣❡ − 2
❚❤✐s ✐s ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t t♦ ❝✉tt✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ❜② ❛ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ♣❧❛♥❡ ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧ t♦ t❤❡ yz ✲♣❧❛♥❡✳ ❚❤❡ ✈✐❡✇ s❤♦✇♥
❜❡❧♦✇ ✐s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✿

❚❤❡ ❞❛t❛ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ❧✐♥❡ ❝♦♠❡s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ y ✲r♦✇ ♦❢ t❤❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t ❛♥❞ ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ z ✲r♦✇s✳ ❚❤❡s❡ ❧✐♥❡s
❣✐✈❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡s ♦❢ ❡❧❡✈❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤✐s t❡rr❛✐♥ ✐♥ ❛ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱ s❛②✱ ♥♦rt❤✲s♦✉t❤ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✳
✹✳✸✳ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✷✽✵

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✸✳✻

Pr♦✈✐❞❡ ❛ s✐♠✐❧❛r ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ❢♦r f (x, y) = 3x + 2y ✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✸✳✼✿ ❜❛❦❡r

❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ t❛❦❡ ❛ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ ❛ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ❛♥❣❧❡✳ ❚❤❡ t✐♠❡ t ✐s ♥♦t ❛ ♣❛rt
♦❢ ♦✉r ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥②♠♦r❡ ❜✉t ✇❡ r❡t❛✐♥ t❤❡ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t✐♥❣ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❝♦♠♠♦❞✐t✐❡s ✿
• x ✐s t❤❡ ♣r✐❝❡ ♦❢ ✇❤❡❛t✳
• y ✐s t❤❡ ♣r✐❝❡ ♦❢ s✉❣❛r✳
❲❡ ❛❧s♦ ❛❞❞ ❛ ♣r♦❞✉❝t t♦ t❤❡ s❡t✉♣✿
• z ✐s t❤❡ ♣r✐❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❧♦❛❢ ♦❢ ❜r❡❛❞✳
❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡s❡ t❤r❡❡❄ ❆s t❤♦s❡ t✇♦ ❛r❡ t❤❡ t✇♦ ♠❛❥♦r ✐♥❣r❡❞✐❡♥ts ✐♥ ❜r❡❛❞✱ ✇❡
✇✐❧❧ ❛ss✉♠❡ t❤❛t
◮ z ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥ x ❛♥❞ y ✳
❖♥❡ ❝❛♥ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❡ ❛ ❜❛❦❡r ✇❤♦ ❡✈❡r② ♠♦r♥✐♥❣✱ ✉♣♦♥ r❡❝❡✐✈✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✉♣❞❛t❡❞ ♣r✐❝❡s ♦❢ ✇❤❡❛t ❛♥❞ s✉❣❛r✱
✉s❡s ❛ t❛❜❧❡ t❤❛t ❤❡ ♠❛❞❡ ✉♣ ✐♥ ❛❞✈❛♥❝❡ t♦ ❞❡❝✐❞❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣r✐❝❡ ♦❢ ❤✐s ❜r❡❛❞ ❢♦r t❤❡ r❡st ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❛②✳
▲❡t✬s s❡❡ ❤♦✇ s✉❝❤ ❛ t❛❜❧❡ ♠✐❣❤t ❝♦♠❡ ❛❜♦✉t✳

❲❤❛t ❦✐♥❞ ♦❢ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❡s ❛r❡ t❤❡s❡❄ ■♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ♣r✐❝❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥❣r❡❞✐❡♥ts ✐♥❝r❡❛s❡s t❤❡ ❝♦st ❛♥❞
✉❧t✐♠❛t❡❧② t❤❡ ♣r✐❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t✿
x ր =⇒ z ր
y ր =⇒ z ր
❆t ✐ts s✐♠♣❧❡st✱ s✉❝❤ ❛♥ ✐♥❝r❡❛s❡ ✐s ❧✐♥❡❛r✳ ■♥ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ t♦ s♦♠❡ ✜①❡❞ ❝♦sts✿
• ❊❛❝❤ ✐♥❝r❡❛s❡ ♦❢ x ❧❡❛❞s t♦ ❛ ♣r♦♣♦rt✐♦♥❛❧ ✐♥❝r❡❛s❡ ♦❢ z ✳
• ❊❛❝❤ ✐♥❝r❡❛s❡ ♦❢ y ❧❡❛❞s t♦ ❛ ♣r♦♣♦rt✐♦♥❛❧ ✐♥❝r❡❛s❡ ♦❢ z ✳
■♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t❧②✦ ❆ s✐♠♣❧❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ t❤❛t ❝❛♣t✉r❡s t❤✐s ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡ ♠❛② ❜❡ t❤✐s✿

z = p(x, y) = 2x + y + 1 .

■♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ ❛ ❢❡✇ ♦❢ ✐ts ✈❛❧✉❡s✿

• p(0, 0) = 1
• p(0, 1) = 2
• p(0, 2) = 3
• p(1, 0) = 3
• p(1, 1) = 4
• ❡t❝✳
❊✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ t❤✐s ✐s ❛ ❧✐st✱ ✇❡ r❡❛❧✐③❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❞♦♥✬t ✜t ✐♥t♦ ❛ ❧✐st ❝♦♠❢♦rt❛❜❧② ✕ t❤❡②
❢♦r♠ ❛ t❛❜❧❡ ✦
(0, 0) (1, 0) (2, 0) ...
(0, 1) (1, 1) (2, 1) ...
(0, 2) (1, 2) (2, 2) ...
... ... ... ...
■♥ ❢❛❝t✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧✐❣♥ t❤❡s❡ ♣❛✐rs ✇✐t❤ x ✐♥ ❡❛❝❤ ❝♦❧✉♠♥ ❛♥❞ y ✐♥ ❡❛❝❤ r♦✇✿

y\x 0 1 2 ...
0 (0, 0) (1, 0) (2, 0) ...
1 (0, 1) (1, 1) (2, 1) ...
2 (0, 2) (1, 2) (2, 2) ...
... ... ... ... ...
✹✳✸✳ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✷✽✶

◆♦✇✱ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s✱ z = p(x, y)✿

y\x 0 1 2 ...
0 1 3 5 ...
1 2 4 6 ...
2 3 5 7 ...
... ... ... ... ...
❚❤❛t✬s ✇❤❛t t❤❡ ❜❛❦❡r✬s t❛❜❧❡ ♠✐❣❤t ❧♦♦❦ ❧✐❦❡✳

▲❡t✬s ❜r✐♥❣ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ t♦❣❡t❤❡r✿

y\x 0 1 2 ...
0 (0, 0) (1, 0) (2, 0) ...
ց ց ց ...
1 3 5 ...
1 (0, 1) (1, 1) (2, 1) ...
ց ց ց ...
2 4 6 ...
2 (0, 2) (1, 2) (2, 2) ...
ց ց ց ...
3 5 7 ...
... ... ... ... ...

■♥ t❤❡ ♣❛st✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡❞ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❜② ♣✉tt✐♥❣ ❜❛rs ♦♥ t♦♣ ♦❢ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✳ ◆♦✇✱ ✇❡
✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ❜② ❜✉✐❧❞✐♥❣ ❝♦❧✉♠♥s ✇✐t❤ ❛♣♣r♦♣r✐❛t❡ ❤❡✐❣❤ts ♦♥ t♦♣ ♦❢ t❤❡ xy ✲♣❧❛♥❡✿

◆♦t✐❝❡ t❤❛t ❜② ✜①✐♥❣ ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✕ x = 0, 1, 2 ♦r y = 0, 1, 2 ✕ ✇❡ ❝r❡❛t❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ♦♥❡

✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✳ ❲❡ ✜① x ❜❡❧♦✇ ❛♥❞ ❡①tr❛❝t t❤❡ ❝♦❧✉♠♥s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ t❛❜❧❡✿

y z y z y z
0 1 0 3 0 5
x=0: x=1: x=2:
1 2 1 4 1 6
2 3 2 5 2 7

❆ ♣❛tt❡r♥ ✐s ❝❧❡❛r✿ ❣r♦✇t❤ ❜② 1✳ ❲❡ ♥❡①t ✜① y ❛♥❞ ❡①tr❛❝t t❤❡ r♦✇s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ t❛❜❧❡✿

x 0 1 2 x 0 1 2 x 0 1 2
y=0: y=1: y=2:
z 1 3 5 z 2 4 6 z 3 5 7
✹✳✸✳ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✷✽✷

❆ ♣❛tt❡r♥ ✐s ❝❧❡❛r✿ ❣r♦✇t❤ ❜② 2✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ♦❢ s✐① ✭❧✐♥❡❛r✮ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✦

▲❡t✬s ❞♦ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ✇✐t❤ ❛ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❞❛t❛✿

❚❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ✐♥ ❡❛❝❤ ❝❡❧❧ ✐s ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ x ✭❛❧❧ t❤❡ ✇❛② ✉♣✮ ❛♥❞ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡

❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ y ✭❛❧❧ t❤❡ ✇❛② ❧❡❢t✮✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿

❂✷✯❘✸❈✰❘❈✷✰✶

❚❤❡ s✐♠♣❧❡st ✇❛② t♦ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡ ✐s ❜② ❝♦❧♦r✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❝❡❧❧ ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐♥❣ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ✭❝♦♠♠♦♥ ✐♥ ❝❛rt♦❣r❛♣❤②✿

❡❧❡✈❛t✐♦♥✱ t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❡✱ ❤✉♠✐❞✐t②✱ ♣r❡❝✐♣✐t❛t✐♦♥✱ ♣♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ❞❡♥s✐t②✱ ❡t❝✳✿

❚❤❡ ❣r♦✇t❤ ✐s ✈✐s✐❜❧❡✿ ■t ❣r♦✇s t❤❡ ♠♦st ✐♥ s♦♠❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ❜✉t ✐t✬s ♥♦t 45 ❞❡❣r❡❡s✳

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❜❛r ❝❤❛rt✱ ❥✉st ❛s ❜❡❢♦r❡✿

■❢ ✇❡ ✉s❡❞ ❜❛rs t♦ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s t♦ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛✱ ❤❡r❡ ✇❡ ❛r❡ ❛❢t❡r t❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡✳✳✳
❚❤❡ ♠♦st ❝♦♠♠♦♥ ✇❛②✱ ❤♦✇❡✈❡r✱ t♦ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐♥ ♠❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝s ✐s ✇✐t❤ ✐ts

❣r❛♣❤✱ ✇❤✐❝❤✱ ✐♥ t❤✐s ❝❛s❡✱ ✐s ❛ s✉r❢❛❝❡✿

✹✳✸✳ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✷✽✸

■♥ t❤✐s ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r ❝❛s❡✱ t❤✐s ✐s ❛ ♣❧❛♥❡✳ ❚❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❣r❛♣❤ ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ s✉r❢❛❝❡ ❜✉t ❞✐s♣❧❛②❡❞ ❛s ❛ ✇✐r❡✲
❢r❛♠❡ ✭♦r ❡✈❡♥ ❛ ✇✐r❡✲❢❡♥❝❡✮✳ ❚❤❡ ✇✐r❡s ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ t❤♦s❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ♦♥❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❝r❡❛t❡❞
❢r♦♠ ♦✉r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇❤❡♥ ✇❡ ✜① ♦♥❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t ❛ t✐♠❡✳ ❊❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ✇✐r❡s ❝♦♠❡s ❢r♦♠ ❝❤♦♦s✐♥❣ ❡✐t❤❡r✿
• t❤❡ r♦✇ ♦❢ x✬s ✭t♦♣✮ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❡ ♦t❤❡r r♦✇ ✐♥ t❤❡ t❛❜❧❡✱ ♦r
• t❤❡ ❝♦❧✉♠♥ ♦❢ y ✬s ✭❧❡❢t♠♦st✮ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❡ ♦t❤❡r ❝♦❧✉♠♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ t❛❜❧❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✸✳✽

Pr♦✈✐❞❡ ❛ s✐♠✐❧❛r ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ❢♦r ✭❛✮ t❤❡ ✇✐♥❞✲❝❤✐❧❧ ❛♥❞ ✭❜✮ t❤❡ ❤❡❛t ✐♥❞❡①✳

❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ♦♥❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❝r❡❛t❡❞ ❢r♦♠ ♦✉r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ z = p(x, y) ✇❤❡♥ ✇❡ ✜① ♦♥❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t ❛ t✐♠❡ ❛r❡✿

y = b −→ fb (x) = p(x, b)
x = a −→ ga (y) = p(a, y)

❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② ♦❢ t❤❡♠✳ ❚❤❡✐r ❣r❛♣❤s ❛r❡ t❤❡ s❧✐❝❡s ✕ ❛❧♦♥❣ t❤❡ ❛①❡s ✕ ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉r❢❛❝❡ t❤❛t ✐s t❤❡
❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ F✳

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ♠♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s t❡❧❧s ✉s ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ♠♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ♦❢ p ✕ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡
❛①❡s✦

❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❛r❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳

❚❤✐s ✐❞❡❛ ❝♦♠❡s ✇✐t❤ ❝❡rt❛✐♥ q✉❡st✐♦♥s t♦ ❜❡ ❛♥s✇❡r❡❞✳ ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t✱ t❤❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❄ ❚❛❦✐♥❣
❛ ❝❧✉❡ ❢r♦♠ ♦✉r ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ♦❢ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡s✱ ✇❡ ❛♥s✇❡r✿ ■t ✐s t❤❡ ✏❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥✑ ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ✐♥♣✉ts ♦❢ t❤❡
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ x ❛♥❞ y t❤❛t ❢♦r♠ ❛ ♣❛✐r✱ X = (x, y)✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ❛ ♣♦✐♥t ♦♥ t❤❡ xy ✲♣❧❛♥❡✳ ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉t✱
t❤❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❄ ■t ✐s z✳
✹✳✸✳ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✷✽✹

❲❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ p ❞✐❛❣r❛♠♠❛t✐❝❛❧❧② ❛s ❛ ❜❧❛❝❦ ❜♦① t❤❛t ♣r♦❝❡ss❡s t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t ❛♥❞ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉t✿

✐♥♣✉ts ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦✉t♣✉t

x
ց
p 7→ z
ր
y

■♥st❡❛❞✱ ✇❡ ✇♦✉❧❞ ❧✐❦❡ t♦ s❡❡ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ✐♥♣✉t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✱ (x, y)✱ ❞❡❝♦♠♣♦s❡❞ ✐♥t♦ t✇♦✱ x ❛♥❞ y ✱ t♦ ❜❡ ♣r♦❝❡ss❡❞
❜② t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛t t❤❡ s❛♠❡ t✐♠❡ ✿
(x, y) → p → z
❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❢r♦♠ ❛❧❧ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ s❡❡♥ s♦ ❢❛r ✐s t❤❡ ♥❛t✉r❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t✳
◆❡①t✱ ✇❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ p❄ ■t ✐s s✉♣♣♦s❡❞ t♦ ❜❡ ❛ r❡❝♦r❞✐♥❣ ♦❢ ❛❧❧ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ✐♥♣✉ts✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ ❛❧❧ ♣❛✐rs (x, y) ❢♦r
✇❤✐❝❤ t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉t z = p(x, y) ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♠❛❦❡s s❡♥s❡✳ ❚❤✐s r❡q✉✐r❡♠❡♥t ❝r❡❛t❡s ❛ s✉❜s❡t ♦❢ t❤❡ xy ✲♣❧❛♥❡
❛♥❞✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ❛ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ x ❛♥❞ y ✳
❲❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ✐♠❛❣❡✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ r❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ p❄ ■t ✐s ❛ r❡❝♦r❞✐♥❣ ♦❢ ❛❧❧ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ♦✉t♣✉ts ♦❢ p✳
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✹✳✸✳✾✿ ✐♠❛❣❡ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s
❚❤❡ ✐♠❛❣❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s z = p(x, y) ✐s t❤❡ s❡t ♦❢ ❛❧❧ s✉❝❤ ✈❛❧✉❡s
z ♦♥ t❤❡ z ✲❛①✐s✳

❲❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ p = (f, g)❄ ■t ✐s s✉♣♣♦s❡❞ t♦ ❜❡ ❛ r❡❝♦r❞✐♥❣ ♦❢ ❛❧❧ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ✐♥♣✉ts
❛♥❞ ♦✉t♣✉ts ♦❢ F ✳
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✹✳✸✳✶✵✿ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s
❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢
❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s z = p(x, y) ✐s t❤❡ s❡t ♦❢ ❛❧❧ s✉❝❤ ♣♦✐♥ts
x, y, p(x, y) ✐♥ t❤❡ xyz ✲s♣❛❝❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✸✳✶✶
❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡✿
x = t2 − 1, y = 2t2 + 3 .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✸✳✶✷
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts t❤❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥ ♦❜❥❡❝t ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡✿
x = 3t − 1, y = t2 − 1 .

✭❛✮ ❲❤❡♥ ❞♦❡s t❤❡ ♦❜❥❡❝t ❝r♦ss t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s❄ ✭❜✮ ❲❤❡♥ ❞♦❡s t❤❡ ♦❜❥❡❝t ❝r♦ss t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✸✳✶✸
❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t ❛s ❛ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡ t❤❡ r♦t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ r♦❞ ♦❢ ❧❡♥❣t❤ 2 t❤❛t ♠❛❦❡s ♦♥❡ ❢✉❧❧ t✉r♥ ❡✈❡r② 3
s❡❝♦♥❞s✳
✹✳✹✳ ■♥tr♦❞✉❝t✐♦♥ t♦ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦❢ s❡✈❡r❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✷✽✺

✹✳✹✳ ■♥tr♦❞✉❝t✐♦♥ t♦ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦❢ s❡✈❡r❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s

❲❤❡♥ ❛ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡ ✐s ❢♦r♠❡❞ ❢r♦♠ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ♦♥❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✿

x = f (t), y = g(t) ,

❛r❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ f ❛♥❞ g ✈✐s✐❜❧❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ s❤❛♣❡ ✭❛♥❞ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡✮ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛t❤❄ ❈♦♥✈❡rs❡❧②✱ ❝❛♥ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s
❜❡ ❞❡❞✉❝❡❞ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡s ♦r ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛t❤❄
❚❤❡ s❧♦♣❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ f ❛♥❞ g ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡ ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ ❛ s✐♠♣❧❡ r✉❧❡
✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ❡❛s② t♦ ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ ✇❤❡♥ ❜♦t❤ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r✿

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✐❢ m ❛♥❞ n ❛r❡ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡s ♦❢ f ❛♥❞ g r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ (f, g) ✐s mn ✳ ■♥❞❡❡❞✱
❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ y = ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ y/❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ t .
❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ x ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ x/❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ t
❲❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ♥♦♥✲❧✐♥❡❛r✱ t❤❡ r✉❧❡ ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❜✉t ✐t ✐s ❛♣♣❧✐❡❞ ♦♥❡ ♣♦✐♥t ❛t ❛ t✐♠❡✿
s❧♦♣❡ ❛t (a, b) =
g ′ (b)
f ′ (a)
.

❚♦ s❡❡ ✇❤②✱ ✐t s✉✣❝❡s t♦ ③♦♦♠ ✐♥ ♦♥❡ ❛ ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡ ❛s ✇❡❧❧ ❛s t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦❢
t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿
✹✳✹✳ ■♥tr♦❞✉❝t✐♦♥ t♦ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦❢ s❡✈❡r❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✷✽✻

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤✐s✿


dy dy dx
=
dx dt dt

❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ r❡s❡♠❜❧❡s t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡✱ ♥♦t ❜② ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡♥❝❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✹✳✶

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ ✇❤❡♥ f ✐s ♦♥❡✲t♦✲♦♥❡✳

❚❤❡ t✇♦ s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❝❛s❡s ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

• f ′ (a) = 0 =⇒ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ✐s ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧✱ ❛♥❞

• g ′ (b) = 0 =⇒ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ✐s ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧✳

❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ❝❛s❡ ✇❛s s❡❡♥ ❛s ✏❡①tr❡♠❡✑ ✐♥ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦❢ ♦♥❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✳ ■t✬s ♥♦t ❡①tr❡♠❡ ✐♥ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦❢ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝
❝✉r✈❡s✦

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✹✳✷✿ ❝♦♠♠♦♦❞✐t✐❡s tr❛❞❡r

❘❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❛t t❤❡ ♣r✐❝❡ ♦❢ ✇❤❡❛t ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♣r✐❝❡ ♦❢ s✉❣❛r ❛r❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❜② t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡❞ ✐♥t♦
❛ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡✳ ❲✐t❤ t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s s❛♠♣❧❡❞✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡✐r r❛t❡s ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡✿

t x x′ t y y′
0 1.00 0 1.00
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
0.5 − 1.0 2.00 − 1.00
1 0.50 = −.5 1 2.00 =1
1−0 1−0
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
0.33 − 0.5 1.00 − 2.00
2 0.33 = −.17 2 1.00 = −1
2−1 2−1
◆♦t❡ t❤❛t t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ❢❡✇❡r ♥✉♠❜❡rs t❤❛♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ❢❡✇❡r s❡❣♠❡♥ts t❤❛♥ ♣♦✐♥ts✳
✹✳✹✳ ■♥tr♦❞✉❝t✐♦♥ t♦ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦❢ s❡✈❡r❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✷✽✼

▲❡t✬s ♥♦✇ ❝♦♥✜r♠ t❤✐s r❡s✉❧t ✈✐❛ ❛❝t✉❛❧ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ♦✉r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿
1 1
x = f (t) = x′ = f ′ (t) = −
t+1 =⇒ (t + 1)2
2
y = g(t) = −(x − 1) + 2 y ′ = g ′ (t) = −2(x − 1)

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❈♦♠❜✐♥❡❞✱ t❤❡② ❛❧s♦ ❢♦r♠ ❛
♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡✦

❚❤❡ s✐❣♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s t❡❧❧ ✉s t❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣✴❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ x′ < 0 s❤♦✇s t❤❛t t❤❡
❝✉r✈❡ ♠♦✈❡s t♦ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t ❛♥❞✳✳✳ ♠♦✈❡s ❞♦✇♥ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧❧② ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ y ′ < 0✳ ❚❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ ❛❧s♦ ♠♦✈❡s ✉♣ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡
y ′ > 0✳ ▲❡t✬s ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥✜r♠ t❤❡s❡ r❡s✉❧ts ✇✐t❤ ❛ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t ✭✇✐t❤♦✉t ✉s✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞
❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❛❜♦✈❡✮✿

■♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ ❡✐t❤❡r ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✱ ✇❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❣♠❡♥t ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t✇♦
❛❞❥❛❝❡♥t ♣♦✐♥ts✳ ■t ✐s t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✭❛❧s♦ ❦♥♦✇♥ ❛s t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✱ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢
t❤❡ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡✱ ❡t❝✳✮✿
❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ x ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ y
❛♥❞ .
❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ t ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ t
❚❤❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ t ✐s ✜①❡❞ ❛s h = ∆t✳ ❚❤✐s ✈❛❧✉❡ ❢♦r ❡✐t❤❡r x ❛♥❞ y ✐s ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ✈✐❛ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t
❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❛s ❜❡❢♦r❡✿
❂✭❘❈❬✲✶❪✲❘❬✲✶❪❈❬✲✶❪✮✴❘✷❈✶
◆♦t❡ t❤❛t t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♦♥❡ ❢❡✇❡r ❝❡❧❧s ✐♥ t❤✐s ❝♦❧✉♠♥ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♦♥❡ ❢❡✇❡r s❡❣♠❡♥ts t❤❛♥ ♣♦✐♥ts✳

■♥ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ t♦ x′ < 0 =⇒ x ց✱ ✇❡ ❛❧s♦ ❣❡t x′ ր =⇒ x ⌣ ✭❝♦♥❝❛✈❡ ✉♣✮✳ ❙✐♠✐❧❛r❧②✱ y ′ > 0 =⇒ x ր

❛♥❞ y ′ ց =⇒ y ⌢ ✭❝♦♥❝❛✈❡ ❞♦✇♥✮ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧❧② ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ♦♣♣♦s✐t❡✳ ❆❧s♦✱ t❤❡ ❛♣♣❛r❡♥t ❧✐♥❡❛r✐t② ♦❢ y ′
✹✳✹✳ ■♥tr♦❞✉❝t✐♦♥ t♦ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦❢ s❡✈❡r❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✷✽✽

✐♥❞✐❝❛t❡ t❤❛t y ♠✐❣❤t ❜❡ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝✳✳✳ ❋r♦♠ t❤❡ ♠♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡
t❤❛t ✐♥✐t✐❛❧❧② t❤❡ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡ ❣♦❡s տ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ւ t♦ ❝♦♥✜r♠ t❤❡ ♣✐❝t✉r❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✹✳✸

❲❤❛t ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥s ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ s❤❛♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡ ❝❛♥ ②♦✉ ❞r❛✇ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❛✈✐t② ♦❢ ✐ts
❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s❄

❚❤✉s✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ s❛② ❛❜♦✉t ❛ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡ t❤❛t ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s ♠❛❞❡ ✉♣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s
✐♥✈♦❧✈❡❞✳ ❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♦♥❧② t✇♦ ❢♦r ❛ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡ ✕ ❛♥❞ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② ❢♦r ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✦

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✹✳✹✿ ❜❛❦❡r

❚❤❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r✐❝❡ ♦❢ ❜r❡❛❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣r✐❝❡s ♦❢ ✇❤❡❛t ❛♥❞ s✉❣❛r ❛r❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
z = p(x, y) ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❆s ✐t ✐s s❛♠♣❧❡❞✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ r❛t❡s ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐♥ t❤❡
❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❛♥❞ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥s✿
y\x 0 → 1 → 2 y\x 0 1 2
0 1 → 3 → 5 0 1 3 5
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
♦✈❡r x : ♦✈❡r y :
1 2 → 4 → 6 1 2 4 6
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
2 3 → 5 → 7 2 3 5 7
❘❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❛t ❜② ✜①✐♥❣ ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✱ ✇❡ ❝r❡❛t❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ♦♥❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r
✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✳ ◆♦✇ ✇❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❥✉st ❛s ❜❡❢♦r❡✱ ✈✐❛ t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢
❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✿
❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ z ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ z
❛♥❞ .
❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ x ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ y
❋✐rst✱ ✇❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ y ✿

y (x = 0) z z′ y (x = 1) z z′ y (x = 2) z z′

0 ↓ 1 ↓ 0 ↓ 3 ↓ 0 ↓ 5 ↓
2−1 4−3 6−5
1 ↓ 2 ↓ =1 1 ↓ 4 ↓ =1 1 ↓ 6 ↓ =1
1−0 1−0 2−1
3−2 5−4 7−6
2 ↓ 3 ↓ =1 2 ↓ 5 ↓ =1 2 ↓ 7 ↓ =1
2−1 2−1 2−1
❆❧❧ 1s✳ ◆♦t❡ t❤❛t t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ❢❡✇❡r ♥✉♠❜❡rs t❤❛♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ❢❡✇❡r s❡❣♠❡♥ts t❤❛♥
♣♦✐♥ts✳ ❙✐♠✐❧❛r❧②✱ ✇❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ x✿

(y = 0) x 0 → 1 → 2 (y = 1) x 0 1 2 (y = 0) x 0 1 2
z 1 → 3 → 5 z 2 4 6 z 3 5 7
3 − 1 5−3
z′ =2 =2 z′ 2 2 z′ 2 2
1−0 2−1
❆❧❧ 2s✳ ❲❡ ♣✉t t❤❡s❡ ♦♥❡✲✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s t♦❣❡t❤❡r❀ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ r❛t❡s ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ F ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ x
❛♥❞ y ❛r❡ t❤❡s❡ ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✿

y\x 0 1 2 y\x 0 1 2 y\x 0 1 2

0 2 2 0 0
❧❡❛❞✐♥❣ t♦ & ❧❡❛❞✐♥❣ t♦
1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 (2, 1) (2, 1)
2 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 (2, 1) (2, 1)
✹✳✹✳ ■♥tr♦❞✉❝t✐♦♥ t♦ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦❢ s❡✈❡r❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✷✽✾

❚❤❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❢✉rt❤❡r ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✳ ❆s ✇❡ s❤❛❧❧ s❡❡ ❧❛t❡r✱ ❣♦✐♥❣ 2 ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧❧② ❛♥❞
1 ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧❧② ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢❛st❡st ❣r♦✇t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ p✳

▲❡t✬s ♥♦✇ ❝♦♥✜r♠ t❤✐s r❡s✉❧t ✈✐❛ ❛❝t✉❛❧ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ♦✉r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿
p(x, y) = 2x + y + 1 .

❏✉st ❛s ❜❡❢♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ✜① ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❛♥❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r✳ ❲❡ ❝❛❧❧ t❤❡s❡
t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐❛❧ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ p ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ x ❛♥❞ y r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✳

❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t✇♦ t②♣❡s ♦❢ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ✭❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ▲❡✐❜♥✐③ ❛♥❞ ▲❛❣r❛♥❣❡ ❛s ❜❡❢♦r❡✮✳ ❋♦r x✱ ✇❡
❞❡❝❧❛r❡ y ✜①❡❞ ❛♥❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ ♦✈❡r x
∂p ∂ ∂
= p′x = (2x + y + 1) = (2x) + 0 + 0 = 2 .
∂x ∂x ∂x
❋♦r y ✱ ✇❡ ❞❡❝❧❛r❡ x ✜①❡❞ ❛♥❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ ♦✈❡r y ✿
∂p ∂ ∂
= p′y = (2x + y + 1) = 0 + (y) + 0 = 1 .
∂y ∂y ∂y
❚❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ♠✐❣❤t s♦✉♥❞ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r✿ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✦ ❚❤❡ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥
♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ♣❛rt✐❛❧ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ s❡❡♥ ❛s t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ p ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ❣r❛❞✐❡♥t ♦❢ p✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ❛ ♥❡✇
❦✐♥❞ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t♦ ❜❡ ❞✐s❝✉ss❡❞ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✹ ✭❈❤❛♣t❡rs ✹❍❉✲✹ ❛♥❞ ✹❍❉✲✺✮✳

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❝♦♥✜r♠ t❤❡s❡ r❡s✉❧ts ❜② ❡①❛♠✐♥✐♥❣ t❤❡ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t✳ ❊❛❝❤ ❧✐♥❡ ✭✇✐r❡✮ ❜❡❧♦✇ ♦♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ✐s t❤❡
❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ♦♥❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✿

❆♥❞ ❡❛❝❤ ❤❛s ✐ts ♦✇♥ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✦ ❆s ✇❡ ♠♦✈❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧❧②✱ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ x ❣r♦✇ ❜② 0.1 ✇❤✐❧❡ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s
♦❢ z ❣r♦✇ ❜② 0.2✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ p′x = 2✳ ❙✐♠✐❧❛r❧②✱ ❛s ✇❡ ♠♦✈❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧❧②✱ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ y ❣r♦✇ ❜② 0.1 ❛♥❞
s♦ ❞♦ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ z ✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ p′y = 1✳

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❉♦ ♥♦t ❝♦♥❢✉s❡ ♣❛rt✐❛❧ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t

❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ t❤❛t ❝♦♠❡s ✉♥❞❡r r❡❧❛t❡❞ r❛t❡s ✿
∂ d dy
(xy) = y ✈s✳ (xy) = y + .
∂x dx dx
❚❤❡ ❡①tr❛ t❡r♠ ♦♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ❝♦♠❡s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❢❛❝t
t❤❛t t❤❡ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❛r❡ r❡❧❛t❡❞✳
✹✳✹✳ ■♥tr♦❞✉❝t✐♦♥ t♦ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦❢ s❡✈❡r❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✷✾✵

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✹✳✺✿ ♥♦♥✲❧✐♥❡❛r

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛❣❛✐♥✿

q(x, y) = sin(xy) .
❈♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐❛❧ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❜② t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡✳ ❋✐rst ✇❡ ❞❡❝❧❛r❡ y ❛♥ ✉♥❦♥♦✇♥ ❛♥❞ ✉♥s♣❡❝✐✜❡❞
❜✉t ✜①❡❞ ♣❛r❛♠❡t❡r ❛♥❞ ❝❛rr② ♦✉t ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ x✿
∂q ∂
∂
= sin(xy) = cos(xy) · (xy) = cos(xy)y .
∂x ∂x ∂x
❚❤✐s t✐♠❡✱ x ✐s t❤❡ ♣❛r❛♠❡t❡r✿
∂q ∂
∂
= sin(xy) = cos(xy) · (xy) = cos(xy)x .
∂y ∂y ∂y
▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥✜r♠ t❤❡s❡ r❡s✉❧ts ❜② ❡①❛♠✐♥✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ q ♣❧♦tt❡❞ ✇✐t❤ ❛ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t✿

◆♦t❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❡❞❣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉r❢❛❝❡ ✐s ❛ ❝✉r✈❡ ❛♥❞ ✐t ✐s t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❣✐✈❡♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ ✈❡r② ❧❛st
r♦✇ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❛❜❧❡✳ ❲❡ ❛❧s♦ ♥♦t✐❝❡ t❤❛t✿
• ❚❤❡ s✉r❢❛❝❡ ✐s ✢❛t ❛❧♦♥❣ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✱ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ∂x
∂q
= 0 ❢♦r y = 0✳
• ❚❤❡ s✉r❢❛❝❡ ✐s ✢❛t ❛❧♦♥❣ t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s✱ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ∂x = 0 ❢♦r x = 0✳
∂q

❲❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡s❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❥✉st ❛s ❜❡❢♦r❡✿❚❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ x ❛♥❞
y ✐s ✜①❡❞ ❛s h = ∆x = ∆y ✳ ■♥ ❛ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t✱ t❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ z ✐♥ t❤❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ x ❛♥❞ y ✐s
❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ✈✐❛ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❜✉t ❛♣♣❧✐❡❞ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧❧② ❛♥❞ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧❧② r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✿
❂✭❘❬✲✷✸❪❈✲❘❬✲✷✸❪❈❬✲✶❪✮✴❘✶❈✶ ❛♥❞ ❂✭❘❈❬✲✷✸❪✲❘❬✲✶❪❈❬✲✷✸❪✮✴❘✶❈✶
❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ t❤❡ t✇♦ ♣❛rt✐❛❧ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✿
✹✳✹✳ ■♥tr♦❞✉❝t✐♦♥ t♦ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦❢ s❡✈❡r❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✷✾✶

❆t t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t (0.1, 0.1)✱ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ♣❛rt✐❛❧ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ✇❤② t❤❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢
t❤❡ ❢❛st❡st ❣r♦✇t❤ ♦❢ q ✐s ❛t 45 ❞❡❣r❡❡s✳ ◆♦t❡ ❛❧s♦ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❤✐❣❤❡st ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s ❢♦r♠ ❛ r✐❞❣❡❀ ✐t ✐s ✇❤❡r❡
❜♦t❤ ♣❛rt✐❛❧ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ 0✳ ❚♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ r✐❞❣❡✱ ✇❡ s♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥

cos(xy) = 0 =⇒ xy = π/2 .

■t✬s ❛ ❤②♣❡r❜♦❧❛✳

❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ t❤❛t t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐❛❧ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✐♥❞✐❝❛t❡ t❤❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢❛st❡st ❣r♦✇t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
❝❛♥ ❜❡ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡❞ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡❧② ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

y \x qx′ > 0 qx′ < 0

qy′ > 0 ր տ
qy′ < 0 ց ւ

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✹✳✻✿ ❜r❡❛❞ ❜✉②❡rs

❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ t❛❦❡ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ✕ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♠♦❞✐t② tr❛❞❡r ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❜❛❦❡r ✕ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧❛st t✇♦ s❡❝t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞
❛s❦✱ ✇❤❛t ♣r✐❝❡ ♦❢ ❜r❡❛❞ ❤❛✈❡ ❞❛✐❧② ✈✐s✐t♦rs t♦ t❤❡ ❜❛❦❡r② s❤♦♣ s❡❡♥ ♦✈❡r t✐♠❡❄ ❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✿
• t ✐s t✐♠❡✳
❚✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t✐♥❣ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❝♦♠♠♦❞✐t✐❡s ✿
• x ✐s t❤❡ ♣r✐❝❡ ♦❢ ✇❤❡❛t✳
• y ✐s t❤❡ ♣r✐❝❡ ♦❢ s✉❣❛r✳
❆♥❞ ❛ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ✿
• z ✐s t❤❡ ♣r✐❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❧♦❛❢ ♦❢ ❜r❡❛❞✳
❚❤❡ ✈✐s✐t♦rs s❡❡ ❤♦✇ z ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥ t✱ ✈✐❛ s♦♠❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s✐♥❣❧❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ✿

z = h(t) .

❲❤❛t ✐s ✐t❄

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠♠❛r② ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡t✉♣✿



❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✶ ✭tr❛❞❡r✮ 

t −→ (x, y) −→ z



 ❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✷ ✭❜❛❦❡r✮

❲❡ r❡❛❧✐③❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ✐s ❛❜♦✉t ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ✦

❘❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❛t t❤❡ ♣r✐❝❡ ♦❢ ✇❤❡❛t ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♣r✐❝❡ ♦❢ s✉❣❛r ❛r❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❜② ❛ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡✿
1
x = f (t) = , y = g(t) = −(x − 1)2 + 2 .
t+1
❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ♣r✐❝❡ ♦❢ ❜r❡❛❞ ✐s ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r t✇♦ ♣r✐❝❡s ❜② t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✿

z = p(x, y) = 2x + y + 1 .

❚❤❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡❞ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

✹✳✹✳ ■♥tr♦❞✉❝t✐♦♥ t♦ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦❢ s❡✈❡r❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✷✾✷

❚❤❡♥✱ ♦❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ h ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦✿

t 7→ (x, y) 7→ z ,

❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ✈✐❛ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✿

h(t) = p f (t), g(t) .

❚♦ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡ ✇❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s✱ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❡ t❤❡ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡ ✕ ♦♥ t❤❡ xy ✲♣❧❛♥❡ ✕ ❜❡✐♥❣ ✏❧✐❢t❡❞✑ t♦ t❤❡
❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ p✿

❚❤❡ ❡❧❡✈❛t✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ h✳ ❚❤❡ ❡♥❞ r❡s✉❧t ✐s ❜❡❧♦✇✿

■♥ t❤❡ ♣❛st✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❢♦✉♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❜② t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡ ✿ ❲❡
❡①♣r❡ss❡❞ ✐t ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐♥✈♦❧✈❡❞ ✭t❤❡✐r ♣r♦❞✉❝t✮✳ ❲❡ t❤❡♥ ❝♦♥❥❡❝t✉r❡
t❤❛t ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❛❜♦✈❡✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡
❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

• t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡✱ ❛♥❞

✹✳✺✳ ❚❤❡ ❝❡♥tr♦✐❞ ♦❢ ❛ ✢❛t ♦❜❥❡❝t ✷✾✸

• t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✳

✹✳✺✳ ❚❤❡ ❝❡♥tr♦✐❞ ♦❢ ❛ ✢❛t ♦❜❥❡❝t

❲❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡ ✇✐t❤ ♦✉r ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss st❛rt❡❞ ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✸ ❜✉t ✐♥ t❤❡ 2✲❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ s❡tt✐♥❣✳

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ♣❧❛t❡ ✇✐t❤ ✉♥✐❢♦r♠ ❛ ❞❡♥s✐t② ❛♥❞ ✐❞❡♥t✐❝❛❧ t❤✐❝❦♥❡ss ✭✐t ✐s ❦♥♦✇♥ ❛s ❛ ✏❧❛♠✐♥❛✑✮✳ ❍♦✇
❝❛♥ ✇❡ ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡ ✐t ♦♥ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ s✉♣♣♦rt ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ❝❡♥tr♦✐❞ ❄

❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ❛ ❢❡✇ ❤❡✉r✐st✐❝s t❤❛t ❤❡❧♣✳ ■❢ t❤❡ ♦❜❥❡❝t ❤❛s ❛ ✏❝❡♥t❡r✑✱ s✉❝❤ ❛s ❛ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ♦r ❛ sq✉❛r❡✱ t❤✐s ✐s ✐t✳

❆❧s♦✱ ❛♥② ❛①✐s ♦❢ s②♠♠❡tr② ✇✐❧❧ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥ t❤❡ ❝❡♥tr♦✐❞✳

❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ ❝❡♥tr♦✐❞ ✐s r❡❧❛t❡❞ t♦ t❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ r♦t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡
♦❜❥❡❝t ✇❤❡♥ s✉❜❥❡❝t❡❞ t♦ ❛ ❢♦r❝❡✳ ❲❡ st✉❞✐❡❞ t❤✐s ❝♦♥❝❡♣t ♣r❡✈✐♦✉s❧② ❜✉t ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ✇❡✐❣❤t ❞✐str✐❜✉t❡❞ ✇✐t❤✐♥
❛ str❛✐❣❤t s❡❣♠❡♥t✱ s✉❝❤ ❛s ❛ s❡❡s❛✇✿

❲❡ ❢♦✉♥❞ t❤❛t ✐❢ ♦♥❡ ♣❡rs♦♥ ✐s ❤❡❛✈✐❡r t❤❛♥ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r✱ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ♣❡rs♦♥ s❤♦✉❧❞ s✐t ❢❛rt❤❡r ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r
✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡ t❤❡ ❜❡❛♠✳ ■♥ ❢❛❝t✱ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ t✇✐❝❡ ❛s ❧♦♥❣✦

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r ❛ ✈❛r✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❡s❛✇✳ ■t ✐s ♠❛❞❡ ♦❢ t✇♦ ❜❡❛♠s ♥❛✐❧❡❞ t♦❣❡t❤❡r t♦ ❢♦r♠ ❛ ❝r♦ss ✇✐t❤ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡
♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ s✉♣♣♦rt ✐♥ t❤❡ ♠✐❞❞❧❡✿
✹✳✺✳ ❚❤❡ ❝❡♥tr♦✐❞ ♦❢ ❛ ✢❛t ♦❜❥❡❝t ✷✾✹

■t ❛♣♣❡❛rs t❤❛t ❢♦✉r ♣❡rs♦♥s ♦❢ ❡q✉❛❧ ✇❡✐❣❤t ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ✐♥ ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡ ✇❤❡♥ ❧♦❝❛t❡❞ ❛t ❡q✉❛❧ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t

♦❢ s✉♣♣♦rt✳ ❇✉t t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♠♦r❡✿ ❚❤❡② ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡❞ ❛s ❧♦♥❣ ❛s ❡✐t❤❡r ♣❛✐r ♦❢ ♣❡rs♦♥s ❢❛❝✐♥❣ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r ❛r❡

✐♥ ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡✦ ❲❡ ❝❛♥ t❤❡♥ ✉s❡ ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❧❡❛r♥❡❞ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ 1✲❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ ❝❛s❡✳

❲❡ ❡①♣❧♦r❡ t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛ ❜② r❡♣❧❛❝✐♥❣ t❤✐s ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ❛ sq✉❛r❡✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ s❡❡s❛✇s t❤❛t ✇❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❡❞

♣r❡✈✐♦✉s❧② ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❡❞ ❛s t❤✐s sq✉❛r❡ ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡❞ ♦♥ ❛ ❜❛r t❤❛t ❣♦❡s ❛❧❧ t❤❡ ✇❛② ❛❝r♦ss✿

❲❡ ❝❛♥ s♣r❡❛❞ t❤❡ ✇❡✐❣❤t ❛❧♦♥❣ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧ t♦ t❤❡ ❜❛r ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ♦♥❧② t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ t♦ t❤✐s ❜❛r ♠❛tt❡rs

❢♦r t❤❡ ❧❡✈❡r❛❣❡ ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ ✇❡✐❣❤t✳ ❖♥❝❡ ✇❡ ❛❞❞ t❤❡ x✲ ❛♥❞ y ✲❛①✐s t♦ t❤❡ ♣✐❝t✉r❡✱ t❤✐s ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ✐s s✐♠♣❧② t❤❡

x✲❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡✿

◆♦✇✱ ♦✉r ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ✐s t❤❛t ♦❢ ❜❛❧❛♥❝✐♥❣ t❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥ ❜❡❧♦✇ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳
✹✳✺✳ ❚❤❡ ❝❡♥tr♦✐❞ ♦❢ ❛ ✢❛t ♦❜❥❡❝t ✷✾✺

▲❡t✬s r❡✈✐❡✇ ❤♦✇ ✇❡ ❞♦ t❤✐s✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ♦♥ s❡❣♠❡♥t [a, b]✳
❋♦r ❛ ❣✐✈❡♥ ♣♦✐♥t c✱ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ Z b
f (x)(x − c) dx
a
✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ c✳ ❚❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥ ✐s s✉❝❤ ❛ ♣♦✐♥t c
t❤❛t t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ c ✐s ③❡r♦✿
Rb
f (x)x dx
c = Ra b .
a
f (x) dx

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✺✳✶✿ ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡ ❛ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡

▲❡t✬s r❡✈✐❡✇ ❤♦✇ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡ ❛ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡ ♦♥ ✐ts ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❡❞❣❡✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✐t ✐s t❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡
❣r❛♣❤ y = f (x) = x ❢r♦♠ 0 t♦ 1✿

❲❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦❜❥❡❝t✿

Z 1 Z 1
f (x)x dx = x · x dx
0 Z0 1
= x2 dx
0 1
3

= x /3
0

= 1/3 .

▼❡❛♥✇❤✐❧❡✱ t❤❡ ♠❛ss ✐s s✐♠♣❧② 1/2✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss ✕ ♦♥ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ✕ ✐s

1 1 2
c1 = ÷ = .
3 2 3
❲❤❛t ✐❢ ✇❡ ✇❛♥t t♦ ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡ t❤❡ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡ ♦♥ ✐ts ♦t❤❡r ❡❞❣❡❄ ❲❡ ♣❧❛❝❡ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ❛❧♦♥❣ t❤❛t ❡❞❣❡✱ t❤❡♥
t❤❡ s❧❛♥t❡❞ ❡❞❣❡s ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② y = g(x) = 1 − x✳ ❲❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦❜❥❡❝t✿
Z 1 Z 1
g(x)x dx = (1 − x)x dx
0 Z0 1
= (x − x2 ) dx
0 1
2 3

= y /2 − y /3
0

= 1/2 − 1/3

= 1/6 .
✹✳✺✳ ❚❤❡ ❝❡♥tr♦✐❞ ♦❢ ❛ ✢❛t ♦❜❥❡❝t ✷✾✻

▼❡❛♥✇❤✐❧❡✱ t❤❡ ♠❛ss ✐s st✐❧❧ 1/2✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss ✕ ❛❧♦♥❣ t❤✐s ❡❞❣❡ ✕ ✐s

1 1 1
c2 = ÷ = .
6 2 3

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡ t❤❡ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡ ♦♥ ❡✐t❤❡r ♦❢ t✇♦ ❜❛rs✳ ◆♦✇ ✇❡ r❡♠♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❜❛rs ❛♥❞ r❡♣❧❛❝❡ t❤❡♠ ✇✐t❤ ❛
s✐♥❣❧❡ s✉♣♣♦rt ♣❧❛❝❡❞ ❛t t❤❡✐r ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥✳

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✹✳✺✳✷✿ t♦t❛❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ✐s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ♦♥ [a, b]✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t ♦❢
t❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ x = c ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ t♦ ❜❡✿

Z b
(x − c)f (x) dx
a

❙✉❝❤ ❛ ❧✐♥❡ ✐s ❛♥ ❛①✐s ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥ ✐❢ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t ✐s ③❡r♦✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✺✳✸✿ ❤❛❧❢✲❝✐r❝❧❡

▲❡t✬s tr② t❤❡ ❤❛❧❢✲❝✐r❝❧❡✳ ❖♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛①❡s ✇✐❧❧ ❣♦ t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r t♦ t❤❡ ❞✐❛♠❡t❡r✳ ❲❡
❥✉st ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r✳ ❚❤❛t✬s ✇❤② ✇❡ ♣❧❛❝❡ t❤❡ q✉❛rt❡r ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐s❦ ❛❞❥❛❝❡♥t t♦ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥✿

❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t ✐s✿ Z 1 √

(x − c) 1 − x2 dx = 0 .
0
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ Z Z
1 √ 1 √
x 1− x2 dx = c 1 − x2 dx .
0 0
❚❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✲❤❛♥❞ s✐❞❡ ✐s s✐♠♣❧② t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ q✉❛rt❡r ❝✐r❝❧❡✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♦♥❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t✲❤❛♥❞
s✐❞❡ ✐s ❡❛s✐❧② ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡❞ ❜② s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ✭u = 1 − x2 ✮✿
Z 1 √ Z 0
1√
x 1 − x2 dx = − u du
0 1 2 
0
1 2 3/2 
=− u 
23 
1
1
= .
3
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
1 4
= cπ/4 =⇒ c = ≈ .42 .
3 3π
✹✳✻✳ ❈♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠s❀ ♣♦❧❛r ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s ✷✾✼

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✺✳✹
1
❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❛①❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ y = − 0.5 ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❛①❡s✳
x + 0.5

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❜❡❡♥ ❛❜❧❡ t♦ ✉s❡ ♦♥❧② t❤✐s ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❛①❡s ♦❢ r❡❣✐♦♥s ✇✐t❤ s②♠♠❡tr✐❡s✳
❋♦r t❤❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❝❛s❡✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ✉s❡ t❤❡ x✲ ❛♥❞ y ✲❛①❡s ❛✈❛✐❧❛❜❧❡ t♦ ✉s✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✹✳✺✳✺✿ ❝❡♥tr♦✐❞

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ✐s ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ♦♥ [0, A] ❛♥❞ f (0) = B > 0✳ ❚❤❡♥
t❤❡ ❝❡♥tr♦✐❞ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ✱ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s
✐s ❛ ♣♦✐♥t (cx , cy ) s✉❝❤ t❤❛t t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ♠♦♠❡♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ t❤❡
❧✐♥❡s x = cx ❛♥❞ y = cy ❛r❡ ③❡r♦❀ ✐✳❡✳✱
Z A
(x − cx )f (x) dx = 0 ,
0

❛♥❞ Z B
(y − cy )f −1 (y) dy = 0 .
0

❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❡♥tr♦✐❞ ❛r❡✿

Z A Z B
1 1
cx = xf (x) dx ❛♥❞ cy = yf −1 (y)
A 0 A 0

✇❤❡r❡ A ✐s t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✺✳✻
❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❝❡♥tr♦✐❞ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y = 1 − x2 ✳

❚❤❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ❛ ♣❧❛t❡ ♦❢ ❛♥ ❛r❜✐tr❛r② s❤❛♣❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ❛❞❞r❡ss❡❞ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✹✳

✹✳✻✳ ❈♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠s❀ ♣♦❧❛r ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s

■❢ ✇❡ ✇❛♥t t♦ st✉❞② t❤❡ ❊✉❝❧✐❞❡❛♥ ♣❧❛♥❡✱ ❛♥❞ ❊✉❝❧✐❞❡❛♥ ❣❡♦♠❡tr②✱ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛❧❧②✱ ✇❡ s✉♣❡r✐♠♣♦s❡ t❤❡ ❈❛rt❡s✐❛♥
❣r✐❞ ♦✈❡r t❤✐s ♣❧❛♥❡✿
✹✳✻✳ ❈♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠s❀ ♣♦❧❛r ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s ✷✾✽

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ♣❧❛❝❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠ ♦♥ t♦♣ ♦❢ ♦✉r ♣❤②s✐❝❛❧ s♣❛❝❡ ✐♥ ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ✇❛②s✳ ▼❡❛♥✇❤✐❧❡ t❤❡
❣❡♦♠❡tr② ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣✐❡❝❡ ♦❢ ♣❛♣❡r ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡s ✇❤❛t ✐s ❣♦✐♥❣ ♦♥✱ ♥♦t ❛ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r ❝❤♦✐❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡
s②st❡♠✳

❲❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥ 1✳

❚❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ ❝❛♥ ❤❛✈❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠s ❛ss✐❣♥❡❞ t♦ ✐t✳ ❲❡ ❝❛♥ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❡ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤r❡❡ ♣❡♥❝✐❧s✿
♦♥❡ ✉♥♠❛r❦❡❞ ❛♥❞ t✇♦ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ x✲❛①✐s ✐s ❞r❛✇♥ ♦♥ t❤❡♠✳ ❚❤❡ ✜rst r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts t❤❡ ✏r❡❛❧✐t②✑✱❛♥❞ t❤❡
♦t❤❡r t✇♦ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t t✇♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠s t♦ ❜❡ ✉s❡❞ t♦ r❡❝♦r❞ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦♥ t❤❡ ✜rst✿

❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

✶✳ P♦✐♥t A ❤❛s ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ 1 ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ t❤❡ ✜rst ❈❛rt❡s✐❛♥ s②st❡♠ ❜✉t −2 ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞✳
✷✳ P♦✐♥t B ❤❛s ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ 2 ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ t❤❡ ✜rst ❈❛rt❡s✐❛♥ s②st❡♠ ❜✉t −1 ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞✳
✸✳ ❆♥❞ s♦ ♦♥✳

❚❤❡s❡ ❈❛rt❡s✐❛♥ s②st❡♠s ❛r❡ r❡❧❛t❡❞ t♦ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r ✈✐❛ s♦♠❡ ❜❛s✐❝ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥s✱ s✉❝❤ ❛s ❛ s❤✐❢t✿

❆❜♦✈❡ ②♦✉ s❡❡ t✇♦ ✇❛②s t♦ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t t❤❡ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥✿

✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❛rr♦✇s ❛r❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥t❛❝t y ✲❛①✐s✳
✷✳ ❲❡ ♠♦✈❡ t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s s♦ t❤❛t y = f (x) ✐s ❛❧✐❣♥❡❞ ✇✐t❤ x✳
❲❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇❡❞ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✷ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❢♦❧❧♦✇ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ✐♥ t❤✐s s❡❝t✐♦♥✳

❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ t❤r❡❡ ♠❛✐♥ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❛♥ ❛①✐s✿ s❤✐❢t✱ ✢✐♣✱ ❛♥❞ str❡t❝❤ ✭❧❡❢t✮✳ ❆♥❞ t❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s
t♦ t❤❡ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s ♦❢ ♣♦✐♥ts ✭r✐❣❤t✮✿
✹✳✻✳ ❈♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠s❀ ♣♦❧❛r ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s ✷✾✾

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❚❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ❞♦♥✬t ♠♦✈❡✳

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❜❛s✐❝ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛①✐s✱ t❤❡ ♦❧❞ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s✿
s❤✐❢t ❜② k
1. t −−−−−−−−−→ x=t−k
✢✐♣
2. t −−−−−−→ x = −t
str❡t❝❤ ❜② k
3. t −−−−−−−−−−→ x = t/k

❚❤❡ t❤r❡❡ ♠❛② ❝♦♠❡ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧② ❢r♦♠✿

✶✳ ❝❤❛♥❣✐♥❣ t❤❡ st❛rt✐♥❣ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠✐❧❡st♦♥❡s
✷✳ r❡♣❧❛❝✐♥❣ ❡❛st ✇✐t❤ ✇❡st ❛s t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥
✸✳ s✇✐t❝❤✐♥❣ ❢r♦♠ ♠✐❧❡s t♦ ❦✐❧♦♠❡t❡rs
◆♦✇ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥ 2✱ t❤❡ ✳
♣❧❛♥❡

❇♦t❤ x✲ ❛♥❞ y ✲❛①✐s ❝❛♥ ❜❡ s✉❜❥❡❝t❡❞ t♦ t❤❡ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥s ❛❜♦✈❡✳ ❚❤❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡
r❡s✉❧t✐♥❣ s✐① ❜❛s✐❝ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ xy ✲♣❧❛♥❡ ✐s s❤♦✇♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

( x , y ) ( x , y ) ( x , y )
✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ s❤✐❢t✿ ✢✐♣✿ str❡t❝❤✿
( x , y−k ) ( x , y · (−1) ) ( x , y/k )
( x , y ) ( x , y ) ( x , y )
❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ s❤✐❢t✿ ✢✐♣✿ str❡t❝❤✿ .
( x−k , y ) ( x · (−1) , y ) ( x/k , y )
✹✳✻✳ ❈♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠s❀ ♣♦❧❛r ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s ✸✵✵

❇✉t s♦♠❡ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥s ❝❛♥♥♦t ❜❡ r❡❞✉❝❡❞ t♦ ❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ s✐①✱ s✉❝❤ ❛s t❤❡ r♦t❛t✐♦♥✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✻✳✶✿ ♦t❤❡r tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥s

❘❡❝❛❧❧ ❢r♦♠ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✸✱ t❤❛t ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ❡①❡❝✉t❡ ❛ ✢✐♣
❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡✳ ❲❡ ❣r❛❜ t❤❡ ❡♥❞ ♦❢ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ❤❛♥❞ ❛♥❞ ❣r❛❜ t❤❡ ❡♥❞
♦❢ t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t ❤❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ✐♥t❡r❝❤❛♥❣❡ t❤❡♠✿

❲❡ ❢❛❝❡ t❤❡ ♦♣♣♦s✐t❡ s✐❞❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛♣❡r t❤❡♥✱ ❜✉t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ✐s st✐❧❧ ✈✐s✐❜❧❡✿ ❚❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ✐s ♥♦✇ ♣♦✐♥t✐♥❣
✉♣ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s r✐❣❤t✳ ❚❤❡ ❛①❡s ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ❜❡ s❦❡✇❡❞ ✿

❊✈❡♥ t❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ t✇♦ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ✐♥❞✐❝❛t✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ❧✐♥❡s ✇✐❧❧ ✉♥❛♠❜✐❣✉♦✉s❧② ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❛
❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡✳ ❆♥❞ s♦ ♦♥✳✳✳ ❋✉rt❤❡r ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ✐s ♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✹ ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✹❉❊✲✷✮✳

❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ❛❧s♦ ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❡ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠s✳ ◆♦t ♦♥❧② t❤❡ ❛①❡s ❛r❡ ♥♦t r❡❝t❛♥❣✉❧❛r❀ t❤❡② ❛r❡ ❛❧s♦ ❝✉r✈❡❞ ✦
❚❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ✐s ❛ ✈❡r② s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡✳ ❚❤✐s ❝✉r✈❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❛❧s♦ s✉♣♣❧② ✉s ✇✐t❤ ❛ ♥❡✇ ✇❛② t♦ r❡❝♦r❞
❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡✳ ■t ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ♣♦❧❛r ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠✳
❲❤❛t ♠❛❦❡s ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠s ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ✐s ♦✉r ❛❜✐❧✐t② t♦ ✉♥❛♠❜✐❣✉♦✉s❧② ❛ss✐❣♥ ❡❛❝❤ ♣♦✐♥t t♦ ❝❡rt❛✐♥ ♣r❡✲
❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡❞ s❡ts✳ P❛r❛❧❧❡❧ ❧✐♥❡s ❞♦♥✬t ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t ❛♥❞ t❤❡② ❛❧s♦ ❝♦✈❡r t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ♣❧❛♥❡✳ ❚❤❛t✬s ✇❤② ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡
❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿
✶✳ ❊✈❡r② ♣♦✐♥t ❜❡❧♦♥❣s t♦ ♦♥❡ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ♦♥❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❧✐♥❡✳
✷✳ ❊✈❡r② ♣♦✐♥t ❜❡❧♦♥❣s t♦ ♦♥❡ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ♦♥❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❧✐♥❡✳
✹✳✻✳ ❈♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠s❀ ♣♦❧❛r ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s ✸✵✶

Pr♦✈✐❞✐♥❣ ♦♥❡ ❢r♦♠ ❡✐t❤❡r ❝❧❛ss ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ♣♦✐♥t ✐s ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ❈❛rt❡s✐❛♥ s②st❡♠ ✇♦r❦s✿

◆♦✇✱ ✇❡ ❛❧s♦ ❤❛✈❡✿

✶✳ ❈♦♥❝❡♥tr✐❝ ❝✐r❝❧❡s ❞♦♥✬t ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t ❛♥❞ t❤❡②✱ ♣❧✉s t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r✱ ❛❧s♦ ❝♦✈❡r t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ♣❧❛♥❡✳ ❚❤❛t✬s ✇❤②

❡✈❡r② ♣♦✐♥t ❜❡❧♦♥❣s t♦ ♦♥❡ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡s✱ ♦r t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r✳

✷✳ ▲✐♥❡s t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥ ❤❛✈❡ ♦♥❧② ♦♥❡ ♣♦✐♥t ✐♥ ❝♦♠♠♦♥ ❛♥❞ t❤❡② ❛❧s♦ ❝♦✈❡r t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ♣❧❛♥❡✳ ❚❤❛t✬s

✇❤② ❡✈❡r② ♣♦✐♥t✱ ♦t❤❡r t❤❛♥ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥✱ ❜❡❧♦♥❣s t♦ ♦♥❡ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❧✐♥❡s✳

Pr♦✈✐❞✐♥❣ ♦♥❡ ❢r♦♠ ❡✐t❤❡r ❝❧❛ss ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ♣♦✐♥t ✐s ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ♣♦❧❛r s②st❡♠ ✇♦r❦s✳

◆♦✇✱ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡✐r ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s✳

❚❤❡ ❈❛rt❡s✐❛♥ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠ ✐s ❜❛s❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ ♠❡❛s✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t t♦ t❤❡ ❛①❡s✳

❚❤❡ ♣♦❧❛r ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠ ✐s ❜❛s❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ✐❞❡❛s✿

• ♠❡❛s✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t t♦ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥ ❛♥❞

• ♠❡❛s✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❛♥❣❧❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✳

❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡s❡✿

✹✳✻✳ ❈♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠s❀ ♣♦❧❛r ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s ✸✵✷

❚❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✐s ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♣r❡s❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❈❛rt❡s✐❛♥ s②st❡♠✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✹✳✻✳✷✿ ♣♦❧❛r ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ ♣♦✐♥t O ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ♣♦❧❡ ❛♥❞ ❛ r❛② L ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ♣♦❧❛r ❛①✐s st❛rt✐♥❣ ❛t
O ❛r❡ ❣✐✈❡♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡✳ ❚❤❡♥ ❢♦r ❛♥② ♣♦✐♥t P ✱ ✐ts ♣♦❧❛r ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s ❛r❡ t❤❡
t✇♦ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✱ θ ❛♥❞ r✱ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
• θ ✐s t❤❡ ❛♥❣❧❡ ❢r♦♠ L t♦ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ OP ✐♥ t❤❡ ❝♦✉♥t❡r❝❧♦❝❦✇✐s❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✳
• r ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❢r♦♠ P t♦ O✳

❚❤❡② ❝♦♠♠♦♥❧② ❝♦✲❡①✐st t❤♦✉❣❤✳

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✹✳✻✳✸✿ ❛ss♦❝✐❛t❡❞ ♣♦❧❛r ❛♥❞ ❈❛rt❡s✐❛♥ s②st❡♠s
❆ ♣♦❧❛r ❛♥❞ ❛ ❈❛rt❡s✐❛♥ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠s ❛r❡ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛ss♦❝✐❛t❡❞ ✇✐t❤ ❡❛❝❤ ✇❤❡♥
t❤❡ ♣♦❧❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ✐s t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♣♦❧❛r ❛①✐s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r
✐s t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✳

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦
◆♦ ♠❛tt❡r ✇❤❛t θ ✐s✱ ✐t✬s O ✐❢ r = 0✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✻✳✹✿ ♣♦❧❛r ♣♦✐♥ts

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ❛ss♦❝✐❛t❡❞ ♣♦❧❛r ❛♥❞ ❈❛rt❡s✐❛♥ s②st❡♠s✳ ❋♦r ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ♣❛✐rs
(θ, r)✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ ✐ts ❝♦✉♥t❡r♣❛rt ♦♥ t❤❡ xy ✲♣❧❛♥❡✿

θ r → x y
0.00 1.00 → 1.00 0.00
1.00 0.00 → 0.00 0.00
1.00 1.00 → 0.54 0.84
3.14 1.00 → −1.00 0.00
1.57 −1.50 → 0.00 −1.50

❲❡ ♣❧♦t t❤❡♠ ❤❡r❡✿

✹✳✻✳ ❈♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠s❀ ♣♦❧❛r ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s ✸✵✸

❲❡ ✉s❡❞ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❢♦r t❤❡ ❧❛st t✇♦ ❝♦❧✉♠♥s✿

❂❘❈❬✲✾❪✯❈❖❙✭❘❈❬✲✶✵❪✮ ❛♥❞ ❂❘❈❬✲✶✵❪✯❙■◆✭❘❈❬✲✶✶❪✮

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✻✳✺✿ ❈♦♥✈❡rs✐♦♥ ❇❡t✇❡❡♥ P♦❧❛r ❆♥❞ ❈❛rt❡s✐❛♥

✶✳ ❆ ♣♦✐♥t P ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ♣♦❧❛r ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s r ❛♥❞ θ ❤❛s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s
✐♥ t❤❡ ❛ss♦❝✐❛t❡❞ ❈❛rt❡s✐❛♥ s②st❡♠✿

x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ

✷✳ ❆ ♣♦✐♥t P ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❈❛rt❡s✐❛♥ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s x 6= 0 ❛♥❞ y ❤❛s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣

❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❛ss♦❝✐❛t❡❞ ♣♦❧❛r s②st❡♠✿

y p
θ = arctan , r= x2 + y 2
x

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✻✳✻

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✳

❚❤❡ ♠❛✐♥ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❈❛rt❡s✐❛♥ s②st❡♠ ✐s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✳

❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ ❛ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠ ✐s t♦ ❛ss♦❝✐❛t❡ ❛ ♣❛✐r ✭♦r tr✐♣❧❡✱ ❡t❝✳✮ ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs t♦ ❡✈❡r② ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✐♥ ❛♥
✉♥❛♠❜✐❣✉♦✉s ✇❛②✳ ■t✬s ❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝❡✿

❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ←→ ❛ ♣❛✐r ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs

■♥ t❤❡ ❢♦r✇❛r❞ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✱ → ✳ ❈❛rt❡s✐❛♥✿

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ P ✐s ❛ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡✳ ❲❡ t❤❡♥ ❞r❛✇ ❛ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❧✐♥❡ t❤r♦✉❣❤ P ✉♥t✐❧ ✐t ✐♥t❡rs❡❝ts t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✳
❚❤❡ ♠❛r❦✱ x✱ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡② ❝r♦ss ✐s t❤❡ x✲❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ ♦❢ P ✳ ❲❡ ♥❡①t ❞r❛✇ ❛ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❧✐♥❡
t❤r♦✉❣❤ P ✉♥t✐❧ ✐t ✐♥t❡rs❡❝ts t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s✳ ❚❤❡ ♠❛r❦✱ y ✱ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡② ❝r♦ss ✐s t❤❡ y ✲❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡
♦❢ P ✳ ❲❡ ❡♥❞ ✉♣ ✇✐t❤ r ≥ 0 ❛♥❞ 0 ≤ θ < 2π ✳
✹✳✻✳ ❈♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠s❀ ♣♦❧❛r ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s ✸✵✹

P♦❧❛r✿

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ P ✐s ❛ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡✳ ❲❡ t❤❡♥ ❞r❛✇ ❛ ❧✐♥❡ ❢r♦♠ O t❤r♦✉❣❤ P ✳ ❲❡ ♠❡❛s✉r❡ t❤❡ ❛♥❣❧❡ ♦❢
OP ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ♣♦❧❛r ❛①✐s ❝♦✉♥t❡r❝❧♦❝❦✇✐s❡✳ ❚❤❛t✬s θ✳ ❲❡ ♠❡❛s✉r❡ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❢r♦♠ O t♦ P ✳ ❚❤❛t✬s r✳
■♥ t❤❡ ❜❛❝❦✇❛r❞ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✱ ← ✳ ❈❛rt❡s✐❛♥✿

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ x ❛♥❞ y ❛r❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✳ ❋✐rst✱ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ♠❛r❦ x ♦♥ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ❛♥❞ ❞r❛✇ ❛ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❧✐♥❡ t❤r♦✉❣❤
t❤✐s ♣♦✐♥t✳ ❙❡❝♦♥❞✱ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ♠❛r❦ y ♦♥ t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s ❛♥❞ ❞r❛✇ ❛ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❧✐♥❡ t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤✐s ♣♦✐♥t✳ ❚❤❡
✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❧✐♥❡s ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ P ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡✳
P♦❧❛r✿

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ θ ❛♥❞ r ❛r❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✳ ❋✐rst✱ ✇❡ r♦t❛t❡ t❤❡ ♣♦❧❛r ❛①✐s θ r❛❞✐❛♥s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❝♦✉♥t❡r❝❧♦❝❦✇✐s❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✳
❙❡❝♦♥❞✱ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ♠❛r❦ r ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣♦❧❛r ❛①✐s ❛♥❞ ❞r❛✇ ❛ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ❝❡♥t❡r❡❞ ❛t O t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤✐s ♣♦✐♥t✳ ❚❤❡
✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ P ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡✳
❯♥❢♦rt✉♥❛t❡❧②✱ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♠♦r❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ♣❛✐rs (θ, r) t❤❛t ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ✭✐♥ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ t♦ (θ, 0)✮ ✐❞❡♥t✐❝❛❧ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s✳
❯♥❧✐❦❡ t❤❡ ❈❛rt❡s✐❛♥ s②st❡♠✱ t❤❡ ♣♦❧❛r ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠ ❞♦❡s ♥♦t ❣✐✈❡ ❛♥ ✉♥❛♠❜✐❣✉♦✉s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢
❡✈❡r② ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡✿
(θ + 2π, r) = (θ, r), (θ, −r) = (θ + π, r) .
✹✳✻✳ ❈♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠s❀ ♣♦❧❛r ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s ✸✵✺

❲❡ ❛❞❞r❡ss t❤✐s ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ❜② ✉s✐♥❣ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡s✳

❘❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❛t t❤❡ x✲❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t ♦♥ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ♦❢ r❛❞✐✉s r ❛t ❛♥❣❧❡ θ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ✐s r cos θ ❛♥❞
✐ts y ✲❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ ✐s r sin θ✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✻✳✼

❙✉❣❣❡st ♦t❤❡r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ♦❢ ❤♦✇ t✇♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ♣♦❧❛r ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♣♦✐♥t✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✻✳✽

❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t ✐♥ ♣♦❧❛r ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s t❤❡s❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② t❤❡✐r ❈❛rt❡s✐❛♥ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s✿ ✭❛✮ (1, 2)❀ ✭❜✮
(−1, −1)❀ ✭❝✮ (0, 0)✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✻✳✾

❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t ✐♥ ❈❛rt❡s✐❛♥ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s t❤❡s❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② t❤❡✐r ♣♦❧❛r ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s✿ ✭❛✮ θ = 0, r = −1❀
✭❜✮ θ = π/4, r = 2❀ ✭❝✮ θ = 1, r = 0✳

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❢❛♠✐❧② ♦❢ ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr✐❝ ❝✐r❝❧❡s ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐③❡❞ ✐♥ ❛ ✉♥✐❢♦r♠ ✇❛②✿

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ♣❛✐r ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✱

θ ❛♥❞ r
−∞ < θ < +∞ −∞ < r < +∞,
✹✳✻✳ ❈♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠s❀ ♣♦❧❛r ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s ✸✵✻

❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡s ✭❜✉t ♥♦t ✉♥❛♠❜✐❣✉♦✉s❧②✮ ❛ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡✿

• ❚❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ♥✉♠❜❡r✱ r✱ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡s ✇❤✐❝❤ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ✇❡ ♣✐❝❦✳
• ❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ♥✉♠❜❡r✱ θ✱ t❡❧❧s ❤♦✇ ❢❛r ✇❡ ❣♦ ❛❧♦♥❣ t❤✐s ❝✐r❝❧❡✳
❚❤✐s ❛♠❜✐❣✉✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦❧❛r ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠ ❛❧❧♦✇s ✉s t♦ ❡✛❡❝t✐✈❡❧② r❡♣r❡s❡♥t s♦♠❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ❝✉r✈❡s✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✻✳✶✵✿ ♣♦❧❛r ❝✉r✈❡s

❙✐♠♣❧❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥s ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ r ❛♥❞ θ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ❝✉r✈❡s✿ ♦♥ t❤❡ θr✲♣❧❛♥❡ ❛♥❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ xy ✲♣❧❛♥❡✳ ❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛
❢♦r t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ♦❢ r❛❞✐✉s R ✐s ✈❡r② s✐♠♣❧❡✱ ❜② ❞❡s✐❣♥✿
r = R.

❙♦✱ r ✐s ✜①❡❞ ✇❤✐❧❡ θ ✈❛r✐❡s✿

◆❡①t✱ θ ✐s ✜①❡❞ ✇❤✐❧❡ r ✈❛r✐❡s❀ ✐t✬s ❛ r❛②✿

■❢ ❜♦t❤ ✈❛r②✱ ✐❞❡♥t✐❝❛❧❧②✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤✐s s♣✐r❛❧✿

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✻✳✶✶✿ s♣✐r❛❧

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ✜♥❞ ❛ ♣♦❧❛r r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤✐s s♣✐r❛❧✱ ✇✐♥❞✐♥❣ ♦♥t♦ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥✿
✹✳✼✳ ❱❡❝t♦rs ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ ✸✵✼

❲❡ r❡❛❧✐③❡ t❤❛t ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ r t♦ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ 0 ❛s θ ❣♦❡s t♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t②✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ t❤✐s ✇✐❧❧ ❞♦✿

r = 1/θ, θ > 0 .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✻✳✶✷

❋✐♥❞ ❛ ♣♦❧❛r r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤✐s s♣✐r❛❧✿

❚❤❡ r❡❝t❛♥❣✉❧❛r ❣r✐❞ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❈❛rt❡s✐❛♥ s②st❡♠ ✐s r❡♣❧❛❝❡❞ ✇✐t❤ t❤✐s✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✻✳✶✸

❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡❞ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡s ❛s ❛ s❡t ✉s✐♥❣ ♣♦❧❛r ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s✳

✹✳✼✳ ❱❡❝t♦rs ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡

▲❡t✬s t❛❦❡ ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❜❡❣✐♥♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❤❛♣t❡r✳
Pr♦❜❧❡♠✿ ❋r♦♠ ❛ 200✲❢❡❡t ❡❧❡✈❛t✐♦♥✱ ❛ ❝❛♥♥♦♥ ✐s ✜r❡❞ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧❧② ❛t 200 ❢❡❡t ♣❡r s❡❝♦♥❞✳ ❍♦✇ ❢❛r ✇✐❧❧ t❤❡
✹✳✼✳ ❱❡❝t♦rs ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ ✸✵✽

❝❛♥♥♦♥❜❛❧❧ ❣♦❄

❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✇❛s t❤❡s❡ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ❛s t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✿

❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧
❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ an bn
✈❡❧♦❝✐t② vn+1 = vn + han un+1 = un + hbn
♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ xn+1 = xn + hvn yn+1 = yn + hun

❚❤❡ ♥❡①t st❡♣ ✐s ♦❜✈✐♦✉s✿

◮ ❲❡ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s ❛s ♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡✳
❚❤❡② ❛r❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡❧②✱ ❥✉st ❛s t❤❡✐r ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s ❛r❡✿

❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t

❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧
(xn , yn ) < vn , u n > < hvn , hun >

❚❤❡ ♥❡①t q✉❡st✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❡♥✿

◮ ❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥ts❄
❚❤❡② ❛r❡ ✈❡❝t♦rs✳
❏✉st ❛s ✇❡ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡ ♣❛✐rs ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ✐♥t♦ ♣♦✐♥ts ❢♦r ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s✱
Pn = (xn , yn ) ,

✇❡ ♥♦✇ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡ t❤❡ ♣❛✐rs ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ✐♥t♦ ✈❡❝t♦rs ❢♦r ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s ❛♥❞ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥ts✿
Vn =< vn , un >, Dn =< hvn , hun > .

❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ✐s ✐♥ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✳✳✳ ❇✉t ✜rst t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥s✳

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✹✳✼✳✶✿ ✈❡❝t♦r ✐♥ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥ 2
■❢ ❛ s❡❣♠❡♥t✬s st❛rt✐♥❣ ♣♦✐♥t ✐s t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ ✐t✬s OP ❢♦r s♦♠❡ P ✱ ✐t ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛
✭2✲❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧✮ ✈❡❝t♦r ✐♥ R2 ✳
✹✳✼✳ ❱❡❝t♦rs ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ ✸✵✾

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✹✳✼✳✷✿ ✈❡❝t♦r ✐♥ xy✲♣❧❛♥❡

❚❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥ts ♦❢ ✈❡❝t♦r OP ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s ♦❢ ✐ts t❡r♠✐♥❛❧ ♣♦✐♥t P✱ ❛❝✲

❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✿

P = (a, b) ⇐⇒ OP =< a, b >

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦
■t ✐s ❛❧s♦ ❝♦♠♠♦♥ t♦ ✉s❡ (a, b) t♦ ❞❡♥♦t❡ t❤❡ ✈❡❝t♦r✳

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ✇❤❡♥ ✇❡ tr❡❛t t❤❡ t✇♦ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥s s❡♣❛r❛t❡❧②✿

xn+1 = xn + hvn , yn+1 = yn + hun .

❆❢t❡r ❝♦♠❜✐♥✐♥❣ t❤❡s❡ ♣❛✐rs ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ✐♥t♦ ♣♦✐♥ts ❛♥❞ ✐♥t♦ ✈❡❝t♦rs✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

(xn+1 , yn+1 ) = (xn , yn )+ < hvn , hun > .

❚❤❡ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ♣♦✐♥ts ❛♥❞ ✈❡❝t♦rs ✐s ❞✐s❝✉ss❡❞ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✹✳ ❲❡ ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛t❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t✇♦ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s✳

❋✐rst✱ t❤❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥ts ❛r❡ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t h✿

Dn = hVn .

❚❤✐s ✐s s❝❛❧❛r ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✈❡❝t♦rs✳

❙❡❝♦♥❞✱ t❤❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥ts ❛r❡ ❛❞❞❡❞ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡❧②✿

Pn+1 = Pn + Dn = (Pn−1 + Dn−1 ) + Dn = Pn−1 + (Dn−1 + Dn ) .

❚❤✐s ✐s ✈❡❝t♦r ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✼✳✸✿ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♦❢ str❡❛♠

■❢ ✇❡ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s ♦❢ ♣❛rt✐❝❧❡s ✐♥ ❛ str❡❛♠✱ t❤❡② ♠❛② ❛❧s♦ ❜❡ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡❞ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s♣❡❡❞ ♦❢

r♦✇✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜♦❛t✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✼✳✹
❲✐t❤ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t✐❡s ❛s s❤♦✇♥✱ ✇❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❜❡st str❛t❡❣② t♦ ❝r♦ss t❤❡ ❝❛♥❛❧❄
✹✳✼✳ ❱❡❝t♦rs ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ ✸✶✵

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✼✳✺✿ ❢♦r❝❡s

▲❡t✬s ❛❧s♦ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t ❢♦r❝❡s ❛s ✈❡❝t♦rs✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ s♣r✐♥❣s ❛tt❛❝❤❡❞ t♦ ❛♥ ♦❜❥❡❝t ✇✐❧❧ ♣✉❧❧ ✐t ✐♥ t❤❡✐r
r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥s✿

❲❡ ❛❞❞ t❤❡s❡ ✈❡❝t♦rs t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡❞ ❢♦r❝❡ ❛s ✐❢ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡❞ ❜② ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ s♣r✐♥❣✳ ❚❤❡ ❢♦r❝❡s ❛r❡
✈❡❝t♦rs t❤❛t st❛rt ❛t t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✼✳✻✿ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥ts

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t t❤❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥ts✱ t♦♦✱ ❛s ✈❡❝t♦rs ❛❧✐❣♥❡❞ t♦ t❤❡✐r st❛rt✐♥❣ ♣♦✐♥ts✳ ■♠❛❣✐♥❡ ✇❡ ❛r❡
❝r♦ss✐♥❣ ❛ r✐✈❡r 3 ♠✐❧❡s ✇✐❞❡ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t t❛❦❡s ✉s 2 ♠✐❧❡s ❞♦✇♥str❡❛♠✳ ❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡
t❤r❡❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ✇❛②s t❤✐s ❝❛♥ ❤❛♣♣❡♥✿
✶✳ ❛ tr✐♣ 3 ♠✐❧❡s ♥♦rt❤ ❢♦❧❧♦✇❡❞ ❜② ❛ tr✐♣ 2 ♠✐❧❡s ❡❛st❀ ♦r
✷✳ ❛ tr✐♣ 2 ♠✐❧❡s ❡❛st ❢♦❧❧♦✇❡❞ ❜② ❛ tr✐♣ 3 ♠✐❧❡s ♥♦rt❤❀ ❜✉t ❛❧s♦
✸✳ ❛ tr✐♣ ❛❧♦♥❣ t❤❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♦❢ ❛ r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡ ✇✐t❤ ♦♥❡ s✐❞❡ ❣♦✐♥❣ 3 ♠✐❧❡s ♥♦rt❤ ❛♥❞ ❛♥♦t❤❡r 2 ♠✐❧❡s
❡❛st✳
❚❤❡ t❤r❡❡ ♦✉t❝♦♠❡s ❛r❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡✿

❚❤❡② ❛r❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡✳

❚❤✐s ✐s ✈❡❝t♦r ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❧❡❛r♥✳

❙♦✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡✇✐s❡ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥✿
✹✳✼✳ ❱❡❝t♦rs ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ ✸✶✶

❍❡r❡✿
< 1, 2 > + < 2, −1 >=< 1 + 2, 2 + (−1) >=< 3, 1 > .

●❡♦♠❡tr✐❝❛❧❧②✱ t♦ ❛❞❞ t✇♦ ✈❡❝t♦rs✱ ✇❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇ ❡✐t❤❡r✿

✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❤❡❛❞✲t♦✲t❛✐❧✿ t❤❡ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐♦♥✳
✷✳ ❚❤❡ t❛✐❧✲✇✐t❤✲t❛✐❧✿ t❤❡ ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧♦❣r❛♠ ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐♦♥✳
❚❤❡② ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ r❡s✉❧t✦ ❚❤❡② ❞♦✱ ❛s ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❲❡ ❛❧s♦ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s ❜② t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r✿

❍❡r❡✿
2· < 2, 1 >=< 2 · 2, 2 · 1 >=< 4, 2 > .

■♥ s✉♠♠❛r②✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✹✳✼✳✼✿ ✈❡❝t♦r ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s
✶✳ ❆♥② t✇♦ ✈❡❝t♦rs < a, b > ❛♥❞ < u, v > ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❛❞❞❡❞✱ ♣r♦❞✉❝✐♥❣ ❛ ♥❡✇
✈❡❝t♦r ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡✐r s✉♠ ✿

< a, b > + < u, v >=< a + u, b + v >

✷✳ ❆♥② ✈❡❝t♦r < a, b > ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❡❞ ❜② ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r k ✱ ♣r♦❞✉❝✐♥❣ ❛ ♥❡✇

✈❡❝t♦r ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ s❝❛❧❛r ♣r♦❞✉❝t ✿

k < a, b >=< ka, kb >

❆❧♦♥❣ t❤✐s ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s s✐❧❧ ❣❡♦♠❡tr② t♦♦✳

❆ ✈❡❝t♦r ❤❛s ❛ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ ✐t ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡s✱ ❛♥❞ ❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡✱
❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✳
✹✳✽✳ ❍♦✇ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❡♠❡r❣❡ ✸✶✷

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✹✳✼✳✽✿ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡ ♦❢ ✈❡❝t♦r

❚❤❡ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡ ♦❢ ❛ ✈❡❝t♦r OP =< a, b > ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛s t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❢r♦♠ O t♦
✐ts t✐♣ P✱ ❞❡♥♦t❡❞ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

√
|| < a, b > || = a2 + b2

❆❧❣❡❜r❛ ❛♥❞ ❣❡♦♠❡tr② ♦❢ ✈❡❝t♦rs ❝❛♥ ✐♥t❡r❛❝t✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ t❤❡ ❚r✐❛♥❣❧❡ ■♥❡q✉❛❧✐t② t❛❦❡ t❤✐s ❢♦r♠✿
||A + B|| ≤ ||A|| + ||B||

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✼✳✾
❲❤② ♥♦t ✏ <✑❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✼✳✶✵
❊①♣❛♥❞✿ ||kA|| = ...

✹✳✽✳ ❍♦✇ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❡♠❡r❣❡

❚❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
x2 + 1 = 0
❤❛s ♥♦ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s✳ ■♥❞❡❡❞✱ ✇❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

x2 ≥ 0 =⇒ x2 + 1 > 0 =⇒ x2 + 1 6= 0 .

■❢ ✇❡ tr② t♦ s♦❧✈❡ ✐t t❤❡ ✉s✉❛❧ ✇❛②✱ ✇❡ ❣❡t t❤❡s❡✿

√ √
x= −1 ❛♥❞ x = − −1 .

❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♥♦ s✉❝❤ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✳

❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ❧❡t✬s ✐❣♥♦r❡ t❤✐s ❢❛❝t ❢♦r ❛ ♠♦♠❡♥t✳ ▲❡t✬s s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❜❛❝❦ ✐♥t♦ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ✕
❜❧✐♥❞❧② ✕ ❢♦❧❧♦✇ t❤❡ r✉❧❡s ♦❢ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✳ ❲❡ ✏❝♦♥✜r♠✑ t❤❛t t❤✐s ✏♥✉♠❜❡r✑ ✐s ❛ ✏s♦❧✉t✐♦♥✑✿

√
x2 + 1 = ( −1)2 + 1 = (−1) + 1 = 0 .

❲❡ ❝❛❧❧ t❤✐s ❡♥t✐t② t❤❡ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❛r② ✉♥✐t✱ ❞❡♥♦t❡❞ ❜② i✳

❲❡ ❥✉st ❛❞❞ t❤✐s ✏♥✉♠❜❡r✑ t♦ t❤❡ s❡t ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ✇❡ ❞♦ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ✇✐t❤✿
✹✳✽✳ ❍♦✇ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❡♠❡r❣❡ ✸✶✸

❆♥❞ s❡❡ ✇❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s✳✳✳

▼❛❦✐♥❣ i ❛ ♣❛rt ♦❢ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ✇✐❧❧ ♦♥❧② r❡q✉✐r❡ t❤✐s t❤r❡❡✲♣❛rt ❝♦♥✈❡♥t✐♦♥✿

✶✳ i ✐s ♥♦t ❛ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r ✭❛♥❞✱ ✐♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱ i 6= 0✮✱ ❜✉t

✷✳ i ❝❛♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✐♣❛t❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ✭❢♦✉r✮ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ✇✐t❤ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❜② ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ r✉❧❡s❀ ❛❧s♦

✸✳ i2 = −1✳
❲❤❛t ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ r✉❧❡s ❛r❡ t❤♦s❡❄ ❆ ❢❡✇ ✈❡r② ❜❛s✐❝ ♦♥❡s✿

x + y = y + x, x · y = y · x, x(y + z) = xy + xz, ❡t❝✳

❲❡ ❛❧❧♦✇ ♦♥❡ ♦r s❡✈❡r❛❧ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ♣❛r❛♠❡t❡rs t♦ ❜❡ i✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

i + y = y + i, i · y = y · i, i(y + z) = iy + iz, ❡t❝✳

❲❤❛t ♠❛❦❡s t❤✐s ❡①tr❛ ❡✛♦rt ✇♦rt❤✇❤✐❧❡ ✐s ❛ ♥❡✇ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ t❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇
✇❡ ♠❛② ❢❛❝t♦r ♦♥❡✿
x2 − 1 = (x − 1)(x + 1) .
❚❤❡♥ x=1 ❛♥❞ x = −1 ❛r❡ t❤❡ x✲✐♥t❡r❝❡♣ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧✿

❇✉t s♦♠❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s✱ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ✐rr❡❞✉❝✐❜❧❡✱ ❝❛♥♥♦t ❜❡ ❢❛❝t♦r❡❞❀ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♥♦ a, b s✉❝❤ t❤❛t✿
x2 + 1 = (x − a)(x − b) .

❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♥♦ r❡❛❧ a, b✱ t❤❛t ✐s✦ ❯s✐♥❣ ♦✉r r✉❧❡s✱ ✇❡ ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r✿

(x − i)(x + i) = x2 − ix + ix − i2 = x2 + 1 .

❖❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r i ✐s ♥♦t ❛♥ x✲✐♥t❡r❝❡♣t ♦❢ f (x) = x2 + 1 ❛s t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ✭✏t❤❡ r❡❛❧ ❧✐♥❡✑✮ ❝♦♥s✐sts ♦❢ ♦♥❧②
✭❛♥❞ ❛❧❧✮ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✳

❙♦✱ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡s ♦❢ i ❛♣♣❡❛r ✐♠♠❡❞✐❛t❡❧② ❛s ✇❡ st❛rt ❞♦✐♥❣ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ✇✐t❤ ✐t✳

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✹✳✽✳✶✿ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❛r② ♥✉♠❜❡rs

❚❤❡ r❡❛❧ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❛r② ✉♥✐t✱ ✐✳❡✳✱

z = ri, r r❡❛❧,

❛r❡ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❛r② ♥✉♠❜❡rs✳

✹✳✽✳ ❍♦✇ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❡♠❡r❣❡ ✸✶✹

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❝r❡❛t❡❞ ❛ ✇❤♦❧❡ ❝❧❛ss ♦❢ ♥♦♥✲r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✦ ❖❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ ri✱ ✇❤❡r❡ r ✐s r❡❛❧✱ ❝❛♥✬t ❜❡ r❡❛❧✿

(ri)2 = r2 i2 = −r2 < 0 .

❚❤❡ ♦♥❧② ❡①❝❡♣t✐♦♥ ✐s 0i = 0❀ ✐t✬s r❡❛❧✦

❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ❛s ♠❛♥② ♦❢ t❤❡♠ ❛s t❤❡ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✿

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✽✳✷✿ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s

❚❤❡ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❛r② ♥✉♠❜❡rs ♠❛② ❛❧s♦ ❝♦♠❡ ❢r♦♠ s♦❧✈✐♥❣ t❤❡ s✐♠♣❧❡st q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱
t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
x2 + 4 = 0
❣✐✈❡s ✉s ✈✐❛ ♦✉r s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✿

√ p √ √
x = ± −4 = ± 4(−1) = ± 4 −1 = ±2i .

■♥❞❡❡❞✱ ✐❢ ✇❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ x = 2i ✐♥t♦ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

(2i)2 + 4 = (2)2 (i)2 + 4 = 4(−1) + 4 = 0 .

▼♦r❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❞✐s❝✉ss❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♥❡①t s❡❝t✐♦♥✳

■♠❛❣✐♥❛r② ♥✉♠❜❡rs ♦❜❡② t❤❡ ❧❛✇s ♦❢ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ❛s ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❡♠✦ ■❢ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ s✐♠♣❧✐❢② t❤❡ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥✱ ✇❡
tr② t♦ ♠❛♥✐♣✉❧❛t❡ ✐t ✐♥ s✉❝❤ ❛ ✇❛② t❤❛t r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❛r❡ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡❞ ✇✐t❤ r❡❛❧ ✇❤✐❧❡ i ✐s ♣✉s❤❡❞ ❛s✐❞❡✳

❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❥✉st ❢❛❝t♦r i ♦✉t ♦❢ ❛❧❧ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ s✉❜tr❛❝t✐♦♥✿

5i + 3i = (5 + 3)i = 8i .

■t ❧♦♦❦s ❡①❛❝t❧② ❧✐❦❡ ♠✐❞❞❧❡ s❝❤♦♦❧ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✿

5x + 3x = (5 + 3)x = 8x .

❆❢t❡r ❛❧❧✱ x ❝♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ i✳ ❆♥♦t❤❡r s✐♠✐❧❛r✐t② ✐s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦❢ q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s t❤❛t ❤❛✈❡ ✉♥✐ts✿

5 ✐♥✳ +3 ✐♥✳ = (5 + 3) ✐♥✳ =8 ✐♥✳ .

❙♦✱ t❤❡ ♥❛t✉r❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✉♥✐t ❞♦❡s♥✬t ♠❛tt❡r ✭✐❢ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ♣✉s❤ ✐t ❛s✐❞❡✮✳ ❊✈❡♥ s✐♠♣❧❡r✿

5 ❛♣♣❧❡s +3 ❛♣♣❧❡s = (5 + 3) ❛♣♣❧❡s =8 ❛♣♣❧❡s .

■t✬s ✏ 8 ❛♣♣❧❡s✑ ♥♦t ✏ 8✑✦ ❆♥❞ s♦ ♦♥✳

❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ ✇❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧② ❛♥ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❛r② ♥✉♠❜❡r ❜② ❛ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r✿

2 · (3i) = (2 · 3)i = 6i .

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ♥❡✇ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❛r② ♥✉♠❜❡r✳

❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧② t✇♦ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❛r② ♥✉♠❜❡rs❄ ■t✬s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t❀ ❛❢t❡r ❛❧❧✱ ✇❡ ❞♦♥✬t ✉s✉❛❧❧② ♠✉❧t✐♣❧② ❛♣♣❧❡s ❜②
❛♣♣❧❡s✦ ■♥ ❝♦♥tr❛st t♦ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡✱ ❡✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ❢♦❧❧♦✇ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ r✉❧❡ ❛s ❛❧✇❛②s✱ ✇❡
❝❛♥✱ ✇❤❡♥ ♥❡❝❡ss❛r②✱ ❛♥❞ ♦❢t❡♥ ❤❛✈❡ t♦✱ s✐♠♣❧✐❢② t❤❡ ♦✉t❝♦♠❡ ♦❢ ♦✉r ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ✉s✐♥❣ ♦✉r ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ✐❞❡♥t✐t② ✿

i2 = −1 .
✹✳✽✳ ❍♦✇ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❡♠❡r❣❡ ✸✶✺

❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✿
(5i) · (3i) = (5 · 3)(i · i) = 15i2 = 15(−1) = −15 .
■t✬s r❡❛❧✦

❲❡ ❛❧s♦ s✐♠♣❧✐❢② t❤❡ ♦✉t❝♦♠❡ ❜② ✉s✐♥❣ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❢❛❝t ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❛r② ✉♥✐t✿

i 6= 0 .

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❞✐✈✐❞❡ ❜② i✦ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱

5i 5i 5 5
= = ·1= .
3i 3i 3 3
❆s ②♦✉ ❝❛♥ s❡❡✱ ❞♦✐♥❣ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ✇✐t❤ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❛r② ♥✉♠❜❡rs ✇✐❧❧ ♦❢t❡♥ ❜r✐♥❣ ✉s ❜❛❝❦ t♦ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✳ ❚❤❡s❡ t✇♦
❝❧❛ss❡s ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❝❛♥♥♦t ❜❡ s❡♣❛r❛t❡❞ ❢r♦♠ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r✦

❚❤❡② ❛r❡♥✬t✳ ▲❡t✬s t❛❦❡ ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❧♦♦❦ ❛t q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s✳ ❚❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥

ax2 + bx + c = 0, a 6= 0 ,

✐s s♦❧✈❡❞ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r ◗✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❋♦r♠✉❧❛ ✿

√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x= .
2a
▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r
x2 + 2x + 10 = 0 .
❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ r♦♦ts ❛r❡ s✉♣♣♦s❡❞ t♦ ❜❡✿

√
−2 ±22 − 4 · 10
x =
√2
−2 ± −36
=
2
√
= −1 ± −9 ❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ r❡❛❧ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥✦

√ √
= −1 ± 9 −1 ❇✉t ✇❡ ❣♦ ♦♥✳

= −1 ± 3i .

❲❡ ❡♥❞ ✉♣ ❛❞❞✐♥❣ r❡❛❧ ❛♥❞ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❛r② ♥✉♠❜❡rs✦

❆s t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ✇❛② t♦ s✐♠♣❧✐❢② t❤✐s✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

◮ ❆ ♥✉♠❜❡r a + bi✱ ✇❤❡r❡ a, b 6= 0 ❛r❡ r❡❛❧✱ ✐s ♥❡✐t❤❡r r❡❛❧ ♥♦r ✐♠❛❣✐♥❛r②✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✽✳✸

❊①♣❧❛✐♥ ✇❤②✳

❚❤✐s ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ ✐s ♥♦t ❧✐t❡r❛❧✳ ■t✬s ❧✐❦❡ ✏❛❞❞✐♥❣✑ ❛♣♣❧❡s t♦ ♦r❛♥❣❡s✿

5 ❛♣♣❧❡s +3 ♦r❛♥❣❡s = ...

■t✬s ♥♦t 8 ❛♥❞ ✐t✬s ♥♦t 8 ❢r✉✐t ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ✇❡ ✇♦✉❧❞♥✬t ❜❡ ❛❜❧❡ t♦ r❡❛❞ t❤✐s ❡q✉❛❧✐t② ❜❛❝❦✇❛r❞s✳ ❚❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ✇✐❧❧✱
❤♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ❜❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣❢✉❧✿

(5a + 3o) + (2a + 4o) = (5 + 3)a + (3 + 4)o = 8a + 7o .

■t ✐s ❛s ✐❢ ✇❡ ❝♦❧❧❡❝t s✐♠✐❧❛r t❡r♠s✱ ❧✐❦❡ t❤✐s✿

(5 + 3x) + (2 + 4x) = (5 + 2) + (3 + 4)x = 8 + 7x .
✹✳✽✳ ❍♦✇ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❡♠❡r❣❡ ✸✶✻

❚❤✐s ✐❞❡❛ ❡♥❛❜❧❡s ✉s t♦ ❞♦ t❤✐s✿

(5 + 3i) + (2 + 4i) = (5 + 3) + (3 + 4)i = 8 + 7i .

❊❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ✇❡ ❛r❡ ❢❛❝✐♥❣ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥ ❜♦t❤ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❛♥❞ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❛r② ♣❛rts✳ ❚❤✐s ❢❛❝t ♠❛❦❡s t❤❡♠
✏❝♦♠♣❧❡①✑✳✳✳

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✹✳✽✳✹✿ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡r

❆♥② s✉♠ ♦❢ r❡❛❧ ❛♥❞ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❛r② ♥✉♠❜❡rs ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡r✳ ❚❤❡ s❡t ♦❢
❛❧❧ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡rs ✐s ❞❡♥♦t❡❞ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

C = {z = a + bi : a, b r❡❛❧}

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦
❆❧❧ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❛r❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ✭b = 0✮✳

❆❞❞✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ s✉❜tr❛❝t✐♦♥ ❛r❡ ❡❛s②❀ ✇❡ ❥✉st ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡ s✐♠✐❧❛r t❡r♠s ❥✉st ❧✐❦❡ ✐♥ ♠✐❞❞❧❡ s❝❤♦♦❧✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱
(1 + 5i) + (3 − i) = 1 + 5i + 3 − i = (1 + 3) + (5i − i) = 4 + 4i .

❚♦ s✐♠♣❧✐❢② ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡rs✱ ✇❡ ❡①♣❛♥❞ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ✉s❡ i2 = −1✱ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
(1 + 5i) · (3 − i) = 1 · 3 + 5i · 3 + 1 · (−i) + 5i · (−i)
= 3 + 15i − i − 5i2
= (3 + 5) + (15i − i)
= 8 + 14i .

■t✬s ❛ ❜✐t tr✐❝❦✐❡r ✇✐t❤ ❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥ ✿

1 + 5i 1 + 5i 3 + i
=
3−i 3−i 3+i
(1 + 5i)(3 + i)
=
(3 − i)(3 + i)
−2 + 8i
= 2
3 − i2
−2 + 8i
= 2
3 +1
1
= (−2 + 8i)
10
= −0.2 + 0.8i .
❚❤❡ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r ✐s ♠❛❞❡ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ❜② t❤❡ tr✐❝❦ ♦❢ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧②✐♥❣ ❜② 3 + i✳ ■t ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡
tr✐❝❦ ✇❡ ✉s❡❞ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶ t♦ s✐♠♣❧✐❢② ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥s ✇✐t❤ r♦♦ts t♦ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡✐r ❧✐♠✐ts✿
√ √
1 1 1+ x 1+ x
√ = √ √ = .
1− x 1− x1+ x 1−x

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✹✳✽✳✺✿ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ❝♦♥❥✉❣❛t❡

❚❤❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ❝♦♥❥✉❣❛t❡ ♦❢ z = a + bi ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛♥❞ ❞❡♥♦t❡❞ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
z̄ = a + bi = a − bi .

❚❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✐s ❝r✉❝✐❛❧✳

✹✳✽✳ ❍♦✇ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❡♠❡r❣❡ ✸✶✼

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✽✳✻✿ ❆❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦❢ ❈♦♠♣❧❡① ◆✉♠❜❡rs

❚❤❡ r✉❧❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦❢ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❛r❡ ✐❞❡♥t✐❝❛❧ t♦ t❤♦s❡ ♦❢ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠✲
❜❡rs✿
• ❈♦♠♠✉t❛t✐✈✐t② ♦❢ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥✿ z+u=u+z
• ❆ss♦❝✐❛t✐✈✐t② ♦❢ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥✿ (z + u) + v = z + (u + v)
• ❈♦♠♠✉t❛t✐✈✐t② ♦❢ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥✿ z · u = u · z
• ❆ss♦❝✐❛t✐✈✐t② ♦❢ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥✿ (z · u) · v = z · (u · v)
• ❉✐str✐❜✉t✐✈✐t②✿ z · (u + v) = z · u + z · v

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡r s②st❡♠ ❀ ✐t ❢♦❧❧♦✇s t❤❡ r✉❧❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r s②st❡♠ ❜✉t ❛❧s♦ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s ✐t✳ ❚❤✐s
t❤❡♦r❡♠ ✇✐❧❧ ❛❧❧♦✇ ✉s t♦ ❜✉✐❧❞ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ❢♦r ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s t❤❛t ✐s ❛❧♠♦st ✐❞❡♥t✐❝❛❧ t♦ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ❢♦r r❡❛❧
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❜✉t ❛❧s♦ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s ✐t✳
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✹✳✽✳✼✿ st❛♥❞❛r❞ ❢♦r♠ ♦❢ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡r
❊✈❡r② ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡r x ❤❛s t❤❡ st❛♥❞❛r❞ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ✿
z = a + bi ,

✇❤❡r❡ a ❛♥❞ b ❛r❡ t✇♦ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✳ ❚❤❡ t✇♦ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥ts ❛r❡ ♥❛♠❡❞ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
• a ✐s t❤❡ r❡❛❧ ♣❛rt ♦❢ z ✱ ✇✐t❤ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✿

a = Re(z) ;

• bi ✐s t❤❡ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❛r② ♣❛rt ♦❢ z ✱ ✇✐t❤ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✿

b = Im(z) .

❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ ♣✉r♣♦s❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s ❛❜♦✈❡ ✇❛s t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ st❛♥❞❛r❞ ❢♦r♠ ♦❢ ❛ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡r t❤❛t
❝♦♠❡s ❢r♦♠ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ✇✐t❤ ♦t❤❡r ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡rs✳ ❚❤❡② ✇❡r❡ ❧✐t❡r❛❧❧② s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛t✐♦♥s✳
❚❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♠❛❦❡s s❡♥s❡ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ r❡s✉❧t✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✽✳✽✿ ❙t❛♥❞❛r❞ ❋♦r♠ ♦❢ ❈♦♠♣❧❡① ◆✉♠❜❡r
❚✇♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧ ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ ❜♦t❤ t❤❡✐r r❡❛❧ ❛♥❞ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❛r②
♣❛rts ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧✳

❙♦✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
z = Re(z) + Im(z)i .

■♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ s❡❡ t❤❡ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡rs✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡ t❤❡ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r ❧✐♥❡
❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❛r② ♥✉♠❜❡r ❧✐♥❡✳ ❍♦✇❄ ❲❡ r❡❛❧✐③❡ t❤❛t t❤❡② ❤❛✈❡ ♥♦t❤✐♥❣ ✐♥ ❝♦♠♠♦♥✳✳✳ ❡①❝❡♣t 0 = 0i
❜❡❧♦♥❣s t♦ ❜♦t❤✿

❲❡ ❝❛♥ tr② t♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡ t❤❡♠ ❧✐❦❡ t❤❛t✱ ♦r ❧✐❦❡ t❤✐s✿

✹✳✽✳ ❍♦✇ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❡♠❡r❣❡ ✸✶✽

❖r ✇❡ ❝❛♥ tr② t♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡ t❤❡♠ ✐♥ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♠❛♥♥❡r ✇❡ ❜✉✐❧t t❤❡ xy ✲♣❧❛♥❡✿

❚❤✐s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ❤❡❧♣s ✉s ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♠❛✐♥ ✐❞❡❛✿

◮ ❈♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❛r❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❛❧ ✉♥✐t✱ 1✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❛r② ✉♥✐t✱ i✳
■❢ z = a + bi✱ t❤❡♥ a ❛♥❞ b ❛r❡ t❤♦✉❣❤t ♦❢ ❛s t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥ts ♦❢ ✈❡❝t♦r z ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ♦♥❡✲t♦✲♦♥❡

❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝❡✿

C ←→ R2 ,
❣✐✈❡♥ ❜②

a + bi ←→ < a, b > .

❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ♦❢ t❤✐s ♣❧❛♥❡ ❝♦♥s✐sts ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❛♥❞ t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❛r② ♥✉♠❜❡rs✳

■t ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♣❧❛♥❡ ✳

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❚❤✐s ✐s ❥✉st ❛ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥✳

❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ❝♦♥❥✉❣❛t❡ ♦❢ z ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡r ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ r❡❛❧ ♣❛rt ❛s z ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❛r②

♣❛rt ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ♦♣♣♦s✐t❡ s✐❣♥✿

Re(z̄) = Re(z) ❛♥❞ Im(z̄) = − Im(z) .

✹✳✾✳ ❚❤❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♣❧❛♥❡ C ✐s t❤❡ ❊✉❝❧✐❞❡❛♥ s♣❛❝❡ R2 ✸✶✾

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❆❧❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❡♥❝♦✉♥t❡r❡❞ s♦ ❢❛r ❛r❡ r❡❛❧

♥♦♥✲❝♦♠♣❧❡①✱ ❛♥❞ s♦ ❛r❡ ❛❧❧ q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s ♦♥❡ ❝❛♥ ❡♥✲

❝♦✉♥t❡r ✐♥ ❞❛②✲t♦✲❞❛② ❧✐❢❡ ♦r s❝✐❡♥❝❡✿ t✐♠❡✱ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✱

❧❡♥❣t❤✱ ❛r❡❛✱ ✈♦❧✉♠❡✱ ♠❛ss✱ t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❡✱ ♠♦♥❡②✱

❡t❝✳

✹✳✾✳ ❚❤❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♣❧❛♥❡ C ✐s t❤❡ ❊✉❝❧✐❞❡❛♥ s♣❛❝❡ R2

■❢ ✇❡ ❝❛❧❧ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡r ♥✉♠❜❡rs✱ t❤❡② ♠✉st ❜❡ s✉❜ ❥❡❝t t♦ s♦♠❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s✳
❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧❧② ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡♠ t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ❧❡♥s ♦❢ ✈❡❝t♦r ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ R ✳
2

❆ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡r z ❤❛s t❤❡ st❛♥❞❛r❞ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ✿

z = a + bi ,

✇❤❡r❡ a ❛♥❞ b ❛r❡ t✇♦ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✳ ❚❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ s❡❡♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❝♦♠♣❧❡①

♥✉♠❜❡rs✿

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ a ❛♥❞ b ❛r❡ t❤♦✉❣❤t ♦❢ ❛s t❤❡ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s ♦❢ z ❛s ❛ ♣♦✐♥t ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡✳ ❇✉t ❛♥② ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡r

✐s ♥♦t ♦♥❧② ❛ ♣♦✐♥t ♦♥ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♣❧❛♥❡ ❜✉t ❛❧s♦ ❛ ✈❡❝t♦r✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝❡✿

C ←→ R2 ,

❣✐✈❡♥ ❜②

a + bi ←→ < a, b >

❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ♠♦r❡ t♦ t❤✐s t❤❛♥ ❥✉st ❛ ♠❛t❝❤❀ t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦❢ ✈❡❝t♦rs ✐♥ R2 ❛♣♣❧✐❡s✦
✹✳✾✳ ❚❤❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♣❧❛♥❡ C ✐s t❤❡ ❊✉❝❧✐❞❡❛♥ s♣❛❝❡ R2 ✸✷✵

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

■♥ s♣✐t❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝❡✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧

❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡ t♦ t❤✐♥❦ ♦❢ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❛s ♥✉♠❜❡rs
✭❛♥❞ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❧♦✇❡r ❝❛s❡ ❧❡tt❡rs✮✳

▲❡t✬s s❡❡ ❤♦✇ t❤✐s ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ✇♦r❦s ✐♥ ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦❢ 2✲✈❡❝t♦rs✳
❋✐rst✱ t❤❡ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡rs ✐s ❞♦♥❡ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t✇✐s❡ ✿
(a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i
< a, b > + < c, d > = < a + c , b+d>

■t ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞s t♦ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✈❡❝t♦rs✿

❙❡❝♦♥❞✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❡❛s✐❧② ♠✉❧t✐♣❧② ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❜② r❡❛❧ ♦♥❡s✿

(a + bi) c = (ac) + (bc)i

< a, b > c = < ac , bc >

■t ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞s t♦ s❝❛❧❛r ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✈❡❝t♦rs✳

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❱❡❝t♦r ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦❢ R2 ✐s ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✱ ❜✉t ♥♦t

✈✐❝❡ ✈❡rs❛✳ ❈♦♠♣❧❡① ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ✇❤❛t ♠❛❦❡s
✐t ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✾✳✶✿ ❝✐r❝❧❡

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❡❛s✐❧② r❡♣r❡s❡♥t ❝✐r❝❧❡s ♦♥ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♣❧❛♥❡✿

z = r cos θ + r sin θ · i .

❖✉r st✉❞② ♦❢ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦❢ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡rs st❛rts ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ st✉❞② ♦❢ t❤❡ t♦♣♦❧♦❣② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♣❧❛♥❡✳ ❚❤✐s

t♦♣♦❧♦❣② ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❛s t❤❛t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❊✉❝❧✐❞❡❛♥ ♣❧❛♥❡ R 2

✦
✹✳✾✳ ❚❤❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♣❧❛♥❡ C ✐s t❤❡ ❊✉❝❧✐❞❡❛♥ s♣❛❝❡ R2 ✸✷✶

❏✉st ❛s ❜❡❢♦r❡✱ ❡✈❡r② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ z = f (t) ✇✐t❤ ❛♥ ❛♣♣r♦♣r✐❛t❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ❝r❡❛t❡s ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✿

zk = f (k) .

❆ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ✈❛❧✉❡s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ ❛ r❛② ✐♥ t❤❡ s❡t ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣❡rs✱ {p, p + 1, ...}✱ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛♥ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡
s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ ♦r s✐♠♣❧② s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✾✳✷✿ s♣✐r❛❧

❆ ❣♦♦❞ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ✐s t❤❛t ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♠❛❞❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❝✐♣r♦❝❛❧s✿

cos k sin k
zk = + i.
k k
■t t❡♥❞s t♦ 0 ✇❤✐❧❡ s♣✐r❛❧✐♥❣ ❛r♦✉♥❞ ✐t✳

❚❤❡ st❛rt✐♥❣ ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦❢ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡rs ✐s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✳ ❚❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❝♦♠♣❧❡①
♥✉♠❜❡rs ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ✐ts r❡❛❧ ❛♥❞ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❛r② ♣❛rts ♦r✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t✱ t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ♣♦✐♥ts
✭♦r ✈❡❝t♦rs✮ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♣❧❛♥❡ s❡❡♥ ❛s ❛♥② ♣❧❛♥❡✿ ❚❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ k t❤ ♣♦✐♥t t♦ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ✐s ❣❡tt✐♥❣
s♠❛❧❧❡r ❛♥❞ s♠❛❧❧❡r✳

❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ❢♦r ✈❡❝t♦rs ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ ❜② s✐♠♣❧② r❡♣❧❛❝✐♥❣ ✈❡❝t♦rs ✇✐t❤ ❝♦♠♣❧❡①
♥✉♠❜❡rs ❛♥❞ ✏♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡✑ ✇✐t❤ ✏♠♦❞✉❧✉s✑✳
✹✳✾✳ ❚❤❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♣❧❛♥❡ C ✐s t❤❡ ❊✉❝❧✐❞❡❛♥ s♣❛❝❡ R2 ✸✷✷

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✹✳✾✳✸✿ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t s❡q✉❡♥❝❡

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ {zk : k = 1, 2, 3, ...} ✐s ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡rs✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ ♣♦✐♥ts ✐♥

C✳ ❲❡ s❛② t❤❛t t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦ ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡r z✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ ❛

♣♦✐♥t ✐♥ C✱ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ ✐❢✿

||zk − z|| → 0 ❛s k → ∞,

❞❡♥♦t❡❞ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

zk → z ❛s k → ∞,
♦r

z = lim zk .
k→∞

■❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❤❛s ❛ ❧✐♠✐t✱ ✇❡ ❝❛❧❧ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t ❛♥❞ s❛② t❤❛t ✐t ❝♦♥✲
✈❡r❣❡s ❀ ♦t❤❡r✇✐s❡ ✐t ✐s ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥t ❛♥❞ ✇❡ s❛② ✐t ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts st❛rt t♦ ❛❝❝✉♠✉❧❛t❡ ✐♥ s♠❛❧❧❡r ❛♥❞ s♠❛❧❧❡r ❝✐r❝❧❡s ❛r♦✉♥❞ z✳ ❆ ✇❛② t♦ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡

❛ tr❡♥❞ ✐♥ ❛ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s t♦ ❡♥❝❧♦s❡ t❤❡ t❛✐❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐♥ ❛ ❞✐s❦ ✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✾✳✹✿ ❯♥✐q✉❡♥❡ss ♦❢ ▲✐♠✐t

❆ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❝❛♥ ❤❛✈❡ ♦♥❧② ♦♥❡ ❧✐♠✐t ✭✜♥✐t❡ ♦r ✐♥✜♥✐t❡✮❀ ✐✳❡✳✱ ✐❢ a ❛♥❞ b ❛r❡ ❧✐♠✐ts
♦❢ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ t❤❡♥ a = b✳

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✹✳✾✳✺✿ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ t❡♥❞s t♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t②

❲❡ s❛② t❤❛t ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ zk t❡♥❞s t♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t② ✐❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥ ❤♦❧❞s✿ ❋♦r

❡❛❝❤ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r R✱ t❤❡r❡ ❡①✐sts s✉❝❤ ❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r N t❤❛t✱ ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② ♥❛t✉r❛❧

♥✉♠❜❡r k > N✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡

||zk || > R .
❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✿

zk → ∞ ❛s k → ∞.

❚❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✐s ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❛♥❛❧♦❣ ♦❢ ❛ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ t♦♣♦❧♦❣② ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✾✳✻✿ ❈♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t✇✐s❡ ❈♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s

❆ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡rs zk ✐♥ C ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦ ❛ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡r z ✐❢ ❛♥❞
♦♥❧② ✐❢ ❜♦t❤ t❤❡ r❡❛❧ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❛r② ♣❛rts ♦❢ zk ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ t♦ t❤❡ r❡❛❧ ❛♥❞ t❤❡
✐♠❛❣✐♥❛r② ♣❛rts ♦❢ z r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②❀ ✐✳❡✳✱

zk → z ⇐⇒ Re(zk ) → Re(z) ❛♥❞ Im(zk ) → Im(z) .

✹✳✶✵✳ ▼✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡rs✿ C ✐s♥✬t ❥✉st R2 ✸✷✸

❚❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡rs ✇✐❧❧ ❛❧s♦ ❧♦♦❦ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✾✳✼✿ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❈♦♠♣❧❡① ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s

■❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s zk , uk ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ❞♦❡s z k + uk ✱ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

lim (zk + uk ) = lim zk + lim uk .

k→∞ k→∞ k→∞

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✾✳✽✿ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❈♦♠♣❧❡① ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s

■❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ zk ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ❞♦❡s czk ❢♦r ❛♥② ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡r c✱ ❛♥❞ ✇❡

❤❛✈❡✿

lim c zk = c · lim zk .
k→∞ k→∞

❲♦✉❧❞♥✬t ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦❢ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❜❡ ❥✉st ❛ ❝♦♣② ♦❢ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡❄ ◆♦✱ ♥♦t ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ♣♦ss✐❜✐❧✐t②

♦❢ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ t❛❦❡♥ ✐♥t♦ ❛❝❝♦✉♥t✳

✹✳✶✵✳ ▼✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡rs✿ C ✐s♥✬t ❥✉st R2

❙♦✱ t❤❡ ✈❡❝t♦r ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦❢ R2 ✐s ✐♥❝❧✉❞❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦❢ C✳ ❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ♠♦r❡ t♦ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✳

❏✉st ❧✐❦❡ ✐♥ R2 ✱ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ❜② ❛ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r r ✇✐❧❧ str❡t❝❤✴s❤r✐♥❦ ❛❧❧ ✈❡❝t♦rs ❛♥❞✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡①

♣❧❛♥❡ C✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ❜② ❛ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡r c ✇✐❧❧ ❛❧s♦ r♦t❛t❡ ❡❛❝❤ ✈❡❝t♦r✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✶✵✳✶✿ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ❜② i

▲❡t✬s st❛rt ✇✐t❤ 1 ❛♥❞ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧② ✐t ❜② i s❡✈❡r❛❧ t✐♠❡s✳ ▼✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ❜② i r♦t❛t❡s t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ❜② 90
❞❡❣r❡❡s✿ 1 ❜❡❝♦♠❡s i✱ ✇❤✐❧❡ i ❜❡❝♦♠❡s −1✱ ❡t❝✳✿
✹✳✶✵✳ ▼✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡rs✿ C ✐s♥✬t ❥✉st R2 ✸✷✹

1·i=i r♦t❛t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ ✵ ❞❡❣r❡❡s t♦ ✾✵

i · i = i2 = −1 r♦t❛t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ ✾✵ ❞❡❣r❡❡s t♦ ✶✽✵
−1 · i = −i r♦t❛t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ ✶✽✵ ❞❡❣r❡❡s t♦ ✷✼✵
−i · i = −i = 1 r♦t❛t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ ✷✼✵ ❞❡❣r❡❡s t♦ ✸✻✵
2

❛♥❞ s♦ ♦♥✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✶✵✳✷✿ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥

❆ ♠♦r❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✿

u = 1 + 2i
v =2+i
uv = 2 + 4i + i + 2i2
= (2 − 2) + (4 + 1)i
= 0 + 5i
❚❤❡ r♦t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ v ✐s ✈✐s✐❜❧❡✿

■♥ ❝♦♥tr❛st✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ s❡❡ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ♦❢ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧②✐♥❣ v ❜② w = 2✿ ♥♦ r♦t❛t✐♦♥✳

❙♦✱ t❤❡ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❛r② ♣❛rt ♦❢ c ✐s r❡s♣♦♥s✐❜❧❡ ❢♦r r♦t❛t✐♦♥✳

❍♦✇ ❞♦❡s ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛✛❡❝t t♦♣♦❧♦❣②❄

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✶✵✳✸✿ Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❈♦♠♣❧❡① ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s

■❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s zk , uk ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ❞♦❡s z k · uk ✱ ❛♥❞

lim (zk · uk ) = lim zk · lim uk .

k→∞ k→∞ k→∞
✹✳✶✵✳ ▼✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡rs✿ C ✐s♥✬t ❥✉st R2 ✸✷✺

Pr♦♦❢✳
❙✉♣♣♦s❡
zk = ak + bk i → a + bi ❛♥❞ uk = pk + qk i = p + qi .
❚❤❡♥✱ ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ❈♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t✇✐s❡ ❈♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛❜♦✈❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

ak → a, bk → b ❛♥❞ pk → p, qk → q .

❚❤❡♥✱ ❜② t❤❡ Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

ak pk → ap, ak qk → aq, bk pk → bp, bk qk → bq .

❚❤❡♥✱ ❛s ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇✱

zk · uk = (ak pk − bk qk ) + (ak qk + bk pk )i → (ap − bq) + (aq + bq)i = (a + bi)(p + qi) ,

❜② t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✶✵✳✹✿ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❈♦♠♣❧❡① ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s

■❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s z k , uk ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ ✭✇✐t❤ uk 6= 0✮✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ❞♦❡s zk /uk ✱ ❛♥❞

zk limk→∞ zk
lim = ,
k→∞ uk limk→∞ uk
♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞
lim uk 6= 0 .
k→∞

❏✉st ❧✐❦❡ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✦

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✶✵✳✺
Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❧❛st t❤❡♦r❡♠✳

■♥ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ t♦ t❤❡ st❛♥❞❛r❞✱ ❈❛rt❡s✐❛♥✱ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥✱ ❛ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡r x = a + bi ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ✐♥ t❡r♠s
♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦❧❛r ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s✳

❲❡ ❥✉st ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡ ♦✉r ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝❡ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ♥❡✇ ♦♥❡✿

a + bi ←→ (a, b) ←→ (θ, r)

❚❤❡ t✇♦ q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s θ ❛♥❞ r ❜❡❝♦♠❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✹✳✶✵✳✻✿ ♠♦❞✉❧✉s ❛♥❞ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ z ✐s ❛ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡r✳
✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ z ♦♥ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♣❧❛♥❡ t♦ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥ O
✹✳✶✵✳ ▼✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡rs✿ C ✐s♥✬t ❥✉st R2 ✸✷✻

✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ♠♦❞✉❧✉s ♦❢ z ❞❡♥♦t❡❞ ❜②✿

||z||

✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❛♥❣❧❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t z ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥ O ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s
✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t ♦❢ z ❞❡♥♦t❡❞ ❜②✿

Arg(z)

❆ s✐♠♣❧❡ ❡①❛♠✐♥❛t✐♦♥ t❡❧❧s ✉s ❤♦✇ t♦ tr❛♥s✐t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠s✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✶✵✳✼✿ ❈♦♥✈❡rs✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❈♦♠♣❧❡① ◆✉♠❜❡rs

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ x = a + bi ✐s ❛ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡r✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

✶✳ ❚❤❡ ♠♦❞✉❧✉s ♦❢ z ✐s ❢♦✉♥❞ ❜②✿

√
||z|| = a2 + b2

✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t ♦❢ z ✐s ❢♦✉♥❞ ❜②✿

b
Arg(z) = arctan
a

❆♥② t✇♦ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs r≥0 ❛♥❞ 0 ≤ θ < 2π ❝❛♥ s❡r✈❡ ❛s t❤♦s❡✳ ■t ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢

t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡r✿

 
z = r cos θ + i sin θ

❚❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ t❛❦❡s ❛ ♥❡✇ ❢♦r♠ t♦♦✳ ❲❡ ❞♦♥✬t ♥❡❡❞ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ t♦ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ♠✉❧t✐✲

♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ❜② r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✱ ❜✉t ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ ✐t ❢♦r ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥✳

❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t✇♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡rs✿

   
z1 = r1 cos ϕ1 + i sin ϕ1 ❛♥❞ z2 = r2 cos ϕ2 + i sin ϕ2 ?

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r✿
   
z1 z2 = r1 cos ϕ1 + i sin ϕ1 ) · r2 cos ϕ2 + i sin ϕ2
   
= r1 r2 cos ϕ1 + i sin ϕ1 · cos ϕ2 + i sin ϕ2


= r1 r2 cos ϕ1 cos ϕ2 + i sin ϕ1 cos ϕ2 + cos ϕ1 sin ϕ2 + i2 sin ϕ1 sin ϕ2 .
❲❡ ✉t✐❧✐③❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ ✐❞❡♥t✐t✐❡s ✭❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶✮✿

cos a cos b − sin a sin b = cos(a + b) ❛♥❞ cos a sin b + sin a cos b = sin(a + b) .
✹✳✶✵✳ ▼✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡rs✿ C ✐s♥✬t ❥✉st R2 ✸✷✼

❚❤❡♥✱
 
z1 z2 = r1 r2 cos(ϕ1 + ϕ2 ) + i sin(ϕ1 + ϕ2 ) .

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✶✵✳✽✿ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥

❲❡ ❝❛♥ s❡❡ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♣❧❛♥❡✿

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ♣r♦✈❡♥ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✶✵✳✾✿ ▼✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❈♦♠♣❧❡① ◆✉♠❜❡rs

❲❤❡♥ t✇♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❛r❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❡❞✱ t❤❡✐r ♠♦❞✉❧✐ ❛r❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❡❞ ❛♥❞ t❤❡

❛r❣✉♠❡♥ts ❛r❡ ❛❞❞❡❞✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

   
r1 cos ϕ1 + i sin ϕ1 ) · r2 cos ϕ2 + i sin ϕ2
 
= r1 r2 cos(ϕ1 + ϕ2 ) + i sin(ϕ1 + ϕ2 )

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✶✵✳✶✵

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡rs✳ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠♦❞✉❧✐
❛♥❞ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❛♥❞ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❛t t❤❡② ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✶✵✳✶✶

✭❛✮ ❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡r ✐♥ t❤❡ st❛♥❞❛r❞ ❢♦r♠✿ (2 + 3i)(−1 + 2i)✳ ■♥❞✐❝❛t❡ t❤❡ r❡❛❧
❛♥❞ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❛r② ♣❛rts✳ ✭❜✮ ❋✐♥❞ ✐ts ♠♦❞✉❧✉s ❛♥❞ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✶✵✳✶✷

❙✐♠♣❧✐❢② (1 + i)2 ✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✶✵✳✶✸

✭❛✮ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ r♦♦ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ x2 + 2x + 2✳ ✭❜✮ ❋✐♥❞ ✐ts x✲✐♥t❡r❝❡♣ts✳ ✭❝✮ ❋✐♥❞ ✐ts ❢❛❝t♦rs✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✶✵✳✶✹

❲❤❛t ❝❛♥ ②♦✉ s❛② ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❛r② ♣❛rts ♦❢ t❤❡ r♦♦ts ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s❄
✹✳✶✶✳ ❉✐s❝r❡t❡ ❢♦r♠s ✸✷✽

✹✳✶✶✳ ❉✐s❝r❡t❡ ❢♦r♠s

■♥ t❤✐s s❡❝t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ♦✉t❧✐♥❡ ❛♥ ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❡ ✈✐❡✇ ♦♥ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s✿ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s✱ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts✱ s✉♠s✱
❛♥❞ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❞❡❛❧ ✇✐t❤ s♦♠❡t❤✐♥❣ ❡✈❡♥ ♠♦r❡ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ t❤❛♥ t❤♦s❡ ❢♦✉r✿ ❲❡
♠♦✈❡ ❜❡②♦♥❞ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ ❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥s✳
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❛r❡ t♦ st✉❞② ✐ts ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ❛r♦✉♥❞ ❛ ♣♦✐♥t x = a✳ ❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡
q✉♦t✐❡♥t ♦❢ f ❛t a ✐s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

∆f  r✐s❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡
= t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡ t❤r♦✉❣❤ (a, f (a)) =
∆x x=a
 r✉♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧✇❛②s s❡❡ ∆x✱ ∆y ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✿

❚❤✉s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
• ∆x ✐s t❤❡ r✉♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡✳
• ∆y ✐s t❤❡ r✐s❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡✳
❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥❛❧ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡♠✿
• y ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥ x ✈✐❛
y = f (x) .

• ∆y ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥ ∆x ❛♥❞ x ✈✐❛

∆f
∆y = · ∆x .
∆x
❚❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✱ tr✐✈✐❛❧✱ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ r❡❢❡rs t♦ ❛ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✱ x = a ❛♥❞ y = f (a)✱ ♦♥ t❤❡ xy ✲♣❧❛♥❡✱ ❛♥❞ ✐t ✐s ❛
r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ t✇♦ ♥❡✇ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❛s t❤❡ ♦❧❞ ♦♥❡s ❤❛✈❡ ❜❡❡♥ s♣❡❝✐✜❡❞✳
✹✳✶✶✳ ❉✐s❝r❡t❡ ❢♦r♠s ✸✷✾

❲❡ ❝❛♥✱ ❢✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ ♠❛❦❡ t❤❡s❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t✿

❇❡❧♦✇✱ ✇❡ ❛❞♦♣t ❛ s✐♠♣❧❡r✱ ✐❢ ❧❡ss ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t✱ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✶✶✳✶✿ ❜r♦❦❡♥ s♣❡❡❞♦♠❡t❡r

❘❡❝❛❧❧ ✇❤❛t ✇❡ st❛rt❡❞ ✇✐t❤ ✐♥ t❤❡ ✈❡r② ❜❡❣✐♥♥✐♥❣✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ s♣❡❡❞♦♠❡t❡r ✐s ❜r♦❦❡♥ ❛♥❞ ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r
t♦ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ ❤♦✇ ❢❛st ✇❡ ❛r❡ ❞r✐✈✐♥❣✱ ✇❡ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ ♦❞♦♠❡t❡r ❡✈❡r② ❤♦✉r✿

❚❤❛t✬s ❛ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ 0✲❢♦r♠✳ ❚♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② ❤♦✉r✱ ✇❡ ❥✉st ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s✿

❚❤❛t✬s ❛ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ 1✲❢♦r♠✳ ❆❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❡❧②✱ t❤❡ ♦❞♦♠❡t❡r ✐s ❜r♦❦❡♥ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ s♣❡❡❞♦♠❡t❡r t♦
s❛♠♣❧❡ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥✱ ✈✐❛ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✱ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t✳

▲❡t✬s st❛rt ♦✈❡r✳

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s♦♠❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ♦♥ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✳

❚❤✐s t✐♠❡✱ ✇❡ ✇♦♥✬t ❛❞❞ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ❜✉t✱ ✐♥st❡❛❞✱ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ❛ ❝❡❧❧ ❞❡❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳
❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ t✇♦ t②♣❡s ♦❢ ♣✐❡❝❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✿
• t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s ✿
x = xk , k = 0, 1, ..., n

• t❤❡ ❡❞❣❡s ✿
ck = [xk−1 , xk ], k = 1, ..., n
✹✳✶✶✳ ❉✐s❝r❡t❡ ❢♦r♠s ✸✸✵

❚❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥ts ♦❢ x ❛r❡ st✐❧❧ ∆xk = xk − xk−1 ✳

❲❡ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝❡ t❤❡s❡ ♥❛♠❡s✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✹✳✶✶✳✷✿ ❝❡❧❧s
• ❚❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s ❛r❡ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ 0✲❝❡❧❧s✳
• ❚❤❡ ❡❞❣❡s ❛r❡ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ 1✲❝❡❧❧s✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✶✶✳✸✿ ❝❡❧❧ ❞❡❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥

❙♣❡❝✐✜❝ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥s ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ❜❡ ♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞ ✇✐t❤ ❛ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t✱ ❝❤♦♦s✐♥❣✱ ❢♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ∆x = 1✿

❨♦✉ ❝❛♥ s❡❡ ❤♦✇ ❡✈❡r② ♦t❤❡r ❝❡❧❧ ✐s ❛ sq✉❛r❡ ❛♥❞ ❡✈❡r② ♦t❤❡r ✐s str❡t❝❤❡❞ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧❧② t♦ ❡♠♣❤❛s✐③❡
t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ♥❛t✉r❡ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❝❡❧❧s✿ ♥♦❞❡s ✈s✳ ❡❞❣❡s✳

■♥ t❤❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r ✭t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✮ ❛ss♦❝✐❛t❡❞ ✇✐t❤ ❡❛❝❤ ♥♦❞❡ ❛♥❞ ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r ✭t❤❡
❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t✮ ❛ss♦❝✐❛t❡❞ ✇✐t❤ ❡❛❝❤ ❡❞❣❡✳
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✹✳✶✶✳✹✿ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ ❢♦r♠
❋♦r ❛ ❣✐✈❡♥ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ✭♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ♦r t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ r❡❛❧ ❧✐♥❡✮✱ ✇❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✲
✐♥❣✿
• ❆ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ ❢♦r♠ ♦❢ ❞❡❣r❡❡ 0 ✐s ❛ r❡❛❧✲✈❛❧✉❡❞ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ 0✲❝❡❧❧s ✭♥♦❞❡s✮ ❛s
✐♥♣✉ts✳
• ❆ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ ❢♦r♠ ♦❢ ❞❡❣r❡❡ 1 ✐s ❛ r❡❛❧✲✈❛❧✉❡❞ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ 1✲❝❡❧❧s ✭❡❞❣❡s✮ ❛s
✐♥♣✉ts✳

❲❡ ✉s❡ ❛rr♦✇s t♦ ♣✐❝t✉r❡ t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝❡s✿

❍❡r❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t✇♦✿

• ❛ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ 0✲❢♦r♠
f : 0 7→ 2, 1 7→ 4, 2 7→ 3, ...

• ❛ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ 1✲❢♦r♠
s : [0, 1] 7→ 3, [1, 2] 7→ .5, [2, 3] 7→ 1, ...
✹✳✶✶✳ ❉✐s❝r❡t❡ ❢♦r♠s ✸✸✶

❆ ♠♦r❡ ❝♦♠♣❛❝t ✇❛② t♦ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡ ✐s t❤✐s✿

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ❧✐st t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿

• ❛ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ 0✲❢♦r♠ f ✿
f (0) = 2, f (1) = 4, f (2) = 3, ...

• ❛ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ 1✲❢♦r♠ s✿      
s [0, 1] = 3, s [1, 2] = .5, s [2, 3] = 1, ...

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✶✶✳✺✿ ❢♦r♠s ✇✐t❤ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t

❉✐s❝r❡t❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❝❛♥ ❜❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❜② t❛❜❧❡s ✭s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡ts✮✿

❚❤❡ ♠♦st ❝♦♠♠♦♥ ✇❛② t♦ ✈✐s✉❛❧✐③❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ✇✐t❤ ✐ts ❣r❛♣❤✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ❝♦♥s✐sts ♦❢ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥ t❤❡ xy✲♣❧❛♥❡
✇✐t❤ y = f (x)✿

• ❋♦r ❛ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ 0✲❢♦r♠✱ x ✐s ❛ ♥♦❞❡✱ ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r✱ ❛♥❞ y = f (x) ✐s ❛❧s♦ ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r✳ ❚♦❣❡t❤❡r✱ t❤❡② ♣r♦❞✉❝❡
(x, y)✱ ❛ ♣♦✐♥t ♦♥ t❤❡ xy ✲♣❧❛♥❡ ✭✇✐t❤ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s s♣❧✐t ✐♥t♦ ❝❡❧❧s ❛s s❤♦✇♥ ❛❜♦✈❡✮✳

• ❋♦r ❛ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ 1✲❢♦r♠✱ [A, B] ✐s ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✐♥ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✱ ❛♥❞ y = g([A, B]) ✐s ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r✳ ❚♦❣❡t❤❡r✱
t❤❡② ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ❛ ❝♦❧❧❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥ t❤❡ xy ✲♣❧❛♥❡ s✉❝❤ ❛s (x, y) ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② x ✐♥ [A, B]✳ ❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s
❛ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ s❡❣♠❡♥t✳

❊✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♠❛② ❝♦♥s✐st ♦❢ ✉♥r❡❧❛t❡❞ ♣✐❡❝❡s✱ ✐t ✐s ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❝❛♥ s❡❡ ❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s
❝✉r✈❡ ✐❢ ✇❡ ③♦♦♠ ♦✉t✿
✹✳✶✶✳ ❉✐s❝r❡t❡ ❢♦r♠s ✸✸✷

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✶✶✳✻✿ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ ❢♦r♠s ✇✐t❤ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t

❚♦ ✉♥❞❡rs❝♦r❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ t✇♦✱ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ 0✲❢♦r♠ ✐s s❤♦✇♥ ✇✐t❤ ❞♦ts ❛♥❞
t❤❛t ♦❢ ❛ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ 1✲❢♦r♠ ✇✐t❤ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❜❛rs✿

◆❡①t✱ ✇❡ ❞✐s❝✉ss s♦♠❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ✐ss✉❡s✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✶✶✳✼✿ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡
▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ❛♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ ♠♦t✐♦♥✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ 0✲❢♦r♠ p ❣✐✈❡s t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ♣❡rs♦♥ ❛♥❞ s✉♣♣♦s❡
t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿
• ❆t t✐♠❡ n ❤♦✉rs✱ ✇❡ ❛r❡ ❛t t❤❡ 5✲♠✐❧❡ ♠❛r❦✿ p(n) = 5✳
• ❆t t✐♠❡ n + 1 ❤♦✉rs✱ ✇❡ ❛r❡ ❛t t❤❡ 7✲♠✐❧❡ ♠❛r❦✿ p(n + 1) = 7✳

❲❡ ❞♦♥✬t ❦♥♦✇ ✇❤❛t ❡①❛❝t❧② ❤❛s ❤❛♣♣❡♥❡❞ ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤✐s ❤♦✉r ❜✉t t❤❡ s✐♠♣❧❡st ❛ss✉♠♣t✐♦♥ ✇♦✉❧❞ ❜❡
t❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❜❡❡♥ ✇❛❧❦✐♥❣ ❛t ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t s♣❡❡❞ ♦❢ 2 ♠✐❧❡s ♣❡r ❤♦✉r✳

◆♦✇✱ ✐♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ ♦✉r ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ v ❛ss✐❣♥✐♥❣ t❤✐s ✈❛❧✉❡ t♦ ❡❛❝❤ ✐♥st❛♥t ♦❢ t✐♠❡ ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤✐s ♣❡r✐♦❞✱
✐t ✐s ❛ss✐❣♥❡❞ t♦ t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✿ 

v  = 2,
[n,n+1]

♦r ❜❡tt❡r✿  
v [n, n + 1] = 2 .
❚❤✐s ✇❛②✱ t❤❡ ❡❧❡♠❡♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❡❞❣❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t✐♥❣ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
✐s ❛ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ 1✲❢♦r♠✦
✹✳✶✶✳ ❉✐s❝r❡t❡ ❢♦r♠s ✸✸✸

❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✇❤❡♥ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s✱ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ❛❜r✉♣t❧② ❛♥❞✱ ❝♦♥s❡q✉❡♥t❧②✱ t❤❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦✈❡r ❡✈❡r② ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧
[A, B] ✐s s✐♠♣❧② t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ✈❛❧✉❡s ❛t t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s✱ ❢r♦♠ r✐❣❤t t♦ ❧❡❢t✿

f (B) − f (A) .

❚❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉t ♦❢ t❤✐s s✐♠♣❧❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❡♥ ❛ss✐❣♥❡❞ t♦ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [A, B]✿

[A, B] 7→ f (B) − f (A)

❏✉st ❛s ❜❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ st❛♥❞s ❢♦r t❤❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✹✳✶✶✳✽✿ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ 0✲❢♦r♠
❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ 0✲❢♦r♠ f ✐s ❛ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ 1✲❢♦r♠ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② ✐ts ✈❛❧✉❡s ❛t
❡❛❝❤ ❡❞❣❡✿
∆f (ck ) = f (xk ) − f (xk−1 )

❚❤❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ❛ 0✲❢♦r♠ ❛♥❞ ✐ts ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ✐s ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✶✶✳✾✿ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ✇✐t❤ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t

❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ ❛ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t ❝♦♠♣✉t❡s t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② t❤❡ ❞❛t❛ ✐♥ t❤❡ ✜rst ❝♦❧✉♠♥✿

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✶✶✳✶✵✿ ❝♦♠♣✉t✐♥❣ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s

❲❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ 0✲❢♦r♠s ❛r❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❜② ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s✱ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ str❛✐❣❤t❢♦r✇❛r❞ ✭h = 1✮
✹✳✶✶✳ ❉✐s❝r❡t❡ ❢♦r♠s ✸✸✹

✇✐t❤ ❛ ❝❤❛♥❝❡ ♦❢ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛t✐♦♥✿

(1) f (n) = 3n2 + 1 =⇒ ∆f (cn ) = (3n2 + 1) − (3(n − 1)2 + 1) = 6n − 3

1 1 1 1
(2) g(n) = =⇒ ∆g (cn ) = − =− ❢♦r n 6= 0, 1
n n n−1 n(n − 1)
(3) p(n) = 2n =⇒ ∆p (cn ) = 2n − 2n−1 = 2n−1

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✹✳✶✶✳✶✶✿ s✉♠ ♦❢ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ 1✲❢♦r♠

❚❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ ❛ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ 1✲❢♦r♠ g ✐s ❛ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ 0✲❢♦r♠ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② ✐ts ✈❛❧✉❡ ❛t ❡❛❝❤
♥♦❞❡ xk , 1 ≤ k ≤ n, ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ [a, b] ❜②✿
X
g = g(c1 ) + g(c2 ) + ... + g(ck ) ,
[a,xk ]

✇❤❡r❡ c1 , c2 , ..., cn ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❡❞❣❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✳

❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ❛♥❞ s✉♠s✳ ❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s ✈❡r② s✐♠✐❧❛r t♦ t❤❡ ♦♥❡ ♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞
✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶❀ t❤❡ t✇♦ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ❝❛♥❝❡❧ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r ✐♥ ❡✐t❤❡r ♦r❞❡r✿

❋✐rst✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ 0✲❢♦r♠ ❛♥❞ ❛ 1✲❢♦r♠✿

• ✐❢ f ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s xk , k = 0, 1, 2, ..., n✱ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡♥
• t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ g ♦❢ f ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ❡❞❣❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ❜②✿

g(ck ) = f (xk ) − f (xk−1 ) .

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✶✶✳✶✷✿ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❉✐s❝r❡t❡ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ■

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f ✐s ❛ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ 0✲❢♦r♠✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ♥♦❞❡ x ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

X
(∆f ) = f (x) − f (a) .
[a,x]

❙❡❝♦♥❞✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ 1✲❢♦r♠ ❛♥❞ ❛ 0✲❢♦r♠✿

• ✐❢ g ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ❡❞❣❡s ck , k = 1, 2, ..., n✱ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡♥
• t❤❡ s✉♠ f ♦❢ g ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡❧② ❛t t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ❜②✿

f (xk ) = f (xk−1 ) + g(ck ) .

✹✳✶✶✳ ❉✐s❝r❡t❡ ❢♦r♠s ✸✸✺

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✶✶✳✶✸✿ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❉✐s❝r❡t❡ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ■■

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ g ✐s ❛ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ 1✲❢♦r♠✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

 
X
∆ g = g .
[a,x]

❏✉st ❛s ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶✱ ✇❡ ❝❛rr② ♦✉t t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s ✇✐t❤ ❛ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t✿

◆❡①t✱ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s✳
◆❡①t✱ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♥♦ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❢♦r♠s✦ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ✇❛② t♦ ❡①❡❝✉t❡ t❤❡s❡ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡❧②✿
• 0✲❝❡❧❧ 7→ ♥✉♠❜❡r✱ ❢♦❧❧♦✇❡❞ ❜②
• 0✲❝❡❧❧ 7→ ♥✉♠❜❡r
❚♦ ❜❡ ❛❜❧❡ t♦ ❢♦r♠ ❛ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✱ ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❤❛s t♦ ♠❛♣ ❝❡❧❧s t♦ ❝❡❧❧s✿
• 0✲❝❡❧❧ 7→ 0✲❝❡❧❧ 7→ ♥✉♠❜❡r
• 1✲❝❡❧❧ 7→ 1✲❝❡❧❧ 7→ ♥✉♠❜❡r
❲❡ ❝r❡❛t❡ ❛ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ q ◦ p ♦❢ ❛ 0✲ ♦r 1✲❢♦r♠ q ✇✐t❤ ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦r ❢♦r♠ p ♦♥❧② ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ p
❛r❡ 0✲ ❛♥❞ 1✲❝❡❧❧s r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✳ ❚♦ ❞❡✜♥❡ s✉❝❤ ❛ s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ r❡q✉✐r❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ p ❛ss✐❣♥s
❛ k ✲ ♦r (k − 1)✲❝❡❧❧ t♦ ❡❛❝❤ k ✲❝❡❧❧✿
✹✳✶✶✳ ❉✐s❝r❡t❡ ❢♦r♠s ✸✸✻

❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛❧s♦ ❛ s♣❡❝✐❛❧ r❡q✉✐r❡♠❡♥t✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✹✳✶✶✳✶✹✿ ❝❡❧❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

❆ ❝❡❧❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = p(x) ✐s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t❤❛t ❛ss✐❣♥s
• ❛ ♥♦❞❡ t♦ ❡❛❝❤ ♥♦❞❡✱ ❛♥❞
• ❛♥ ❡❞❣❡ ♦r ❛ ♥♦❞❡ t♦ ❡❛❝❤ ❡❞❣❡✱
✐♥ s✉❝❤ ❛ ✇❛② t❤❛t t❤❡ ❡♥❞✲♣♦✐♥ts ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ ❡❞❣❡ r❡♠❛✐♥ ❡♥❞✲♣♦✐♥ts✿

 
p [u, v] = p(u), p(v)

❚❤❡ r❡q✉✐r❡♠❡♥t ❣✉❛r❛♥t❡❡s ✏❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②✑✿

❇❡❝❛✉s❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r♦♣❡rt②✱ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ❛ ❝❡❧❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❡❞❣❡s ❝❛♥ ❜❡ r❡❝♦♥str✉❝t❡❞ ❢r♦♠ ✐ts ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦♥
t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s✳ ❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ✐s t❤❡♥ ❛♥❛❧♦❣♦✉s t♦ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❡❧❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳

❋♦r ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥❝❡✱ ✇❡ ❛ss✉♠❡ t❤❛t ∆ ✐s ③❡r♦ ✇❤❡♥ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ♦✈❡r ❛♥② ♥♦❞❡ x✳
❇❡❧♦✇ ✐s ❛♥ ❛♥❛❧♦❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❤❛✐♥ r✉❧❡✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✶✶✳✶✺✿ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡

❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡
❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r❀ ✐✳❡✳✱ ❢♦r ❛♥② ❝❡❧❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ x = p(t) ❢r♦♠
[a, b] t♦ [c, d] ❛♥❞ ❛♥② 0✲❢♦r♠ y = g(x) ♦♥ [c, d]✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s s❛t✐s❢②✿

∆(g ◦ p) = ∆g ◦ p .

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ❡❞❣❡ s✿

∆(g ◦ p)(s) = ∆g (p(s)) .

❏✉st ❛s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ❛ tr❛❞✐t✐♦♥❛❧ tr❡❛t♠❡♥t✱ ✇❡ ❛s❦✿ ■❢ ✇❡ s❛♠♣❧❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ ✇❤❛t
❤❛♣♣❡♥s ✐❢ ✇❡ r❡✜♥❡ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥s❄

❋✐rst✱ ✇❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s t♦ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ❛s ∆x → 0❄ ■t ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿

✹✳✶✷✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠s ✸✸✼

❇✉t ✇❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s t♦ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❛s ∆x → 0❄ ❆ ♥❡✇ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t ❡♠❡r❣❡s✿

■t ✐s ❛ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠ ♦❢ ❞❡❣r❡❡ 1 ❞✐s❝✉ss❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♥❡①t s❡❝t✐♦♥✳

❙❡❝♦♥❞✱ ✇❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s t♦ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ❛s ∆x → 0❄ ■t ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✿

❇✉t ✇❤❛t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s t♦ t❤❡ s✉♠ ❛s ∆x → 0❄ ❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡✦ ❯♥❧❡ss t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❜❡✐♥❣ s❛♠♣❧❡❞ ✐s
❛ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠ ♦❢ ❞❡❣r❡❡ 1✳ ◆♦ ♥❡❡❞ ❢♦r ❛ ♥❡✇ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t✳

✹✳✶✷✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠s

■♥ t❤✐s s❡❝t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ♦✉t❧✐♥❡ ❛♥ ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❡ ✈✐❡✇ ♦♥ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s✿ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛♥❞ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✇❡
✇✐❧❧ ❞❡❛❧ ✇✐t❤ s♦♠❡t❤✐♥❣ ❡✈❡♥ ♠♦r❡ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ t❤❛♥ t❤♦s❡ t✇♦✿ ❲❡ ♠♦✈❡ ❜❡②♦♥❞ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥
✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✳
dy
◗✉❡st✐♦♥✿ ■s t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛ ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥❄
dx
❚❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r t❤❛t ❢♦❧❧♦✇❡❞ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✇❛s ❛♥ ❡♠♣❤❛t✐❝ ◆♦✦
❆ ♠♦r❡ ❛❞✈❛♥❝❡❞ ❛♥s✇❡r ✇❡ ❣✐✈❡ ❤❡r❡ ✐s✿ ❨❡s✱ ❤❡r❡✬s ❤♦✇ ❛♥❞ ✇❤②✳
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❛r❡ t♦ st✉❞② ✐ts ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ❛r♦✉♥❞ ❛ ♣♦✐♥t x = a✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡
✹✳✶✷✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠s ✸✸✽

❛t a ✐s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

dy  r✐s❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡
= t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡ t❤r♦✉❣❤ (a, f (a)) =
dx x=a
 r✉♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡

❚❤✐s ✐s ❛ ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥ ❛❢t❡r ❛❧❧✦

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✶✷✳✶✿ dx − dy ✲♣❧❛♥❡

❙♣❡❝✐✜❝❛❧❧②✱ s✉♣♣♦s❡ f (x) = x2 + 2x✳ ❆t a = 0✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ f (0) = 0✱ s♦ ♦✉r ✐♥t❡r❡st ✐s t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t (0, 0)✳
❚❤❡♥✱  
dy  
= 2x + 2  = 2.
dx x=0 
x=0
■❢ t❤✐s ✐s ❛ ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥✱ ✇❤❛t ✇♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤✐s✿

dy = 2 · dx ?

■t ✐s t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡ ✇r✐tt❡♥ ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ dy ❛♥❞ dx✳

❚❤✉s✱ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥

dy = f ′ (a) · dx
r❡❢❡rs t♦ ❛ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✱ x = a ❛♥❞ y = f (a)✱ ♦♥ t❤❡ xy ✲♣❧❛♥❡ ❛♥❞ ✐t ✐s ❛ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ t✇♦ ♥❡✇
✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❛s t❤❡ ♦❧❞ ♦♥❡s ❤❛✈❡ ❜❡❡♥ s♣❡❝✐✜❡❞✳
❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧✇❛②s s❡❡ dx✱ dy ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✿

❚❤✉s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
• dx ✐s t❤❡ r✉♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡✳
• dy ✐s t❤❡ r✐s❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡✳
❚❤❡② ❛r❡ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧s ♦❢ x ❛♥❞ y r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✳
✹✳✶✷✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠s ✸✸✾

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦
❍❡r❡✱ X = dx ❛♥❞ Y = dy ❛r❡ ❥✉st ❝❡rt❛✐♥ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s
r❡❧❛t❡❞ t♦ x ❛♥❞ y r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②❀ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ❞❡♣❡♥❞s
♦♥ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ❧✐♥❡❛r❧②✿

Y =m·X.

❚❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ♠❛② ❝♦♠❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ❛❜♦✈❡✿

• y ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥ x ✈✐❛ y = f (x)✳
• dy ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥ x ❛♥❞ dx ✈✐❛ dy = f ′ (x)dx✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✶✷✳✷✿ ❧✐♥❡❛r✐③❛t✐♦♥
●✐✈❡♥ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = x2 ✱ ✜♥❞ ✐ts ❜❡st ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ❛t a = 1✳ ❙✐♥❝❡ f ′ (x) = 2x✱ ✇❡ s❡❡ t❤❛t
f ′ (a) = f ′ (1) = 2 ❛♥❞✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❜❡st ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ f ❛t a = 1 ✐s

L(x) = f (a) + f ′ (a)(x − a) = 1 + 2(x − a) .

◆♦✇ ✇❡ r❡✲✐♥t❡r♣r❡t t❤❡s❡ q✉❛♥t✐t✐❡s✿

✶✳ dx = x − a
✷✳ dy = L(x) − L(a)
❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
dy = 2 · dx .
❚❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❡①♣r❡ss❡s ♦✉r ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ♥❡✇ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧s✳ ❲❡ ❝❛♣t✉r❡
t❤❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ x ❛♥❞ t❤❛t ♦❢ y ✕ ❝❧♦s❡ t♦ a✳ ■♥❞❡❡❞✱ y ❣r♦✇s t✇✐❝❡ ❛s ❢❛st ❛s
x✳ ❲❡ ❛❝q✉✐r❡ t❤✐s ✐♥❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ❜② ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝✐♥❣ ❛ ♥❡✇ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠ (dy, dx)✳ ■♥ t❤✐s ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡
s②st❡♠✱ t❤❡ ❜❡st ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ✭❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡✮ ❜❡❝♦♠❡s s✐♠♣❧② ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳

❚❤❡ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❛♣♣❧✐❡s t♦ ❡✈❡r② ♣♦✐♥t ✕ ❛♥❞ t♦ ❛❧❧ ♣♦✐♥ts ❛t ♦♥❝❡✿

❘❡❝❛❧❧ ❛❧s♦ ❢r♦♠ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶ ❤♦✇ ✇❡ ❧❡❛r♥❡❞ t♦ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t❧②✿
Z b
k(x) dx .
a

❲❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t❡✳ ■♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ k(x)✱ ✐t ✐s ❛ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠✱ k(x) · dx✳
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✹✳✶✷✳✸✿ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠ ♦❢ ❞❡❣r❡❡ 1
❆ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠ ♦❢ ❞❡❣r❡❡ 1✱ ♦r s✐♠♣❧② ❛ 1✲❢♦r♠✱ ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢
t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✿
ϕ = ϕ(x, dx) = k(x) · dx ,
✇❤❡r❡ y = k(x) ✐s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ x✳
✹✳✶✷✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠s ✸✹✵

❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s s✐♠♣❧② ❧✐♥❡❛r ✇✐t❤ r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✳

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦
❚❤❡ s②♠❜♦❧ ✏ ·✑ st❛♥❞s ❢♦r ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ✐t ✐s
♦❢t❡♥ ♦♠✐tt❡❞✳

▲❡t✬s ♣❧♦t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ s✉❝❤ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

• ❋✐rst✱ ✇❡ ♣❧♦t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ k ✭❣r❡❡♥✮ ❛❜♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ dx = 1✳

• ❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❡ t❤❛t ϕ ✐s 0 ✇❤❡♥ dx = 0 ❛♥❞ ♣❧♦t ♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ✭r❡❞✮✳

• ❋✐♥❛❧❧②✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥♥❡❝t t❤❡s❡ ❞♦ts t♦ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ ✇✐t❤ str❛✐❣❤t ❧✐♥❡s ✭♦r❛♥❣❡✮✳

❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s t❤✐s s✉r❢❛❝❡✿

❆s ♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❛❜♦✈❡✱ ❛ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠ ♠❛② ❝♦♠❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

dy
y = f (x) ❛t x = a =⇒ = f ′ (a) ,
dx
❛♥❞✱ ❢✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱
=⇒ dy = f ′ (a) · dx .

❆ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠ ✐s ❛ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❡①tr❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✱ ♦♥❝❡ t❤❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ♦❧❞ ♦♥❡s
❤❛s ❜❡❡♥ s♣❡❝✐✜❡❞✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧s ✈❛r✐❡s ❢r♦♠ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ t♦ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✳ ❙♦✱ dx ✐s t❤❡
❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ♦❢ x✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ s❡♣❛r❛t❡ ❢r♦♠✱ ❜✉t r❡❧❛t❡❞ t♦✱ x✳
❘❡❝❛❧❧ ❛❧s♦ ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡✱ ✐♥ t❤❡ ▲❡✐❜♥✐③ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✱ ✇❛s ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❡❞ ❛s ❛ ✏❝❛♥❝❡❧❧❛t✐♦♥✑ ♦❢ du✿
dy dy 6 du
= .
dx 6 du dx
◆♦✇ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ s❡❡ t❤❛t ✐t ✐s ✐♥❞❡❡❞ ❛ ❝❛♥❝❡❧❧❛t✐♦♥✱ ✇❤❡♥ du ✐s ♥♦t ③❡r♦✳

❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠s ❛r❡ ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t❡✳ ❋♦r s✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t②✱ ✐♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ ✉s✐♥❣ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ ❢♦r♠s t♦
❞❡✜♥❡ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✱ ✇❡ ❥✉st r❡❢❡r t♦ t❤❡ ✏✉s✉❛❧✑ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✹✳✶✷✳✹✿ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ 1✲❢♦r♠

❚❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ ❛ 1✲❢♦r♠ ϕ = k dx ♦✈❡r ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ t♦ ❜❡
Z Z b
ϕ= k(x) dx .
[a,b] a

❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠ k dx ✐s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ✇❤❡♥❡✈❡r k ✐s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡✳

▲❡t✬s t❛❦❡ ❛ ❧♦♦❦ ❛t ❤♦✇ ✇❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷✿
Z Z
du
f (u) · 6 dx = f (u) du .
6 dx
✹✳✶✷✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠s ✸✹✶

■♥ ❧✐❣❤t ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✱ t❤✐s ✐s ❛ ❧✐t❡r❛❧ ❝❛♥❝❡❧❧❛t✐♦♥✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✶✷✳✺
❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ s✉♠✱ ❜✉t ♥♦t t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t✱ ♦❢ t✇♦ 1✲❢♦r♠s ✐s ❛❧s♦ ❛ 1✲❢♦r♠✳ ❆♥❞ s♦ ✐s ❛ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❛
❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠✳

❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛❧s♦ tr❛♥s❧❛t❡❞ ✐♥t♦ t❤❡ ❧❛♥❣✉❛❣❡ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠s✳

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✹✳✶✷✳✻✿ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠ ♦❢ ❞❡❣r❡❡ 0
❆ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠ ♦❢ ❞❡❣r❡❡ 0✱ ♦r s✐♠♣❧② ❛ 0✲❢♦r♠✱ ✐s ❛♥② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ♦❢
x✳

❏✉st ❛s ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ ❢♦r♠s✱ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠s ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ❞❡❣r❡❡s ❛r❡ ✐♥t❡r❝♦♥♥❡❝t❡❞✳

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✹✳✶✷✳✼✿ ❡①t❡r✐♦r ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠ ♦❢ ❞❡❣r❡❡ 0
❚❤❡ ❡①t❡r✐♦r ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ df ♦❢ ❛ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠ f ♦❢ ❞❡❣r❡❡ 0 ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ t♦ ❜❡
t❤❡ 1✲❢♦r♠ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜②✿
df = f ′ (x) dx

❚❤✐s ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ✉s❡❞ ❛❧♦♥❣ ✇✐t❤ ♦t❤❡rs ✉s❡❞ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ♥❛♠❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t❤❛t r❡❧❛t❡s x ❛♥❞ y ✐s ♥♦t
♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞✿
❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧
df dy d( )

❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛s ❜❡❢♦r❡✿

y = x2 =⇒ dy = 2x dx .
❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ❤❛✈❡✿
d(x2 ) = 2x dx .

❚❤✉s✱ t❤❡ ❡①t❡r✐♦r ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s ❛❧❧ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ❛❜♦✉t ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✱ ❛♥❞ ✈✐❝❡ ✈❡rs❛✳
❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ♣r♦✈✐❞❡s ❛ ❞✐r❡❝t ❛♥s✇❡r t♦ t❤✐s q✉❡st✐♦♥✿
◮ ■❢ ✇❡ ❛r❡ ❛t x = a ❛♥❞ ♠❛❦❡ ❛ st❡♣ dx✱ ✇❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ st❡♣ dy ♦❢ y ❄
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✶✷✳✽✿ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ x ✐s t✐♠❡ ❛♥❞ y = f (x) ✐s t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛t t✐♠❡ x✳ ❚❤❡ ❡①t❡r✐♦r ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♣r♦✈✐❞❡s ❛ ❞✐r❡❝t
❛♥s✇❡r t♦ t❤✐s q✉❡st✐♦♥✿
◮ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ x ✐s t✐♠❡ ❛♥❞ y = f (x) ✐s t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛t t✐♠❡ x✳ ■❢ ❛t t✐♠❡ x = a ✇❡ ❛r❡ ❛t
y = f (a) ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ✇❡ ♠♦✈❡ ❢♦r ❛ s❤♦rt s❤♦rt t✐♠❡ dx✱ ❤♦✇ ❢❛r ✇✐❧❧ ✇❡ ❣♦❄
■t✬s t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t✿
❉✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t = f ′ (a) · dx ,
❜✉t ♦♥❧② ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✱ f ′ ✱ ✐s ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳ ■♥ t❤❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❝❛s❡✱ t❤✐s ✐s ❛♥ ❡st✐♠❛t❡✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✹✳✶✷✳✾✿ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ✉s❡❞ t❤✐s ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ❢♦r ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✳ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✿
Z 2
2x sin x2 dx .
0
✹✳✶✷✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠s ✸✹✷

❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ✐s t♦ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝❡ ❛ ♥❡✇ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡

u = x2 .
❍❡r❡ ✐s ❛ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❡❞ ✐♥ ❛ ♥❡✇ ✇❛②✿

u = x2 =⇒ du = 2x dx du = 2x dx ❊①t❡r✐♦r ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡
Z x=2 Z
=⇒ 2x sin x2 dx 2x sin x2 dx [0, 2] → [02 , 22 ]
x=0 [0,2]
Z u=22 Z
= sin u du = sin u du
u=02 [02 ,22 ]
u=4 u=4
 
= − cos u = − cos u
u=0 u=0

= − cos 4 − (− cos 0) = − cos 4 − (− cos 0)

❖✉r ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠ tr❡❛ts t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛♥❞ ❛s ❛ s✐♠♣❧❡ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✳
❚❤❛t ✐s ✇❤② ✇❡ ❛r❡ ❛t ❧✐❜❡rt② t♦ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛❧❧② ♠❛♥✐♣✉❧❛t❡ t❤❡s❡ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥s t❤❡ ✇❛② ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✳
❚❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✐s ❛ s✐♠♣❧❡ r❡✲st❛t❡♠❡♥t ✇✐t❤ ♦✉r ♥❡✇ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r t❤❡♦r❡♠ ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶✮✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✶✷✳✶✵✿ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ϕ ✐s ❛ 1✲❢♦r♠ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ♦♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b]✳ ❚❤❡♥✱
Z
ϕ = F (b) − F (a) ,
[a,b]

❢♦r ❛♥② 0✲❢♦r♠ F t❤❛t s❛t✐s✜❡s✿

dF = ϕ .

■♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ st✉❞② ❛ r❡❛❧✲✈❛❧✉❡❞ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ❛♥❞ ✐ts ❝❤❛♥❣❡✱ ✇❡ ♥♦✇ ❦❡❡♣ tr❛❝❦ ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✿
• t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥s✱ x ✈s✳ y ✱ ❛♥❞
• t❤❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥s✱ dx ✈s✳ dy ✳
❚❤❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿


(x, dx) 7→ (y, dy) = f (x), f ′ (x)dx

❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ t♦ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ ❢♦r♠s ❄

❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ ❢♦r♠s ❝r❡❛t❡❞ ❜② s❛♠♣❧✐♥❣ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ r❡✜♥✐♥❣ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦ ❛ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧
❢♦r♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❞❡❣r❡❡✳ ❈❛♥ ✇❡ r❡✈❡rs❡ t❤✐s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝❡❄
❆♥② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ s❛♠♣❧❡❞✳ ■t ♠❛tt❡rs ✇❤❡r❡✿
✶✳ ❙❛♠♣❧✐♥❣ ❛t t❤❡ ♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s ❛ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ 0✲❢♦r♠✳
✷✳ ❙❛♠♣❧✐♥❣ ❛t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s ❛ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ 1✲❢♦r♠✳
❆ ❜❡tt❡r ✐❞❡❛✱ ❤♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✐s t♦ s❛♠♣❧❡ ❛ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ❞❡❣r❡❡✳
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✹✳✶✷✳✶✶✿ ❉✐s❝r❡t❡ ❛♥❞ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❋♦r♠s
✶✳ ❆ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ 0✲❢♦r♠ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡❞ ❛t t❤❡ ♥♦❞❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡
0✲❢♦r♠✳
✹✳✶✷✳ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠s ✸✹✸

✷✳ ❆ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ 1✲❢♦r♠ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡❞ ✕ ❜② ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✕ ❛t t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ♦❢ t❤❡

♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ 1✲❢♦r♠❀ ✐✳❡✳✱ ✐❢ ϕ ✐s ❛ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ 1✲❢♦r♠✱ t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡✲
s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ 1✲❢♦r♠ ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❜②✿

  Z
s [A, B] = ϕ
[A,B]

❙♦✱ ❛ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠ ♦❢ ❞❡❣r❡❡ 1 ✐s ✐ts ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s✿

■♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠

✏❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡✑

↓
Z


3x3 + sin x dx = 0
| {z }
✐♥♣✉t → [−1, 1] ↑ ↑
❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠ ♦✉t♣✉t

■❢ ✇❡ s❡t t❤❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛t✐♦♥ ❛s✐❞❡✱ t❤❡ ♣✉r♣♦s❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t ✐s t♦ ♠❛❦❡ ❛ ❝❛r❡❢✉❧ ❞✐st✐♥❝t✐♦♥
❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥✱ x✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✱ dx✿
◮ ❍♦✇ ❢❛st ❛r❡ ✇❡ ❣♦✐♥❣ ❢r♦♠ t❤✐s ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✐♥ t❤❛t ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥❄

❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ♦♥❧② ♦♥❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ✭❛♥❞ ✐ts ♦♣♣♦s✐t❡✮ ❢♦r ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ♦♥❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✱ ❜✉t ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② ❢♦r ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✳ ❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ s❡❡ ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠s ✐♥ t❤❡ ♠✉❧t✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ ❝❛s❡ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✹✳
 ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✺✿ ❙❡r✐❡s

❈♦♥t❡♥ts
✺✳✶ ❋r♦♠ ❧✐♥❡❛r t♦ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✹✹
✺✳✷ ❚❤❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✺✷
✺✳✸ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✻✷
✺✳✹ ■♥✜♥✐t❡ s❡r✐❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✻✽
✺✳✺ ▼❛✐♥ ❝❧❛ss❡s ♦❢ s❡r✐❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✼✺
✺✳✻ ❋r♦♠ ✜♥✐t❡ s✉♠s ✈✐❛ ❧✐♠✐ts t♦ s❡r✐❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✽✹
✺✳✼ ❉✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✾✷
✺✳✽ ❙❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ t❡r♠s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✾✺
✺✳✾ ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ♦❢ s❡r✐❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✵✷
✺✳✶✵ ❆❜s♦❧✉t❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✵✽
✺✳✶✶ ❚❤❡ ❘❛t✐♦ ❚❡st ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❘♦♦t ❚❡st ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✶✺
✺✳✶✷ P♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✷✶
✺✳✶✸ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦❢ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✷✽

✺✳✶✳ ❋r♦♠ ❧✐♥❡❛r t♦ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s

❆♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♥❣ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐s ❧✐❦❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♥❣ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ✕ s✉❝❤ ❛s π ✱ e✱ ♦r t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ ❛♥②
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✕ ❜✉t ❤❛r❞❡r✳
❘❡❝❛❧❧ ❢r♦♠ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✷ ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷❉❈✲✻✮ t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ ❧✐♥❡❛r✐③❛t✐♦♥ ✿ ❲❡ r❡♣❧❛❝❡ ❛ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x)
✇✐t❤ ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = L(x) t❤❛t ❜❡st ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡s ✐t ❛t ❛ ❣✐✈❡♥ ♣♦✐♥t✳
❚❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ❜❡st ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ❛♥❞ ✐t ❤❛♣♣❡♥s t♦ ❜❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡ ❛t t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t✳ ❚❤❡ r❡♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t ✐s ❥✉st✐✜❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t ✇❤❡♥ ②♦✉
③♦♦♠ ✐♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t✱ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♠❡r❣❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✿
✺✳✶✳ ❋r♦♠ ❧✐♥❡❛r t♦ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ✸✹✺

❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛ ♠♦r❡ ❜❛s✐❝ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥✿ ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ y = C(x)✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✶✳✶✿ sq✉❛r❡ r♦♦t

▲❡t✬s r❡✈✐❡✇ t❤✐s ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ❢r♦♠ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷❉❈✲✻✿

√ √
◮ ❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ 4.1 ✇✐t❤♦✉t ❛❝t✉❛❧❧② ❡✈❛❧✉❛t✐♥❣ f (x) = x❄
√
❲❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡✳
√ ❙♣❡❝✐✜❝❛❧❧②✱ ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ 4.1✱ ✇❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = x ✏❛r♦✉♥❞✑ a = 4✳

❲❡ ✜rst ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

C(x) = 2 .
√
❚❤✐s ✈❛❧✉❡ ✐s ❝❤♦s❡♥ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ f (a) = 4 = 2✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
√
4.1 = f (4.1) ≈ C(4.1) = 2 .

■t ✐s ❛ ❝r✉❞❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥✿

❚❤❡ ♦t❤❡r✱ ❧✐♥❡❛r✱ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ✈✐s✐❜❧② ❜❡tt❡r✳ ❲❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿
1
L(x) = 2 + (x − 4) .
4
√
❚❤✐s ✈❛❧✉❡ ✐s ❝❤♦s❡♥ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ f (a) = 4=2 ❛♥❞ f ′ (a) = 1
4
✳ ❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

√ 1
4.1 = f (4.1) ≈ L(4.1) = 2 + (4.1 − 4) = 2.025 .
4
✺✳✶✳ ❋r♦♠ ❧✐♥❡❛r t♦ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ✸✹✻

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❢♦r ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ❛♥❞ ❛ ♣♦✐♥t x = a✿

❚❤❡ ❜❡st ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥✿ C(x) = f (a) .

❚❤❡ ❜❡st ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥✿ L(x) = f (a) +f ′ (a)(x − a) .

❲❡ s❤♦✉❧❞ ♥♦t✐❝❡ ❡❛r❧② ♦♥ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ❥✉st ❛❞❞s ❛ ♥❡✇ ✭❧✐♥❡❛r✮ t❡r♠ t♦ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r✦

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❚❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ✐s ❜❡tt❡r t❤❛♥ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ✕ ❜✉t ♦♥❧② ✇❤❡♥

✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ ♠♦r❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝②✳ ❖t❤❡r✇✐s❡✱ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ✐s
✇♦rs❡ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ✐t r❡q✉✐r❡s ♠♦r❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥✳

❈❛♥ ✇❡ ❞♦ ❜❡tt❡r t❤❛♥ t❤❡ ❜❡st ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥❄ ◆♦✳ ❈❛♥ ✇❡ ❞♦ ❜❡tt❡r t❤❛♥ t❤❡ ❜❡st ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐✲
♠❛t✐♦♥❄ ❨❡s✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✶✳✷✿ r♦❛❞ ❝✉r✈❛t✉r❡

❖♥❡ ❝❛♥ ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ ❧✐♥❡❛r✐③❛t✐♦♥ ❛s ✐❣♥♦r✐♥❣ t❤❡ s❤❛♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ r♦❛❞ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛t✐♥❣ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❤❡❛❞❧✐❣❤ts
♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❛r ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷❉❈✲✸✮ ♦♥❡ ❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ❛t ❛ t✐♠❡✿

■♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷❉❈✲✹✱ ✇❡ ❛❧s♦ ❧❡❛r♥❡❞ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❛t✉r❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ r♦❛❞ ✐s ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡❞ ❜② ❤♦✇ ❢❛st t❤❡
❤❡❛❞❧✐❣❤ts t✉r♥ ❛♥❞✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ❜② t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐t r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts✿

❆ ❢✉rt❤❡r ✐❞❡❛ ✐s t♦ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ r♦❛❞ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ♦❢ ❛♥ ❛♣♣r♦♣r✐❛t❡ r❛❞✐✉s ✕ ❧❛r❣❡r
❢♦r ❧♦✇❡r ❝✉r✈❛t✉r❡ ❛♥❞ s♠❛❧❧❡r ❢♦r ❤✐❣❤❡r ❝✉r✈❛t✉r❡✿

❊✈❡r② ❝✐r❝❧❡ ✐s ❛ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡ ❛♥❞✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✐s s❡❡♥ ❛s ❛ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥✳ ❙✐♥❝❡ t❤❡ ♦♥❧②
t❤✐♥❣ ✇❡ ✇❛♥t ❢r♦♠ ✐t ✐s ✐ts ❝✉r✈❛t✉r❡✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ r❡♣❧❛❝❡ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ✇✐t❤ ❛♥♦t❤❡r q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❜✉t s✐♠♣❧❡r
✭❛♥❞ ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t❧② ❣✐✈❡♥✮ ❝✉r✈❡ ✕ t❤❡ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛✳ ❚❤❡ ❝✉r✈❛t✉r❡ ✐s ❢✉rt❤❡r st✉❞✐❡❞ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✹ ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r
✹❍❉✲✷✮✳

❇❡❧♦✇ ✇❡ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡ ❤♦✇ ✇❡ ❛tt❡♠♣t t♦ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛r♦✉♥❞ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t (1, 1) ✇✐t❤ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s
✺✳✶✳ ❋r♦♠ ❧✐♥❡❛r t♦ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ✸✹✼

✜rst❀ ❢r♦♠ t❤♦s❡✱ ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❧✐♥❡ t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t✳ ❚❤✐s ❧✐♥❡ t❤❡♥ ❜❡❝♦♠❡s ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠❛♥②
❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ t❤❛t ♣❛ss t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t❀ ❢r♦♠ t❤♦s❡✱ ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡✿

s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s✦
◆♦✇✱ ✇❡ s❤❛❧❧ s❡❡ t❤❛t t❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ ❥✉st t❤❡ t✇♦ ✜rst st❡♣s ✐♥ ❛
■♥❞❡❡❞✱ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡❝♦♠❡ ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠❛♥② q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡s ✕ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛s ✕ t❤❛t ♣❛ss t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡
♣♦✐♥t✳✳✳ ❛♥❞ ❛r❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t t♦ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡✳ ❲❤✐❝❤ ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤♦s❡ ❞♦ ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡❄
■♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❛♥s✇❡r t❤❛t✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ r❡✈✐❡✇ ❛♥❞ ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ❜❡st ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❜❡st ❧✐♥❡❛r
❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ✇❡r❡ ❝❤♦s❡♥✳ ■♥ ✇❤❛t ✇❛② ❛r❡ t❤❡② t❤❡ ❜❡st❄
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ✇♦✉❧❞ ❧✐❦❡ t♦ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ ✐ts ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ✐♥ t❤❡ ✈✐❝✐♥✐t② ♦❢ ❛
♣♦✐♥t✱ x = a✱ ✇✐t❤ ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = T (x)✳ ❚❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ✐s t♦ ❜❡ t❛❦❡♥ ❢r♦♠ s♦♠❡ ❝❧❛ss ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s t❤❛t
✇❡ ✜♥❞ s✉✐t❛❜❧❡✳ ❆ ❝❧❛ss ♦❢ r❡❧❛t✐✈❡❧② s✐♠♣❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s t❤❛t ❛r❡ ❛❧s♦ q✉✐t❡ ✈❡rs❛t✐❧❡ ✐s t❤❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s✳
❲❤❛t ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ✐s t❤❡ ❡rr♦r✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❛♥❞ ✐ts ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ T ✿
E(x) = |f (x) − T (x)|
❚❤❡ t❤❡ ❡rr♦r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s s❡❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❲❡ ❛r❡ s✉♣♣♦s❡❞ t♦ ♠✐♥✐♠✐③❡ t❤❡ ❡rr♦r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐♥ s♦♠❡ ✇❛②✳

❖❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ t❤❡ ❡rr♦r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = E(x) ✐s ❧✐❦❡❧② t♦ ❣r♦✇ ✇✐t❤ ♥♦ ❧✐♠✐t ❛s ✇❡ ♠♦✈❡ ❛✇❛② ❢r♦♠ ♦✉r ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢
✐♥t❡r❡st✱ x = a✳✳✳ ❜✉t ✇❡ ❞♦♥✬t ❝❛r❡✳ ❲❡ ✇❛♥t t♦ ♠✐♥✐♠✐③❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ✈✐❝✐♥✐t② ♦❢ a✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ♠❡❛♥s
♠❛❦✐♥❣ s✉r❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡rr♦r ❛s x → a ❣♦❡s t♦ 0✦
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✶✳✸✿ ❇❡st ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t x=a ❛♥❞

C(x) = k
✐s ❛♥② ♦❢ ✐ts ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ✭✐✳❡✳✱ ❛r❜✐tr❛r② ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✮✳ ❚❤❡♥✱
✺✳✶✳ ❋r♦♠ ❧✐♥❡❛r t♦ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ✸✹✽

t❤❡ ❡rr♦r E ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡s 0 ❛t x = a ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ t❤❡

❝♦♥st❛♥t ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❛t x = a✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

lim (f (x) − C(x)) = 0 ⇐⇒ k = f (a) .
x→a

Pr♦♦❢✳

❯s❡ t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❧✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ♦❢ f ✿
0 = lim (f (x) − C(x)) = lim f (x) − lim C(x) = f (a) − k .
x→a x→a x→a

❚❤❛t✬s t❤❡ ❛♥❛❧♦❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢r♦♠ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✷ ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷❉❈✲✻✮✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✶✳✹✿ ❇❡st ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t x = a ❛♥❞

L(x) = f (a) + m(x − a)

✐s ❛♥② ♦❢ ✐ts ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ ❡rr♦r E ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛✲

t✐♦♥ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡s 0 ❛t x = a ❢❛st❡r t❤❛♥ x − a ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ t❤❡ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥t
♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r t❡r♠ ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❛t x = a✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

f (x) − L(x)
lim = 0 ⇐⇒ m = f ′ (a) .
x→a x−a

Pr♦♦❢✳

❯s❡ t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❧✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜✐❧✐t② ♦❢ f ✿
f (x) − L(x) f (x) − f (a)
0 = lim = lim − lim m = f ′ (a) − m .
x→a x−a x→a x−a x→a

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s ✐♥ t❤❡ t✇♦ t❤❡♦r❡♠s✿

f (x) − L(x)
f (x) − C(x) → 0 ❛♥❞ →0
x−a
❚❤❡ ❝♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ r❡✈❡❛❧s t❤❡ s✐♠✐❧❛r✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ✐♥ ❤♦✇ ✇❡ ♠✐♥✐♠✐③❡ t❤❡ ❡rr♦r✦ ❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ✐s ✐♥
t❤❡ ❞❡❣r❡❡✿ ❤♦✇ ❢❛st t❤❡ ❡rr♦r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❣♦❡s t♦ ③❡r♦✳ ■♥❞❡❡❞✱ ✇❡ ❧❡❛r♥❡❞ ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷❉❈✲✻ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r
❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥ ♠❡❛♥s t❤❛t f (x) − L(x) ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦ 0 ❢❛st❡r t❤❛♥ x − a✱ ✐✳❡✳✱
f (x) − L(x) = o(x − a);
t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ s✉❝❤ r❡str✐❝t✐♦♥ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r✳
❙♦ ❢❛r✱ t❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r❡❞✿
◮ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❜✉✐❧t ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❜❡st ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ❜② ❛❞❞✐♥❣ ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r
t❡r♠✳
❚❤❡ ❜❡st ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤♦s❡ ❤❛s t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ✭✐ts ♦✇♥ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✮ ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f ❛t a✳ ❍♦✇ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡
♦❢ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ✇✐❧❧ ♣r♦❣r❡ss ✐s ♥♦✇ ❝❧❡❛r❡r✿
◮ ◗✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❜✉✐❧t ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❜❡st ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ❜② ❛❞❞✐♥❣ ❛ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝
t❡r♠✳
✺✳✶✳ ❋r♦♠ ❧✐♥❡❛r t♦ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ✸✹✾

❖♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡♠ ♠✐❣❤t ❜❡ t❤❡ ❜❡st✿

❚♦ ❞❡❝✐❞❡ ✇❤✐❝❤ ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤♦s❡ ✐s t❤❡ ❜❡st✱ ✇❡ t❤✐♥❦ ❜② ❛♥❛❧♦❣② ❛♥❞ tr② t♦ ♠❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❡rr♦r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ E ❣♦ t♦ 0
❜✉t ❡✈❡♥ ❢❛st❡r✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✶✳✺✿ ❇❡st q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f ✐s t✇✐❝❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧② ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t x = a ❛♥❞

Q(x) = f (a) + f ′ (a)(x − a) + p(x − a)2

✐s ❛♥② ♦❢ ✐ts q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ ❡rr♦r E ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥

❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡s 0 ❛t x = a ❢❛st❡r t❤❛♥ (x − a)2 ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ t❤❡ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡
q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ t❡r♠ ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ ❤❛❧❢ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤❡
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❛t x = a✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

f (x) − Q(x) 1
lim 2
= 0 ⇐⇒ p = f ′′ (a) .
x→a (x − a) 2

Pr♦♦❢✳

❲❡ ❛♣♣❧② ▲✬❍♦♣✐t❛❧✬s r✉❧❡ t✇✐❝❡✿

f (x) − Q(x)
0 = lim ❋✐rst✳
x→a (x − a)2
f ′ (x) − f ′ (a) − 2p(x − a)
= lim
x→a 2(x − a)
f ′′ (x) − 2p
= lim ❆♥❞ s❡❝♦♥❞✳
x→a 2
f ′′ (x)
= lim −p
x→a 2
1
= f ′′ (a) − p .
2
✺✳✶✳ ❋r♦♠ ❧✐♥❡❛r t♦ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ✸✺✵

❖♥❝❡ ❛❣❛✐♥✱ t❤❡ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ♠❡❛♥s t❤❛t f (x) − Q(x) ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦ 0 ❢❛st❡r t❤❛♥ (x − a)2 ✱ ♦r

f (x) − Q(x) = o((x − a)2 ) .

❲❡ st❛rt t♦ s❡❡ ❛ ♣❛tt❡r♥✿

• ❚❤❡ ❞❡❣r❡❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♥❣ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ❛r❡ ❣r♦✇✐♥❣✳

• ❚❤❡ ❞❡❣r❡❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❜❡✐♥❣ t❛❦❡♥ ✐♥t♦ ❛❝❝♦✉♥t ❛r❡ ❣r♦✇✐♥❣ t♦♦✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✶✳✻✿ sq✉❛r❡ r♦♦t

√
❋♦r t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ f (x) = x ❛t a = 4✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

√
f (x) = x =⇒ f (4) =2
1 1
= (x1/2 )′ = x−1/2
f ′ (x) =⇒ f ′ (4) =
2 4
 ′
′′ 1 −1/2 1 1
f (x) = x = − x−3/2 =⇒ f ′′ (4) = −
2 4 32

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s✿ ✇❤② ❜❡st✿

C(x) = 2 ❙❛♠❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ❛s f.

1
L(x) = 2 + (x − 4) ✳✳✳❆♥❞ s❛♠❡ s❧♦♣❡ ❛s f.
4
1 1
Q(x) = 2 + (x − 4) − (x − 4)2 ✳✳✳❆♥❞ s❛♠❡ ❝♦♥❝❛✈✐t② ❛s f.
4 2 · 32

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✶✳✼✿ s✐♥❡

▲❡t✬s ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ f (x) = sin x ❛t x = 0✳ ❋✐rst✱ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✿

f (x) = sin x =⇒ f (0) = 0 =⇒ C(x) = 0

f ′ (x) = cos x =⇒ f ′ (0) = 1 =⇒ L(x) = x
′′ ′′
f (x) = − sin x =⇒ f (0) = 0 =⇒ Q(x) = ?

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❜❡st q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ✐s✿

0
Q(x) = 0 + 1(x − 0) − (x − 0)2 = x .
2
❙❛♠❡ ❛s t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r✦ ❲❤②❄ ❇❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡ s✐♥❡ ✐s ♦❞❞✳
✺✳✶✳ ❋r♦♠ ❧✐♥❡❛r t♦ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ✸✺✶

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✶✳✽✿ ❝♦s✐♥❡

▲❡t✬s ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ f (x) = cos x ❛t x = 0✳ ❋✐rst✱ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✿

f (x) = cos x =⇒ f (0) =1 =⇒ C(x) = 1

f ′ (x) = − sin x =⇒ f ′ (0) =0 =⇒ L(x) = 1
f ′′ (x) = − cos x =⇒ f ′′ (0) = −1 =⇒ Q(x) = ?

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❜❡st q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ✐s✿

1 1
Q(x) = 1 + 0(x − 0) − (x − 0)2 = 1 − x2 .
2 2

◆♦ ❧✐♥❡❛r t❡r♠✦ ❲❤②❄ ❇❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡ ❝♦s✐♥❡ ✐s ❡✈❡♥✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✶✳✾✿ ❡❞❣❡ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r

❚❤❡ ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛❜✐❧✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠s ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥ t❤❡ ♥❛t✉r❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡s❡ t❤r❡❡ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✭❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✷✮✿

❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧ts ♦❢ ♦✉r ❛♥❛❧②s✐s✿

✶✳ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = sin x1 ✭✇✐t❤ f (0) = 0✮ ✐s ♥♦t ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t 0✱ ❛♥❞ ♥♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠s ❛♣♣❧②✳
❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ❣♦♦❞ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ❛t 0✱ ♦❢ ❛♥② ❦✐♥❞✳
✷✳ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥ g(x) = x sin x1 ✭✇✐t❤ f (0) = 0✮ ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t 0✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✜rst t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛♣♣❧✐❡s✳ ❇✉t ❛s
✐t✬s ♥♦t ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r t✇♦ t❤❡♦r❡♠s ❞♦ ♥♦t ❛♣♣❧②✳ ❚❤❡ ❜❡st ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥
❛t 0 ✐s C(x) = 0✱ ❜✉t ✐t✬s ♥♦t✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦♥❡✱ ❛ ❣♦♦❞ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥✳
✸✳ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥ h(x) = x2 sin x1 ✭✇✐t❤ f (0) = 0✮ ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t 0✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✜rst t✇♦ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛♣♣❧②✳
❇✉t ✐t✬s ♥♦t t✇✐❝❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❧❛st t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❞♦❡s ♥♦t ❛♣♣❧②✳ ❚❤❡ ❜❡st ❧✐♥❡❛r ✭❛♥❞
✺✳✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✸✺✷

❝♦♥st❛♥t✮ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ❛t 0 ✐s L(x) = 0 ❜✉t ✐t✬s ♥♦t✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦♥❡✱ ❛ ❣♦♦❞ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝
❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥✳

❲❡ ✉s❡❞ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs t♦ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ ♦t❤❡r ♥✉♠❜❡rs ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✷❀ ♥♦✇ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ✉s❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ♦❢
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s t♦ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ ♦t❤❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ■♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❜❡ ❛❜❧❡ t♦ ❣♦ ❜❡②♦♥❞ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ✐♥ ♦✉r s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢
♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s✱ ✇❡ r❡♥❛♠❡ t❤❡♠ ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡✐r ❞❡❣r❡❡s ✿

T0 (x) = C(x)
T1 (x) = L(x)
T2 (x) = Q(x)
...

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✶✳✶✵✿ sq✉❛r❡ r♦♦t

√
❇❛❝❦ t♦ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ f (x) = x ❛t a = 4✳ ❖♥❡ ❝❛♥ ❣✉❡ss ✇❤❡r❡ t❤✐s ✐s ❣♦✐♥❣✿

❝♦♥st❛♥t✿ 2 = T0 (x) f − T0 = o(1)

1
❧✐♥❡❛r✿ (x − 4) + 2 = T1 (x) f − T1 = o(x − a)
4
1 1
q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝✿ − (x − 4)2 + (x − 4) + 2 = T2 (x) f − T2 = o((x − a)2 )
2 · 32 4
1 1
❝✉❜✐❝✿ (?)(x − 4)3 − (x − 4)2 + (x − 4) + 2 = T3 (x) f − T3 = o((x − a)3 )
2 · 32 4
✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳
✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳
✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳

❲❡ ❛❞❞ ❛ t❡r♠ ❡✈❡r② t✐♠❡ ✇❡ ♠♦✈❡ ❞♦✇♥ t♦ t❤❡ ♥❡①t ❞❡❣r❡❡❀ ✐t✬s t❤❡ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ s✉♠ ✭❛s ❞✐s❝✉ss❡❞
✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶✮ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❡r♠s t❤❛t ❦❡❡♣ ❛♣♣❡❛r✐♥❣✳ ❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t✐♥❣ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛
✏s❡r✐❡s✑✳

◆❡①t✱ t❤❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ t❤❡♦r②✳

✺✳✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s

❆ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ✐s t②♣✐❝❛❧❧② ✇r✐tt❡♥ ✐♥ ✐ts st❛♥❞❛r❞ ❢♦r♠ ✿

P (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + ... + an xn .
■t✬s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡s ✭❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥✮ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦✇❡rs ♦❢ x✳
❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❜❡ ❛❜❧❡ t♦ ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛t❡ ♦♥ ❛ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ x✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ x = a✱ ✇❡ ✇❛♥t t♦ ❡①♣r❡ss t❤❡
♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡✈✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ x ❢r♦♠ a✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ x − a✳ ❲❡ ✜♥❞ ❛ s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❛♥❛❧♦❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ st❛♥❞❛r❞ ❢♦r♠
♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧❀ ❛ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ✐s st✐❧❧ t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ ♣♦✇❡rs✱ ❥✉st ♥♦t ♦❢ x ❜✉t ♦❢ (x − a)✳
❆ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ s✉❝❤ ❛ tr❛♥s✐t✐♦♥ ❝♦♠❡s ❢r♦♠ ❧✐♥❡❛r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ❛♥❞ t❤❡✐r ♣♦✐♥t✲s❧♦♣❡ ❢♦r♠ ✿

L(x) = mx + b = m(x − a) + d .

❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛❧s♦ t❤❡ ✈❡rt❡① ❢♦r♠ ♦❢ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✹✮✿

Q(x) = a(x − h)2 + k .

✺✳✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✸✺✸

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ r❡s✉❧t✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✷✳✶✿ ❈❡♥t❡r❡❞ ❋♦r♠ ♦❢ P♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧
❋♦r ❡❛❝❤ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r a✱ ❡✈❡r② ❞❡❣r❡❡ n ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ P ❝❛♥ ❜❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡

❢♦r♠ ❝❡♥t❡r❡❞ ❛t x = a✱ ✐✳❡✳✱

P (x) = c0 + c1 (x − a) + c2 (x − a)2 + ... + cn (x − a)n ,

❢♦r s♦♠❡ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs c0 , ..., cn ✳

Pr♦♦❢✳
❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤✐s ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✿ x 7→ x − a✱ ❛ s❤✐❢t t♦ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ❜② a✳

❚❤❡ st❛♥❞❛r❞ ❢♦r♠ ✐s t❤❡♥ ❥✉st t❤❡ ❢♦r♠ ❝❡♥t❡r❡❞ ❛t x = 0✳

■t ✐s ❢r♦♠ ❛♠♦♥❣ t❤❡s❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❝❤♦♦s❡ t❤❡ ❜❡st ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ❛t x = a✳
❇❡❧♦✇ ✐s ❛ t❛❜❧❡ t❤❛t s❤♦✇s t❤❡ ♣r♦❣r❡ss ♦❢ ❜❡tt❡r ❛♥❞ ❜❡tt❡r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛s
❞❡✈❡❧♦♣❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤❡ ❞❡❣r❡❡s ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ❛r❡ ❧✐st❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ✜rst ❝♦❧✉♠♥✱ ✇❤✐❧❡ t❤❡ ✜rst
r♦✇ s❤♦✇s t❤❡ ❞❡❣r❡❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s✿
❞❡❣r❡❡s n ... 3 2 1 0
0 c0 = T 0
1 c1 (x − a) + c0 = T1
2 c2 (x − a)2 + c1 (x − a) + c0 = T2
3 c3 (x − a)3 + c2 (x − a)2 + c1 (x − a) + c0 = T3
✳✳ ✳✳ ✳✳ ✳✳ ✳✳ ✳✳
✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳
n cn (x − a)n + ... + c3 (x − a)3 + c2 (x − a)2 + c1 (x − a) + c0 = Tn
❖♥❝❡ ❛❣❛✐♥✱ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ Tn ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ cn (x − a)n ✳
❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ t❤❡ ❜❡st❄ ❲❡ r❡q✉✐r❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❡rr♦r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦ ③❡r♦ ❢❛st❡r ❛♥❞ ❢❛st❡r✿
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✺✳✷✳✷✿ ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f ✐s n t✐♠❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧② ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t x = a✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ nt❤ ❚❛②❧♦r
♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧✱ n = 0, 1, 2, ...✱ ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡❧② ❜②✿
T0 = f (a), Tn (x) = Tn−1 + cn (x − a)n ,
✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ r❡q✉✐r❡♠❡♥t t❤❛t t❤❡ ❡rr♦r ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡s 0 ❛t x = a
❢❛st❡r t❤❛♥ (x − a)n ✿
f (x) − Tn (x)
lim =0
x→a (x − a)n
✺✳✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✸✺✹

❚❤❡ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts c0 , c1 , ..., cn ❛r❡ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts ♦❢ f ✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤❡ ❡rr♦r ✐s✿


E = f − Tn = o (x − a)n

❆♣♣❧②✐♥❣ t❤❡ P♦✇❡r ❋♦r♠✉❧❛ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ r❡♣❡❛t❡❞❧② ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s ♠♦r❡ ❛♥❞ ♠♦r❡ ❜✉t s♠❛❧❧❡r ❛♥❞ s♠❛❧❧❡r
❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts ✉♥t✐❧ ✐t r❡❛❝❤❡s 1✿
x′ = 1, (x2 )′′ = (2x)′ = 2, (x3 )′′ = (3x2 )′′ = (6x)′ = 6, .. .

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ r❡s✉❧t✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✷✳✸✿ ♥t❤ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ♥t❤ ♣♦✇❡r
❋♦r ❛♥② n = 1, 2, 3...✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

(xn )(n) = n!

Pr♦♦❢✳
(xn )′ = n· xn−1 =⇒

′
=⇒ (xn ) ′′ = n· xn−1 = n · (n − 1)· xn−2 =⇒
′

n−2 ′
=⇒ (xn ) ′′ = n · (n − 1)· x = n · (n − 1) · (n − 2)· xn−3 =⇒
✳✳ ✳✳ ✳✳ ✳✳ ✳✳ ✳✳ ✳✳
✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳

′
=⇒ (xn )(n−1) = n · (n − 1) · ... · 3· x2 = n · (n − 1) · (n − 2) · ... · 3 · 2· x1 =⇒
n (n) ′
=⇒ (x ) = n · (n − 1) · ... · 3 · 2· x = n · (n − 1) · (n − 2) · ... · 3 · 2· 1 = n!

❙❛♠❡ ❢♦r ♣♦✇❡rs ♦❢ (x − a)✿

(n)
(x − a)n = n!

❙♦✱ t❤❛t✬s ✇❤② t❤❡ ❢❛❝t♦r✐❛❧ ❛♣♣❡❛rs ✐♥ t❤❡ ❢♦rt❤❝♦♠✐♥❣ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s✳✳✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✷✳✹
Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✳

❲❡ ❥✉♠♣ str❛✐❣❤t t♦ t❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ♦✉r ♠❛✐♥ ✐♥t❡r❡st✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✷✳✺✿ ❚❛②❧♦r ❈♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f ✐s n t✐♠❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧② ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t x = a✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❚❛②❧♦r
❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts ♦❢ f ♠✉st ❜❡✿

1 1
c0 = f (a), c1 = f ′ (a), c2 = f (2) (a), ..., cn = f (n) (a)
2 n!
✺✳✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✸✺✺

Pr♦♦❢✳

❋r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧❛st t❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✐t ❢♦❧❧♦✇s t❤❛t✿

1 (2) 1
c0 = T0 (a), c1 = T1′ (a), c2 = T2 (a), ..., cn = Tn(n) (a) .
2 n!
❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ✐♥ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ k = 0, 1, 2, ..., n✱ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✳ ❙t❛rt ✇✐t❤✿
f (x) − T0 (x)
0 : 0 = lim = lim (f (x) − T0 (x)) =⇒ T0 (a) = lim T0 (x) = lim f (x) = f (a)
x→a (x − a)0 x→a x→a x→a

❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t ❜♦t❤ T0 ❛♥❞ f ❛r❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t x = a✳ ■t ❢♦❧❧♦✇s t❤❛t c0 = T0 (a) = f (a)✳ ◆❡①t✱
✇❡ ✉s❡ ▲✬❍♦♣✐t❛❧✬s ❘✉❧❡ ✿
f (x) − T1 (x) f ′ (x) − T1′ (x)
1 : 0 = lim 1
= lim =⇒ T1′ (a) = lim T1′ (x) = lim f ′ (x) = f ′ (a)
x→a (x − a) x→a 1 x→a x→a

❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t ❜♦t❤ T1′ ❛♥❞ f ′ ❛r❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t x = a✳ ◆❡①t✱ ✇❡ ❛♣♣❧② ▲✬❍♦♣✐t❛❧✬s ❘✉❧❡ t✇✐❝❡✿
f (x) − T2 (x) f ′′ (x) − T ′′ 2 (x)
2 : 0 = lim = lim =⇒ T ′′ 2 (a) = lim T ′′ 2 (x) = lim f ′′ (x) = f ′′ (a)
x→a (x − a)2 x→a 2 x→a x→a

❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t ❜♦t❤ T ′′ 2 ❛♥❞ f ′′ ❛r❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t x = a✳ ❆♥❞ s♦ ♦♥✳ ❋♦r t❤❡ ❧❛st st❡♣✱ ✇❡ ❛♣♣❧②
▲✬❍♦♣✐t❛❧✬s ❘✉❧❡ n t✐♠❡s✿
(n)
f (x) − Tn (x) f (n) (x) − Tn (x)
n : 0 = lim = lim =⇒ Tn(n) (a) = lim Tn(n) (x) = lim f (n) (x) = f (n) (a)
x→a (x − a)n x→a n! x→a x→a

❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t ❜♦t❤ Tn(n) ❛♥❞ f (n) ❛r❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❛t x = a✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✷✳✻

❋✐♥✐s❤ t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✷✳✼

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✷✳✽

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ nt❤ ❞❡❣r❡❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ♦❢ ❛♥ nt❤ ❞❡❣r❡❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ✐s t❤❛t ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧✳

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✱ ♥♦t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s❀ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s

❛r❡ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡❞ ❛t x = a✿

1 (k) 
ck = f  .
k! x=a

❙♦✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

1
T0 = f (a), Tn+1 (x) = Tn + f (n+1) (a)(x − a)n+1 ,
(n + 1)!
❛♥❞✱ ✐♥ s✐❣♠❛ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✿
✺✳✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✸✺✻

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✷✳✾✿ ❚❛②❧♦r P♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ♦❢ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f ✐s n t✐♠❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧② ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t x = a✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ n✲t❤ ❚❛②❧♦r

♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ♦❢ f ✐s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

n
X 1 (k)
Tn (x) = f (a)(x − a)k
k=0
k!

❚❤✐s ✐s ✐♥❞❡❡❞ ❛ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ♦❢ ❞❡❣r❡❡ n✳ ■t ✐s ❝❡♥t❡r❡❞ ❛t a✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✷✳✶✵✿ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t ❛t ✵

❙♦♠❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ s♦ ❡❛s② t♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❝❛♥ q✉✐❝❦❧② ✜♥❞ ❛❧❧ ♦❢ ✐ts ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s✳ ❋♦r
❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r
f (x) = ex
❛t x = 0✳ ❚❤❡♥ 
(k)

x
f (0) = e  = 1.
x=0
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱
n
X 1 k
Tn (x) = x .
k=0
k!

❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛♥ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿

1 1 1 1
e≈1+ + + + ... + ,
1! 2! 3! n!
✇❤✐❝❤ ❣✐✈❡s ❛ ❜❡tt❡r ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ✇✐t❤ ❡❛❝❤ ♥❡✇ t❡r♠✳ ❚❤❡ ❡①❛❝t ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤✐s st❛t❡♠❡♥t ✐s ❡①♣❧❛✐♥❡❞
❧❛t❡r✳

❚❤❡ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✐s ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧❧② ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥t✿

1
Tn+1 (x) = Tn (x) + (x − a)n+1 .
(n + 1)!

❲❡ ✉s❡ ✐t ✐♥ ❛ s♣r❡❛❞s❤❡❡t ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

❂❘❈❬✲✶❪✰❘✽❈✴❋❆❈❚✭❘✼❈✮✯✭❘❈✶✲❘✹❈✷✮✂❘✼❈

❚❤❡ ✜rst t❤r❡❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ❛r❡✿

1
T0 (x) = 1, T1 (x) = x + 1, T2 (x) = x2 + x + 1 .
2
❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❝r❡❛t❡ ❛s ♠❛♥② ❛s ✇❡ ❧✐❦❡ ✐♥ ❡❛❝❤ ❝♦❧✉♠♥✿
✺✳✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✸✺✼

❲❡ ❝❛♥ s❡❡ ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡s st❛rt t♦ r❡s❡♠❜❧❡ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ❣r❛♣❤ ✕ ❜✉t ♦♥❧② ✐♥ t❤❡ ✈✐❝✐♥✐t② ♦❢ x = 0✳
❊❧s❡✇❤❡r❡✱ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ♣r♦♣❡rt② t❤❛t

Tn (x) → ∞ ❛s x → ∞ .

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡② ❝❛♥ ♥❡✈❡r ❣❡t ❝❧♦s❡ t♦ t❤❡ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡ ❢♦r x → −∞ ✭❞❡❣r❡❡s 4 − 7✮✿

❲❡ ❝❛♥✬t s❡❡ ✐t ♦♥ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ❡♥❞✱ ❜✉t✱ ❢♦r x → +∞✱ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ❢r♦♠ ▲✬❍♦♣✐t❛❧✬s ❘✉❧❡ t❤❛t ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s
❛r❡ t♦♦ s❧♦✇ t♦ ❝♦♠♣❡t❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤❡ ❣♦♦❞ ♥❡✇s ✐s t❤❛t✱ ✇✐t❤✐♥ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧
❝❡♥t❡r❡❞ ❛t 0✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ✈✐rt✉❛❧❧② ♥♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❣r❛♣❤s ✭❞❡❣r❡❡s 4 − 7✮✿

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡✱ ❜② ❢❛r✱ ♠♦r❡ t❤❛♥ ❥✉st ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s✳

❘❡❝❛❧❧ ❢r♦♠ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶ t❤❛t ❛s ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❛r❡ r❡♣❧❛❝❡❞ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡✐r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s✱ ✇❡ ❛r❡ st✐❧❧ ❛❜❧❡ t♦ ❞♦ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛
✇✐t❤ t❤❡♠✳ ❙✐♠✐❧❛r❧②✱ ❛s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ r❡♣❧❛❝❡❞ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡✐r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s✱ ✇❡ ❛r❡ st✐❧❧ ❛❜❧❡ t♦ ❞♦ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s
✇✐t❤ t❤❡♠✿
✺✳✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✸✺✽

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✷✳✶✶✿ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❚❛②❧♦r P♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f ✐s n t✐♠❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧② ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t x = a✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✜rst n
❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ nt❤ ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❛❣r❡❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤♦s❡ ♦❢ t❤❡
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐ts❡❧❢❀ ✐✳❡✳✱
Tn(n) (a) = f (n) (a)

❈♦♥✈❡rs❡❧②✱ t❤✐s ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ✐s t❤❡ ♦♥❧② ♦♥❡ t❤❛t s❛t✐s✜❡s t❤✐s ♣r♦♣❡rt②✳

Pr♦♦❢✳
❙✐♥❝❡ Tn ✐s ❛ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ♦❢ ❞❡❣r❡❡ n✱ t❤❡ ♦♥❧② t❡r♠ t❤❛t ♠❛tt❡rs ❢♦r ✐ts nt❤ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ✐s t❤❡ ❧❛st ♦♥❡✱
cn (x − a)n ✳ ❇② t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛❜♦✈❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

(n) f (n) (a)

Tn(n) (x) = cn (x − a)n = cn · n! = · n! = f (n) (a) .
n!

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✷✳✶✷
Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✷✳✶✸
Pr♦✈❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ♦❢ ❛♥ ❡✈❡♥ ✭♦❞❞✮ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❤❛✈❡ ♦♥❧② ❡✈❡♥ ✭♦❞❞✮ t❡r♠s✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✷✳✶✹✿ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t ❛t ✶

▲❡t✬s ❛❣❛✐♥ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r
f (x) = ex
❜✉t ❛t x = 1 t❤✐s t✐♠❡✳

❲❡ st✐❧❧ ❤❛✈❡ ❛❧❧ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s r❡❛❞②✿


(k)

x
f (1) = e  = e.
x=1

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ✐s✿

n
X e
Sn (x) = (x − 1)k .
k=0
k!

■t ✐s ♥❛♠❡❞ t❤✐s ✇❛② ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ ✐t t♦ t❤❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛t x = 0✿
n
X 1 k
Tn (x) = x .
k=0
k!

❙♦✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ s✐♠♣❧❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡♠✿

Sn (x) = eTn (x − 1) .

❚❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ✐s s❤✐❢t❡❞ ♦♥❡ ✉♥✐t r✐❣❤t ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ str❡t❝❤❡❞ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧❧② ❜② ❛ ❢❛❝t♦r ♦❢ e✳✳✳ ❚❤❡ ✜rst t❤r❡❡
❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ❛r❡✿
e
S0 (x) = e, S1 (x) = e(x − 1) + e, S2 (x) = (x − 1)2 + e(x − 1) + e .
2
❲❡ s❡❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❞❡❣r❡❡s 0 − 7 ❜❡❧♦✇✿
✺✳✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✸✺✾

❍♦✇ ✇❡❧❧ ❞♦ ♦✉r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ✇♦r❦❄

❘❡❝❛❧❧ ❤♦✇ ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❝♦♠❡s ✇✐t❤ ❛ ✏❢✉♥♥❡❧✑✿ ✐t ✐s ❝❡♥t❡r❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡✱
❛♥❞ ✐ts ✉♣♣❡r ❛♥❞ ❧♦✇❡r ❜♦✉♥❞s ❛r❡ t❤❡ t✇♦ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛s ✭❥✉st ❧✐❦❡ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s✮✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❡r❡
t❤❡ ✉♥❦♥♦✇♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ♠✉st r❡s✐❞❡✿

❙✐♠✐❧❛r❧② t♦ t❤❡ ❡rr♦r ❜♦✉♥❞s ❢♦r ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✸✮✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s t❤❛t ❝♦♥t❛✐♥ t❤❡ ✉♥❦♥♦✇♥
✈❛❧✉❡ ✕ ✐❢ ✇❡ ✜① ❛ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ x✳
❋♦r ❛♥ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ❤✐❣❤❡r ❞❡❣r❡❡✱ t❤❡ ❜❧✉❡ ❧✐♥❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ✐❧❧✉str❛t✐♦♥ ✐s t♦ ❜❡ r❡♣❧❛❝❡❞ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ♣❛r❛❜♦❧❛
♦r ❛ ❤✐❣❤❡r ❞❡❣r❡❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧✳ ❲❡ ❛❝❝❡♣t t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ❜❡❧♦✇ ✇✐t❤♦✉t ♣r♦♦❢✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✷✳✶✺✿ ❊rr♦r ❇♦✉♥❞ ❢♦r ❚❛②❧♦r ❆♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s (n + 1) t✐♠❡s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t x = a✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛❧s♦ t❤❛t

❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ i = 0, 1, 2, ..., n + 1✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡
|f (i) (t)| < Ki ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② t ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ a ❛♥❞ x ,

❛♥❞ s♦♠❡ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r Ki ✳ ❚❤❡♥

|x − a|n+1
En (x) = |f (x) − Tn (x)| ≤ Kn+1 .
(n + 1)!

❚❤❡ ♠♦st ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ❝♦♥s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

✺✳✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✸✻✵

❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✺✳✷✳✶✻✿ ❚❛②❧♦r ❆♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② t✐♠❡s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t x = a✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡

❛❧s♦ t❤❛t ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ i = 0, 1, 2, ...✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡
|f (i) (t)| < Ki ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② t ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ a ❛♥❞ x ,

❛♥❞ s♦♠❡ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r Ki ✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ❛t x
❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ t♦ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛t x✿

Tn (x) → f (x) ❛s n → ∞

❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✇✐❧❧ s❡r✈❡ ❛s ❛ ❝♦r♥❡rst♦♥❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ r❡st ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r②✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✷✳✶✼

❉❡r✐✈❡ t❤❡ ❝♦r♦❧❧❛r② ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✳

❏✉st ❛s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❜♦✉♥❞s ❢♦r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❦♥♦✇ ❜♦✉♥❞s ❢♦r t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✉♥❦♥♦✇♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
f ✕ ❛ ♣r✐♦r✐ ✕ ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❦♥♦✇ ❤♦✇ ❢❛r ✐t ❝❛♥ ❣♦ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❞♦ ❦♥♦✇✳ ◆♦t❡ ❛❧s♦ t❤❛t t❤❡ nt❤
❡rr♦r ❜♦✉♥❞ r❡s❡♠❜❧❡s t❤❡ (n + 1)st ❚❛②❧♦r t❡r♠✳

❚❤❡ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t② ✐s ❛ ✏sq✉❡❡③❡✑ ✭❈❤❛♣t❡rs ✷❉❈✲✶ ❛♥❞ ✷❉❈✲✷✮ ❢♦r t❤❡ ✉♥❦♥♦✇♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f✿
Tn (x) − En (x) < f (x) < Tn (x) + En (x) .
❚❤✐s ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t② ❣✉❛r❛♥t❡❡s t❤❛t✿

• ❚❤❡ ❡rr♦r ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡s t♦ 0 ❛s n→∞ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ x✳

• ❚❤❡ ❡rr♦r ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡s t♦ 0 ❛s x→a ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ n✳
■♥ ❢❛❝t✱ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❢❛st ✿ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝✱ ❝✉❜✐❝✱ ❡t❝✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✷✳✶✽✿ r♦♦t

√
▲❡t✬s s❡❡ ❤♦✇ ❝❧♦s❡ ✇❡ ❛r❡ t♦ t❤❡ tr✉t❤ ✇✐t❤ ♦✉r q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ f (x) = x ❛r♦✉♥❞ a=4
❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥✳ ❘❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

1 1
T2 (x) = 2 + (x − 4) − (x − 4)2 .
4 2 · 32
❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ❝♦♠❡s ❢r♦♠ ♦✉r ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✉♣ t♦ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ t♦ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✇❡ ❛❞❞ t❤❡ t❤✐r❞✿

√
f (x) = x =⇒ f (4) = 2
1 −1/2 1
f ′ (x)
= (x1/2 )′ = x =⇒ f ′ (4) =
 ′ 2 4
′′ 1 −1/2 1 −3/2 1
f (x) = x =− x =⇒ f ′′ (4) = −
2 ′ 4 32
(3) 1 −3/2 1 −3 −5/2 3
f (x) = − x =− x = x−5/2
4 4 2 8

◆❡①t✱ ✇❡ ♥♦t✐❝❡ t❤❛t f (3) ✐s ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ♦✈❡r t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [4, +∞)✱ ♦✉r ❜❡st ✭s♠❛❧❧❡st✮ ✉♣♣❡r
❜♦✉♥❞ ❢♦r ✐t ✐s ✐ts ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ✈❛❧✉❡✿

3 3 3
|f (3) (x)| ≤ |f (3) (4)| = 4−5/2 = = .
8 8 · 32 256
❙♦✱ ♦✉r ❜❡st ✭s♠❛❧❧❡st✮ ❝❤♦✐❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✉♣♣❡r ❜♦✉♥❞ ✐s✿

3
K3 = .
256
✺✳✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✸✻✶

❚❤❡♥✱
|x − 4|3 3 1
E2 (x) = |f (x) − T2 (x)| ≤ K3 = |x − 4|3 = |x − 4|3 .
3! 256 · 3! 512
√
❚❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y = x ❧✐❡s✿

√
❲❡ ❝❛♥ ♥♦✇ ❛❞❞r❡ss t❤❡ ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ♦❢ ♦✉r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ 4.1✿
1 0.001
E2 (4.1) = |4.1 − 4|3 = ≈ 0.000002 .
512 512
√
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡ tr✉❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ 4.1 ♠✉st ❧✐❡✿
√
T2 (4) − .000002 ≤ 4.1 ≤ T2 (4) + .000002 .

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✷✳✶✾✿ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t

▲❡t✬s ❡st✐♠❛t❡ e−0.01 ✇✐t❤✐♥ 6 ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧s✳ ■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ✜♥❞ s✉❝❤ ❛♥ n t❤❛t ✇❡ ❛r❡
❣✉❛r❛♥t❡❡❞ t♦ ❤❛✈❡✿  
e−0.01 − Tn (−.01) < 10−6 ,
✇❤❡r❡ Tn ✐s t❤❡ nt❤ ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ♦❢ ex ❛r♦✉♥❞ x = 0✳ ❲❡ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
♦♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [−0.01, 0]✿  
 x (i) 
(e )  = ex ≤ 1 = Ki .
❚❤❡♥✱ ❤♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ♠❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❡rr♦r ❜♦✉♥❞ s❛t✐s❢② t❤✐s✿
 −0.01  |x − a|n+1
e − Tn (−.01) ≤ Kn+1 < 10−6 ?
(n + 1)!
❲❡ r❡✲✇r✐t❡ ❛♥❞ s♦❧✈❡ t❤✐s ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t② ❢♦r n✿
0.1n+1
< 10−6 .
(n + 1)!
❆ ❧❛r❣❡ ❡♥♦✉❣❤ n ✇✐❧❧ ✇♦r❦✳ ❲❡ s✐♠♣❧② ❣♦ t❤r♦✉❣❤ ❛ ❢❡✇ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ n = 1, 2, 3, ... ✉♥t✐❧ t❤❡ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t②
✐s s❛t✐s✜❡❞✿
n 3 4 5
n+1
0.1
0.000004167 0.000000083 0.000000001
(n + 1)!
■t✬s n = 4 ❛♥❞✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r ✐s✿
4
X 1
T4 (−0.01) = (−0.01)i .
i=0
i!
✺✳✸✳ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✸✻✷

❲❡ ♥♦✇ ❝♦♠❡ ❜❛❝❦ t♦ t❤❡ r❡q✉✐r❡♠❡♥t ❢r♦♠ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ♣r♦✈✐❞❡ ❢❛st❡r ❛♥❞
❢❛st❡r ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ t♦ ③❡r♦ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡rr♦r✳
❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✺✳✷✳✷✵✿ ❊rr♦r ❈♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s (n + 1) t✐♠❡s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t x = a✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛❧s♦ t❤❛t

❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ i = 0, 1, 2, ..., n + 1✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡
|f (i) (t)| < Ki ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② t ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ a ❛♥❞ x ,

❛♥❞ s♦♠❡ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r Ki ✳ ❚❤❡♥

En (x) |f (x) − Tn (x)|
n
= → 0 ❛s x → a .
|x − a| |x − a|n

✺✳✸✳ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s

▲❡t✬s t❛❦❡ ❛ ❝❧♦s❡r ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥✳

• ❋✐rst✱ t❤❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ♦❢ f ❢♦r♠ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s
Tn : n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...

• ❙❡❝♦♥❞✱ s✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ✜① ❛ ✈❛❧✉❡ x ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ t❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs
Tn (x) : n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...

❚❤✐s s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❤❛s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ♣r♦♣❡rt② ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛❜♦✉t ❚❛②❧♦r ❆♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st
s❡❝t✐♦♥✱ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ x✿
Tn (x) → f (x) ❛s n → ∞

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✸✳✶✿ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t

■♥ ♦✉r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s✱ ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ t♦ ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛t❡ ♦♥ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ x ❛t ❛ t✐♠❡✳ ❍♦✇ ❛❜♦✉t x = 2✿

❋r♦♠ t❤✐s s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ex ✱ ✇❡ t❛❦❡ t❤✐s✿

Tn (2) → e2 ❛s n → ∞ .

❆♥❞ s♦ ♦♥✳
✺✳✸✳ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✸✻✸

❙✐♥❝❡ t❤✐s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❝❝✉rs ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ x✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ s♣❡❛❦ ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❚❛②❧♦r
♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s✳ ❚❤❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ✐❞❡❛ ✐s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✳
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✺✳✸✳✷✿ ♣♦✐♥t✇✐s❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s fn ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ I ✳ ❲❡ s❛② t❤❛t
t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ♣♦✐♥t✇✐s❡ ♦♥ I t♦ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐❢ ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② x✱ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s
♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛t x ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡✱ ❛s ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✱ t♦ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ f ❛t
x✱ ✐✳❡✳✱
fn (x) → f (x) .
❖t❤❡r✇✐s❡✱ ✇❡ s❛② t❤❛t t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s ♣♦✐♥t✇✐s❡✳

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦
■t ♦♥❧② t❛❦❡s ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ❢♦r ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ x t♦

♠❛❦❡ t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❞✐✈❡r❣❡✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✸✳✸✿ s❤r✐♥❦✐♥❣

❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇✱ t②♣✐❝❛❧❧②✱ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✱ t♦ t❤❡ ③❡r♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ f (x) = 0✱ ✐♥ t❤✐s ❝❛s❡✿

❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝t❡❞ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

 n
2
g(x) = 3 − cos x, fn (x) = g(x) .
3
❨♦✉ ❝❛♥ ❝❤♦♦s❡ ❛♥② ♦t❤❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ g ✳

❚❤❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ✐s ❣❡tt✐♥❣ s♠❛❧❧❡r ❛♥❞ s❤r✐♥❦s t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ g t♦✇❛r❞ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✳ ❚❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢
♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ✐s r♦✉t✐♥❡ ✭❛❢t❡r ❛❧❧✱ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝✮✿
  n    n 
 2   2 
|fn (x)| =  g(x) = |g(x)|   → 0,
3 3 
❜② t❤❡ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡✳ ❚❤✉s✱ ❡❛❝❤ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡❞ ❢r♦♠ t❤✐s s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝✲
t✐♦♥s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦ 0✿

❚❤❡② ❞♦ t❤✐s ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t❧② ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r✳

✺✳✸✳ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✸✻✹

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✸✳✹✿ s❤✐❢t✐♥❣

❆♥♦t❤❡r s✐♠♣❧❡ ❝❤♦✐❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s✿

1
fn (x) = f (x) + → f (x) + 0 = f (x) ,
n
❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ x✱ ♥♦ ♠❛tt❡r t❤❛t f ✐s✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✸✳✺✿ s❡❝❛♥ts ❛♥❞ t❛♥❣❡♥ts

❲❡ s❛✐❞✱ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❧❧②✱ t❤❛t t❤❡ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ t♦ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡ ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷❉❈✲✸✮✿

▲❡t✬s ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡s t♦ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡ ❛s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ ❛♥ ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ t❤❛t ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s x = a✳ ❋♦r ❡❛❝❤ n = 1, 2, 3, ...✱ ❞❡✜♥❡
❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ fn ❛s t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t❤❛t ♣❛ss❡s t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ♣♦✐♥ts✿
  
1 1
(a, f (a)) ❛♥❞ a + ,f a+ .
n n

❚❤❡♥✱
f (a + 1/n) − f (a)
fn (x) = f (a) + (x − a) .
1/n
■❢ f ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t x = a✱ t❤❡ ❢r❛❝t✐♦♥✱ ✐ts s❧♦♣❡✱ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦ f ′ (a) ❛s n → ∞ ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡
❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✿
f (a + 1/n) − f (a)
→ f ′ (a) .
1/n
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
f (a + 1/n) − f (a)
fn (x) = f (a) + (x − a)
1/n
↓ || ↓ ||
f (x) = f (a) + f ′ (a) (x − a)
❚❤✐s ♥❡✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❡ ❜❡st ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ f ❛t a ❛♥❞ ✐ts ❣r❛♣❤ ✐s t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡ ♦❢ f
❛t a✳ ❲❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ♥♦t ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❛t t❤✐s ♣♦✐♥t✱ ♦✉r s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s✳
✺✳✸✳ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✸✻✺

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✸✳✻✿ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ❛♥❞ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s

❲❡ s❛✐❞ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ✭s❛② ❧❡❢t ❡♥❞✮ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ t♦ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶✮✿

Z b
Ln → f dx .
a

❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦t❤✐♥❣ ✐♠♣r❡❝✐s❡ ❛❜♦✉t s❛②✐♥❣ t❤❛t✳

❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ t❤❛t ✇❛s ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✳ ■s t❤❡r❡ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❤❡r❡❄ ❨❡s✱ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡
♦❢ st❡♣✲❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s t❤❛t r❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ ❧❡❢t✲❡♥❞ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✳

▲❡t✬s ♠❛❦❡ t❤✐s s♣❡❝✐✜❝✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b]✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛❧s♦ t❤❛t t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✐s
❡q✉✐♣♣❡❞ ✇✐t❤ ❛ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t✲❡♥❞✱ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...✱ ✇✐t❤ ∆x =
(b − a)/n ❛♥❞ xi = a + ∆x · i✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...✱ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❛ st❡♣✲❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♣✐❡❝❡✇✐s❡ ❛s
❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
fn (x) = F (xi ) ✇❤❡♥ xi ≤ x < xi+1 .
❚❤❡② ❛r❡ ♣❧♦tt❡❞ ✐♥ r❡❞✿

❲❤❡♥ f ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✱ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t t❤✐s s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ t♦ f ♣♦✐♥t✇✐s❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✸✳✼
Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❧❛st st❛t❡♠❡♥t✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✸✳✽
✭❛✮ ❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ♥♦t ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♦♥ t❤✐s ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ ♦✉r s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♠✐❣❤t
❞✐✈❡r❣❡✳ ✭❜✮ ❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t ✐t ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡✱ ❤♦✇❡✈❡r✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✸✳✾
❈♦♥s✐❞❡r ❛❧s♦ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ st❡♣✲❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s t❤❛t r❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ❛♥❞ ♠✐❞❞❧❡ ♣♦✐♥t ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s
❛♥❞ t❤❡ tr❛♣❡③♦✐❞ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s✳

■♥ ❛❧❧ t❤❡s❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s✱ t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♠❡❛♥s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ✭♠❛♥②✮ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✳
❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s fn s❡❡♠ t♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❡❧② ❛❝❝✉♠✉❧❛t❡ t♦✇❛r❞ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f✳
❚❤✐s ✐s ❛ ✏str♦♥❣❡r✑ ❦✐♥❞ ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✺✳✸✳✶✵✿ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ✉♥✐❢♦r♠❧②

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s fn ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ I✳ ❲❡ s❛② t❤❛t
t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ✉♥✐❢♦r♠❧② ♦♥ I t♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐❢ t❤❡ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢
t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✱ ❛s ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✱ t♦ ③❡r♦✿

max |fn (x) − f (x)| → 0 .

I

❖t❤❡r✇✐s❡✱ ✇❡ s❛② t❤❛t t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s ✉♥✐❢♦r♠❧②✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❡✈❡♥t✉❛❧❧② ✜t ❡♥t✐r❡❧② ✇✐t❤✐♥ ❛ str✐♣ ❛r♦✉♥❞
f✱ ♥♦ ♠❛tt❡r ❤♦✇ ♥❛rr♦✇✿
✺✳✸✳ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✸✻✻

■t ✐s ❝❧❡❛r t❤❛t ❡✈❡r② ✉♥✐❢♦r♠❧② ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ♣♦✐♥t✇✐s❡ ✭t♦ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✮✿

sup |fn (x) − f (x)| → 0 =⇒ |fn (x) − f (x)| → 0 ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ x ✐♥ I.

I

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✸✳✶✶

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❧❛st st❛t❡♠❡♥t✳

❚❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡ ✐s♥✬t tr✉❡✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✸✳✶✷✿ t♦♦t❤ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ I = [0, 1] t❤❛t s❛t✐s✜❡s✿ fn (0) = 0 ❛♥❞ fn (x) = 0
1
❢♦r x > ❛♥❞ t❤❡ r❡st ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ❛ ✏t♦♦t❤✑ ♦❢ ❤❡✐❣❤t 1✿
n+1

❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
• fn ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦ 0✱ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ♣♦✐♥t✇✐s❡ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ fn (x) ❡✈❡♥t✉❛❧❧② ❜❡❝♦♠❡s ③❡r♦ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ x✳
• fn ❞♦❡s ♥♦t ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ t♦ 0✱ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✉♥✐❢♦r♠❧② ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡ t♦♦t❤ ✇✐❧❧ ❛❧✇❛②s st✐❝❦ ♦✉t ♦❢ ❛♥②
str✐♣ ♥❛rr♦✇❡r t❤❛♥ 1✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✸✳✶✸✿ ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s

❋r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❛t✱ ✇❤❡♥❡✈❡r t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ f ❛r❡ ❦♥♦✇♥ t♦ ❜❡ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ♦♥ ❛
❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ I = [a, b]✱ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦ f ✉♥✐❢♦r♠❧② ♦♥ I ✳ ❖♥ ❛♥
✉♥❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ t❤❡ ✉♥✐❢♦r♠ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ✐s♥✬t ❣✉❛r❛♥t❡❡❞❀ ❢♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r f (x) = cos x ♦♥
(−∞, +∞)✿
✺✳✸✳ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✸✻✼

❚❤❡ r❡❛s♦♥ ✐s t❤❛t ❛ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ♦❢ ❛♥② ❞❡❣r❡❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ 0 ✇✐❧❧ ❡✈❡♥t✉❛❧❧② ❣♦ t♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t② ✭❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✷✮✳
P♦✐♥t✇✐s❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ r❡♠❛✐♥s✳

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ t❤❡ t✇♦ t②♣❡s ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ❛❣❛✐♥ ❜② r❡❢❡rr✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡✿

• ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡ fn ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦ f ♣♦✐♥t✇✐s❡ ✐❢

◮ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ x✱ ❢♦r ❛♥② ε>0 t❤❡r❡ ✐s s✉❝❤ ❛♥ N >0 t❤❛t

n > N =⇒ |fn (x) − f (x)| < ε .

• ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡ fn ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦ f ✉♥✐❢♦r♠❧② ✐❢

◮ ❢♦r ❛♥② ε>0 t❤❡r❡ ✐s s✉❝❤ ❛♥ N >0 t❤❛t✱ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ x✱

n > N =⇒ |fn (x) − f (x)| < ε .

❆s ②♦✉ s❡❡✱ ✇❡ ❥✉st ♠♦✈❡❞ ✏❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ x✑ ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡ s❡♥t❡♥❝❡✳

❍❡r❡ ✐s ❤♦✇ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ ✏❝❧♦s❡✑ ✐s r❡❧❛t✐✈❡ t♦ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ t②♣❡s ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡✿
✺✳✹✳ ■♥✜♥✐t❡ s❡r✐❡s ✸✻✽

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✸✳✶✹
1
■♥✈❡st✐❣❛t❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ fn (x) = ✳
nx

✺✳✹✳ ■♥✜♥✐t❡ s❡r✐❡s

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦
❙❡r✐❡s ❛r❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✳

❖✉r ❣♦❛❧ ✐s t♦ ❜❡ ❛❜❧❡ t♦ ✜♥❞ ♦✉t t❤❡ ❡①t❡♥t t♦ ✇❤✐❝❤ ♦✉r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ✕ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✕ ✇♦r❦✳
❙♣❡❝✐✜❝❛❧❧②✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❦♥♦✇ ❢♦r ✇❤❛t ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ x t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s Tn (x)
♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x)✳ ❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❛❧s♦ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ❡rr♦r✱ ❥✉st ❛s ✇❡ ❞✐❞
❡❛r❧✐❡r ✐♥ t❤✐s ❝❤❛♣t❡r✳
❋♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❞❡✈❡❧♦♣♠❡♥t ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ ❛♥② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛s ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s✳
❲❤❛t ♠❛❦❡s ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t❄ ■t✬s ✐♥ t❤❡ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s✱ ❢♦r ❛
✜①❡❞ x✿
Tn+1 (x) = Tn (x) + cn+1 (x − a)n+1 .
❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡s t♦ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ♦❢ ❤✐❣❤❡r ❛♥❞ ❤✐❣❤❡r ❞❡❣r❡❡s ❜② s✐♠♣❧② ❛❞❞✐♥❣
♥❡✇ t❡r♠s t♦ t❤❡ ♣r❡✈✐♦✉s r❡s✉❧t✳ ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ❛r❡ ❥✉st ❛ s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✺✳✹✳✶✿ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ❝❡♥t❡r❡❞ ❛t ♣♦✐♥t
❆ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ qn ♦❢ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② ❛ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿

qn+1 (x) = qn (x) + cn+1 (x − a)n+1 , n = 0, 1, 2, ... ,

❢♦r s♦♠❡ ✜①❡❞ ♥✉♠❜❡r a ❛♥❞ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts cn ✱ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s
❝❡♥t❡r❡❞ ❛t a✳

P♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ♠❛② ❝♦♠❡ ❢✉❧❧② ❢♦r♠❡❞✳

❍♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ❛❞❞ t♦❣❡t❤❡r t❤❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② t❡r♠s ♦❢ s✉❝❤ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡❄ ❱✐❛ ❧✐♠✐ts ✐s t❤❡ ♦♥❧② ❛♥s✇❡r✳
❚❤❡ ♠♦st ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❝❤❛♣t❡r r❡♣❡❛ts t❤❡ ♦♥❡ ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶✿
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✺✳✹✳✷✿ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ s✉♠s✱ ♣❛rt✐❛❧ s✉♠s
❙✉♣♣♦s❡
an : n = s, s + 1, s + 2, ...
✐s ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳ ■ts s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ s✉♠s

pn : n = s, s + 1, s + 2, ...

✐s t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿

ps = as , pn+1 = pn + an .

❚❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❛❧s♦ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐❛❧ s✉♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧✳

✺✳✹✳ ■♥✜♥✐t❡ s❡r✐❡s ✸✻✾

❚❤✐s ♣r♦❝❡ss ✐s ❛ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r ✇❛② ♦❢ ❝r❡❛t✐♥❣ ♥❡✇ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❢r♦♠ ♦❧❞ ✭❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✷✮✳ ■♠❛❣✐♥❡ t❤❛t ✇❡ st❛❝❦ t❤❡
❡❧❡♠❡♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ an ✭❧❡❢t✮ ♦♥ t♦♣ ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r t♦ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ pn ✱ ❛ ♥❡✇ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✭r✐❣❤t✮✿

■♥ t❤❡ ♥❡①t s❡✈❡r❛❧ s❡❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛t❡ ♦♥ s✉❝❤ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ✭r❛t❤❡r t❤❛♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✮ ❛♥❞
♦❝❝❛s✐♦♥❛❧❧② ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ r❡s✉❧ts t♦ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s✳

❚❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❧❡❢t ❜❡❤✐♥❞✱ ❛♥❞ ✐t ✐s t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤✐s ♥❡✇ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❛r❡ ❛❢t❡r✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✹✳✸✿ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ s✉♠s

■♥ ❡✐t❤❡r ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ t❛❜❧❡s ❜❡❧♦✇✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❣✐✈❡♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ ✜rst t✇♦ ❝♦❧✉♠♥s✳ ■ts nt❤ t❡r♠
❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐s ❦♥♦✇♥ ❛♥❞✱ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ♦❢ t❤❛t✱ ✐ts ❧✐♠✐t ✐s ❛❧s♦ ❡❛s② t♦ ✜♥❞✳ ❚❤❡ t❤✐r❞ ❝♦❧✉♠♥ s❤♦✇s t❤❡
s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ✭♣❛rt✐❛❧✮ s✉♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✜rst✳ ■ts nt❤ t❡r♠ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✐s ✉♥❦♥♦✇♥ ❛♥❞✱ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ♦❢ t❤❛t✱ ✐ts ❧✐♠✐t
✐s ♥♦t ❡❛s② t♦ ✜♥❞✳

n an p n n an pn
1 1 1 1
1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
2 + 2 +
2 1 2 2 1 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
3 + + 3 + +
3 1 2 3 4 1 2 4
✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳
✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳
✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
n + + + ... + , ❢♦r♠✉❧❛❄ n + + + ... + n−1 , ❢♦r♠✉❧❛❄
n 1 2 3 n 2n 1 2 4 2
✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳
✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳
✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳

↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
∞ 0 ? ∞ 0 ?

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✹✳✹✿ s♦♠❡t❤✐♥❣ ❢r♦♠ ♥♦t❤✐♥❣

❚❤✐s ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ❢r♦♠ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✷ ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷❉❈✲✶✮ s❤♦✇s ✇❤❛t ❝❛♥ ❤❛♣♣❡♥ ✐❢ ✇❡ ✐❣♥♦r❡ t❤❡ ✐ss✉❡ ♦❢
❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡✿

❄
0 == 0 +0 +0 +0 +...
❄
== (1 −1) +(1 −1) +(1 −1) +(1 −1) +...
❄
== 1 −1 +1 −1 +1 −1 +1 −1 +...
❄
== 1 +(−1 +1) +(−1 +1) +(−1 +1) +(−1 +1) +...
❄
== 1 +0 +0 +0 +0 +...
❄
== 1.

❘❡♠♦✈✐♥❣ t❤❡ ♣❛r❡♥t❤❡s❡s ✐♥ ❛♥ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ♥♦t ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ✇♦✉❧❞ ❞♦ ❛♥②♠♦r❡ ✕ ✐♥ ❧✐❣❤t ♦❢
♦✉r ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t q✉❛❧✐✜❡s ❛s ❛♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ ✏s♦♠❡t❤✐♥❣ ❢r♦♠ ♥♦t❤✐♥❣✑✿
✺✳✹✳ ■♥✜♥✐t❡ s❡r✐❡s ✸✼✵

■♥ t❤❡ ✏❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥✑✱ ✇❡ ❣♦ ✕ ✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t❧② ✕ t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤r❡❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✳ ❚❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t t❤❡ ✜rst ❛♥❞ t❤❡
t❤✐r❞ ❜♦t❤ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ ♦❜s❝✉r❡s t❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s✳ ❚♦ ❞❡t❡❝t t❤❡ s✇✐t❝❤❡s✱ ✇❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❡
t❤❛t t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s t❤❛t ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ t❤❡ t❤r❡❡ s✉♠s ❛r❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✦ ❲❡ ❧✐st t❤❡ ✜rst t✇♦ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

n an pn = pn n an pn = pn
1 0=1−1 0 = 0 1 1 1 = 1
2 0=1−1 0+0 = 0 2 −1 1−1 = 0
3 0=1−1 0+0+0 = 0 3 1 1−1+1 = 1
✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳
✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳
✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳

n 0 = 1 − 1 0 + 0 + 0 + ... + 0 = 0 n (−1)n 1 − 1 + 1 − ... + (−1)n = 1, 0

✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳
✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳
✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳

↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
∞ 0 0 ∞ ❉◆❊ ❉◆❊

❆s ❛ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥t s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ♦♥❡ ❝❛♥♥♦t ❜❡ ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ ❛♥②t❤✐♥❣✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✹✳✺

❄
❲❤✐❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✏ =
=✑ s✐❣♥s ❛❜♦✈❡ ✐s ✐♥❝♦rr❡❝t❄

■♥ s✉♠♠❛r②✱

◮ ❆ s❡r✐❡s ✐s ❛ ♣❛✐r ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✳

❚❤❡ ✜rst ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ✈✐❛ s✉♠♠❛t✐♦♥✱ ❢♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✿
✺✳✹✳ ■♥✜♥✐t❡ s❡r✐❡s ✸✼✶

■s ✐t ❡✈❡♥ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ s✉♠s pn ✇✐t❤♦✉t ✜rst ✜♥❞✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❢♦r ✐ts nt❤
t❡r♠❄ ❋♦r♠✉❧❛s t❤❛t ❤❛✈❡ ✏✳✳✳✑ ❞♦♥✬t ❝♦✉♥t✿

❧✐st ♦❢ t❡r♠s ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r nt❤ t❡r♠

1 1 1 1
♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✿ 1, , , , ...
2 3 4 n
✭♣❛rt✐❛❧✮ s✉♠s s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✿ 1,
1
1+ ,
2
1 1
1+ + ,
2 3
...
n
1 1 1 1 X1
1+ + + + ... +
2 3 4 n k=1 k

◆❡✐t❤❡r ❞♦ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s t❤❛t r❡❧② ♦♥ t❤❡ s✐❣♠❛ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✳

❚❤❡ ❝❤❛❧❧❡♥❣❡ ♣♦s❡❞ ❜② s❡r✐❡s ✐s t❤❛t t❤❡② ♥❡✈❡r ❝♦♠❡ ✇✐t❤ ❛♥ nt❤✲t❡r♠ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✦ ❆s ❛♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ❛♥ nt❤
♣❛rt✐❛❧ s✉♠ ♦❢ ❛ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ✐s ❛ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ♦❢ x ❛♥❞✱ ❢r♦♠ ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ❛❜♦✉t ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r
✶P❈✲✹✮✱ ✐t ❝❛♥ ♦♥❧② ❜❡ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❡❞ ✐♥ ❛ ❢❡✇ ✈❡r② s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❝❛s❡s✱ s✉❝❤ ❛s t❤❡ ❇✐♥♦♠✐❛❧ ❋♦r♠✉❧❛ ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✶✮✳

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✺✳✹✳✻✿ s✉♠ ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦r s❡r✐❡s

❋♦r ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ an ✱ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t S ♦❢ ✐ts s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ✭♣❛rt✐❛❧✮ s✉♠s pn ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❜②
t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦r✱ ♠♦r❡ ❝♦♠♠♦♥❧②✱ t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ✿
n
X
lim ai = S .
n→∞
i=s

❲❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ♣❛rt✐❛❧ s✉♠s ❡①✐sts✱ ✇❡ s❛② t❤❛t t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✳ ❲❤❡♥ t❤❡
❧✐♠✐t ❞♦❡s ♥♦t ❡①✐st✱ ✇❡ s❛② t❤❛t t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s✳ ❆ s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡
✐s t❤❡ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ t♦ ✭♣❧✉s ♦r ♠✐♥✉s✮ ✐♥✜♥✐t② ❛♥❞ ✇❡ s❛② t❤❛t t❤❡ s✉♠ ✐s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ✿
n
X
lim ai = ∞ .
n→∞
i=s

❖♥❝❡ ❛❣❛✐♥✱ ❛ s❡r✐❡s ✐s ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❜✉✐❧t ❢r♦♠ ❛♥♦t❤❡r ✈✐❛ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥✳

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦
❚❤❡ st❛rt✐♥❣ ♣♦✐♥t✱ s✱ ♦❢ s✉♠♠❛t✐♦♥ ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❛✛❡❝t
❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ❜✉t ❞♦❡s ❛✛❡❝t t❤❡ s✉♠ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s
❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✳
✺✳✹✳ ■♥✜♥✐t❡ s❡r✐❡s ✸✼✷

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✹✳✼✿ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s

◆♦t❡ t❤❛t ❛ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ♠❛② ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ ❢♦r s♦♠❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ x ❛♥❞ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡ ❢♦r ♦t❤❡rs✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ t❤❡
s❡r✐❡s
1 + x + x2 + .. .
• ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ❢♦r x=0 ❜✉t
• ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s ❢♦r x = 1✳
❲❡ ❛❧s♦ ❞❡♠♦♥str❛t❡ ❜❡❧♦✇ t❤❛t ✐t ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ❢♦r x = 1/2✳

❚❤✐s ✐s ❛♥ ❛❜❜r❡✈✐❛t❡❞ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ t♦ ✇r✐t❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ♣❛rt✐❛❧ s✉♠s✿

❙✉♠ ♦❢ s❡r✐❡s
∞
X n
X
ai = lim ai
n→∞
i=s i=s

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦
❚❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s♥✬t ❛ s❡r✐❡s✳

❘❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❛t ❤❡r❡ Σ st❛♥❞s ❢♦r ✏❙✑ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ✏s✉♠✑✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❞❡❝♦♥str✉❝t❡❞✿

❙✐❣♠❛ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r s❡r✐❡s

❜❡❣✐♥♥✐♥❣ ❛♥❞ ❡♥❞ ✈❛❧✉❡s ❢♦r k
↓
∞
X 1 1

7
k
+ k =
2 3 2
k=0
↑ ↑
❛ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❛ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ♥✉♠❜❡r✱ ± ∞, ♦r ✏❉◆❊✑

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦
■♥ s♦♠❡ s♦✉r❝❡s✱ t❤❡ ✇♦r❞ ✏s❡r✐❡s✑ ♠✐❣❤t r❡❢❡r t♦
♦♥❡✱ ♦r ❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛❧❧✱ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ t❤r❡❡✿

• t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ an ✱

• ✐ts s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ s✉♠s pn ✱ ❛♥❞

• t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✹✳✽✿ ✜♥❡t❡♥❡ss

❲❤❡♥ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♦♥❧② ✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② ♥♦♥✲③❡r♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥ts ✐♥ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ ✐ts s✉♠ ✐s s✐♠♣❧❡✿

∞
X N
X
ai = 0 ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ i > N =⇒ ai = ai .
i=1 i=1

❚❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦ t❤✐s ♥✉♠❜❡r✳

✺✳✹✳ ■♥✜♥✐t❡ s❡r✐❡s ✸✼✸

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✹✳✾✿ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥t

◆♦♥✲③❡r♦ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ✐s t❤❡ s✐♠♣❧❡st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❜✉t ❛ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥t s❡r✐❡s✿
∞
X n
X
ai = 1 ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ i =⇒ ai = lim 1 = lim n = ∞ .
n→∞ n→∞
i=1 i=1

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✹✳✶✵✿ sin n ❛♥❞ r❛♥❞♦♠ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡

an = sin n .
■t ❧♦♦❦s ✉♥✐❢♦r♠❧② s♣r❡❛❞ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ −1 ❛♥❞ 1 ✭❣r❡❡♥✮✿

■ts s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ s✉♠s ❛❧s♦ ❧♦♦❦s ✉♥✐❢♦r♠❧② s♣r❡❛❞ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥✱ 0 ❛♥❞ 2 ✭♦r❛♥❣❡✮✳ ■t✱ t❤❡♥✱ ❛♣♣❡❛rs t♦
❞✐✈❡r❣❡✳ ❆ s❡r✐❡s ♦❢ ❛ tr✉❧② r❛♥❞♦♠ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s ✐♥ ❛ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ✇❛②✿

❲❡ s❛✇ t❤❛t✱ ✇❤❡♥ ❢❛❝✐♥❣ ✐♥✜♥✐t②✱ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ♠❛② ❢❛✐❧✳ ❇✉t ✐t ✇♦♥✬t ✐❢ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡✦ ■♥ t❤❛t ❝❛s❡✱ t❤❡
s❡r✐❡s ❝❛♥ ❜❡ s✉❜❥❡❝t❡❞ t♦ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s✳ ❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s t♦♦ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ s✉❜❥❡❝t❡❞ t♦
❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s✳✳✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✹✳✶✶✿ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s

❋♦r ❛ ❣✐✈❡♥ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❝♦♥str✉❝t ❛ s❡r✐❡s t❤❛t t❡♥❞s t♦ t❤❛t ♥✉♠❜❡r ✕ ✈✐❛ tr✉♥❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ✐ts
❞❡❝✐♠❛❧ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s✳ ❚❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡
an = 0.9, 0.09, 0.009, 0.0009, ... t❡♥❞s t♦ 0 .
❇✉t ✐ts s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ♣❛rt✐❛❧ s✉♠s
pn = 0.9, 0.99, 0.999, 0.9999, ... t❡♥❞s t♦ 1 .
✺✳✹✳ ■♥✜♥✐t❡ s❡r✐❡s ✸✼✹

❚❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡
an = 0.3, 0.03, 0.003, 0.0003, ... t❡♥❞s t♦ 0 .
❇✉t ✐ts s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ♣❛rt✐❛❧ s✉♠s

pn = 0.3, 0.33, 0.333, 0.3333, ... t❡♥❞s t♦ 1/3 .

❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ s❡r✐❡s t❤❡♥ ❤❡❧♣s ✉s ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧s✳

• ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ 0.9999...❄ ■t ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s✿
∞
X
9 · 10−i .
i=1

• ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ 0.3333...❄ ■t ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s✿

∞
X
3 · 10−i .
i=1

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✹✳✶✷

❋✐♥❞ s✉❝❤ ❛ s❡r✐❡s ❢♦r 1/6✳

❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t ❛ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❝❛♥ ❤❛✈❡ ♦♥❧② ♦♥❡ ❧✐♠✐t✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✹✳✶✸✿ ❯♥✐q✉❡♥❡ss ♦❢ ❙✉♠ ♦❢ ❙❡r✐❡s

❆ s❡r✐❡s ❝❛♥ ❤❛✈❡ ♦♥❧② ♦♥❡ s✉♠ ✭✜♥✐t❡ ♦r ✐♥✜♥✐t❡✮✳

❚❤✉s✱ ✇❡ ❛r❡ ❥✉st✐✜❡❞ t♦ s♣❡❛❦ ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉♠✳

❚❤✐s ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ♠❛❦❡s ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r② ✇❡ s❤❛❧❧ ❞❡✈❡❧♦♣✿
◮ ❆♥② ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ❞❡✜♥❡s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ✐ts ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ❝♦♥s✐st✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤♦s❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ x ❢♦r ✇❤✐❝❤
t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✹✳✶✹✿ s❡r✐❡s ✈s✳ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s

❚❤❡ ✇❛② ✇❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts t♦ tr❛♥s✐t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s t♦ s❡r✐❡s ✐s ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r✳ ■t ✐s ✐❞❡♥t✐❝❛❧ t♦ t❤❡
tr❛♥s✐t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f t♦ ✐ts ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦✈❡r [0, ∞)✿

■♥❞❡❡❞✱ ❝♦♠♣❛r❡✿
Z ∞ Z b
f (x) dx = lim f (x) dx
1 b→∞ 1
∞
X n
X
ai = lim ai
n→∞
i=1 i=1

❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ✇✐❧❧ ❢❛❧❧ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ s❝♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ✐❢ ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ f t♦ ❜❡ t❤❡ st❡♣✲❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
✺✳✺✳ ▼❛✐♥ ❝❧❛ss❡s ♦❢ s❡r✐❡s ✸✼✺

♣r♦❞✉❝❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ an ✿

f (x) = a[x] .

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❚❤❡ ✇♦rst ♠✐st❛❦❡ ♦♥❡ ❝❛♥ ♠❛❦❡ ✐s t♦ ❝♦♥❢✉s❡ t❤❡

❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ an ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ pn ✳

✺✳✺✳ ▼❛✐♥ ❝❧❛ss❡s ♦❢ s❡r✐❡s

❚❤❡ ❦❡② t♦ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t✐♥❣ s✉♠s ♦❢ ❛ s❡r✐❡s✱ ♦r ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r✐♥❣ t❤❛t ✐t ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s✱ ✐s t♦ ✜♥❞ ❛♥ ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡
nt❤ ♣❛rt✐❛❧ s✉♠ pn ♦❢ an ✳
❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❜❡ ❝❛r❡❢✉❧ ❛♥❞ ♥♦t t❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ♦✈❡r t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✿

lim an ✈s✳ lim pn

n→∞ n→∞

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✺✳✶✿ ❝♦♥st❛♥t

❘❡❝❛❧❧ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥t s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ t❤❛t✱ ❢♦r ❛♥② r❡❛❧ c✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡
lim c = c .
n→∞

❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t t❡❧❧s ✉s ♥♦t❤✐♥❣ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ♣r♦❞✉❝❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✦ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r ✐♥st❡❛❞✿
n
X
c + c + c + ... = lim c = lim nc .
n→∞ n→∞
k=1

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ s✉❝❤ ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t s❡r✐❡s ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s ✉♥❧❡ss c = 0✳ ❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s ✇r✐tt❡♥ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
∞
X
c = ∞.
k=1

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✺✳✷✿ ❛r✐t❤♠❡t✐❝

▼♦r❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧❧②✱ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ❛❜♦✉t ❛r✐t❤♠❡t✐❝ ♣r♦❣r❡ss✐♦♥s ❀ ❢♦r ❛♥② r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs m, b > 0✱
✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿ 
−∞
 ✐❢ m < 0 ,
lim (b + nm) = b ✐❢ m = 0 ,
n→∞ 

+∞ ✐❢ m > 0 .
❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t t❡❧❧s ✉s ♥♦t❤✐♥❣ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s✦ ■♥st❡❛❞✱ ❧❡t✬s ❡①❛♠✐♥❡ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐❛❧ s✉♠s ❛♥❞✱ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ❡❛❝❤
✐s ❝♦♠♣r✐s❡❞ ♦❢ ♦♥❧② ✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② t❡r♠s✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ♠❛♥✐♣✉❧❛t❡ t❤❡♠ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛❧❧② ❜❡❢♦r❡ ✜♥❞✐♥❣ t❤❡
❧✐♠✐t✱ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
n
X
b + (b + m) + (b + 2m) + (b + 3m) + ... = lim (b + km) .
n→∞
k=0
✺✳✺✳ ▼❛✐♥ ❝❧❛ss❡s ♦❢ s❡r✐❡s ✸✼✻

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✺✳✸
❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t s✉❝❤ ❛ s❡r✐❡s ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s ✉♥❧❡ss b = m = 0✿
∞
X
(b + km) = ∞ .
k=0

❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♠♦r❡ ✐♥t❡r❡st✐♥❣ s❡r✐❡s✳

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✺✳✺✳✹✿ ❤❛r♠♦♥✐❝ s❡r✐❡s
❚❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ♣r♦❞✉❝❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ r❡❝✐♣r♦❝❛❧s an = 1/n✱
∞
X 1 1 1 1 1 1
= + + + + ... + + ... ,
k=1
k 1 2 3 4 k

✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ❤❛r♠♦♥✐❝ s❡r✐❡s✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✺✳✺✿ ❤❛r♠♦♥✐❝ s❡r✐❡s
❇❡❧♦✇ ✇❡ s❤♦✇ t❤❡ ✉♥❞❡r❧②✐♥❣ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ an = 1/n✱ t❤❛t ✐s ❦♥♦✇♥ t♦ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ t♦ ③❡r♦ ✭❧❡❢t✮✱ ❛♥❞ ✐ts
s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐❛❧ s✉♠s ✭r✐❣❤t✮✿

P❧♦tt✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✜rst 3000 t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r s❡❡♠s t♦ s✉❣❣❡sts t❤❛t ✐t ❛❧s♦ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✳ ❊①❛♠✐♥✐♥❣ t❤❡
❞❛t❛✱ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ t❤❛t t❤❡ s✉♠ ✐s♥✬t ❧❛r❣❡✱ s♦ ❢❛r✿
1 1 1 1 1
+ + + + ... + ≈ 8.59 .
1 2 3 4 3000
❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ ❜❡tt❡r t❤❛♥ t♦ t❤✐♥❦ t❤❛t t❤✐s t❡❧❧s ✉s ❛♥②t❤✐♥❣❀ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s ❛s ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ s❤♦✇ ✐♥ t❤✐s
❝❤❛♣t❡r✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✺✳✻✿ ❤✐❣❤❡r ♣♦✇❡rs

■❢ ✇❡ r❡♣❧❛❝❡ t❤❡ ♣♦✇❡r ♦❢ k ✐♥ t❤❡ ❤❛r♠♦♥✐❝ s❡r✐❡s✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s −1✱ ✇✐t❤ −1.1✱ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s✱
∞
X 1
1.1
,
k=1
k

t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ✐ts s✉♠s ❧♦♦❦s ❛❧♠♦st ❡①❛❝t❧② t❤❡ s❛♠❡✿

✺✳✺✳ ▼❛✐♥ ❝❧❛ss❡s ♦❢ s❡r✐❡s ✸✼✼

❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✇❡ s❤♦✇ ❜❡❧♦✇ t❤❛t ✐t ✐s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t✦

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✺✳✼✿ ❢❛❝t♦r✐❛❧s

■♥ ❝♦♥tr❛st✱ t❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ ❢❛st t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❝✐♣r♦❝❛❧s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢❛❝t♦r✐❛❧s
✱

∞
X 1
,
k=1
k!

❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✿

❆s s❤♦✇♥ ✐♥ ❡❛r❧✐❡r ✐♥ t❤✐s ❝❤❛♣t❡r✱ ✐t ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦ e✳

❖♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠♦st ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t s❡r✐❡s ✐s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✳

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✺✳✺✳✽✿ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ s❡r✐❡s

❚❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ♣r♦❞✉❝❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ♣r♦❣r❡ss✐♦♥ an = a · rn ✇✐t❤ r❛t✐♦ r✱
∞
X
ark = a + ar1 + ar2 + ar3 + ar4 + ... + ark + ... ,
k=0

✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ s❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ r❛t✐♦ r✳

❘❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❡ ❢❛❝t ❛❜♦✉t ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ♣r♦❣r❡ss✐♦♥s ❢r♦♠ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶ ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶❉❈✲✶✮✳
✺✳✺✳ ▼❛✐♥ ❝❧❛ss❡s ♦❢ s❡r✐❡s ✸✼✽

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✺✳✾✿ ❈♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ●❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ Pr♦❣r❡ss✐♦♥

❚❤❡ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ♣r♦❣r❡ss✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ r❛t✐♦ r ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ❛♥❞ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐♥❣ ♦♥ t❤❡

✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ r✿ 

 ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s ✐❢ r ≤ −1,

0 ✐❢ |r| < 1,
lim rn =
n→∞ 

 1 ✐❢ r = 1,

+∞ ✐❢ r > 1.

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t t❡❧❧s ✉s ♥♦t❤✐♥❣ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡

♦❢ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✺✳✶✵✿ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝

❚❤❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐♦♥ s❤♦✇♥ ❜❡❧♦✇ ✐s r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡❀ ✐t ❝✉ts ❛ sq✉❛r❡ ✐♥t♦ ❢♦✉r✱ t❛❦❡s t❤❡ ✜rst t❤r❡❡✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥
r❡♣❡❛ts t❤❡ ♣r♦❝❡❞✉r❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❧❛st ♦♥❡✿

❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛s✿

✜rst t✇♦ sq✉❛r❡s t❤✐r❞ sq✉❛r❡ ✜rst t✇♦ sq✉❛r❡s t❤✐r❞ sq✉❛r❡ ...
1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + ...
4 4 4 16 16 16
1 1 1 1
...
2 4 8 16
1 1 1 1
+ + + +... = 1 ?
2 4 8 16
❇❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡② ❛r❡ ❛❧❧ ❝✉t ♦✉t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜✐❣ sq✉❛r❡ ❛♥❞ ❛❧❧ ♣❛rts ♦❢ t❤❡ sq✉❛r❡ ❛r❡ ❝♦✈❡r❡❞✱ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ s✉♠
♠✉st ❜❡ 1✳ Pr♦✈✐❞❡❞ s✉❝❤ ❛ s✉♠ ♠❛❦❡s s❡♥s❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ✜rst ♣❧❛❝❡✦ ❉♦❡s ✐t❄ ❊❛❝❤ st❡♣ ❝r❡❛t❡s t✇♦ t❡r♠s
✐♥ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ s❡r✐❡s✿
n    
X 1 1 1 1 1 ❄
= + + + + ... == 1
k=1
2k 2 4 8 16
❚❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s t❤❡♥ ♠✉st ❜❡ 1✱ ✐❢ ✐t ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ❛ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ s❡r✐❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐♦♥
s✉❣❣❡sts t❤❛t ❛ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ s❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ r❛t✐♦ r = 1/2 ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✳

▲❡t✬s ✐♥✈❡st✐❣❛t❡ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐❛❧ s✉♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ s❡r✐❡s✱

ar0 , ar1 , ar2 , ...arn−1 , arn , ... ,

✺✳✺✳ ▼❛✐♥ ❝❧❛ss❡s ♦❢ s❡r✐❡s ✸✼✾

✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ r❡str✐❝t✐♦♥s✿

r 6= 0, a 6= 0 .
❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♥❡❡❞ ❛♥ ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ s✉♠s ♦❢ t❤✐s s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✿

pn = ar0 + ar1 + ar2 + ... + arn−1 + arn .

❚❤❡ ✏✳✳✳✑ ♣❛rt ✐s ✇❤❛t st❛♥❞s ✐♥ t❤❡ ✇❛②✳

❚❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❝❧❡✈❡r tr✐❝❦ ✭♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ✜rst ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✶✮ s♦❧✈❡s t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠✳ ❇❡❧♦✇✱ ✇❡ ✇r✐t❡ t❤❡ nt❤
♣❛rt✐❛❧ s✉♠ pn ✐♥ t❤❡ ✜rst r♦✇✱ ✐ts ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ rpn ✭❛❧❧ t❡r♠s ❛r❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❡❞ ❜② r✮ ✐♥ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞✱ s✉❜tr❛❝t t❤❡♠✱
❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❝❛♥❝❡❧ t❤❡ t❡r♠s t❤❛t ❛♣♣❡❛r t✇✐❝❡✿

pn = ar0 +ar1 +ar2 +... +arn−1 +arn ❙✉❜tr❛❝t

rpn = ar1 + ar2 + ar3 +... + arn + arn+1

pn − rpn = ar0 − ar1 +ar1 − ar2 +ar2 − ar3 +... +arn−1 − arn +arn − arn+1
= ar0 −arn+1 .

❚❤❡ ✏✳✳✳✑ ♣❛rt ✐s ❣♦♥❡✦ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱

pn (1 − r) = a − arn+1 .
❚❤✉s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛♥ ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ nt❤ t❡r♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐❛❧ s✉♠✿

1 − rn+1
pn = a .
1−r

▲❡t✬s ♥♦t❡ t❤❛t t❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ ❛ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ♣r♦❣r❡ss✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✿

−ra n a
pn = r + .
1−r 1−r
❲❡ t❤❡♥ ❤❛✈❡ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r❡st✐♥❣ ♠❛t❝❤✿

❚❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ s✉♠s ❚❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧

♦❢ ❛ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ♣r♦❣r❡ss✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

✐s ❛ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ♣r♦❣r❡ss✐♦♥ ✐s ❛♥ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ r❛t✐♦ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❜❛s❡

♣❧✉s ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳ ♣❧✉s ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳

■t✬s ❡❛s② t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤✐s s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ rn+1 ✐s t❤❡ ♦♥❧② t❡r♠ t❤❛t ♠❛tt❡rs✳ ❚❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❡
❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✺✳✶✶✿ ❙✉♠ ♦❢ ●❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❙❡r✐❡s

❚❤❡ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ s❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ r❛t✐♦ r ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢

|r| < 1 ;

✐♥ t❤❛t ❝❛s❡✱ t❤❡ s✉♠ ✐s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

∞
X a
ark =
k=0
1−r
✺✳✺✳ ▼❛✐♥ ❝❧❛ss❡s ♦❢ s❡r✐❡s ✸✽✵

Pr♦♦❢✳

❲❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐ts✿

n
X
ark = lim pn
n→∞
k=0
1 − rn+1
= lim a
n→∞ 1−r
a
= lim (1 − rn+1 )
1−r  n→∞

a
= 1 − lim rn+1 .
1−r n→∞

❚♦ ✜♥✐s❤✱ ✇❡ ✐♥✈♦❦❡ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ♣r♦❣r❡ss✐♦♥s✳
❚❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ✐s ❝♦♥✜r♠❡❞ ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧❧② ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✺✳✶✷

❊①♣❧❛✐♥ t❤❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ s❡r✐❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ r = 1✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✺✳✶✸✿ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ s❡r✐❡s

❲❡ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ s❡r✐❡s ✜rst t❡r♠ a r❛t✐♦ r s✉♠

1 1 1 1 1
1+ + + + ... 1 =2
2 4 8 2 1 − 1/2
1 1 1 1 1 3
1+ + + + ... 1 =
3 9 27 3 1 − 1/3 2
1 1 1 1 1 2
1 − + − + ... 1 − =
2 4 8 2 1 + 1/2 3
1 + 1.1 + 1.12 + 1.13 + ... 1 1.1 ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s
1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + ... 1 −1 ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s

❚❤✐s ♣♦✇❡r❢✉❧ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ✇✐❧❧ ❛❧s♦ ❛❧❧♦✇ ✉s t♦ st✉❞② ♦t❤❡r s❡r✐❡s ❜② ❝♦♠♣❛r✐♥❣ t❤❡♠ t♦ ❛ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ s❡r✐❡s✳
✺✳✺✳ ▼❛✐♥ ❝❧❛ss❡s ♦❢ s❡r✐❡s ✸✽✶

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✺✳✶✹✿ ❩❡♥♦✬s ♣❛r❛❞♦①

❘❡❝❛❧❧ ❛ s✐♠♣❧❡ s❝❡♥❛r✐♦ ✭❢r♦♠ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷❉❈✲✶✮✿ ❆s ②♦✉ ✇❛❧❦ t♦✇❛r❞ ❛ ✇❛❧❧✱ ②♦✉ ❝❛♥ ♥❡✈❡r r❡❛❝❤ ✐t
❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ♦♥❝❡ ②♦✉✬✈❡ ❝♦✈❡r❡❞ ❤❛❧❢ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s st✐❧❧ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❧❡❢t✱ ❡t❝✳ ■t ✇✐❧❧ t❛❦❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧②
♠❛♥② st❡♣s t♦ r❡❛❝❤ t❤❡ ✇❛❧❧✿

❲❡ ♥♦✇ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡s ✐s 1 ❛s ❛ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ s❡r✐❡s✿

1 1 1 1
+ + + + ... = 1 .
1 2 4 8
❇✉t ✇❡ ❦♥❡✇ t❤❛t✦ ❲❤❛t r❡s♦❧✈❡s t❤❡ ♣❛r❛❞♦① ✐s t❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t t❤❡ t✐♠❡
♣❡r✐♦❞s ❛❧s♦ ❢♦r♠ ❛ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝
s❡r✐❡s✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ v ✐s t❤❡ s♣❡❡❞ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❡rs♦♥✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ t✐♠❡ ♣❡r✐♦❞s ❛r❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ❛s t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ♦✈❡r
t❤❡ s♣❡❡❞✿
1 1 1
/v, /v, /v, ...
2 4 8
❚❤✐s ✐s ❛ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✇✐t❤✿
1
a= , r = 1/2 .
2v
■ts s✉♠ ✐s ❢♦✉♥❞ ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✿
11 11 11 1
+ + + ... = .
2v 4v 8v v
❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ ❧♦♥❣ ✐t t❛❦❡s✳ ❙♦✱ ❡✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ ✐t t❛❦❡s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② st❡♣s t♦ r❡❛❝❤ t❤❡ ✇❛❧❧✱ t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ✐t
t❛❦❡s ✐s♥✬t ✐♥✜♥✐t❡✦

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✺✳✶✺✿ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧s

▲❡t✬s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r 0.44444... ❛s ❛ s❡r✐❡s✳ ■❢ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❞❡♠♦♥str❛t❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡✱ t❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t ✇❡
❤❛✈❡✿
0.4444... = 0.4 +0.04 +0.004 +0.0004 +...
= 4 · 0.1 +4 · 0.04 +4 · 0.004 +4 · 0.0004 +...
= 4 · 10−1 +4 · 10−2 +4 · 10−3 +4 · 10−4 +...
❚❤✐s ✐s ❛ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ s❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ✜rst t❡r♠ a = .4 ❛♥❞ t❤❡ r❛t✐♦ r = 0.1 < 1✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✐t ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s
❜② t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ t♦ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿
n n
X
n
X a 0.4 4
0.4 · 0.1 = arn = = = .
i=0 i=0
1−r 1 − 0.1 9
✺✳✺✳ ▼❛✐♥ ❝❧❛ss❡s ♦❢ s❡r✐❡s ✸✽✷

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✺✳✶✻

❯s❡ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ t♦ s❤♦✇ t❤❛t ❢♦r ❛♥② ❞✐❣✐t d ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥✿
d
.dddd... = .
9

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✺✳✶✼✿ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝

❍❡r❡ ✐s ❛♥♦t❤❡r ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ s❡r✐❡s✿

■♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ ✜♥❞✐♥❣ t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ ❛ s❡r✐❡s ❛s ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r✱ ✇❡ ❛r❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝✐♥❣ ❛ s❡r✐❡s ❢r♦♠ ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r✳

❲❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ ❛ s✐♠♣❧❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❛t✐♦♥✿

3 1 1
1= + = (3 + 1) .
4 4 4
❲❡ r❡♣❧❛❝❡ 1 ✇✐t❤ t❤✐s ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ❛❧s♦ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s 1✱ t♦ ❜❡ r❡♣❧❛❝❡❞ ✇✐t❤ t❤✐s ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ ❛❣❛✐♥✱
❡t❝✳ ❚❤✐s ✇❛②✱ ✐♥ ❝♦♥tr❛st t♦ ❛❧❧ ♦t❤❡r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s✱ ✇❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s✉♠ ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❛❝q✉✐r❡ ❛ s❡r✐❡s ❢♦r
✐t✿
1 3 1
1 = (3 + 1) = +
4 4 4
1 3 1
= (3 + 1) = + ·1
4 4 4
 
1 1
3 1 3 1
= 3 + (3 + 1) = + +
4 4 4 4 4 4
1 1
3 3 1
= 3 + (3 + 1) = + 2 + 2 ·1
4 4 ! 4 4 4
 
1 1 1
3 3 1 3 1
= 3 + 3 + (3 + 1) = + 2 + 2 +
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

= ...
∞
X 3
= .
n=1
4n
❚❤✐s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ♠❛❦❡s s❡♥s❡✱ t❤❛♥❦s t♦ t❤❡ ❧❛st t❤❡♦r❡♠✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✺✳✶✽✿ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s

▲❡t✬s ♥♦t ❢♦r❣❡t ✇❤② ✇❡ ❛r❡ ❞♦✐♥❣ t❤✐s✳ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r ✭❛♥❞ t❤❡ s✐♠♣❧❡st✮ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s✿
1 + x + x2 + x3 + ...
■t ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ❢♦r x = 0 ❛♥❞ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s ❢♦r x = 2✳ ❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ ♠♦r❡ ♥♦✇✳ ❋♦r ❡❛❝❤ x✱ t❤✐s ✐s ❛ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝
s❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ r❛t✐♦ r = x✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✐t ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② x t❤❛t s❛t✐s✜❡s |x| < 1✳ ❚❤❡ s✉♠ ✐s ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r✱
❛♥❞ t❤✐s ♥✉♠❜❡r ✐s t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛t x✳ ❚❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ (−1, 1) ✐s t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
❞❡✜♥❡❞ t❤✐s ✇❛②✳ ❚❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❡✈❡♥ ♣r♦✈✐❞❡s ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿
1
1 + x + x2 + x3 + ... = .
1−x
✺✳✺✳ ▼❛✐♥ ❝❧❛ss❡s ♦❢ s❡r✐❡s ✸✽✸

❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❤❡r❡ ✐s ❝❧❡❛r❀ ✐t✬s t❤❡✐r ❞♦♠❛✐♥s✳ ❚❤❡ ♣❛rt✐❛❧ s✉♠s ♦❢
t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ❛r❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s t❤❛t ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

❚❤❡ ♠✐s♠❛t❝❤ ✐s ✈✐s✐❜❧❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ❛s t❤❡ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ❢❛✐❧s t♦ ✐♠♣r♦✈❡ ♦✉ts✐❞❡ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ (−1, 1)✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✺✳✶✾

❈♦♥✜r♠ t❤❛t t❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✺✳✷✵

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ s✉♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ❣❡♥❡r❛t❡❞ ❜② ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ♦r s❤♦✇ t❤❛t ✐t ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❡①✐st✿
✶✳ 1/1, 1/3, 1/5, 1/7, 1/9, 1/11, 1/13, ...
✷✳ 1/0.9, 1/0.99, 1/0.999, 1/0.9999, ...
✸✳ 1, −1, 1, −1, ...
✹✳ 1, −1/2, 1/4, −1/8, ...
✺✳ 1, 1/4, 1/16 , 1/64, ...

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✺✳✷✶✿ t❡❧❡s❝♦♣✐♥❣ s❡r✐❡s

❲❤❡♥ ❛ s❡r✐❡s ✐s♥✬t ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝✱ ✐t ♠✐❣❤t st✐❧❧ ❜❡ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ t♦ s✐♠♣❧✐❢② t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐❛❧ s✉♠s ✈✐❛ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ tr✐❝❦s
❛♥❞ ✜♥❞ ✐ts s✉♠✿
∞ ∞  
X 1 X 1 1
= −
k=1
k(k + 1) k=1
k k+1
n  
X 1 1
= lim −
n→∞
k=1
k k+1
     
1 1 1 1 1
= lim 1− + − + ... + −
n→∞
 2 2 
 3  n n +1  
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= lim 1 + − + + − + + ... + − + −
n→∞
 2 2 3 3 n n n+1
1
= lim 1 −
n→∞ n+1
= 1.
✺✳✻✳ ❋r♦♠ ✜♥✐t❡ s✉♠s ✈✐❛ ❧✐♠✐ts t♦ s❡r✐❡s ✸✽✹

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✺✳✷✷

❊①♣❧❛✐♥ ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❛♥❞ ✇❤② ✐t ♠❛tt❡rs✿
∞ ∞  
X 1 X 1 1
= −
k=1
k(k + 1) k=1
k k+1
     
1 1 1 1 1
= 1− + − + ... + − + ...
2 2 
 3  n n +1 
1 1 1 1 1 1
=1+ − + + − + + ... + − + + ...
2 2 3 3 n n
= 1.

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✺✳✷✸

❯s❡ t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ tr✐❝❦ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ t♦ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤✐s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✿
Z
1
dx .
x(x + 1)

❚❤❡ ●❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❙❡r✐❡s ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ❛s ✇❡❧❧ ❛s ♦t❤❡r t❤❡♦r❡♠s ❛❜♦✉t ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ s❡r✐❡s ♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇✱
❛❧❧♦✇s ✉s t♦ ❜❡ ❜♦❧❞❡r ✇✐t❤ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s t❤❛t ✐♥✈♦❧✈❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② st❡♣s✳

✺✳✻✳ ❋r♦♠ ✜♥✐t❡ s✉♠s ✈✐❛ ❧✐♠✐ts t♦ s❡r✐❡s

▲❡t✬s r❡♠❡♠❜❡r t❤❛t✱ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧❧②✱

◮ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♥♦ s❡r✐❡s✳
❆ s❡r✐❡s ✐s s❤♦rt❤❛♥❞ ❢♦r ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❞♦ ✇✐t❤ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳ ❆ s❡r✐❡s ✐s✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ❛❧✇❛②s ❛ ♣❛✐r ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✿

❲❤❛t ✇❡ ❞♦ ✐s r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ ❛♥❞✱ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡✱ ✐♥✈♦❧✈❡s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② st❡♣s✳
❆t t❤❡ ♥❡①t st❛❣❡✱ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ t❛❦❡s ♦✈❡r ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s st❛rt t♦ ❜❡ tr❡❛t❡❞ ❛s ❡♥t✐t✐❡s✿
❙❡r✐❡s

∞
X
ak ✐s t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ♣❛rt✐❛❧ s✉♠s ♦❢ ak .
k=m

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✻✳✶

❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t ❡✈❡r② s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ s✉♠s ♦❢ s♦♠❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳ ❍✐♥t✿ ❯s❡ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❝♦♥✲
str✉❝t✐♦♥✿
an+1 = ∆pn = pn+1 − pn .
✺✳✻✳ ❋r♦♠ ✜♥✐t❡ s✉♠s ✈✐❛ ❧✐♠✐ts t♦ s❡r✐❡s ✸✽✺

■♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶ ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✶✮ ✇❡ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝❡❞ ✜♥✐t❡ s✉♠s✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ s✉♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ t❡r♠s ♦❢ ❛ ❣✐✈❡♥ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ an ♦✈❡r
❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [a, b] ♦❢ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ k✿
q
X
ak = ap + ap+1 + ... + aq ,
k=p

❛♥❞ t❤❡✐r ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s✳ ❲❡ ✉s❡❞ t❤♦s❡ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s t♦ st✉❞② t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶❀ t❤❡s❡ s✉♠s ❛r❡
t❤❡ ❛r❡❛s ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ t❤❡ st❡♣✲❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♣r♦❞✉❝❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✳ ◆♦✇ ✇❡ ❥✉st ♥❡❡❞ t♦ tr❛♥s✐t✐♦♥
t♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ s✉♠s ✈✐❛ ❧✐♠✐ts✳
❆s ❛ ♠❛tt❡r ♦❢ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♦❢t❡♥ ♦♠✐t t❤❡ ❜♦✉♥❞s ✐♥ t❤❡ s✐❣♠❛ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r s❡r✐❡s✿
❙✐❣♠❛ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥

∞
X X
ak ✐s r❡♣❧❛❝❡❞ ✇✐t❤ ak
k=m

❚❤❡ r❡❛s♦♥ ✐s ✇❤② t❤✐s ✐s ❛❝❝❡♣t❛❜❧❡ ✐s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✳ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ✜♥✐t❡ s✉♠s✿
n
X n
X
uk ❛♥❞ uk .
k=a k=b

❚❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡♠ ✐s ❥✉st ❛ ✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② t❡r♠s ❛♥❞✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡② ❡✐t❤❡r ❜♦t❤ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ ♦r ❜♦t❤
❞✐✈❡r❣❡✱ ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ❚r✉♥❝❛t✐♦♥ Pr✐♥❝✐♣❧❡ ❢r♦♠ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✷ ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷❉❈✲✶✮✳
❚❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧❧② ❛♣♣r♦♣r✐❛t❡ ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ❤♦♣❡ ♦❢ ✜♥❞✐♥❣ t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s✳ ■♥ t❤❛t ❝❛s❡✱
✇❡ ❢❛❝❡ ❛ s✐♠♣❧❡ ❞✐❝❤♦t♦♠②✿
• ✐t ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✱ ♦r
• ✐t ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s✳
◆❡①t✱ ✇❡ ♣r♦✈❡ s❡✈❡r❛❧ t❤❡♦r❡♠s ❛❜♦✉t ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ s❡r✐❡s✳ ❚❤❡② ❛❧❧ ❢♦❧❧♦✇ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ✐❞❡❛✿
◮ ■❢ ❛♥ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❡①✐sts ❢♦r ✜♥✐t❡ s✉♠s✱ t❤❡♥ t❤✐s r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ r❡♠❛✐♥s ✈❛❧✐❞ ❢♦r ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ s✉♠s✱
✐✳❡✳✱ s❡r✐❡s✱ ♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞ t❤❡② ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡✳
❋✐rst✱ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s✳
■❢ t✇♦ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛r❡ ❝♦♠♣❛r❛❜❧❡✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ❛r❡ t❤❡✐r s✉♠s✿
✺✳✻✳ ❋r♦♠ ✜♥✐t❡ s✉♠s ✈✐❛ ❧✐♠✐ts t♦ s❡r✐❡s ✸✽✻

■♥ ❢❛❝t✱ t❤✐s s✐♠♣❧❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ t❡❧❧s t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ st♦r②✿

u ≤ U
❆❞❞ t❤❡ t✇♦ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t✐❡s ♣r♦❞✉❝✐♥❣ t❤❡ t❤✐r❞✿ v ≤ V
u+v ≤ U +V

❚❤❡ ♦♥❧② ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ✐s t❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ♠♦r❡ t❤❛♥ ❥✉st t✇♦ t❡r♠s✿

up ≤ Up
up+1 ≤ Up+1
... ... ...
❆❞❞ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t✐❡s ♣r♦❞✉❝✐♥❣ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ ♦♥❡✿ uq ≤ Uq
up + ... + uq ≤ Up + ... + Uq
q q
X X
un ≤ Un
n=p n=p

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❙✉♠s ♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶ ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✶✮ t❤❛t ✇❛s ✉s❡❞ t♦ st✉❞②
❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶✳ ❩♦♦♠✐♥❣ ♦✉t ❤❡❧♣s ✉s s❡❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱
♦r ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ ❛❧✇❛②s ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s ❛ ❧❛r❣❡r ❛r❡❛ ✉♥❞❡r ✐ts ❣r❛♣❤✿

❚❛❦✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t q → ∞ ❛❧❧♦✇s ✉s t♦ ♠❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ❜❛s❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r
▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✳
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✻✳✷✿ ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❙❡r✐❡s

❆♥ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t② ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ t❡r♠s ♦❢ t✇♦ s❡r✐❡s ❤♦❧❞s ❢♦r t❤❡✐r

s✉♠s t♦♦✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ s✉♣♣♦s❡ un ❛♥❞ Un ❛r❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛❧s♦ t❤❛t ❡✐t❤❡r ♦❢

t❤❡ t✇♦ s❡r✐❡s t❤❡② ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✳ ❚❤❡♥✿

X X
un ≤ Un =⇒ un ≤ Un .
✺✳✻✳ ❋r♦♠ ✜♥✐t❡ s✉♠s ✈✐❛ ❧✐♠✐ts t♦ s❡r✐❡s ✸✽✼

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✻✳✸✿ ❝♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝

❚❤❡ s❡r✐❡s
∞
X 1
n=1
2n −1
✐s♥✬t ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝✳✳✳ ❜✉t ❝❧♦s❡✳ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤✐s ♦❜✈✐♦✉s ❢❛❝t✿

1 1
2n − 1 ≤ 2n =⇒ ≥ n.
2n −1 2
❚❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ♣r♦❞✉❝❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦ 1✳ ■t ❢♦❧❧♦✇s ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠

t❤❛t
∞
X 1
≥ 1,
n=1
2n −1
✐❢ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❡st❛❜❧✐s❤ t❤❛t t❤✐s s❡r✐❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✳

❆ r❡❧❛t❡❞ r❡s✉❧t ✐s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✻✳✹✿ ❙tr✐❝t ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❙❡r✐❡s

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ un ❛♥❞ Un ❛r❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛❧s♦ t❤❛t ❡✐t❤❡r ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ s❡r✐❡s

t❤❡② ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✳ ❚❤❡♥✿

X X
un < Un =⇒ un < Un .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✻✳✺

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✳

◆♦✇ t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s✳

❚❤❡ ♣✐❝t✉r❡ ❜❡❧♦✇ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡s t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ ❛❞❞✐♥❣ t✇♦ s❡r✐❡s✿

■♥ ❢❛❝t✱ t❤✐s s✐♠♣❧❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✱ t❤❡ ❆ss♦❝✐❛t✐✈❡ Pr♦♣❡rt②✱ t❡❧❧s t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ st♦r②✿
u + U
+
❘❡✲❛rr❛♥❣❡ t❤❡ t❡r♠s✿
v + V
= (u + v) + (U + V )
✺✳✻✳ ❋r♦♠ ✜♥✐t❡ s✉♠s ✈✐❛ ❧✐♠✐ts t♦ s❡r✐❡s ✸✽✽

❚❤❡ ♦♥❧② ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ✐s t❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ♠♦r❡ t❤❛♥ ❥✉st t✇♦ t❡r♠s✿

up + Up
up+1 + Up+1
... ... ...
uq + Uq
❘❡✲❛rr❛♥❣❡ t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t✇♦ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✿
up + ... + uq + Up + ... + Uq
= (up + Up )+ ... +(uq + Uq )
q
X
= (un + Un )
n=p

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❙✉♠s ✇❡ s❛✇ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶ ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✶✮✳ ❚❛❦✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t q → ∞ ❛❧❧♦✇s ✉s t♦
♠❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ❜❛s❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ▲✐♠✐ts✳
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✻✳✻✿ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❙❡r✐❡s

■❢ t✇♦ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t s❡r✐❡s ❛r❡ ❛❞❞❡❞ t❡r♠ ❜② t❡r♠✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡✐r s✉♠s ❛r❡ ❛❞❞❡❞ t♦♦✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ s✉♣♣♦s❡ un ❛♥❞ Un ❛r❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✳ ■❢ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s t❤❡② ♣r♦❞✉❝❡

❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ❞♦❡s t❤❡✐r t❡r♠✲❜②✲t❡r♠ s✉♠✱ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

X X X
(un + Un ) = un + Un .

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✻✳✼✿ ❛❞❞✐♥❣ s❡r✐❡s

❈♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ s✉♠✿

∞  
X 1 e−n
+ .
n=1
2n 3

❚❤✐s s✉♠ ✐s ❛ ❧✐♠✐t✱ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❝❛♥✬t ❛ss✉♠❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r✳ ▲❡t✬s tr② t♦ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡
❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ✿
∞   ∞ ∞
X 1 e−n X❄ 1 X e−n
n
+ == n
+ ❨❡s✱ ❜✉t ♦♥❧② ✐❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ s✉♠s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡✦
n=1
2 3 n=1
2 n=1
3
∞  n ∞
X 1 X 1 −1
n
= + e ❉♦ t❤❡②❄
n=1
2 n=1
3

❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t✇♦ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ s❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ r❛t✐♦s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✱ 1/2 ❛♥❞ 1/e✳ ❇♦t❤ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❛r❡
s♠❛❧❧❡r t❤❛♥ 1 ❛♥❞✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ❡✐t❤❡r s❡r✐❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✦ ❚❤✐s ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ❥✉st✐✜❡s ♦✉r ✉s❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❙✉♠
❘✉❧❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ t❤❛t ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
∞   ∞  n ∞
X 1 e−n X 1 X 1 −1
n
n
+ = + e
n=1
2 3 n=1
2 n=1
3
1/2 1/3
= + . ❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r✦
1 − 1/2 1 − 1/e

❲❡ ✉s❡❞ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✱ a

1−r
✱ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥✳

❚❤❡ ♣✐❝t✉r❡ ❜❡❧♦✇ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡s t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❡r♠s ♦❢ ❛ s❡r✐❡s✿
✺✳✻✳ ❋r♦♠ ✜♥✐t❡ s✉♠s ✈✐❛ ❧✐♠✐ts t♦ s❡r✐❡s ✸✽✾

■♥ ❢❛❝t✱ t❤✐s s✐♠♣❧❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✱ t❤❡ ❉✐str✐❜✉t✐✈❡ Pr♦♣❡rt②✱ t❡❧❧s t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ st♦r②✿

k·( u + U)
❋❛❝t♦r ♦✉t✿
= ku + kU

❚❤❡ ♦♥❧② ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ✐s t❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ♠♦r❡ t❤❛♥ ❥✉st t✇♦ t❡r♠s✿

k · u,
k · up+1
... ... ...
❋❛❝t♦r ♦✉t✿ k · uq
k · (up + ... + uq )
q
X
=k · un
n=p

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❢♦r ❙✉♠s ✇❡ s❛✇ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✶ ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✶✮✳ ❚❛❦✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t q → ∞
❛❧❧♦✇s ✉s t♦ ♠❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ❜❛s❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❢♦r ▲✐♠✐ts✳
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✻✳✽✿ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❙❡r✐❡s

■❢ ❛ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t s❡r✐❡s ✐s ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❡❞ ❜② ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r t❡r♠ ❜② t❡r♠✱ t❤❡♥ ✐ts s✉♠ ✐s

♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❡❞ ❜② t❤❛t ♥✉♠❜❡r t♦♦✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ s✉♣♣♦s❡ un ✐s ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❛♥❞ k ✐s ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r✳ ■❢ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s

❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ❞♦❡s ✐ts t❡r♠✲❜②✲t❡r♠ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡✱ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

X X
(k · un ) = k · un .
✺✳✻✳ ❋r♦♠ ✜♥✐t❡ s✉♠s ✈✐❛ ❧✐♠✐ts t♦ s❡r✐❡s ✸✾✵

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✻✳✾✿ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s

◆♦t❡ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ❛❞❞ t✇♦ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s t❡r♠ ❜② t❡r♠✿
∞
X ∞
X
n
an (x − a) + bn (x − a)n
n=m  n=m
X∞ 
= an (x − a)n + bn (x − a) n

n=m
X∞
= (an + bn )(x − a)n ,
n=m

❢♦r ❡✈❡r② x ❢♦r ✇❤✐❝❤ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡✱ ❝r❡❛t✐♥❣ ❛ ♥❡✇ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s✳ ◆♦t❡ ❛❧s♦ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧②
❛ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s t❡r♠ ❜② t❡r♠✿
∞
X
k· an (x − a)n
n=m
∞
X
= k · an (x − a)n
n=m
X∞
= (kan )(x − a)n ,
n=m

❢♦r ❡✈❡r② x ❢♦r ✇❤✐❝❤ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✱ ❝r❡❛t✐♥❣ ❛ ♥❡✇ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s✳ ❚❤❡② ❜❡❤❛✈❡ ❥✉st ❧✐❦❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦✲
♠✐❛❧s ✦

❏✉st ❛s ✇✐t❤ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s✱ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♥♦ ❞✐r❡❝t ❝♦✉♥t❡r♣❛rts ❢♦r t❤❡ Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡✳
❏✉st ❛s ✇✐t❤ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s✱ t❤❡s❡ r✉❧❡s ❛r❡ s❤♦rt❝✉ts✿ ❚❤❡② ❛❧❧♦✇ ✉s t♦ ❛✈♦✐❞ ❤❛✈✐♥❣ t♦ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ❡✈❡r②
t✐♠❡ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ ❛ s✉♠✳
▲❡t✬s ♠❛❦❡ s✉r❡ t❤❛t ♦✉r ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧ s②st❡♠ ✐s ♦♥ ❛ s♦❧✐❞ ❣r♦✉♥❞✳ ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢

π = 3.14159...?

❚❤❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧ ✐s ✉♥❞❡rst♦♦❞ ❛s ❛♥ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ s✉♠✿

3.14159... = 3 +0.1 +0.04 +0.001 +0.0005 +0.00009 +...

= 3 +1 · 0.1 +4 · 0.01 +1 · 0.001 +5 · 0.0001 +9 · 0.00001 +...
= 3 +1 · 0.11 +4 · 0.12 +1 · 0.13 +5 · 0.14 +9 · 0.15 +...

❚❤❡ ♣♦✇❡r ✐♥❞✐❝❛t❡s t❤❡ ♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐❣✐t ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥✳ ■♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢
✐♥t❡❣❡rs ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ 0 ❛♥❞ 9✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ ❞✐❣✐ts✱ d1 , d2 , ..., dn , ...✳ ■t ✐s ♠❡❛♥t t♦ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❛ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r ✈✐❛ ❛ s❡r✐❡s✿
∞
X
❄
.d1 d2 ...dn ... == dk · (0.1)k .
k=1

❚❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ♣r♦✈❡s t❤❛t s✉❝❤ ❛ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♠❛❦❡s s❡♥s❡✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✻✳✶✵✿ ❉❡❝✐♠❛❧s ❛s ❙❡r✐❡s

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ dk ✐s ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣❡rs ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ 0 ❛♥❞ 9✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s

∞
X
dk · 0.1k = d1 · 0.1 + d2 · 0.01 + d3 · 0.001 + ...
k=1

❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✳
✺✳✻✳ ❋r♦♠ ✜♥✐t❡ s✉♠s ✈✐❛ ❧✐♠✐ts t♦ s❡r✐❡s ✸✾✶

Pr♦♦❢✳

❋✐rst✱ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ♣❛rt✐❛❧ s✉♠s ♦❢ t❤✐s s❡r✐❡s ✐s ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ✿

pn+1 = pn + dn+1 · 0.1n+1 > pn .

■t ✐s ❛❧s♦ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ✿
pn = d1 · 0.1 + d2 · 0.01 + d3 · 0.001 + ... + dn · 0.1n
< 10 · 0.1 + 10 · 0.01 + 10 · 0.001 + ... + 10 · 0.1n
< 10 · 0.1 + 10 · 0.01 + 10 · 0.001 + ... + 10 · 0.1n + ...
1
= ❇❡❝❛✉s❡ ✐t✬s ❛ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ s❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ r = 0.1 .
1 − 0.1
= 9.

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t ❜② t❤❡ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥❡ ❈♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✭❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✷✮✳

❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ❡①♣❧❛✐♥s ✇❤② t❤❡ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥❡ ❈♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✐s ❛❧s♦ ❦♥♦✇♥ ❛s t❤❡ ❈♦♠♣❧❡t❡♥❡ss Pr♦♣❡rt②
♦❢ ❘❡❛❧ ◆✉♠❜❡rs ❀ ❛♥ ✏✐♥❝♦♠♣❧❡t❡✑ r♦♣❡ ✇♦♥✬t ❤❛♥❣✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✻✳✶✶

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❜② ✉s✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❙❡r✐❡s ✐♥st❡❛❞✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✻✳✶✷

❙t❛t❡ ❛♥❞ ♣r♦✈❡ ❛♥ ❛♥❛❧♦❣♦✉s t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦r ❜✐♥❛r② ❛r✐t❤♠❡t✐❝✳

▼♦r❡♦✈❡r✱ t❤❡ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ❛r❡ ❛❧s♦ s✉❜❥❡❝t t♦ t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝
t❤❡♦r❡♠s ❛❜♦✈❡✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✻✳✶✸✿ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦❢ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧s

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❞❞ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧s✿

∞
X
u = .u1 u2 ...un ... = uk · (0.1)k
k=1
∞
X
v = .v1 v2 ...vn ... = vk · (0.1)k
k=1
∞
X
u+v = (uk + vk ) · (0.1)k
k=1
✺✳✼✳ ❉✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ✸✾✷

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧② ❛♥ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧ ❜② ❛♥♦t❤❡r r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡r✿

∞
X
u = .u1 u2 ...un ... = uk · (0.1)k
k=1
∞
X
c·u = c · uk · (0.1)k
k=1

❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❞♦♥✬t t❡❧❧ ✉s t❤❡ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ u + v ✭✉♥❧❡ss un + vn < 10✮ ♦r c · u ✳

✺✳✼✳ ❉✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡

❲❤❛t ✐❢ ✇❡ ❢❛❝❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ✇✐t❤ s❡r✐❡s t❤❛t ❞✐✈❡r❣❡ ❄ ❚❤❡ ❧❛✇s ❛❜♦✈❡ t❡❧❧ ✉s ♥♦t❤✐♥❣✦ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱
t❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ✿ X X X
an , bn ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ =⇒ (an + bn ) ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s❀
❜✉t t❤✐s ✐s♥✬t✿ X X X
an , bn ❞✐✈❡r❣❡ 6=⇒ (an + bn ) ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✼✳✶
❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t t❤✐s st❛t❡♠❡♥t ✇♦✉❧❞ ✐♥❞❡❡❞ ❜❡ ✉♥tr✉❡✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✼✳✷✿ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t ♣❧✉s ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥t

❈♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ s✉♠✿
∞  
X 1 en
+ .
n=1
2n 3

❚❤✐s s✉♠ ✐s ❛ ❧✐♠✐t✱ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❝❛♥✬t ❛ss✉♠❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❛♥s✇❡r ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r✳ ▲❡t✬s tr② t♦ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡
❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡✿
∞   ∞ ∞
X 1 en ❄
X 1 X en
n
+ == n
+ ❨❡s✱ ❜✉t ♦♥❧② ✐❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ s❡r✐❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡✦
n=1
2 3 n=1
2 n=1
3
∞  n ∞
X 1 X 1 n
= + e . ❉♦ t❤❡②❄
n=1
2 n=1
3

❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t✇♦ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ s❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ r❛t✐♦s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✱ 1/2 ❛♥❞ e✳ ❚❤❡ ✜rst ♦♥❡ ✐s s♠❛❧❧❡r
t❤❛♥ 1 ❛♥❞ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✱ ❜✉t t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ♦♥❡ ✐s ❧❛r❣❡r t❤❛♥ 1 ❛♥❞ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s
❞✐✈❡r❣❡s✦ ❚❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❛t ✐t ✐s ✉♥❥✉st✐✜❡❞ t♦ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡✳ ❲❡ ♣❛✉s❡ ❛t t❤✐s ♣♦✐♥t✳✳✳ ❛♥❞
t❤❡♥ tr② t♦ s♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ❜② ♦t❤❡r ♠❡❛♥s✳

❲❡ r❡❝❛❧❧ ❢r♦♠ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷❉❈✲✶ t❤❛t✱ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❧✐♠✐ts✱ ✇❡ ❛❞❤❡r❡ t♦ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ r✉❧❡s ✭k 6= 0✮✿
❆❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦❢ ■♥✜♥✐t✐❡s
♥✉♠❜❡r + (±∞) = ±∞
±∞ + (±∞) = ±∞
k · (±∞) = ± sign(k)∞
✺✳✼✳ ❉✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ✸✾✸

■t ❢♦❧❧♦✇s t❤❛t t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s t♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t②✳

❚❤❡s❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s s✉❣❣❡st t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ r❡s✉❧t ❢♦r s❡r✐❡s✳
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✼✳✸✿ P✉s❤ ❖✉t ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦r ❙❡r✐❡s

✶✳ ■❢ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ❛ s❡r✐❡s ❧✐❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ t❤♦s❡ ♦❢ ❛ s❡r✐❡s t❤❛t ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s t♦ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡
✐♥✜♥✐t②✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ❞♦❡s t❤✐s s❡r✐❡s✳
✷✳ ■❢ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ❛ s❡r✐❡s ❧✐❡ ❜❡❧♦✇ t❤♦s❡ ♦❢ ❛ s❡r✐❡s t❤❛t ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s t♦ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡
✐♥✜♥✐t②✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ❞♦❡s t❤✐s s❡r✐❡s✳
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ s✉♣♣♦s❡ an ❛♥❞ bn ❛r❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❛t✱ ❢♦r ❛♥ ✐♥t❡❣❡r
p✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
an ≥ bn ❢♦r n ≥ p .
❚❤❡♥✿ X X
an = +∞ ⇐= bn = +∞
X X
an = −∞ =⇒ bn = −∞

Pr♦♦❢✳

■t ❢♦❧❧♦✇s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ P✉s❤ ❖✉t ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦r ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✭❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✷✮✳
❙♦✱ t❤❡ s♠❛❧❧❡r s❡r✐❡s✱ ✐❢ ✐t ❣♦❡s t♦ +∞✱ ♣✉s❤❡s t❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡r ♦♥❡ ✉♣✱ t♦ +∞✳ ❆♥❞ t❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡r s❡r✐❡s✱ ✐❢ ✐t ❣♦❡s
t♦ −∞✱ ♣✉s❤❡s t❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡r ♦♥❡ ❞♦✇♥✱ t♦ −∞✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✼✳✹✿ ❝♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤✐s ♦❜✈✐♦✉s ❢❛❝t✿

1 1
≥ .
2 − 1/n 2
■t ❢♦❧❧♦✇s t❤❛t ∞
X 1
= ∞.
n=1
2 − 1/n

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✼✳✺

●✐✈❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ♦❢ s❡r✐❡s t❤❛t s❤♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ✐s ✉♥tr✉❡✳

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

◆♦t ❛❧❧ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥t s❡r✐❡s ❞✐✈❡r❣❡ t♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t②✳

❲❡ t✉r♥ t♦ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✼✳✻✿ ❉✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❙✉♠ ♦❢ ❙❡r✐❡s

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ an ❛♥❞ bn ❛r❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

• ❚❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ ❛ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥t s❡r✐❡s ❛♥❞ ❛ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t s❡r✐❡s ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s✿
X X X
an ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s✱ bn ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s =⇒ (an + bn ) ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s✳

• ❋♦r s❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ t❡r♠s✱ t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t✇♦ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥t s❡r✐❡s ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s✿
X X X
an ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s✱ bn ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s =⇒ (an + bn ) ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s✳
✺✳✼✳ ❉✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ✸✾✹

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✼✳✼✿ ❉✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❙❡r✐❡s

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ an ✐s ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t✱ ♥♦♥✲③❡r♦ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥t

s❡r✐❡s ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s✿

X X
an ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s =⇒ kan , k 6= 0 .
❞✐✈❡r❣❡s

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✼✳✽

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡s❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠s✳

❚❤❡ ♣❛tt❡r♥ t❤❛t ✇❡ ♠❛② ❤❛✈❡ ♥♦t✐❝❡❞ ✐s t❤❛t ❝♦♥st❛♥t❧② ❛❞❞✐♥❣ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs t❤❛t ❣r♦✇ ✇✐❧❧ ❣✐✈❡ ②♦✉
✐♥✜♥✐t② ❛t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t✳ ❚❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ✐s✱ ♦❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ tr✉❡ ❢♦r ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳ ❲❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡
❞❡❝r❡❛s❡s❄ ❚❤❡♥ ✐t ❞❡♣❡♥❞s✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ an = 1 + 1/n ❞❡❝r❡❛s❡s ❜✉t t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s st✐❧❧ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s✳ ■t ❛♣♣❡❛rs
t❤❛t t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❛t ❧❡❛st ❞❡❝r❡❛s❡ t♦ ③❡r♦✳
❚❤❡ ❛❝t✉❛❧ r❡s✉❧t ✐s ❝r✉❝✐❛❧✳
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✼✳✾✿ ❉✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ❚❡st ❢♦r ❙❡r✐❡s

■❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ t♦ ③❡r♦✱ ✐ts s✉♠ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

X
an ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s =⇒ an → 0

Pr♦♦❢✳

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ✐♥✈♦❦❡ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✳ ❇✉t ❧❡t✬s t✉r♥ t♦ t❤❡ ❝♦♥tr❛♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ❢♦r♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✿
◮ ■❢ ❛ s❡r✐❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✉♥❞❡r❧②✐♥❣ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦ 0✳
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤✐s✿
n
X
lim ak = P =⇒ lim an = 0 ,
n→∞ n→∞
k=1

✇❤❡r❡ P ✐s s♦♠❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r✳ ❖r✱ ❢♦r t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ♣❛rt✐❛❧ s✉♠s pn ✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❞❡♠♦♥str❛t❡ t❤✐s✿
lim pn = P =⇒ lim an = 0 .
n→∞ n→∞

❘❡❝❛❧❧ t❤❡ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❢♦r t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ s✉♠s ♦❢ an ✿

pn+1 = pn + an ,

❛♥❞✱ ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣❧②✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ❛s t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ pn ✿

an = pn − pn−1 .

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱

lim an = lim (pn − pn−1 ) ❇♦t❤ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡✱ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❛♣♣❧②✳✳✳

n→∞ n→∞
= lim pn − lim pn−1 ✳✳✳t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✳
n→∞ n→∞
=P −P ❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ✐t✬s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳
= 0.
✺✳✽✳ ❙❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ t❡r♠s ✸✾✺

❚❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ✐s ✉♥tr✉❡ ❛s ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ s❡❡♥ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❤❛r♠♦♥✐❝ s❡r✐❡s✿
X
an ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s =⇒ an → 0
X
an ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s 6⇐= an → 0

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✼✳✶✵✿ t❡st ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡

❚❤❡ t❡st ✐s ❢♦r ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ❛♥❞ ♥♦t❤✐♥❣ ❡❧s❡✿

  X 
1 1
✶✳ lim 1 + 6= 0 =⇒ 1+ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s✳
n n
X
✷✳ lim sin n 6= 0 =⇒ sin n ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s✳
1
✸✳ lim =0 =⇒ t❡st ❢❛✐❧s✳
n
1
✹✳ lim 2 = 0 =⇒ t❡st ❢❛✐❧s✳
n

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❚❤❡ ❢❛✐❧✉r❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❡st ❞♦❡s♥✬t ♣r♦✈❡ ❛♥②t❤✐♥❣✦

✺✳✽✳ ❙❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ t❡r♠s

❚❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ s✉❝❤ s❡r✐❡s ✐s ❡❛s✐❡r t♦ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡✳

❆❧❧ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ ✐s t❤❡ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥❡ ❈♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢r♦♠ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✷ ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷❉❈✲✶✮✿
◮ ❊✈❡r② ♠♦♥♦t♦♥❡ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✳
❖❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ ✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♥♦t ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ t♦ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❜✉t r❛t❤❡r t♦ ✐ts s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ s✉♠s✦ ■♥❞❡❡❞✱ ✐❢ t❤❡
♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ an ❤❛s ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ t❡r♠s✿ an > 0✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ s✉♠s ✐s ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ✿

pn+1 = pn + an+1 ≥ pn .

■❢ t❤❡ ❉✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ❚❡st ✐s ❛❧s♦ s❛t✐s✜❡❞✱ t❤❡ ♣❛✐r ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❛♥❞ ✐ts s✉♠s ✇✐❧❧ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❧♦♦❦ ❥✉st ❧✐❦❡ t❤❡
❣❡♥❡r✐❝ ✐❧❧✉str❛t✐♦♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❜❡❡♥ ✉s✐♥❣✿

❆ ❣♦♦❞ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ✐s t❤❡ ❤❛r♠♦♥✐❝ s❡r✐❡s ❜❡❧♦✇✿

✺✳✽✳ ❙❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ t❡r♠s ✸✾✻

X
❙♦✱ ✐❢ s✉❝❤ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❛❧s♦ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞✱ ✐t ✐s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ s✉❝❤ ❛ s❡r✐❡s ❝❛♥✬t ❥✉st ❞✐✈❡r❣❡✱ ❛s sin n
❞♦❡s❀ ✐t ❤❛s t♦ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡ t♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t②✳
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✽✳✶✿ ◆♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ❙❡r✐❡s
X
❋♦r ❛ s❡r✐❡s an ✇✐t❤ ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ t❡r♠s✱ an ≥ 0✱ t❤❡r❡ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ♦♥❧② ❤❛✈❡ t✇♦
♦✉t❝♦♠❡s✿
• ✐t ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✱ ♦r
• ✐t ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s t♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t②✳

❚❤✐s ♦❜s❡r✈❛t✐♦♥ s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛♥t❧② s✐♠♣❧✐✜❡s t❤✐♥❣s❀ t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ✐s ❡✐t❤❡r✿
• ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r✱ ♦r
• t❤❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t②✳
❚❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ♦♣t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ♦♣t✐♦♥ ❛r❡ ♦❢t❡♥ ✇r✐tt❡♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ✇❤❡♥❡✈❡r t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢
t❤❡ s✉♠ ✐s ♥♦t ❜❡✐♥❣ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❡❞✿
❙✉♠ ♦❢ s❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ t❡r♠s

X X
an = ∞ ♦r an < ∞

▼❛♥② t❤❡♦r❡♠s ✐♥ t❤❡ r❡st ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❤❛♣t❡r ✇✐❧❧ ♦♥❧② t❡❧❧ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✳✳✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✽✳✷✿ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡

❙✐♥❝❡  
(−1)n
lim 1 + = 1 6= 0 ,
n
t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s
X (−1)n

1+ ,
n
❢❛✐❧s t❤❡ ❉✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ❚❡st ❛♥❞✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s✳ ▼♦r❡♦✈❡r✱
X (−1)n

1+ = ∞.
n

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✽✳✸

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❤❛r♠♦♥✐❝ s❡r✐❡s ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s ❜② ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t❤✐s ♦❜s❡r✈❛t✐♦♥✿ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ k ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❡ t❡r♠s✱
1 1 1 1 k 1
, , ..., ✱ t❤❡② ❛r❡ ❛❧❧ ≥ ✱ s♦ t❤❡✐r s✉♠ ✐s ≥ = ✳
k+1 k+2 2k 2k 2k 2

❲❡ ♥♦✇ ❛❞❞r❡ss t❤❡ ✐ss✉❡ ♦❢ s❡r✐❡s ✈s✳ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ♦✈❡r ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥s✳
✺✳✽✳ ❙❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ t❡r♠s ✸✾✼

❇♦t❤ ❛r❡ ❧✐♠✐ts✿

Z ∞ Z b
f (x) dx = lim f (x) dx
1 b→∞ 1
∞
X n
X
ai = lim ai
n→∞
i=1 i=1

❆♥❞ t❤❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥ ♠❛t❝❤❡s t♦♦✳

◆♦t ♦♥❧② t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❜✉t ❛❧s♦ t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t r❡♣r❡s❡♥t ❛r❡❛s ✉♥❞❡r ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ ❝❡rt❛✐♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❞❡✜♥❡❞
♦♥ ✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✳ ❇♦t❤ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t ❛r❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ❛s ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦♥❡s ♦♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✿

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❝♦♥❥❡❝t✉r❡ ♥♦✇ t❤❛t ✐❢ f ❛♥❞ an ❛r❡ r❡❧❛t❡❞✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡s❡ ❧✐♠✐ts✱ t❤♦✉❣❤ ♥♦t ❡q✉❛❧✱ ♠❛② ❜❡ r❡❧❛t❡❞ t♦♦✳
❚❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♠❛② ❝♦♠❡ ❢r♦♠ s❛♠♣❧✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

an = f (n), n = 1, 2, 3, ...

▲✐❦❡ t❤✐s✿

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✽✳✹✿ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✈s✳ s✉♠s

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤✐s ♣❛✐r✿

f (x) = e−x ❛♥❞ an = e−n .
❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ❄ ❇♦t❤ ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛s
♦❢ ❝❡rt❛✐♥ r❡❣✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ♣❧❛❝❡ ♦♥❡ ❜❡❧♦✇ ♦r ❛❜♦✈❡ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r✿
✺✳✽✳ ❙❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ t❡r♠s ✸✾✽

❚❤❡ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✐s ❡❛s② t♦ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡✿

Z ∞ Z b
−x
e dx = lim e−x dx = lim −(e−b − e1 ) = e .
1 b→∞ 1 b→∞

▼❡❛♥✇❤✐❧❡✱ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ✐s ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ✇✐t❤ r = 1/e✿

∞
X 1/e
e−n = .
n=1
1 − 1/e

❇♦t❤ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡✦

❆ ♠♦r❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ r❡s✉❧t ✐s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✳ ❚❤❡② ❡✐t❤❡r ❜♦t❤ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ ♦r ❜♦t❤ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡ ✭t♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t②✮ ❢♦r ❛♥② a > 0✿
• t❤❡ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ❜❛s❡ 1/a ♦✈❡r [1, ∞) ❛♥❞

• t❤❡ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ s❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ r❛t✐♦ 1/a✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
Z ∞ ∞
X
−x
a dx < ∞ ⇐⇒ a−n < ∞ .
1 n=1

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✽✳✺

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ st❛t❡♠❡♥t✳

❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♥♦✇ tr② t♦ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ t♦ ❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ s❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ t❡r♠s ✐❢ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ♠❛t❝❤ ✐t ✇✐t❤ ❛♥
✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✳ ❚❤❡ ❤♦♣❡ ✐s t❤❛t ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❤❛♥❞❧❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ❜❡tt❡r ✕ ✇✐t❤ ❛❧❧ t❤❡ t♦♦❧s ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷ ✕ t❤❛♥
t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s✳

❋✐rst✱ ✇❡ ♠✐❣❤t ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r t❤❛t ♦✉r s❡r✐❡s ✐s ✏❞♦♠✐♥❛t❡❞✑ ❜② ❛ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✿

∞
X Z ∞
an ≤ f (x) dx < ∞ .
k=1 1

❚❤❡ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥ ✐s s❛t✐s✜❡❞ ✇❤❡♥✿

an ≤ f (x) ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② x ✐♥ [n, n + 1] .

✺✳✽✳ ❙❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ t❡r♠s ✸✾✾

❖r✱ ✇❡ ♠✐❣❤t ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r t❤❛t ♦✉r s❡r✐❡s ✏❞♦♠✐♥❛t❡s✑ ❛ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥t ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✿

∞
X Z ∞
an ≥ f (x) dx = ∞ .
k=1 1

❚❤❡ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥ ✐s s❛t✐s✜❡❞ ✇❤❡♥✿

an ≥ f (x) ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② x ✐♥ [n, n + 1] .

❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛ ✇❛② t♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s ✐♥t♦ ♦♥❡✳ ❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ✐s t♦ ✏sq✉❡❡③❡✑ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t✇♦
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❇✉t ✇❤❡r❡ ❞♦❡s t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❝♦♠❡ ❢r♦♠❄ ❲❡ s❤✐❢t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f t♦ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t ❜② 1 ✉♥✐t ✐♥
♦r❞❡r t♦ ♣✉t ✐t ❛❜♦✈❡ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✿
f (x) ≤ an ≤ f (x − 1) .
❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ♠❛✐♥ ✐❞❡❛✿

❚❤❡ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s t❤❛t ♠❛❦❡ s✉r❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ♣✐❝t✉r❡ ✐s ❥✉st✐✜❡❞ ❛r❡ ❧✐st❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✽✳✻✿ ■♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❚❡st

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❛t ♦♥ [1, ∞)✱

✶✳ f ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❀
✷✳ f ✐s ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣❀
✸✳ f ✐s ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡✳
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛❧s♦ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✿

an = f (n), n = 1, 2, ...

❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ❜❡❧♦✇✱

Z ∞ ∞
X
f (x) dx ❛♥❞ an ,
1 n=1

❡✐t❤❡r ❜♦t❤ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ ♦r ❜♦t❤ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡ ✭t♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t②✮❀ ✐✳❡✳✱

Z ∞ ∞
X
f (x) dx < ∞ ⇐⇒ an < ∞ .
1 n=1

Pr♦♦❢✳

❋r♦♠ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❛t ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② n = 2, 3, ... ❛♥❞ ❛❧❧ n ≤ x ≤ n + 1✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡

f (x) ≤ an ≤ f (x − 1) .

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
Z n+1 Z n+1
f (x) dx ≤ an ≤ f (x − 1) dx ,
n n
✺✳✽✳ ❙❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ t❡r♠s ✹✵✵

♦r✱ ❛❢t❡r ❛ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ r✐❣❤t✱

Z n+1 Z n
f (x) dx ≤ an ≤ f (x) dx .
n n−1

❆❞❞✐♥❣ ❛❧❧ t❤❡s❡ ❢♦r n = 2, 3, 4, ...✱ ✇❡ ♦❜t❛✐♥✿

Z ∞ ∞
X Z ∞
f (x) dx ≤ an ≤ f (x) dx .
2 n=2 1

◆♦✇✱ ❡✐t❤❡r ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤✐s t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦❧❧♦✇s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ♣❛rt ♦❢ t❤❡ ◆♦♥✲
♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ❙❡r✐❡s ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛❜♦✈❡✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ♠❛✐♥ st❡♣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✽✳✼

❉❡♠♦♥str❛t❡ t❤❛t ♥♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤r❡❡ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❞r♦♣♣❡❞✳

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❚❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❡st✐♠❛t❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ✐♥✲

t❡❣r❛❧s ❜✉t r❡♠❛✐♥s ✉♥❦♥♦✇♥✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✽✳✽✿ ❤❛r♠♦♥✐❝ s❡r✐❡s ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s

❯♥❧✐❦❡ ❛ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ s❡r✐❡s✱ t❤❡ s✉♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❤❛r♠♦♥✐❝ s❡r✐❡s ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❤❛✈❡ ❛♥ ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✳ ❆ ❝♦♠✲

♣❛r✐s♦♥ ✐s✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ♥❡❝❡ss❛r②✳ ❚❤❡ ❤❛r♠♦♥✐❝ s❡r✐❡s ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s ❜❡❝❛✉s❡

Z ∞
1
dx = lim ln x = +∞ .
1 x x→+∞

▼♦r❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ✐s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✳

❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✺✳✽✳✾✿ p✲s❡r✐❡s

❆ p✲s❡r✐❡s✱ ✐✳❡✳✱
X 1
,
np

• ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ✇❤❡♥ p > 1 ❛♥❞

• ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s ✇❤❡♥ 0 < p ≤ 1✳

Pr♦♦❢✳

❖♥❝❡ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❝❤♦s❡♥✿

1
f (x) = ,
xp
✺✳✽✳ ❙❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ t❡r♠s ✹✵✶

t❤❡ r❡st ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ✐s ♣✉r❡❧② ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥❛❧✳ ■♥❞❡❡❞✱

Z ∞ Z ∞
f (x) dx = x−p dx
1 1
 b

 1 
−p+1 
 lim
 x ✐❢ p 6= 1,
b→∞ −p + 1 
=  1

 b
 lim ln x
b→∞ ✐❢ p = 1,
1

1

 lim
b→∞ (b−p+1 − 1−p+1 ) ✐❢ p 6= 1,
−p + 1
= b


 lim (ln b − ln 1)
 ✐❢ p = 1,
b→∞
1

1

 ✐❢ p > 1,
−p + 1

= ∞ ✐❢ p = 1, ❚❤❡ ❤❛r♠♦♥✐❝ s❡r✐❡s✳



∞ ✐❢ p < 1.

❚❤✉s✱ ♥♦t ♦♥❧② t❤❡ ❤❛r♠♦♥✐❝ s❡r✐❡s ❞✐✈❡r❣❡ ❜✉t ✐t ❛❧s♦ s❡♣❛r❛t❡s t❤❡ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥t p✲s❡r✐❡s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t

♦♥❡s✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✽✳✶✵

❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢❛✐❧s ✐❢ ✇❡ ❞r♦♣ t❤❡ ❛ss✉♠♣t✐♦♥ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣✳ ❈❛♥ t❤✐s

❛ss✉♠♣t✐♦♥ ❜❡ ✇❡❛❦❡♥❡❞❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✽✳✶✶

❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢❛✐❧s ✐❢ ✇❡ ❞r♦♣ t❤❡ ❛ss✉♠♣t✐♦♥ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡✳ ❈❛♥ t❤✐s

❛ss✉♠♣t✐♦♥ ❜❡ ✇❡❛❦❡♥❡❞❄
✺✳✾✳ ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ♦❢ s❡r✐❡s ✹✵✷

✺✳✾✳ ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ♦❢ s❡r✐❡s

■♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ♠❛t❝❤❡❞ s❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❞❡r✐✈❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦r ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡
♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ❢r♦♠ t❤❛t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✳ ◆♦✇ ✇❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇ t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛ ❜✉t✱ ✐♥st❡❛❞✱ ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ s❡r✐❡s t♦ ♦t❤❡r s❡r✐❡s✳

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❚❤❡ ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❙❡r✐❡s ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❤❡❧♣ ❤❡r❡

❜❡❝❛✉s❡ ✐t ❛ss✉♠❡s t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❜♦t❤ s❡r✐❡s✳

❚❤❡ ♣❧❛♥ ✐s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

◮ ❈♦♠♣❛r❡ ❛ ♥❡✇ s❡r✐❡s ✭✇✐t❤ ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ t❡r♠s✮ t♦ ❛♥ ♦❧❞ ♦♥❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡✴❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢
✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ❦♥♦✇♥✳

❚❤❡ st❛rt✐♥❣ ♣♦✐♥t ✐s t❤❡ ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❙✉♠s ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✶P❈✲✶✮✿ ❚❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✇✐t❤ s♠❛❧❧❡r
❡❧❡♠❡♥ts ✐s s♠❛❧❧❡r✳ ■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✐❢ an ≤ bn ✱ t❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❢♦r ❛♥② p, q ✇✐t❤ p ≤ q✿
q q
X X
an ≤ bn .
n=p n=p

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ♣❛rt✐❛❧ s✉♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✜rst s❡r✐❡s ✐s ✏❞♦♠✐♥❛t❡❞✑ ❜② t❤❛t ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞✳ ■❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞
❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✱ ✐ts s✉♠ ✐s ❛♥ ✉♣♣❡r ❜♦✉♥❞ ❢♦r t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐❛❧ s✉♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✜rst✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ ✜rst s❡r✐❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦♦
❜② t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥✳

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ ♠❛✐♥ r❡s✉❧t✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✾✳✶✿ ❉✐r❡❝t ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❚❡st ❢♦r ❙❡r✐❡s

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t✇♦ s❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ t❡r♠s t❤❛t s❛t✐s❢② t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

0 ≤ an ≤ bn ,

❢♦r ❛❧❧ n✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡✴❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡r✴s♠❛❧❧❡r ✐♠♣❧✐❡s

t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡✴❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s♠❛❧❧❡r✴❧❛r❣❡r❀ ✐✳❡✳✱

X X
an < ∞ ⇐= bn < ∞
X X
an = ∞ =⇒ bn = ∞

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✾✳✷

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ♣❛rt✳

■♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❛♣♣❧② t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ t♦ ❛ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r ✕ ♥❡✇ ✕ s❡r✐❡s✱ ✇❡ s❤♦✉❧❞ tr② t♦ ♠♦❞✐❢② ✐ts ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✇❤✐❧❡
♣❛②✐♥❣ ❛tt❡♥t✐♦♥ t♦ ✇❤❡t❤❡r ✐t ✐s ❣❡tt✐♥❣ s♠❛❧❧❡r ♦r ❧❛r❣❡r✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✾✳✸✿ p✲s❡r✐❡s ❛s ❛ st❛rt

▲❡t✬s ❣♦ ❜❛❝❦✇❛r❞s ❛t ✜rst✳ ❲❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ p✲s❡r✐❡s ❛♥❞ s❡❡ ✇❤❡t❤❡r ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❞❡r✐✈❡ t❤❡ ❦♥♦✇♥
❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ❢❛❝ts ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡♠✳

❙♦♠❡ s❡r✐❡s ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ♠♦❞✐✜❡❞ ✐♥t♦ s✉❝❤ ❛ s❡r✐❡s✳ ❚❤❡ ♦♥❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t ✐s ✉♥❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r ❜✉t ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ♠❛t❝❤❡❞
✺✳✾✳ ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ♦❢ s❡r✐❡s ✹✵✸

✇✐t❤ ❛ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r ♦♥❡✿

1 1
≤ 2.
n2 +1 n
❲❡ r❡♠♦✈❡ ✏ +1✑ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ s❡r✐❡s ✐s ✏❧❛r❣❡r✑✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ❜② t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✱ t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧
s❡r✐❡s ✭♦♥ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t✮ ❢♦❧❧♦✇s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s p✲s❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ p = 2 > 1✿
X 1 X 1
≤ < ∞.
n2 + 1 n2

❙✐♠✐❧❛r❧②✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ♠♦❞✐❢② t❤✐s s❡r✐❡s✿

1 1
≥ 1/2 .
n1/2 −1 n
❲❡ r❡♠♦✈❡ ✏ −1✑ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ s❡r✐❡s ✐s ✏s♠❛❧❧❡r✑✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ s❡r✐❡s ✭♦♥ t❤❡
❧❡❢t✮ ❢♦❧❧♦✇s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s p✲s❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ p = 1/2 < 1✿
X 1 X 1
≥ = ∞.
n1/2 + 1 n1/2

◆♦✇ ❧❡t✬s tr② t♦ ♠♦❞✐❢② t❤✐s s❡r✐❡s✿

1 1
≥ 2.
n2 −1 n
❲❡ r❡♠♦✈❡ ✏ −1✑ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ s❡r✐❡s ✐s ✏s♠❛❧❧❡r✑✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ s❡r✐❡s ✭♦♥ t❤❡
❧❡❢t✮ ❢♦❧❧♦✇s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡✳✳✳ ✇❛✐t✱ t❤✐s p✲s❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ p=2>1 ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✦ ❙♦✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

X 1 X 1
≥ < ∞.
n2 − 1 n2
❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦t❤✐♥❣ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤✐s ♦❜s❡r✈❛t✐♦♥✳

❙✐♠✐❧❛r❧②✱ ❧❡t✬s tr② t♦ ♠♦❞✐❢② t❤✐s s❡r✐❡s✿

1 1
≤ 1/2 .
n1/2 +1 n
❲❡ r❡♠♦✈❡ ✏ +1✑ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ s❡r✐❡s ✐s ✏❧❛r❣❡r✑✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ s❡r✐❡s ✭♦♥ t❤❡
❧❡❢t✮ ❢♦❧❧♦✇s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡✳✳✳ ❜✉t t❤✐s p✲s❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ p = 1/2 < 1 ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s✦ ❙♦✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

X 1 X 1
≤ = ∞.
n1/2 − 1 n1/2
❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦t❤✐♥❣ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤✐s ♦❜s❡r✈❛t✐♦♥✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✾✳✹✿ p✲s❡r✐❡s ❛s ❛ ❣♦❛❧

❘❡♠♦✈✐♥❣ ✏ −1✑ ❛♥❞ ✏ +1✑ ❢❛✐❧❡❞ t♦ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ✉s❡❢✉❧ s❡r✐❡s ❢♦r t❤❡s❡ t✇♦✿

1 1
❛♥❞ .
n2 −1 n1/2+1
❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❜❡ s✉❜t❧❡r ✐♥ ✜♥❞✐♥❣ ❝♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥s✳

▲❡t✬s tr② ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥✳ ❲❡ ❛❞❞ ✏ 2✑ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛t♦r ❛♥❞ ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r t❤❛t t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✐s tr✉❡ ❢♦r ❛❧❧
n = 2, 3, ...✿
1 2
≤ 2.
n2 −1 n
❚❤❡ ♥❡✇ s❡r✐❡s ✐s ✏❧❛r❣❡r✑✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ s❡r✐❡s ✭♦♥ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t✮ ❢♦❧❧♦✇s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡
✺✳✾✳ ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ♦❢ s❡r✐❡s ✹✵✹

❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s ✭♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❛✮ p✲s❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ p = 2 > 1✿

X 1 X 1
≤ < ∞.
n2 − 1 n2

◆❡①t✱ ✇❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇ t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r s❡r✐❡s✳ ❲❡ ❛❞❞ ✏ 2✑ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r ❛♥❞ ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r t❤❛t t❤❡
❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✐s tr✉❡ ❢♦r ❛❧❧ n = 1, 2, ...✿
1 1
≥ 1/2 .
n1/2 +1 2n
❚❤❡ ♥❡✇ s❡r✐❡s ✐s ✏s♠❛❧❧❡r✑✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ s❡r✐❡s ✭♦♥ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t✮ ❢♦❧❧♦✇s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡
❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s ✭♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❛✮ p✲s❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ p = 1/2 < 1✿
X 1 X 1
≥ = ∞.
n1/2 + 1 2n1/2

❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❧❡ss♦♥❄ ■t ✐s ❤❛r❞ t♦ ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✐♥ t❤✐s ♠❛♥♥❡r✳

❇✉t ❞✐❞ ✇❡ ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♣r❡✈✐♦✉s❧②❄ ❆ ✇❛② t♦ ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ t❤❡ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ♦❢ ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s f, g ❛t ✐♥✜♥✐t②
✐s t♦ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡✐r r❡❧❛t✐✈❡ ♦r❞❡r ♦❢ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡ ❛s ♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷❉❈✲✻✳ ■t ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ✈✐❛ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢
t❤❡✐r r❛t✐♦✿
f (x)
lim = L.
x→+∞ g(x)

■❢ L ✐s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡✱ ✇❡ s❛② t❤❛t f ❤❛s ❛ ❣r❡❛t❡r ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡✿

f >> g .

■♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❤✐❡r❛r❝❤②✿

√ 1 1
... >> ex >> ... >> xn >> ... >> x2 >> x >> x >> ... >> 1 >> ... >> >> 2 >> ... >> e−x >> ...
x x

❲❡ ❛♣♣❧② t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛ t♦ s❡r✐❡s✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✾✳✺✿ ❝♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥

❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ✐s t❤❛t s♦♠❡ ♣❛✐rs ♦❢ s❡r✐❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ ♦r ❞✐✈❡r❣❡ t♦❣❡t❤❡r ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡② ❛r❡ ❝♦♠♣❛r❛❜❧❡ ✐♥ s♦♠❡
✇❛②✳ ■❢ ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡♠ ✐s ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r✱ ✇❡ ♠❛② ❤❛✈❡ ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r❡❞ ✇❤❛t t❤❡ ♦t❤❡rs ❞♦✳ ❍❡r❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ ✜rst t❤r❡❡
t♦ ❜❡ ❝♦♠♣❛r❡❞✿
1 1 1
✈s✳ ✈s✳ .
n2 −1 n2 n2 +1
✺✳✾✳ ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ♦❢ s❡r✐❡s ✹✵✺

❚❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ tr✐♣❧❡✿

1 1 1
✈s✳ 1/2 ✈s✳ 1/2 .
n1/2−1 n n +1

❲❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡s❡ r❛t✐♦s✿

1 1 1 1
÷ 2 → 1 ❛♥❞ 1/2 ÷ 1/2 → 1 .
n2 ±1 n n ±1 n
❚❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ s❡r✐❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ❝❛s❡ ❛♥❞ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✳ ❚❤❡♥ s♦ ❞♦❡s t❤❡ ✜rst ♦♥❡✳

❲❡ s✉♠♠❛r✐③❡ t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛ ❜❡❧♦✇✳

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✺✳✾✳✻✿ ♦r❞❡r ♦❢ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡ ❢♦r s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s
■❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❜❡❧♦✇ ✐s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡✱ ♦r ✐ts r❡❝✐♣r♦❝❛❧ ✐s ③❡r♦✱
an bn
lim = ∞ ♦r lim = 0,
n→∞ bn n→∞ an
❛♥❞ ❜♦t❤ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❤❛✈❡ ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ t❡r♠s✱ ✇❡ s❛② t❤❛t an ✐s ♦❢ ❤✐❣❤❡r ♦r❞❡r
✺✳✾✳ ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ♦❢ s❡r✐❡s ✹✵✻

t❤❛♥ bn ✱ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✿

an >> bn ❛♥❞ bn = o(an )

❚❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r r❡❛❞s ✏❧✐tt❧❡ ♦✑✳ ❲❤❡♥

an >> bn ❛♥❞ bn >> an ,

✇❡ s❛② t❤❛t t❤❡② ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡✱ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✿

an ∼ bn

❲❡ ❛♣♣❧② t❤✐s t❡r♠✐♥♦❧♦❣② t♦ ❜♦t❤ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛♥❞ s❡r✐❡s✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✾✳✼✿ ▲✐♠✐t ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❚❡st

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t✇♦ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ✇✐t❤ ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ t❡r♠s✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r✲

❣❡♥❝❡✴❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡r✴s♠❛❧❧❡r ✐♥ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡ s❡r✐❡s ✐♠♣❧✐❡s t❤❡ ❝♦♥✲

✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡✴❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s♠❛❧❧❡r✴❧❛r❣❡r s❡r✐❡s❀ ✐✳❡✳✱ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ t❤r❡❡ ❝❛s❡s ❢♦r

an ≥ 0, bn ≥ 0✿
X X
❈❛s❡ ✶✱ an ∼ b n an < ∞ ⇐⇒ bn < ∞ .
X X
❈❛s❡ ✷✱ an << bn bn < ∞ =⇒ an < ∞ .
X X
❈❛s❡ ✸✱ an >> bn bn = ∞ =⇒ an = ∞ .

Pr♦♦❢✳

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡✐r r❛t✐♦ ❜❡❧♦✇ ❡①✐sts✱ ❛s ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦r ❛s ✐♥✜♥✐t②✿

an
lim = L.
n→∞ bn

■♥ ❈❛s❡s ✶ ❛♥❞ ✷✱ L ✐s ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✭❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷❉❈✲✶✮
st❛t❡s✿
◮ ❋♦r ❡❛❝❤ ε>0 t❤❡r❡ ✐s s✉❝❤ ❛♥ N t❤❛t ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② n>N ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
 
 an 
 − L < ε .
 bn 

▲❡t✬s ❝❤♦♦s❡ ε = 1✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❢♦✉♥❞ N✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡

an
< L + ε = L + 1,
bn
❢♦r ❡✈❡r② n < N✳ ■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❝♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ♦❢ ✭t❤❡ t❛✐❧s ♦❢ ✮ t✇♦ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✿

an < (L + 1)bn .

◆♦✇✱ ❜② t❤❡ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❙❡r✐❡s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

X X
bn < ∞ =⇒ (L + 1)bn < ∞ .

❚❤❡♥ ❜② t❤❡ ❉✐r❡❝t ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❚❡st✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

X
an < ∞ .
✺✳✾✳ ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ♦❢ s❡r✐❡s ✹✵✼

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✾✳✽
Pr♦✈❡ ❈❛s❡ ✸✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✐❢
an
lim =L
n→∞ bn

✐s ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦r ✐♥✜♥✐t②✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ t❤r❡❡ ❝❛s❡s✿

❈❛s❡ ✶✱ L>0: ❆ ✏♣❡r❢❡❝t✑ ♠❛t❝❤✿ ❜♦t❤ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ ♦r ❜♦t❤ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡✳

❈❛s❡ ✷✱ L=0: ❚❤❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r ✏❞♦♠✐♥❛t❡s✑ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛t♦r✳

❈❛s❡ ✸✱ L=∞: ❚❤❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛t♦r ✏❞♦♠✐♥❛t❡s✑ t❤❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛t♦r✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✾✳✾
❆♣♣❧② t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ t♦ t❤❡ t✇♦ tr✐♣❧❡s ♦❢ s❡r✐❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ❛❜♦✈❡✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✾✳✶✵✿ ✜♥❞ ❛ ❝♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ s❡r✐❡s

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s✿
X 1
√ .
n2 + n + 1
❲❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ t♦ ✇❤❛t s✐♠♣❧❡r s❡r✐❡s t❤✐s s❡r✐❡s ✐s ✏s✐♠✐❧❛r✑✳ ❚❤❡ ❧❡❛❞✐♥❣ t❡r♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥
2
✐♥s✐❞❡ t❤❡ r❛❞✐❝❛❧ ✐s n ✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✇❡ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ ♦✉r s❡r✐❡s t♦ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿

X 1 X1
√ = ,
n2 n

t❤❡ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥t ❤❛r♠♦♥✐❝ s❡r✐❡s✳ ❲❡ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤❡ r❛t✐♦ ♥♦✇✿

1 1 n
√ ÷ =√
n2 +n+1 n 2
n +n+1
1
=√
n2 + n + 1/n
1
=p
(n2 + n + 1)/n2
1
=p
1 + 1/n + 1/n2
1
→√ ❛s n→∞
1+0+0
= 1.

❙♦✱ ❈❛s❡ ✶ ♦❢ t❤❡ ▲✐♠✐t ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛♣♣❧✐❡s ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❛t ♦✉r s❡r✐❡s ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✾✳✶✶
❏✉st✐❢② t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r♠❡❞✐❛t❡ st❡♣s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✾✳✶✷
❍♦✇ ❞♦❡s t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛♣♣❧② ✐❢ ✇❡ r❡♠♦✈❡ +n ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ s❡r✐❡s❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✾✳✶✸
❍♦✇ ❞♦❡s t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛♣♣❧② ✐❢ ✇❡ r❡♣❧❛❝❡ n2 ✇✐t❤ n3 ✐♥ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ s❡r✐❡s❄
✺✳✶✵✳ ❆❜s♦❧✉t❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ✹✵✽

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✾✳✶✹✿ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s

❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛♣♣❧✐❡s ✇❡❧❧ t♦ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s✳ ■❢ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦✱
X X
cn (x − a)n ❛♥❞ dn (x − a)n ,

t❤❡ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❜❡❝♦♠❡s✿

cn (x − a)n cn
= → L,
dn (x − a)n dn

✇❤❡♥ cn , dn > 0 ❛♥❞ x > a✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ❛r❡ t❤❡s❡ s❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ t❡r♠s❄ ◆♦❀ ❥✉st ♣❛ss✐♥❣
t❤r♦✉❣❤ x = a ✇✐❧❧ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❡r♠ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ♦❞❞ n✦ ❚❤❡ ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛❜✐❧✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠s ✐s
✈❡r② ❧✐♠✐t❡❞✳

✺✳✶✵✳ ❆❜s♦❧✉t❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡

❋r♦♠ t❤✐s ♣♦✐♥t✱ ✇❡ ❛❜❛♥❞♦♥ t❤❡ s❡✈❡r❡ r❡str✐❝t✐♦♥ t❤❛t t❤❡ t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ❝❛♥✬t ❜❡ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡✳ ❚❤❡♥✱
♥♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧ts ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st t✇♦ s❡❝t✐♦♥s ❛♣♣❧✐❡s✦

❚❤❡ ♣❧❛♥ ✐s t♦ ♠❛❦❡ ❢r♦♠ ♦✉r s❡r✐❡s ❛ ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ s❡r✐❡s ❛♥❞ s❡❡ ✐❢ t❤✐s ♥❡✇ s❡r✐❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ♦r ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s ✐♥
❤♦♣❡ t❤❛t t❤✐s ✇✐❧❧ t❡❧❧ ✉s s♦♠❡t❤✐♥❣ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ s❡r✐❡s✳

❖❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ t❤❡ ❡❛s✐❡st ✇❛② t♦ ❞♦ t❤✐s ✐s t♦ t❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡ ✈❛❧✉❡✿

X X
an ❝r❡❛t❡s |an | .

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ✇❛❧❦ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♦♣♣♦s✐t❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ t❛❦❡ ❛♥② s❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ t❡r♠s✱ bn ≥ 0 ✱ ❛♥❞ ♠❛❦❡
✐t ✏❛❧t❡r♥❛t❡✑✿ X X
bn ❝r❡❛t❡s (−1)n bn , bn ≥ 0 .
◆♦✇✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ♠♦r❡ ❧✐❦❡❧② ❧✐❦❡❧② t♦ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡✱ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ♦r t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r❄
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✶✵✳✶✿ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r s❡r✐❡s

❙♦♠❡ ♦❢ t❤♦s❡ ❛r❡ ❡❛s② t♦ ❛♥❛❧②③❡✿

❉✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ❚❡st✳
X
• (−1)n ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s ✕ ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡
X
• 1 ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s t♦♦✳
1
●❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❙❡r✐❡s ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✳
X
• (−1)n n ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ✕ ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡
X 1 2
• ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦♦✳
2n

■♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ t❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t s✉❝❤ ❛ ♣❛✐r ♦❢ s❡r✐❡s ❧♦♦❦s ❧✐❦❡ ✭t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛r❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡✐r s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ ♣❛rt✐❛❧
s✉♠s ❛r❡ ❜❡❧♦✇✮✿
✺✳✶✵✳ ❆❜s♦❧✉t❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ✹✵✾

❆s ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ❛♥❞ ❝❛♥ s❡❡ ❤❡r❡✱ t❤❡ ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ♦♥❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ s✉♠s t❤❛t ✐s ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣✳ ■t
♠❛② ♦r ♠❛② ♥♦t ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐♥❣ ♦♥ ❤♦✇ ♠✉❝❤ ✇❡ ❛❞❞ ❛t ❡✈❡r② st❡♣✳ ❇✉t ❢♦r t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✱ ❤❛❧❢ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡
✉♣✲st❡♣s ❛r❡ ❝❛♥❝❡❧❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❞♦✇♥✲st❡♣s✦ ❚❤✐s s✉❣❣❡sts t❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ✐s s❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❞♦✇♥✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ✐s t❤❡
❧❛tt❡r✳ ❚❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r t❤❡♥ ✐♠♣❧✐❡s t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✳✳✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✶✵✳✷✿ p✲s❡r✐❡s

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r t❤❡ p✲s❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ p = 2✿
X 1
.
n2
■t ✐s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t✳ ■ts ✏❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐♥❣✑ ✈❡rs✐♦♥ ✐s

X 1
(−1)n .
n2
❚❤❡② ❛r❡ s❤♦✇♥ ❛❜♦✈❡✳ ❍♦✇ ❞♦ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ ❄ ❚❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r ❛♣♣❡❛rs ✏s♠❛❧❧❡r✑ t❤❛♥ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✿

1 1
(−1)n 2
≤ 2.
n n
❉♦❡s ✐t ♠❡❛♥ t❤❛t ✐t ♠✉st ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡❄ ◆♦✱ ✐t ♠✐❣❤t st✐❧❧ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡ ◆♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ❙❡r✐❡s ❚❤❡♦r❡♠
❞♦❡s♥✬t ❛♣♣❧②✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ❛ ❝❧❡✈❡r tr✐❝❦ ✐s t♦ ✉s❡ ❛ ❤✐❞❞❡♥ ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ s❡r✐❡s❀ ✐t ✐s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ t✇♦✿

1 1
(−1)n 2
+ 2 ≥ 0.
n n
❲❤❛t ❞♦ ✇❡ ❦♥♦✇ ❛❜♦✉t ✐t❄ ❆♥ ✐♥s✐❣❤t❢✉❧ ♦❜s❡r✈❛t✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t②✿

1 1 2
(−1)n 2
+ 2 ≤ 2,
n n n
❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ t✇♦ ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡✲t❡r♠ s❡r✐❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❜✐❣❣❡r ♦♥❡ ✐s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t✦
✺✳✶✵✳ ❆❜s♦❧✉t❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ✹✶✵

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ s♠❛❧❧❡r s❡r✐❡s ✐s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t t♦♦✱

X 1 1

n
(−1) 2 + 2 < ∞.
n n

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ s♦ ✐s t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ s❡r✐❡s✱

X 1
(−1)n ,
n2
❜② t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡s ❢♦r ❙❡r✐❡s ✳

▲❡t✬s ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❡ t❤✐s ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✳ ❲❡ ❛r❡ ❛❢t❡r ❛ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r ❦✐♥❞ ♦❢ sq✉❡❡③❡✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✶✵✳✸✿ ❙q✉❡❡③❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦r ❙❡r✐❡s

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s an , bn ✇✐t❤ bn ≥ 0 s❛t✐s❢②✿

−bn ≤ an ≤ bn
X X
❢♦r ❛❧❧ n✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ✐❢ bn ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ❞♦❡s an ✳
✺✳✶✵✳ ❆❜s♦❧✉t❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ✹✶✶

Pr♦♦❢✳
❋✐rst✱ ♥♦t❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ sq✉❡❡③❡ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ♣r♦✈❡s ♥♦t❤✐♥❣ ❛❜♦✉t an ✉♥❧❡ss ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ bn → 0 ✳ ❊✈❡♥ t❤❡♥✱
❛❧❧ ✇❡ ❞❡r✐✈❡ ✐s t❤❛t an → 0 t♦♦✳ ❲❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ❄ ❲❡ t❛❦❡ ❛ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤✳ ❋✐rst✱ ✇❡ ❛❞❞
bn t♦ t❤❡ t❤r❡❡ ♣❛rts ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t②✿

0 ≤ an + bn ≤ bn + bn = 2bn .

▲❡t✬s ❞❡✜♥❡ ❛ ♥❡✇ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✿

cn = an + bn
❢♦r ❛❧❧ n✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ♥❡✇ sq✉❡❡③❡ ✿

0 ≤ cn ≤ 2bn .
X
❚❤❡ ❧❛st s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s ❛ s❡r✐❡s✱ 2bn ✱ t❤❛t ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ❜② t❤❡ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❙❡r✐❡s✳
X
❚❤❡♥ cn ❛❧s♦ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ❜② t❤❡ ◆♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ❙❡r✐❡s ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❉✐r❡❝t ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✳

❋✐♥❛❧❧②✱ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ s❡r✐❡s✱

X X
an = (cn − bn ) ,
❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ❛s t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t✇♦ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t s❡r✐❡s ❜② t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡s ❢♦r ❙❡r✐❡s✳

❙♦✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ✉s❡ t❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t bn ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❛t an ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦♦✳ ❇✉t ❤♦✇ ❞♦ ✇❡ ✜♥❞ t❤✐s ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥t
bn ❄
❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ♦♥❡ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ❝❤♦✐❝❡✿
bn = |an | .
❚❤✐s t✐♠❡ t❤❡ sq✉❡❡③❡ ✐s ✏♣❡r❢❡❝t✑✿ ◆♦t ♦♥❧② t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❜② t❤♦s❡ t✇♦❀ ✐t ✐s✱ ✐♥ ❢❛❝t✱ ❛❧✇❛②s
❡q✉❛❧ t♦ ♦♥❡ ♦r t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r✦ ❍❡r❡ ✐s ❛♥ ✐❧❧✉str❛t✐♦♥✿

■t✬s ❛s ✐❢ ❛ ❜❛❧❧ ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❧② ❜♦✉♥❝✐♥❣ ♦✛ t❤❡ ❝❡✐❧✐♥❣ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✢♦♦r ♦❢ ❛ ❝♦rr✐❞♦r✳✳✳

❚❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t ✐s ❝r✉❝✐❛❧✿

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✺✳✶✵✳✹✿ s❡r✐❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡❧②

X
❲❡ s❛② t❤❛t ❛ s❡r✐❡s an ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡❧② ✐❢ ✐ts s❡r✐❡s ♦❢ ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s✱
X
|an |✱ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✳

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦
❚❤❡ ✇♦r❞ ✏❛❜s♦❧✉t❡✑ r❡❢❡rs t♦ t❤❡ ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡ ✈❛❧✉❡✳
✺✳✶✵✳ ❆❜s♦❧✉t❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ✹✶✷

❚❤❡ ❧❛st t❤❡♦r❡♠ ✐♠♣❧✐❡s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t r❡s✉❧t✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✶✵✳✺✿ ❆❜s♦❧✉t❡ ❈♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠

■❢ ❛ s❡r✐❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡❧②✱ t❤❡♥ ✐t ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s❀ ✐✳❡✳✱

X X
|an | < ∞ =⇒ an ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✶✵✳✻
✭❛✮ ❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t ✐❢ ❛ s❡r✐❡s ❤❛s ♦♥❧② ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ t❡r♠s✱ t❤❡♥ ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♠❡❛♥s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡✳ ✭❜✮

❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t ✐❢ ❛ s❡r✐❡s ❤❛s ♦♥❧② ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ t❡r♠s✱ t❤❡♥ ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♠❡❛♥s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✶✵✳✼✿ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s

❋♦r ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s✱ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❜❡❝♦♠❡s✿

X X
|cn ||x − a|n < ∞ =⇒ cn (x − a)n ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ,

❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ x✳ ❚❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ♦❢ ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❚❛②❧♦r s❡r✐❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡❞

❜❡❧♦✇✿

▲♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ ❝✉s♣s❀ t❤❡s❡ ❛r❡♥✬t ♣♦✇❡rs ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♥❡✇ s❡r✐❡s ✐s ♥♦t ❛ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s✳

❚❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ✐s ❢❛❧s❡✿

X X
|an | < ∞ =⇒ an ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s
X X
|an | < ∞ 6⇐= an ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✺✳✶✵✳✽✿ s❡r✐❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥❛❧❧②

❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥❛❧❧②
X
❲❡ s❛② t❤❛t ❛ s❡r✐❡s an ✐❢ ✐t ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ❜✉t ✐ts s❡r✐❡s
X
♦❢ ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s✱ |an |✱ ❞♦❡s ♥♦t✳

❚❤❡♥✱ ❡✈❡r② ✭♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧✮ s❡r✐❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ❡✐t❤❡r ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡❧② ♦r ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥❛❧❧②✳

✺✳✶✵✳ ❆❜s♦❧✉t❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ✹✶✸

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✶✵✳✾✿ ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡

❖❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ ❛❧❧ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡✲t❡r♠ s❡r✐❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡❧②✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ❛❧❧ p✲s❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤
p > 1✱
X 1
,
np
❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ ❛♥❞✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡❧②✳

❈♦♥✈❡rs❡❧②✱ ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t s❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ t❡r♠s✱ ✇❡ ♥♦✇ ❦♥♦✇ ♦t❤❡r ✭❛❜s♦❧✉t❡❧②✮
❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t s❡r✐❡s✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ s✐♥❝❡ ❛ p✲s❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ p > 1✱
X 1
,
np
❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✱ t❤❡♥ ✐ts ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐♥❣ ✈❡rs✐♦♥✱
X (−1)n
,
np
✐s ❛❧s♦ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t✱ ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡❧②✱ ❜❡❝❛✉s❡✿  
 (−1)n  1
 np  = np .
 

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✶✵✳✶✵✿ p✲s❡r✐❡s

❖♥ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ❤❛♥❞✱ ❛s ❛ p✲s❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ p ≤ 1✱
X 1
,
np
❞✐✈❡r❣❡s✱ ❞♦❡s ✐t ♠❡❛♥ t❤❛t ✐ts ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐♥❣ ✈❡rs✐♦♥✱

X (−1)n
,
np
❛❧s♦ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s❄ ◆♦✳

❚❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ r❡s♦❧✈❡s t❤❡ ✐ss✉❡✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✶✵✳✶✶✿ ▲❡✐❜♥✐③ ❆❧t❡r♥❛t✐♥❣ ❙❡r✐❡s ❚❡st

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ bn s❛t✐s✜❡s✿

✶✳ bn > 0 ❢♦r ❛❧❧ n❀
✷✳ bn > bn+1 ❢♦r ❛❧❧ n❀ ❛♥❞
✸✳ bn → 0 ❛s n → ∞✳ X X
❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐♥❣ ✈❡rs✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s bn ✱ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s (−1)n bn ✱ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✳
✺✳✶✵✳ ❆❜s♦❧✉t❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ✹✶✹

Pr♦♦❢✳

❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ✐s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✳ ❋✐rst✱ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❛❧t❡r♥❛t❡s ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ❛♥❞ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡✳ ❆s

❛ r❡s✉❧t✱ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ✐ts s✉♠s ❣♦❡s ✉♣ ❛♥❞ ❞♦✇♥ ❛t ❡✈❡r② st❡♣✳ ❋✉rt❤❡r♠♦r❡✱ ❡❛❝❤ st❡♣ ✐s s♠❛❧❧❡r

t❤❛♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s✇✐♥❣ ✐s ❞✐♠✐♥✐s❤✐♥❣✳ ▼♦r❡♦✈❡r✱ ✐t ✐s ❞✐♠✐♥✐s❤✐♥❣ t♦ ③❡r♦✳ ❚❤❛t✬s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡✦

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ♣❛rt✐❛❧ s✉♠s ♦❢ ♦✉r s❡r✐❡s✿

n
X
pn = (−1)k bk .
k=1

❲❡ ❡①❛♠✐♥❡ t❤❡ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ✐♥ t❤❡ s✉❜s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ♦❢ ♦❞❞✲ ❛♥❞ ❡✈❡♥✲♥✉♠❜❡r❡❞ ❡❧❡♠❡♥ts✳ ❋♦r t❤❡ ♦❞❞✿

p2k+1 − p2k−1 = (−1)2k b2k + (−1)2k+1 b2k+1

= b2k − b2k+1
> 0. ❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥ ✷✳

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱

p2k+1 ր
❙✐♠✐❧❛r❧②✱ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❡✈❡♥

p2k+2 − p2k = (−1)2k+1 b2k+1 + (−1)2k+2 b2k+2

= −b2k+1 + b2k+2
< 0. ❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥ ✷✳

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱

p2k ց
❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ t✇♦ ♠♦♥♦t♦♥❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s t❤❛t ❛r❡ ❛❧s♦ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞✿

p1 ≤ pn ≤ p2 .

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ❜♦t❤ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ ❜② t❤❡ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥❡ ❈♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✳

◆❡①t✱ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❧✐♠✐ts✳ ❇② t❤❡ ❙q✉❡❡③❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

lim (−1)n bn = 0 ,
n→∞
✺✳✶✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❘❛t✐♦ ❚❡st ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❘♦♦t ❚❡st ✹✶✺

❢r♦♠ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥ ✸✳ ❚❤❡♥✱ ❜② t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

lim p2k+1 − lim p2k = lim (p2k+1 − p2k ) = lim (−1)2k+1 b2k+1 = 0 .
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦❞❞ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❡✈❡♥ ♣❛rt✐❛❧ s✉♠s ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧✳

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ♣❛rt✐❛❧ s✉♠s pn ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s t♦ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❧✐♠✐t✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✶✵✳✶✷

Pr♦✈✐❞❡ ❛ ♣r♦♦❢ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❧❛st st❡♣✳

❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✺✳✶✵✳✶✸

❆❧❧ ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐♥❣ p✲s❡r✐❡s✱ ✐✳❡✳✱

X (−1)n
,
np
❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡✳

■♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱ t❤❡ ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐♥❣ p✲s❡r✐❡s✱

X (−1)n
, ✇✐t❤ 0 < p < 1 ,
np
❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥❛❧❧②✳

✺✳✶✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❘❛t✐♦ ❚❡st ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❘♦♦t ❚❡st

❚❤❡ ❝❤❛❧❧❡♥❣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❚❡st ✐s ♦❢t❡♥ ❤♦✇ t♦ ✜♥❞ ❛ s❡r✐❡s ❣♦♦❞ ❢♦r ❝♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥✳
■♥ t❤✐s s❡❝t✐♦♥✱ ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ t②♣❡ ♦❢ s❡r✐❡s ❛♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❡ ❛❧❧ t❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥s ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s t❤❛t
❝♦♠♣❛r❡ ✇❡❧❧ ✇✐t❤ ✐t✳ ❚❤✐s ❝❤♦✐❝❡ ✐s✱ ♦❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ t❤❡ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ s❡r✐❡s✳
X
❚❤❡ ♠♦st ✇❡❧❧✲✉♥❞❡rst♦♦❞ s❡r✐❡s ✐s t❤❡ st❛♥❞❛r❞ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ s❡r✐❡s rn ✳ ■ts ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❢✉❧❧② ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡❞
❜② ✐ts r❛t✐♦ r ≥ 0✿
X
• ■❢ r < 1✱ t❤❡♥ rn ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡❧②✳
X
• ■❢ r > 1✱ t❤❡♥ rn ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s✳
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❤❛s t♦ ❣♦ t♦ 0 ❢❛st ❡♥♦✉❣❤ ❢♦r t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s t♦ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡✳
❚❤✐s ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❛t✐♦ ❛♥❞ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s r❡❛♣♣❡❛r ✐♥ t❤❡ ❝❛s❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❣❡♥❡r✐❝ s❡r✐❡s✳
r❛t✐♦✱ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✿
X
■♥❞❡❡❞✱ ❡✈❡r② s❡r✐❡s an ❤❛s t❤❡

an+1
rn = .
an
■♥ ❝♦♥tr❛st t♦ t❤❡ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ s❡r✐❡s✱ t❤❡ r❛t✐♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥ n✳ ❇✉t ✐ts ❧✐♠✐t ❞♦❡s ♥♦t✦ ❆s ✐t t✉r♥s ♦✉t✱ t❤❡
s❡r✐❡s ❡①❤✐❜✐ts t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♣❛tt❡r♥ ❛s t❤❡ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ s❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ r❛t✐♦ ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ t❤✐s ❧✐♠✐t✿
✺✳✶✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❘❛t✐♦ ❚❡st ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❘♦♦t ❚❡st ✹✶✻

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✶✶✳✶✿ ❘❛t✐♦ ❚❡st ❢♦r ❙❡r✐❡s

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ an ✐s ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✇✐t❤ ♥♦♥✲③❡r♦ t❡r♠s✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❧✐♠✐t ❡①✐sts✱
❛s ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦r ❛s ✐♥✜♥✐t②✿
 
 an+1 
r = lim 
 
n→∞ an 

❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿ X
✶✳ ■❢ r < 1✱ t❤❡♥ an ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡❧②✳
X
✷✳ ■❢ r > 1✱ t❤❡♥ an ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s✳
✳

■❢ r = 1 ♦r t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❡①✐st✱ ✇❡ s❛② t❤❛t t❤❡ t❡st ❢❛✐❧s✳

Pr♦♦❢✳

❙✉♣♣♦s❡✱ ❢♦r ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✇✐t❤ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ t❡r♠s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

an+1
r = lim .
n→∞ an
❚❤❡♥✱ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡✿
an+1
< s, ❢♦r ❛❧❧ n ≥ N ,
an
❢♦r s♦♠❡ N ❛♥❞ ❛♥② s > r✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱

an+1 < san , ❢♦r ❛❧❧ n ≥ N .

❚❤✐s ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t② ✐s ♥♦✇ ❛♣♣❧✐❡❞ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ t✐♠❡s✱ st❛rt✐♥❣ ❛t ❛♥② t❡r♠ m > N ✿

am < sam−1 < s(sam−2 ) = s2 am−2 < s2 (sam−3 ) = s3 am−3 < ... < sm−N aN .

❆t t❤❡ ❡♥❞✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❝♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ♦❢ ♦✉r s❡r✐❡s ❛♥❞ ❛ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ s❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ r❛t✐♦ s✿
aN m
am < ·s .
sN

❚❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ✇❤❡♥ s < 1 ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥✱ ❜② t❤❡ ❉✐r❡st ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❚❡st✱ s♦ ❞♦❡s
X
an ✳ ❙✐♥❝❡ s ✐s
❛♥② ♥✉♠❜❡r ❛❜♦✈❡ r✱ t❤✐s ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥ ✐s ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t t♦✿ r < 1✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✶✶✳✷

❈♦♠♣❧❡t❡ t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✶✶✳✸

✭❛✮ ●✐✈❡ ❛♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❛ s❡r✐❡s t❤❡ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ✇❤✐❝❤ t❤❡ t❡st ❢❛✐❧s t♦ ❞❡t❡❝t✳ ✭❜✮ ●✐✈❡ ❛♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡
♦❢ ❛ s❡r✐❡s t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ✇❤✐❝❤ t❤❡ t❡st ❢❛✐❧s t♦ ❞❡t❡❝t✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✶✶✳✹✿ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t ❛♥❞ ❢❛❝t♦r✐❛❧

▲❡t✬s ❛♥❛❧②③❡ t❤✐s s❡r✐❡s✿

X 2n
.
n!
✺✳✶✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❘❛t✐♦ ❚❡st ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❘♦♦t ❚❡st ✹✶✼

■ts s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s
2n
an = .
n!
❚❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ♦❢ t❤✐s s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s 0❀ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✐t ♣❛ss❡s t❤❡ ❉✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ❚❡st✳ ❚❤✐s t❡❧❧s ✉s ♥♦t❤✐♥❣✳✳✳
▲❡t✬s t✉r♥ t♦ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✳ ❖✉r ❧✐♠✐t ✐s✿
an+1 2n+1 /(n + 1)!
r= =
an 2n /n!
2n+1 n!
= n ·
2 (n + 1)!
2 1
= ·
1 n+1
→0 ❛s n → ∞.

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ❜② t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✳

❲❤❛t ✇❡ tr✉❧② ❝❛r❡ ❛❜♦✉t✱ ❤♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ❛r❡ t❤❡ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ✦ ▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ♦♥❡ ❝❡♥t❡r❡❞ ❛t s♦♠❡ a✿
∞
X
cn (x − a)n .
n=0

❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛♣♣❧✐❡s✱ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ x✱ t♦ t❤✐s ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✿

an = cn (x − a)n ,

❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✳ ❲❡ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t✱ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ x✿

 
 an+1 
r(x) = lim  
n→∞
 an


 cn+1 (x − a)n+1 
= lim  n

c n (x − a)
n→∞ 
 
 cn+1 (x − a) 
= lim   ❋❛❝t♦r ♦✉t ❜② ❈▼❘✳
n→∞ cn 

 cn+1 
= |x − a| lim    < 1 . ❙♦❧✈❡ t❤✐s ✐♥❡q✉❛❧✐t②✦
n→∞ cn 

❚❤❡♥✱ ❜② t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✱ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ❢♦r t❤♦s❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ x ❢♦r ✇❤✐❝❤ r(x) < 1 ❛♥❞ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s ❢♦r t❤♦s❡
❢♦r ✇❤✐❝❤ r(x) > 1✳ ■♥ t❤❡ s✐♠♣❧❡st ❝❛s❡✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r✿
1
R=  cn+1  .
 
limn→∞  cn 

❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥ r(x) < 1 ❜❡❝♦♠❡s✿

1
|x − a| < 1 ✱ ♦r |x − a| < R .
R
❚❤❡s❡ x✬s ❢♦r♠ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❝❡♥t❡r❡❞ ❛t a✿

{x : |x − a| < R} = {x : a − R < x < a + R} .

✺✳✶✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❘❛t✐♦ ❚❡st ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❘♦♦t ❚❡st ✹✶✽

❲❤❡♥ ♦✉r ❧✐♠✐t ✐s ③❡r♦✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ R = ∞ ❛♥❞ ✇❤❡♥ ✐t ✐s ✐♥✜♥✐t②✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ R = 0✳

❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✺✳✶✶✳✺✿ ❘❛t✐♦ ❚❡st ❢♦r P♦✇❡r ❙❡r✐❡s

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ cn ✐s ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✇✐t❤ ♥♦♥✲③❡r♦ t❡r♠s✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❧✐♠✐t ❡①✐sts✱
❛s ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦r ❛s ✐♥✜♥✐t②✿
 
1  cn+1 
= lim  
R n→∞  cn 

❚❤❡♥✱ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ t❤r❡❡ ❝❛s❡s✿

X
❚❤❡ s❡r✐❡s cn (x − a)n ...
❈❛s❡ ✶✿ R = ∞ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ x;
❈❛s❡ ✷✿ 0 < R < ∞ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ x ✐♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✿
(a − R, a + R),
❛♥❞ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ x ✐♥ t❤❡ r❛②s✿
(−∞, a − R), (a + R, +∞);
❈❛s❡ ✸✿ R = 0 ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ x 6= a.

❚❤❡ ❡♥❞✲♣♦✐♥ts ♦❢ t❤✐s ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ a − R ❛♥❞ a + R, ✇✐❧❧ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❜❡ tr❡❛t❡❞ s❡♣❛r❛t❡❧②✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✶✶✳✻✿ s❡r✐❡s ♦❢ ♣♦✇❡rs

❚❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ 1 + x + x2 + ... ✐s ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❙✐♥❝❡ cn = 1 ❛♥❞ R = 1✱ ✇❡ ✐♥❢❡r ❢r♦♠ t❤❡
t❤❡♦r❡♠ t❤❡ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ❢♦r x ♦✉ts✐❞❡ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [−1, 1] ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ✐♥s✐❞❡ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ (−1, 1)
✭t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✐♦r ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❡r✮✳ ❚❤❡ t✇♦ ♣❛rt✐❛❧ s✉♠s✱

1 + x + x2 + ... + x9 ❛♥❞ 1 + x + x2 + ... + x10 ,

❛r❡ s❤♦✇♥✿
✺✳✶✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❘❛t✐♦ ❚❡st ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❘♦♦t ❚❡st ✹✶✾

❊✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ♣❛rt✐❛❧ s✉♠s ❛r❡ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❢♦r ❛❧❧ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ r❡❛❧ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ x✱ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② t❤❡
s❡r✐❡s✿
f (x) = 1 + x + x2 + ... ,
✐s ✉♥❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦✉ts✐❞❡ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ (−1, 1)✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✶✶✳✼✿ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥✜r♠ t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❚❛②❧♦r s❡r✐❡s ❢♦r f (x) = ex ❝❡♥t❡r❡❞ ❛t a = 0✳ ❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t t❤✐s
✐s ❛ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤
1
cn = .
n!
❚❤❡♥✱  
 cn+1 
c = lim 
  = lim 1/(n + 1)! = lim n! 1
= lim = 0 .
n→∞ cn  n→∞ 1/n! n→∞ (n + 1)! n→∞ n

❚❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x✳ ❙♦✱ (−∞, +∞) ✐s t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s✳

◆❡①t✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛♥♦t❤❡r ✇❛② t♦ ❡①tr❛❝t t❤❡ r❛t✐♦ r ❢r♦♠ ❛ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ s❡r✐❡s an = rn ✿
√
r= n
an .
■♥ ❝♦♥tr❛st t♦ t❤❡ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ s❡r✐❡s✱ t❤✐s ♥✉♠❜❡r ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥ n✳ ❇✉t ✐ts ❧✐♠✐t ❞♦❡s ♥♦t✦ ❆♥❛❧♦❣♦✉s❧② t♦ t❤❡
❘❛t✐♦ ❚❡st✱ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ❡①❤✐❜✐ts t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♣❛tt❡r♥ ❛s t❤❡ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ s❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ r❛t✐♦ ❡q✉❛❧ t♦
t❤✐s ❧✐♠✐t✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✶✶✳✽✿ ❘♦♦t ❚❡st

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ an ✐s ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❧✐♠✐t ❡①✐sts✱ ❛s ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦r ❛s

✐♥✜♥✐t②✿
p
n
r = lim |an |
n→∞

❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿ X
✶✳ ■❢ r < 1✱ t❤❡♥ an ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡❧②✳
X
✷✳ ■❢ r > 1✱ t❤❡♥ an ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s✳

■❢ r = 1 ♦r t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❡①✐st✱ t❤❡ t❡st ❢❛✐❧s✳

Pr♦♦❢✳

❙✉♣♣♦s❡✱ ❢♦r ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✇✐t❤ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ t❡r♠s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

r
an
r = lim n
.
n→∞ a0
✺✳✶✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❘❛t✐♦ ❚❡st ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❘♦♦t ❚❡st ✹✷✵

❚❤❡♥✱ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡✿

r
an
n
< R ❢♦r ❛❧❧ n ≥ N ,
a0

❢♦r s♦♠❡ N ❛♥❞ ❛♥② R > r✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱

an < Rn a0 ❢♦r ❛❧❧ n ≥ N .

❲❡ t❤✉s ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❝♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ♦❢ ♦✉r s❡r✐❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝

X s❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ r❛t✐♦ R✳ ❚❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s
✇❤❡♥ R < 1 ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥✱ ❜② t❤❡ ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❚❡st✱ s♦ ❞♦❡s an ✳ ❙✐♥❝❡ R ✐s ❛♥② ♥✉♠❜❡r ❛❜♦✈❡ R✱ t❤✐s
❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥ ✐s ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t t♦ r < 1✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✶✶✳✾
❈♦♠♣❧❡t❡ t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✶✶✳✶✵
X n
❊①❛♠✐♥❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ✳
2n

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✶✶✳✶✶
❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❧✐♠✐ts ✐♥ t❤❡ t✇♦ t❤❡♦r❡♠s❄

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✶✶✳✶✷✿ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡❧② ❞❡✜♥❡❞ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s

❚❤❡ ❘♦♦t ❚❡st r❡q✉✐r❡s t❤❡ nt❤ t❡r♠ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ t♦ ❜❡ ❦♥♦✇♥✦ ■♥ ❝♦♥tr❛st✱ t❤❡ ❘❛t✐♦ ❚❡st ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❛♣♣❧✐❡❞
t♦ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ r❡❝✉rs✐✈❡❧②✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ❧❡t
2n + 1
an+1 = an · .
3n + 1
❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ❞✐r❡❝t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❜✉t ✐ts ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ✐s ♣r♦✈❡♥ ❜② t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥✿
an+1 2n + 1 2
= → < 1.
an 3n + 1 3
❚❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✳

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ❛ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ❛❣❛✐♥✿ X

cn (x − a)n .
❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛♣♣❧✐❡s t♦ t❤✐s ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✿
an = cn (x − a)n ,

❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿ p p
n
r(x) = lim |cn (x − a)n | = |x − a| lim n |cn | .
n→∞ n→∞

❚❤❡♥ ✐t ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ❢♦r t❤♦s❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ x ❢♦r ✇❤✐❝❤ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

1
|x − a| < p .
limn→∞ n
|cn |

❚❤❡ ♣❛r❛♠❡t❡r r ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ✈✐❛ ❛ ❧✐♠✐t t❤❛t ✐s q✉✐t❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♦♥❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❘❛t✐♦ ❚❡st ❜✉t t❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥s
❛❜♦✉t ✐t ❛r❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡✳
✺✳✶✷✳ P♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ✹✷✶

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✶✶✳✶✸
❙t❛t❡ ❛♥❞ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❘♦♦t ❚❡st ❢♦r ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s✳

✺✳✶✷✳ P♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s

■♥ t❤❡ ❜❡❣✐♥♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❤❛♣t❡r✱ ✇❡ s❤♦✇❡❞ ❤♦✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s✿ ✈✐❛ t❤❡✐r ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s✳
❙✐♥❝❡ t❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛❧s♦ ❞❡♠♦♥str❛t❡❞ ❤♦✇ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿ ✈✐❛ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡✳ ❲❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡
❜❡❧♦✇ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❧❛tt❡r✳
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✺✳✶✷✳✶✿ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ❝❡♥t❡r❡❞ ❛t ♣♦✐♥t
❆ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ❝❡♥t❡r❡❞ ❛t ♣♦✐♥t x = a ✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② ❛ s❡r✐❡s t❤❛t ❞❡♣❡♥❞s
♦♥ t❤❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ x✱ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✇❛②✿
∞
X
f (x) = cn (x − a)n ,
n=0

✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs cn r❡❢❡rr❡❞ t♦ ❛s t❤❡ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s✳

❊✈❡r② x✱ t❤❡ ✐♥♣✉t✱ ♦♥❝❡ s♣❡❝✐✜❡❞✱ ♠❛❦❡s t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧✳ ■❢ t❤✐s s❡r✐❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ✐ts s✉♠✱ ❛
♥✉♠❜❡r✳ ■t ✐s s❡❡♥✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ❛s t❤❡ ♦✉t♣✉t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳
❏✉st ❛s ❛♥② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ❛ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ✐s ❛ ❜❧❛❝❦ ❜♦①✿

x → f → y

■t ✐s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② ♥♦t❤✐♥❣ ❜✉t ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✱ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ t❤❛t ♠✐❣❤t ❧♦♦❦ ♠♦r❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① t❤❛♥ t❤❡ ♦♥❡s
✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ s❡❡♥ ❜❡❢♦r❡✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s✐♠♣❧❡st✿

f (x) = 1 + x + x2 + ...

❏✉st ❛s ✇✐t❤ ❛♥② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❜② ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✱ t❤❡ ✐♠♣❧✐❡❞ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ❜❡❝♦♠❡s ❛♥ ✐ss✉❡✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ❤♦✇ ✐t ✇♦r❦s✿
∞
X
• ■❢ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s cn (x − a)n ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✱ t❤❡♥ x ✐s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳
n=0
∞
X
• ■❢ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s cn (x − a)n ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s✱ t❤❡♥ x ✐s ♥♦t ✐♥ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳
n=0

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✺✳✶✷✳✷✿ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s

❚❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ ❛ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ✐s t❤❡ s❡t ♦❢ t❤♦s❡ x✬s ❢♦r ✇❤✐❝❤ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✳
■t ✐s ❛❧s♦ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s✳

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ s❡t✿

 ∞
X 
❉♦♠❛✐♥ = x : cn (x − a) ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s
n

n=0
✺✳✶✷✳ P♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ✹✷✷

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❚❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ x=a ✐s ❛❧✇❛②s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✶✷✳✸✿ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝

❲❡ ❛❧r❡❛❞② ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t t❤✐s ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ♦♥ t❤✐s ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❛♥❞ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s ♦✉ts✐❞❡✿
1
1 + x + x2 + x3 + ... = ❢♦r ❛❧❧ − 1 < x < 1.
1−x
❚♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ r❡st ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r t❤❡ ❡♥❞✲♣♦✐♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳ ❋✐rst✿


2 3
1 + x + x + x + ... = 1 + 1 + 12 + 13 + ... = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + ..., ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥t✦
x=1

❙❡❝♦♥❞✿


2 3
1 + x + x + x + ... = 1 + (−1) + (−1)2 + (−1)3 + ... = 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + ..., ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥t✦
x=−1

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ (−1, 1) ✐s t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

❲❡ s❡❡ t❤r❡❡ ❝❛s❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣✐❝t✉r❡ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

✶✳ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ t♦✇❛r❞s t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ x ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ (−1, 1) ✭♣♦✐♥t✇✐s❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡✮✱
✷✳ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ t❤❛t ❛❧t❡r♥❛t❡s ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ + ❛♥❞ − ✐♥✜♥✐t✐❡s ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ x < −1✱ ❛♥❞
✸✳ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ❛✇❛② ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ t♦✇❛r❞ ♣❧✉s ✐♥✜♥✐t② ❢♦r x > 1✳
✺✳✶✷✳ P♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ✹✷✸

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✶✷✳✹
Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ st❛t❡♠❡♥ts ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡♥t❡♥❝❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✶✷✳✺
❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ❛t x = −1 ❛♥❞ x = 1✳

❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦
❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t✇♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿
1
1 + x + x2 + x3 + ... ❛♥❞ .
1−x

❚❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❜❡❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ♦❢ ❛ s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❦✐♥❞✿

❚❤❡② ❛r❡ ❝❡♥t❡r❡❞ ♦♥ a✳ ❚❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ❧✐♥❡ ✐s ❛ ♣♦ss✐❜✐❧✐t②✳ ❚❤❡ r❡st ❛r❡ ✜♥✐t❡✳ ❚❤♦s❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ❤❛✈❡ ❡♥❞✲♣♦✐♥ts✳
❇♦t❤✱ ♦♥❡✱ ♦r ♥❡✐t❤❡r ♠❛② ❜❡❧♦♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥✳ ❆ s✐♥❣❧❡ ♣♦✐♥t ✐s ❛❧s♦ ❛ ♣♦ss✐❜✐❧✐t②✳
❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ ♥❡❡❞ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t❡r♠✐♥♦❧♦❣②✿
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✺✳✶✷✳✻✿ ✐♥t❡r✐♦r ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧
[a, b]
[a, b)
❚❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✐♦r ♦❢ ✇✐t❤ a < b ✐s (a, b)✳
(a, b]
(a, b)
❚❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✐♦r ♦❢ (−∞, +∞) ✐s (−∞, +∞)✳

❇❡❧♦✇ ✐s ❛ ❝♦♠♣❛❝t s✉♠♠❛r② ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ❛❜♦✈❡✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✶✷✳✼✿ ■♥t❡r✈❛❧ ♦❢ ❈♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡
✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ ❛ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ❝❡♥t❡r❡❞ ❛t x ✐s ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❝❡♥t❡r❡❞ ❛t a✳
✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✐♦r ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡✳

✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ✐s ✉♥✐❢♦r♠ ♦♥ ❛♥② ❝❧♦s❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✐♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✐♦r ♦❢ t❤❡

✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡✳

Pr♦♦❢✳
❋♦r s✐♠♣❧✐❝✐t②✱ ✇❡ ❛ss✉♠❡ t❤❛t a = 0✳ ■❢ t❤❡ ♦♥❧② ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t ✈❛❧✉❡ ✐s x = 0✱ ✇❡ ❛r❡ ❞♦♥❡❀ t❤❛t✬s t❤❡
✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ♥♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛♥♦t❤❡r ✈❛❧✉❡✱ x = b 6= 0✱ ✐✳❡✳✱
∞
X
cn bn ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✳
n=0
✺✳✶✷✳ P♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ✹✷✹

❚❤❡♥✱ ❜② t❤❡ ❉✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ❚❡st✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡

cn bn → 0 ,
❛♥❞✱ ✐♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱
|cn bn | ≤ M ❢♦r s♦♠❡ M .
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ ♦✉r s❡r✐❡s ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿
 x n  x n
n n    
|cn x | ≤ |cn b |   ≤ M   .
b b
❚❤❡ ❧❛st s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❛ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ♣r♦❣r❡ss✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ✐ts s❡r✐❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ✇❤❡♥❡✈❡r |x/b| < 1✱ ♦r |x| < |b|✳
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ❜② t❤❡ ❉✐r❡❝t ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❚❡st✱ ♦✉r s❡r✐❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡❧② ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② x ✐♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧
(−|b|, |b|)✳ ❲❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❛t ❛♥② t✇♦ ♣♦✐♥ts ✐♥ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ t❤❛t ❧✐❡s ❡♥t✐r❡❧② ✐♥s✐❞❡
t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥✳ ❲❡ ♣r♦✈❡❞ ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷❉❈✲✶ t❤❛t t❤✐s ♣r♦♣❡rt② ✐s ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t t♦ t❤❛t ♦❢ ❜❡✐♥❣ ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳

■♥ t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ s❡❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ✐s ❛❧s♦ ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡✳

❋♦r t❤❡ ❧❛st ♣❛rt✱ ✇❡ ♠♦❞✐❢② t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ♣r♦♦❢ s❧✐❣❤t❧②✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r p ✇✐t❤ 1 < p < 1✳
❚❤❡♥✱ ❢♦r ❛♥② x ✐♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [−p|b|, p|b|]✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❝♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ♦❢ ♦✉r s❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝
♣r♦❣r❡ss✐♦♥ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ♦❢ x✿
 x n |x| n p|b| n
|cn xn | ≤ M   ≤ M ≤ M pn .
 
≤M
b |b| |b|

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✺✳✶✷✳✽✿ r❛❞✐✉s ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡

❚❤❡ ♠✐♥✐♠❛❧ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ R ✭t❤❛t ❝♦✉❧❞ ❜❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡✮ ❢r♦♠ a t♦ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t ❢♦r ✇❤✐❝❤
t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ r❛❞✐✉s ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ❝❡♥t❡r❡❞
❛t a✳

❚❤✐s ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✐s ❧❡❣✐t✐♠❛t❡ ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ❊①✐st❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ sup ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢r♦♠ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✷❉❈✲✶✳
■❢ R ✐s t❤❡ r❛❞✐✉s ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✐s 2R ✭✇❡ ✇✐❧❧ s❡❡ ✐♥ ❱♦❧✉♠❡ ✺ t❤❛t
t❤❡r❡ ✐s✱ ✐♥ ❢❛❝t✱ ❛ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ♦❢ r❛❞✐✉s R✮✳
❚❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ t❤❡ t❤r❡❡ ♣♦ss✐❜✐❧✐t✐❡s✿

❲❡ ♠❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❧❛st t❤❡♦r❡♠ ♠♦r❡ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✶✷✳✾✿ ❘❛❞✐✉s ♦❢ ❈♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ P♦✇❡r ❙❡r✐❡s
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ R ✐s t❤❡ r❛❞✐✉s ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s✿

∞
X
cn (x − a)n .
n=0

❚❤❡♥✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

✶✳ ❲❤❡♥ R = ∞✱ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ✐s (−∞, +∞)✳

✺✳✶✷✳ P♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ✹✷✺

✷✳ ❲❤❡♥ R < ∞✱ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ✐s ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❡♥❞✲♣♦✐♥ts
a − R ❛♥❞ a + R ✭♣♦ss✐❜❧② ✐♥❝❧✉❞❡❞ ♦r ❡①❝❧✉❞❡❞✮✳
✸✳ ❲❤❡♥ R = 0✱ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ✐s {a}✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✶✷✳✶✵

●✐✈❡ ❛♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ❢♦r ❝❛s❡ ✸✳

▲❡t✬s ❛ss✐❣♥ ❞♦♠❛✐♥s t♦ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥s ❡st❛❜❧✐s❤❡❞ ♣r❡✈✐♦✉s❧②✿

s❡r✐❡s ✐ts s✉♠ ✐ts ❞♦♠❛✐♥

∞
X 1
xn = (−1, 1)
n=0
1−x
∞
X 1 n
x = ex (−∞, +∞)
n=0
n!
∞
X (−1)k
x2k+1 = sin x (−∞, +∞)
k=0
(2k + 1)!
∞
X (−1)k
x2k = cos x (−∞, +∞)
k=0
(2k)!

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✶✷✳✶✶

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❧❛st t✇♦✳ ❍✐♥t✿ ❙t❛rt ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s✳

❚❤❡ ♠❛✐♥ ♠❡t❤♦❞ ♦❢ ✜♥❞✐♥❣ ❛ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ✐ts ❚❛②❧♦r s❡r✐❡s✳ ❖t❤❡r ♠❡t❤♦❞s
❛r❡ ✐♥❞✐r❡❝t✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✶✷✳✶✷✿ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ✈✐❛ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥

❙♦♠❡t✐♠❡s ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❜② ✐♥❣❡♥✐♦✉s❧② ❛♣♣❧②✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛
❢♦r t❤❡ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ s❡r✐❡s✱ ❜❛❝❦✇❛r❞✿
∞
1 X
= rn , ❢♦r |r| < 1 .
1 − r n=0

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ✉s❡❞ t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛ t♦ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥✿

∞
1 X
= xn .
1 − x n=0

◆♦✇✱ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

1
f (x) =
1 − x2
✐s r❡❝♦❣♥✐③❡❞ ❛s t❤❡ ❧❡❢t✲❤❛♥❞ s✐❞❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✜rst ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✇✐t❤ r = x2 ✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ s✐♠♣❧② ✇r✐t❡ ✐t
❛s ❛ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ✭✇✐t❤ ♦♥❧② ❡✈❡♥ t❡r♠s✮✿
∞ ∞
1 X
2 n
X
= (x ) = x2n .
1 − x2 n=0 n=0
✺✳✶✷✳ P♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ✹✷✻

❙✐♠✐❧❛r❧②✱ ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ r = x3 ✱ ❛❢t❡r ❢❛❝t♦r✐♥❣✱ ❜❡❧♦✇✿

∞ ∞
x 1 X
3 n
X
=x =x (x ) = x3n+1 .
1 − x3 1 − x3 n=0 n=0

❖♥❡ ♠♦r❡ ✭r = 2x✮✿

∞ ∞
1 X X
= (2x)n = 2 n · xn .
1 − 2x n=0 n=0

❚❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ❛ s❡r✐❡s ❝♦♥str✉❝t❡❞ t❤✐s ✇❛② ♠❛② ❜❡ ❡❧s❡✇❤❡r❡✿

∞ ∞
1 1 X X
= = (1 − x)n = (−1)(x − 1)n .
x 1 − (1 − x) n=0 n=0

❚❤✐s ♠❡t❤♦❞ ❛♠♦✉♥ts t♦ ❛ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✶✷✳✶✸

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ r❛❞✐✉s ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s✳

❚❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ t❡r♠✐♥♦❧♦❣② s✐♠♣❧✐✜❡s t❤❡ t✇♦ r❡s✉❧ts ❡st❛❜❧✐s❤❡❞ ♣r❡✈✐♦✉s❧②✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✶✷✳✶✹✿ ❘❛t✐♦ ❛♥❞ ❘♦♦t ❚❡sts ❢♦r P♦✇❡r ❙❡r✐❡s

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ cn ✐s ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✇✐t❤ ♥♦♥✲③❡r♦ t❡r♠s✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t✇♦
❧✐♠✐ts ❡①✐sts✱ ❛s ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦r ❛s ✐♥✜♥✐t②✿
 
 cn  1
R = lim 
  ♦r R = p .
n→∞ cn+1  limn→∞ n |cn |

❚❤❡♥✱ R ✐s t❤❡ r❛❞✐✉s ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s

∞
X
cn (x − a)n .
n=0

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✶✷✳✶✺✿ r❛❞✐✉s ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r X xn
.
n
❋♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❘❛t✐♦ ❚❡st✱ ✇❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ r❛❞✐✉s ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ❛s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❧✐♠✐t✿
 
 1/n 
R = lim   = lim n + 1 = 1 .
n→∞ 1/(n + 1)  n→∞ n

❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✐♦r ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ✐s (−1, 1)✳ ◆♦✇ t❤❡ ❡♥❞✲♣♦✐♥ts✿
X xn X1
x=1 =⇒ = ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥t ❤❛r♠♦♥✐❝ s❡r✐❡s.
n n
X xn X (−1)n
x = −1 =⇒ = ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐♥❣ ❤❛r♠♦♥✐❝ s❡r✐❡s.
n n
X
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ✐s [−1, 1)✳ ❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ♦♥❡ ♠♦r❡ ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ✐♥ ❝♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ t♦ xn ✳

❆ ❣✐✈❡♥ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ ✐ts ❞♦♠❛✐♥✳ ❇❡❝❛✉s❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❯♥✐q✉❡♥❡ss ♦❢ t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ♦❢
✺✳✶✷✳ P♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ✹✷✼

❙❡r✐❡s✱ ✐t ❝❛♥✬t ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ t✇♦✦

▲❡t✬s ❧♦♦❦ ❛t t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥✿
◮ ❈❛♥ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❤❛✈❡ t✇♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥s ❜② ❛ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s❄
❚❤❡ ✐ss✉❡ ✐s ❤❛♥❞❧❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♠❛♥♥❡r t❤❛t ✇♦✉❧❞ ❛♣♣❧② t♦ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✶✷✳✶✻✿ st❛♥❞❛r❞ ❢♦r♠ ♦❢ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s

❚❤❡r❡ ✐s t❤❡ st❛♥❞❛r❞ ✇❛② t♦ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡♠✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ x + x = 2x ✐s ❞✐s❝♦✈❡r❡❞ t♦ ❜❡ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ♦♥❝❡ ✇❡ ❝❤♦♦s❡ t♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❡ t❤❡ s✐♠✐❧❛r t❡r♠s✳

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥❀ s✉♣♣♦s❡

l(x) = mx + b = nx + c ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ x .

❙✐♥❝❡ ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❝❛♥ ♦♥❧② ❤❛✈❡ ♦♥❡ s❧♦♣❡ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❡ y ✲✐♥t❡r❝❡♣t✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❛t m = n ❛♥❞
b = c✳ ❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ♦♥❧② ♦♥❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥✦

▲❡t✬s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ❛ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧❀ s✉♣♣♦s❡

p(x) = ax2 + bx + c = dx2 + ex + f ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ x .

❉♦ t❤❡s❡ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❜❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡❄ ❆❣❛✐♥✱ ✇❡ ♥♦t✐❝❡ t❤❛t c ✐s t❤❡ y ✲✐♥t❡r❝❡♣t✱ ❛♥❞ s♦ ✐s f ✳ ❚❤❡②
♠✉st ❜❡ ❡q✉❛❧ ✐❢ t❤✐s ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✦ ❲❡ ❝❛♥ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t t❤✐s ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ♦❜s❡r✈❛t✐♦♥ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛❧❧②✳
❲❡ ❥✉st ♣❧✉❣ ✐♥ x = 0 ✐♥t♦ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✿
p(0) = a02 + b0 + c = d02 + e0 + f =⇒ c = f .

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ♥♦✇ ❝❛♥❝❡❧ t❤❡s❡ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r p✿

p(x) = ax2 + bx + c = dx2 + ex + f =⇒ ax2 + bx = dx2 + ex =⇒ x(ax + b) = x(dx + e) .

❙✐♥❝❡ ✐t ❤♦❧❞s ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ t✇♦ ❡q✉❛❧ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿
ax + b = dx + e .

■t ❢♦❧❧♦✇s t❤❛t a = d ❛♥❞ b = e ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s✳ ❲❡ ❝❛♥ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡ ♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ❤✐❣❤❡r ❛♥❞
❤✐❣❤❡r ❞❡❣r❡❡s✳

❚❤❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ r❡s✉❧t ✐s ❜❡❧♦✇✳

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✶✷✳✶✼✿ ❯♥✐q✉❡♥❡ss ♦❢ P♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥

■❢ t✇♦ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡✐r ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts ✐♥ t❤❡ st❛♥❞❛r❞
❝❡♥t❡r❡❞ ❢♦r♠ ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧ t♦♦✱ ✐✳❡✳✱
N N
❢♦r ❛❧❧ x
X X
N
cn (x − a) = dn (x − a)n
n=0 n=0
=⇒ cn = dn ❢♦r ❛❧❧ n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ..., N
Pr♦♦❢✳

❚❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ✐s ❜② ✐♥❞✉❝t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r t❤❡ ❞❡❣r❡❡ N ✳ ❚❤❡ tr✐❝❦ ❝♦♥s✐sts ♦❢ ❛ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ x = a ✐♥t♦ t❤✐s
❢♦r♠✉❧❛❀ ❛❧❧ t❡r♠s ✇✐t❤ (x − a) ❞✐s❛♣♣❡❛r✿
c0 = d 0 .
✺✳✶✸✳ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦❢ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ✹✷✽

◆♦✇ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ t❡r♠s ❛r❡ ❝❛♥❝❡❧❡❞ ❢r♦♠ ♦✉r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✱ ♣r♦❞✉❝✐♥❣✿
N
X N
X
n
cn (x − a) = dn (x − a)n .
n=1 n=1

❆s ②♦✉ ❝❛♥ s❡❡✱ t❤❡ s✉♠♠❛t✐♦♥ st❛rts ✇✐t❤ n = 1 ♥♦✇✳ ❚❤❡ ♣♦✇❡r ♦❢ (x − a) ✐♥ ❡✈❡r② t❡r♠ ✐s t❤❡♥ ❛t
❧❡❛st 1✳ ❲❡ ❝❛♥ ♥♦✇ ❢❛❝t♦r ♦✉t (x − a)✱ ♣r♦❞✉❝✐♥❣✿
N
X N
X
(x − a) cn (x − a)n−1 = (x − a) dn (x − a)n−1 ,
n=1 n=1

♦r N −1 N −1
X X
k
(x − a) ck+1 (x − a) = (x − a) dk+1 (x − a)k .
k=0 k=0

❙✐♥❝❡ t❤✐s ❤♦❧❞s ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x✱ t❤❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ✐♥ ♣❛r❡♥t❤❡s❡s ✭♦❢ ❞❡❣r❡❡ N − 1✮ ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧✳ ❚❤❡② ♠✉st ❤❛✈❡
❡q✉❛❧ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts ❜② t❤❡ ✐♥❞✉❝t✐✈❡ ❛ss✉♠♣t✐♦♥✳
❚❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ❛♣♣❧✐❡s ✭❜✉t ♥♦t t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢✱ t♦ ❜❡ ♣r♦✈✐❞❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♥❡①t s❡❝t✐♦♥✮ t♦ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s✿
❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✶✷✳✶✽✿ ❯♥✐q✉❡♥❡ss ♦❢ P♦✇❡r ❙❡r✐❡s ❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥

■❢ t✇♦ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧✱ ❛s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ♦♥ ❛♥ ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡✐r ❝♦r✲
r❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧ t♦♦✱ ✐✳❡✳✱
∞ ∞
❢♦r ❛❧❧ a − r < x < a + r,
X X
n
cn (x − a) = dn (x − a)n r>0
n=0 n=0
=⇒ cn = dn ❢♦r ❛❧❧ n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦

❚❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❢♦❧❧♦✇ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❜❡❝❛✉s❡

t❤❡ ❢❛❝t t❤❛t t✇♦ ❧✐♠✐ts ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧ ❞♦❡s♥✬t ✐♠♣❧② t❤❛t

s♦ ❛r❡ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✳

✺✳✶✸✳ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦❢ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s

■s t❤❡r❡ ❛ r❡❛s♦♥ t♦ st✉❞② ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ❜❡s✐❞❡s ❛s ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s❄

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r a ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✐t❡♠s ❝r❡❛t❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ f ✿
✶✳ ❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✱
c0 , c1 , c2 , ...

✷✳ ❋♦r ❡❛❝❤ ✐♥♣✉t x✱ ✐ts ✈❛❧✉❡ ✉♥❞❡r t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ❜② s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♥❣ ✐t ✐♥t♦ ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✱ ❛ ♣♦✇❡r
s❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ s❡r✈✐♥❣ ❛s ✐ts ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts✿
∞
X
f (x) = cn (x − a)n .
n=0

✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s✳

✺✳✶✸✳ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦❢ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ✹✷✾

P♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ❛r❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✦

❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♠❛② ❜❡ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ❢♦r ❡✈❡r② ♦❝❝❛s✐♦♥✱ ❜✉t ❛r❡ t❤❡② ❛s ❣♦♦❞ ❛s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s❄

❲❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✳

❏✉st ❛s ✇✐t❤ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❝❛rr② ♦✉t ✭s♦♠❡✮ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ♦♥ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s✱ ♣r♦❞✉❝✐♥❣
♥❡✇ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✇❤❛t ✐s tr✉❧② ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ✐s t❤❛t ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❞♦ t❤❡s❡ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s t❡r♠ ❜② t❡r♠✳ ❚❤❡
✐❞❡❛ ❝♦♠❡s ❢r♦♠ ♦✉r ❡①♣❡r✐❡♥❝❡ ✇✐t❤ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ❀ ❛❢t❡r ❛❧❧ t❤❡ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s✱ ✇❡ ✇❛♥t t♦ ♣✉t t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐♥ t❤❡
st❛♥❞❛r❞ ❢♦r♠✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ ✇✐t❤ ❛❧❧ t❡r♠s ❛rr❛♥❣❡❞ ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ♣♦✇❡rs✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✶✸✳✶✿ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦❢ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ❛♥❞ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s

❋✐rst✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❞❞ t✇♦ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ♦♥❡ t❡r♠ ❛t ❛ t✐♠❡✿

p(x) =1 +2x +3x2

q(x) =7 +5x −2x2
p(x) + q(x) = (1 + 7) +(2 + 5)x +(3 − 2)x2

❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ❛❞❞ t✇♦ s❡r✐❡s ♦♥❡ t❡r♠ ❛t ❛ t✐♠❡ ✭✇❤❡♥ t❤❡② ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡✮✿

p(x) = c0 +c1 x +c2 x2 +...

q(x) = d0 +d1 x +d2 x2 +...
p(x) + q(x) = (c0 + d0 ) +(c1 + d1 )x +(c2 + d2 )x2 +...

❙❡❝♦♥❞✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧② ❛ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ❜② ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦♥❡ t❡r♠ ❛t ❛ t✐♠❡✿

p(x) =1 +2x +3x2

2p(x) = (2 · 1) +(2 · 2)x +(2 · 3)x2

❲❡ ❛❧s♦ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧② ❛ s❡r✐❡s ❜② ❛ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦♥❡ t❡r♠ ❛t ❛ t✐♠❡ ✭✇❤❡♥ ✐t ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s✮✿

p(x) = c0 +c1 x +c2 x2 +...

2
kp(x) = (kc0 ) +(kc1 )x +(kc2 )x +...

❚❤❡ ❝❛✈❡❛t ✏✇❤❡♥ t❤❡② ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡✑ ❞✐s❛♣♣❡❛rs ✐❢ t❤❡ st❛rt✐♥❣ ♣♦✐♥t ✐s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ♥♦t ❛ s❡r✐❡s✳

❚❤❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ r❡s✉❧t ✐s ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✶✸✳✷✿ ❚❡r♠✲❜②✲❚❡r♠ ❆❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦❢ P♦✇❡r ❙❡r✐❡s

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❜② ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s✿

∞
X ∞
X
f (x) = cn (x − a)n ❛♥❞ g(x) = dn (x − a)n .
n=0 n=0

❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
✶✳ ❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f + g ✐s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s t❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ t❡r♠✲❜②✲
t❡r♠ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤♦s❡ ♦❢ f ❛♥❞ g ✱ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡✐r ❞♦♠❛✐♥s✿

∞
X ∞
X ∞
X
(f + g)(x) = cn (x − a)n + dn (x − a)n = (cn + dn )(x − a)n
n=0 n=0 n=0

✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ kf ✱ ❢♦r ❛♥② ❝♦♥st❛♥t k ✱ ✐s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s t❤❛t
✺✳✶✸✳ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦❢ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ✹✸✵

✐s t❤❡ t❡r♠✲❜②✲t❡r♠ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t❤❛t ♦❢ f ✱ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥✿

∞
X ∞
X
(kf )(x) = k · cn (x − a)n = (kcn )(x − a)n
n=0 n=0

Pr♦♦❢✳

❚❤❡ ✜rst ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ✐s ❥✉st✐✜❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❙❡r✐❡s✳ ❚❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ ✐s ❥✉st✐✜❡❞ ❜② t❤❡
❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❙❡r✐❡s✳
■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ t❤❡s❡ ✏✐♥✜♥✐t❡✑ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ❜❡❤❛✈❡ ❥✉st ❧✐❦❡ ♦r❞✐♥❛r② ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s✱ ✇❤❡r❡✈❡r t❤❡② ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡✳

◆❡①t ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s✱ ♦❢ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s✳

❲❡ ✇✐❧❧ s❡❡ t❤❛t✱ ❥✉st ❛s ✇✐t❤ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✐♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❝❛rr② ♦✉t t❤❡ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ♦♥ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s✱
♣r♦❞✉❝✐♥❣ ♥❡✇ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s✳ ❍♦✇❡✈❡r✱ ✇❤❛t ✐s tr✉❧② ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ✐s t❤❛t ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❞♦ t❤❡s❡ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s t❡r♠ ❜②
t❡r♠✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✶✸✳✸✿ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦❢ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ❛♥❞ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s

▲❡t✬s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ ❛♥❞ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t❡ ✕ ♦♥❧② t❤❡ P♦✇❡r ❋♦r♠✉❧❛ r❡q✉✐r❡❞ ✕ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s✳
❋✐rst✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ ❛ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ♦♥❡ t❡r♠ ❛t ❛ t✐♠❡✿

p(x) = 1 +2x +3x2

p′ (x) = 0 +2 +3 · 2x

▼❛②❜❡ t❤✐s ✐s ❥✉st t❤❡ ❜❡❣✐♥♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ ❛ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s✿

p(x) = 1 +2x +3x2 +...

p′ (x) = 0 +2 +3 · 2x +...

❙❡❝♦♥❞✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t❡ ❛ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ♦♥❡ t❡r♠ ❛t ❛ t✐♠❡✿

p(x) = 1 +2x +3x2

Z
p(x) dx = C +x +x2 +x3

❲❤❛t ✐❢ t❤✐s ✇❛s ❥✉st t❤❡ ❜❡❣✐♥♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ ❛ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s❄

✺✳✶✸✳ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦❢ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ✹✸✶

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✶✸✳✹✿ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥

▲❡t✬s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ t❤❡ t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿
1 2 1 3 1 n 1
ex = 1 + x + x + x + ... + x + xn+1 +...
   2! 3!
 n! (n +1)!
   d   
d
y dx
d
y dx
d
y dx ↓ dx d
y dx
d
y dx
d
y dx
❄ 1 1 2 1 n−1 1
(ex )′ == 0 + 1 + 2x + 3x + ... + nx + (n + 1)xn +...
2! 3! n! (n + 1)!
1 2 1 1 n
= 1 + x + x + ... + xn−1 + x +...
2! (n − 1)! n!
= ex

■t ✇♦r❦s✦

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✶✸✳✺✿ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥

▲❡t✬s ✐♥t❡❣r❛t❡ t❤❡ t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿
1 2 1 n 1
ex = 1 + x + x + ... + x + xn+1 +...
   2!
 n! (n+ 1)!
R R R R R R
     
y y y y y y
Z
❄ 1 2 11 3 1 1 1 1
ex dx == C+ x + x + x + ... + xn+1 + xn+2 +...
2 2! 3 n! n + 1 (n + 1)! n + 2
1 2 1 3 1 1
= C+ x + x + x + ... + xn+1 + xn+2 +...
2! 3! (n + 1)! (n + 2)!
= K+ ex

■t ✇♦r❦s✦

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✶✸✳✻
Pr♦✈✐❞❡ ❞❡t❛✐❧s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛❜♦✈❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s✳

❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ t❡r♠s ✐s ❡❛s②✿

Z
d

cn
cn (x − a)n = ncn (x − a)n−1 , cn (x − a)n dx = (x − a)n+1 .
dx n+1

❚❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ✐s ❝❡♥tr❛❧✿

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✶✸✳✼✿ ❚❡r♠✲❜②✲❚❡r♠ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦❢ P♦✇❡r ❙❡r✐❡s
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ r❛❞✐✉s ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s✱
∞
X
f (x) = an (x − a)n ,
n=0

✐s ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ♦r ✐♥✜♥✐t❡✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❜② t❤✐s ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ✐s

❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ✭❛♥❞✱ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡✮ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡
♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛♥❞ ✐ts ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ ✐♥
t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✐♦r ♦❢ t❤✐s ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❛♥❞ ❛r❡ ❢♦✉♥❞ ❜② t❡r♠✲❜②✲t❡r♠ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞
✺✳✶✸✳ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦❢ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ✹✸✷

✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ♦❢ f r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✱ ✐✳❡✳✱

∞
!′ ∞
X X
′
′ n
f (x) = cn (x − a) = cn (x − a)n
n=0 n=0

❛♥❞

Z Z ∞
! ∞ Z
X X
n
f (x) dx = cn (x − a) dx = cn (x − a)n dx
n=0 n=0

❲✐t❤ t❤✐s t❤❡♦r❡♠✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ♥❡❡❞ ❢♦r t❤❡ r✉❧❡s ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦r ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❡①❝❡♣t ❢♦r t❤❡ P♦✇❡r
❋♦r♠✉❧❛ ✦
❲❛r♥✐♥❣✦
❚❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ s♣❡❛❦s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✐♦r ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧❀
t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ❛❜♦✉t ✐ts ❡♥❞✲♣♦✐♥ts✳

▲❡t✬s ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❢♦r t❤❡ ♥❡✇ s❡r✐❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ st❛♥❞❛r❞ ❢♦r♠✿

❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✺✳✶✸✳✽✿ ❚❡r♠✲❜②✲❚❡r♠ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ P♦✇❡r ❙❡r✐❡s

■♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✐♦r ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

∞
X ∞
X ∞
X
f ′ (x) = (cn (x − a)n )′ = ncn (x − a)n−1 = (k + 1)ck+1 (x − a)k .
n=0 n=1 k=0

◆♦t❡ t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ✐♥❞❡① ♦❢ 1 ✐♥st❡❛❞ ♦❢ 0 ✐♥ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✳

❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✺✳✶✸✳✾✿ ❚❡r♠✲❜②✲❚❡r♠ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ P♦✇❡r ❙❡r✐❡s

■♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✐♦r ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿

Z ∞ Z ∞ ∞
X
n
X cn n+1
X ck−1
f (x) dx = cn (x−a) dx = C+ (x−a) = C+ (x−a)k .
n=0 n=0
n+1 k=1
k

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✶✸✳✶✵✿ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s

■♥ ❝♦♥tr❛st t♦ t❤❡ ❧❛st ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ❧❡t✬s ✉s❡ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ t♦ ✏❞✐s❝♦✈❡r✑ ❛ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ r❛t❤❡r t❤❛♥ ❝♦♥✜r♠ ✐t✳

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ♠♦❞❡❧ t❤❛t st❛t❡s t❤❛t ❛ q✉❛♥t✐t②✬s r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✐s ♣r♦♣♦rt✐♦♥❛❧ ✭♦r ❡q✉❛❧ ❛t ✐ts
s✐♠♣❧❡st✮ t♦ t❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ q✉❛♥t✐t②✳ ❲❡ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ s♦❧✈❡ t❤✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✿

f′ = f .

❲❡ ❛ss✉♠❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ✉♥❦♥♦✇♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ✐s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❜② ❛ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s✳ ❲❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ t❤❡
✺✳✶✸✳ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦❢ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ✹✸✸

s❡r✐❡s ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ♠❛t❝❤ t❤❡ t❡r♠s ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✿

f = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + c3 x3 + ... + cn xn +...
′ 2 n−1
f = c1 + 2c2 x + 3c3 x + ... + ncn x +...
=⇒ ւ ւ ւ ... ւ
f′ = c1 + 2c2 x + 3c3 x2 + ... + ncn xn−1 + (n + 1)cn+1 xn +...
|| || || || || ||
2 n−1
f = c0 + c1 x + c2 x + ... + cn−1 x + cn xn +...

❆❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ❯♥✐q✉❡♥❡ss ♦❢ P♦✇❡r ❙❡r✐❡s✱ t❤❡ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❜❡ ❡q✉❛❧✦

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❝r❡❛t❡❞ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s✿

c1 2c2 3c3 ... (n + 1)cn+1 ...

|| || || ||
c0 c1 c2 ... cn ...

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rt❡❞ ❛ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ✐♥t♦ ❛♥ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠✦

❲❡ ❢❛❝❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ✇✐t❤ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② ✉♥❦♥♦✇♥s✳ ❲❡ st❛rt s♦❧✈✐♥❣ ♦♥❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❛t ❛
t✐♠❡ ❛♥❞ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐♥t♦ t❤❡ ♥❡①t ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✱ ♠♦✈✐♥❣ ❢r♦♠ ❧❡❢t t♦ r✐❣❤t✿

c1 =⇒ c1 = c0 2c2 =⇒ c2 = c0 /2 3c3 =⇒ c3 = c0 /(2 · 3) 4c4

|| || || ||
c0 =⇒ c1 = c0 =⇒ c2 = c0 /2 =⇒ c3 = ...

❚❤❡ ♣❛tt❡r♥ ❜❡❝♦♠❡s ❝❧❡❛r✿

cn
cn+1 = .
n
❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱
c0
cn = .
n!
❚❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ✐s s♦❧✈❡❞✦ ■♥❞❡❡❞✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇❡ ❛r❡ ❧♦♦❦✐♥❣ ❢♦r✿
∞ ∞
X c0 n
X 1 n
f (x) = x = c0 x ,
n=0
n! n=0
n!

❛♥❞ ✐t ✇✐❧❧ ❣✐✈❡ ✉s t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ f ✇✐t❤ ❛♥② ❛❝❝✉r❛❝② ✇❡ ✇❛♥t✳ ❚❤❡ ♦♥❧② ♠✐ss✐♥❣ ♣❛rt ✐♥ t❤✐s ♣r♦❣r❛♠
✐s t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ❀ ✐t ✐s ❞♦♥❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❘❛t✐♦ ❚❡st ✭s❡❡♥ ♣r❡✈✐♦✉s❧②✮✿ R = ∞✳ ❆s ❛ ❜♦♥✉s ✭❥✉st
❛ ❜♦♥✉s✦✮✱ ✇❡ r❡❝♦❣♥✐③❡ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t✐♥❣ s❡r✐❡s✿ f (x) = c0 ex ✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✶✸✳✶✶

❆♣♣❧② t❤❡ ♠❡t❤♦❞ t♦ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s✿ ✭❛✮ f ′ = 2f ❀ ✭❜✮ f ′ = f + 1❀ ✭❝✮ f ′′ = f ❀ ✭❞✮ f ′′ = −f ✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✶✸✳✶✷

❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ ♠❡t❤♦❞ ❞♦❡s♥✬t ✇♦r❦ ❢♦r f ′ = f 2 ✳

❚❤✐s ♠❡t❤♦❞ ♦❢ s♦❧✈✐♥❣ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ✐s ❢✉rt❤❡r ❞✐s❝✉ss❡❞ ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✺❉❊✲✷✳

❚❤❡ ♥❡✇ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ t♦ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ✐s ❜❛s❡❞ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t✿
✺✳✶✸✳ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦❢ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ✹✸✹

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✺✳✶✸✳✶✸✿ ❛♥❛❧②t✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

❆ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ♦♥ ❛♥ ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ t❤❛t ❝❛♥ ❜❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❜② ❛ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s
✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛♥❛❧②t✐❝ ♦♥ t❤✐s ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳

❲❡ ❝❛♥ ✜♥❛❧❧② ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t r❡s✉❧t ✇❡ ♣✉t ❢♦r✇❛r❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❧❛st s❡❝t✐♦♥✿
❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✺✳✶✸✳✶✹✿ ❯♥✐q✉❡♥❡ss ♦❢ P♦✇❡r ❙❡r✐❡s ❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥
❆♥ ❛♥❛❧②t✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❤❛s ❛ ✉♥✐q✉❡ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥✱ ✐✳❡✳✱ ✐❢ t✇♦ ♣♦✇❡r
s❡r✐❡s ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧✱ ❛s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ♦♥ ❛♥ ♦♣❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡✐r ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣
❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧ t♦♦✱ ✐✳❡✳✱
∞
X ∞
X
f (x) = cn (x − a) n
= dn (x − a)n ❢♦r ❛❧❧ a − r < x < a + r, r > 0
n=0 n=0
=⇒ cn = dn ❢♦r ❛❧❧ n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...

Pr♦♦❢✳
■t✬s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥❀ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ❛t x = a ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡✿
∞
X ∞
X
n
f (a) = cn (a − a) = dn (a − a)n =⇒
n=0 n=0
f (a) = c0 = d0

■t✬s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥❀ t❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ❛t x = a ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡✿
∞
X ∞
X
′ n−1
f (a) = cn n(a − a) = dn n(a − a)n−1 =⇒
n=1 n=1
f ′ (a) = c1 = d1

❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✱ s♦ ♦♥✳

❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✺✳✶✸✳✶✺
❊✈❡r② ❛♥❛❧②t✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② t✐♠❡s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡✳

❲❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡❄ ❲❤❛t ❦✐♥❞ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❝❛♥ ❜❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❜② ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s❄
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✶✸✳✶✻✿ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s
❈♦♥s✐❞❡r ❛❣❛✐♥✿
1
f (x) = .
x−1
❚❤❡ ♣✐❝t✉r❡ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡s t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t✐♥❣ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❜② ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s✳ ❚❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡rs ✇❡ tr②
❛r❡ a = 0, −.5, .5✿
✺✳✶✸✳ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦❢ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ✹✸✺

▲❛r❣❡ ♣❛rts ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ❧✐❡ ♦✉ts✐❞❡ t❤❡ str✐♣ ❡✈❡r② t✐♠❡✳ ❲❤②❄ ❇❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ ❛♥② ♦❢ t❤❡s❡
♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ✐s ❛♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❝❡♥t❡r❡❞ ❛t a t❤❛t ❝❛♥♥♦t ❝♦♥t❛✐♥ 1✦ ❚❤❡ ❣♦♦❞ ♥❡✇s ✐s t❤❛t t♦❣❡t❤❡r t❤❡②
❝♦✈❡r t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ❣r❛♣❤✳

❚❤❡ t❡r♠✲❜②✲t❡r♠ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❛❧❧♦✇s ✉s t♦ r❡❞✐s❝♦✈❡r t❤❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ✇❡ ❛❧r❡❛❞② ❤❛✈❡
❛ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ❛ r❛❞✐✉s ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ R > 0✿
f (x) = c0 + c1 (x − a) + c2 (x − a)2 + c3 (x − a)3 + ... + cn (x − a)n + ...

▲❡t✬s ❡①♣r❡ss t❤❡ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐ts❡❧❢✳ ❚❤❡ tr✐❝❦ ✐s ♣❛rt❧② t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❛s ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣r♦♦❢ ♦❢
t❤❡ ❧❛st t❤❡♦r❡♠✿ ❲❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ x = a ✐♥t♦ t❤✐s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❡❞ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s✱ ❡①❝❡♣t t❤✐s t✐♠❡ ✇❡ ❞♦♥✬t ❞✐✈✐❞❡
❜✉t r❛t❤❡r ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡✳ ❋✐rst s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ❣✐✈❡s ✉s ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❛❧r❡❛❞② ❦♥♦✇✿
f (a) = c0 .

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❢♦✉♥❞ c0 ✳ ❲❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡✱

f ′ (x) = c1 + 2c2 (x − a) + 3c3 (x − a)2 + ... + ncn (x − a)n−1 + ... ,

❛♥❞ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ x = a✱ ❣✐✈✐♥❣ ✉s✿

f ′ (a) = c1 .
❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❢♦✉♥❞ c1 ✳ ❲❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ ♦♥❡ ♠♦r❡ t✐♠❡✱
f ′′ (x) = 2c2 + 3c3 (x − a) + ... + n(n − 1)cn (x − a)n−2 + ... ,

❛♥❞ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡ x = a✱ ❣✐✈✐♥❣ ✉s✿

f ′′ (a) = 2c2 .
❆❢t❡r m st❡♣s✱ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡✿
f (m) (x) = m(m− 1)...3 · 2 · 1 · cm +m(m− 1)...3· 2· cm−1 (x− a)+ ... +n· (n− 1) · · · (n− m) · cn (x− a)n−m + ... ,

❛♥❞ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♥❣ x = a ❣✐✈❡s ✉s✿

f (m) (a) = m!cm .
❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❢♦✉♥❞ cm ✳
❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ♦❢ t❤✐s ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇✿
✺✳✶✸✳ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦❢ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ✹✸✻

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✶✸✳✶✼✿ ❚❛②❧♦r ❈♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts

■❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❜② ❛ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ✇✐t❤ ❛ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ r❛❞✐✉s ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r✲
❣❡♥❝❡✱
f (x) = c0 + c1 (x − a) + c2 (x − a)2 + c3 (x − a)3 + ... + cn (x − a)n + ... ,

t❤❡♥ ✐ts ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts✿

f (n) (a)
cn = .
n!

❚❤✉s✱ t❤❡ nt❤ ♣❛rt✐❛❧ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤✐s s❡r✐❡s ✐s t❤❡ nt❤ ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ♦❢ f ✳
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✺✳✶✸✳✶✽✿ ❚❛②❧♦r s❡r✐❡s
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f ✐s ❛♥ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s
c0 + c1 (x − a) + c2 (x − a)2 + c3 (x − a)3 + ... + cn (x − a)n + ... ,

✇✐t❤ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts✿
f (n) (a)
cn =
n!
✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ❚❛②❧♦r s❡r✐❡s ♦❢ f ❛t x = a✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✶✸✳✶✾✿ s✐♥❡ ❛♥❞ ❝♦s✐♥❡

▲❡t✬s ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r f (x) = sin x ❛t x = 0✳ ❲❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❛❧r❡❛❞②
❦♥♦✇✿

❲❡ ♥❡❡❞ t❤❡♠ ❛❧❧✿

f (x) = sin x =⇒ f (0) =0 =⇒ T0 (x) = 0
′ ′
f (x) = cos x =⇒ f (0) =1 =⇒ T1 (x) = x
f ′′ (x) = − sin x =⇒ f ′′ (0) =0 =⇒ T2 (x) = x
′ ′ 1
f ′′ (x) = − cos x =⇒ f ′′ (0) = −1 =⇒ T3 (x) = 1 − x3
6
...

❚❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ st❛rts t♦ r❡♣❡❛t ✐ts❡❧❢✱ ❡✈❡r② ❢♦✉r st❡♣s✳ ❖❢ ❝♦✉rs❡✱ ❡✈❡r② ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ❧❡❛✈❡s ❢♦r ✐♥✜♥✐t②
❡✈❡♥t✉❛❧❧②✱ ❜✉t t❤❡ r❡s❡♠❜❧❛♥❝❡ ❡①t❡♥❞s ❢✉rt❤❡r ❛♥❞ ❢✉rt❤❡r ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r✿
✺✳✶✸✳ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦❢ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ✹✸✼

❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♥♦ ❡✈❡♥ ♣♦✇❡rs ♣r❡s❡♥t ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡ s✐♥❡ ✐s ♦❞❞✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱

f (2m−1) (0) = (−1)m .

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts✿

(−1)m
c2m−1 = .
(2m − 1)!
▲❡t✬s ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ f (x) = cos x ❛t x = 0✳ ❲❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ ✇❤❛t ✇❡ ❛❧r❡❛❞② ❦♥♦✇✿

❲❡ ♥❡❡❞ t❤❡♠ ❛❧❧✿

f (x) = cos x =⇒ f (0) =1 =⇒ T0 (x) = 1

′ ′
f (x) = − sin x =⇒ f (0) =0 =⇒ T1 (x) = 1
1
f ′′ (x) = − cos x =⇒ f ′′ (0) = −1 =⇒ T2 (x) = 1 − x2
2
′ ′ 1
f ′′ (x) = sin x =⇒ f ′′ (0) = 0 =⇒ T3 (x) = 1 − x2
2
f (4) (x) = cos x (4)
=⇒ f (0) = 1
...

❚❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ st❛rts t♦ r❡♣❡❛t ✐ts❡❧❢✱ ❡✈❡r② ❢♦✉r st❡♣s✳ ❖♥❝❡ ❛❣❛✐♥✱ ❡✈❡r② ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ❧❡❛✈❡s ❢♦r ✐♥✜♥✐t②
❡✈❡♥t✉❛❧❧②✱ ❜✉t t❤❡ r❡s❡♠❜❧❛♥❝❡ ❡①t❡♥❞s ❢✉rt❤❡r ❛♥❞ ❢✉rt❤❡r ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r✿
✺✳✶✸✳ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦❢ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ✹✸✽

❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♥♦ ♦❞❞ ♣♦✇❡rs ♣r❡s❡♥t ❜❡❝❛✉s❡ t❤❡ ❝♦s✐♥❡ ✐s ❡✈❡♥✳ ❚❤❡r❡❢♦r❡✱
f (2m) (0) = (−1)m .

❲❡ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts✿

(−1)m
c2m = .
(2m)!
❚❤✐s ✐s ✇❤❛t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ♣❡r✐♦❞✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✇♦✉❧❞ ❧♦♦❦ ❧✐❦❡✿

❚❤❡② ❡✈❡♥t✉❛❧❧② ❜❡❝♦♠❡ ❜❛❞✱ ❜✉t t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ✇❤❡r❡ t❤✐♥❣s ❛r❡ ❣♦♦❞ ✐s ❡①♣❛♥❞✐♥❣✳
❚❤❡ s✉r♣r✐s✐♥❣ ❜②♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥ t❤❛t t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ ❛♥❛❧②t✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡❞
❜② t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ✐ts ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❛t ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ ♣♦✐♥t✳
❈♦r♦❧❧❛r② ✺✳✶✸✳✷✵

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f, g ❛r❡ ❛♥❛❧②t✐❝ ♦♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ (a−R, a+R), R > 0✳ ■❢ t❤❡② ❤❛✈❡ ♠❛t❝❤✐♥❣
❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ ❛❧❧ ♦r❞❡rs ❛t a✱ t❤❡② ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧ ♦♥ t❤✐s ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧❀ ✐✳❡✳✱

f (n) (a) = g (n) (a) ❢♦r ❛❧❧ n = 0, 1, 2, ... =⇒ f (x) = g(x) ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x ✐♥ (a−R, a+R) .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✶✸✳✷✶

Pr♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❝♦r♦❧❧❛r②✳ ❍✐♥t✿ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r f − g✳

❙✐♥❝❡ t❤❡s❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❛r❡✱ ✐♥ t✉r♥✱ ❢✉❧❧② ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦♥ ❛ s♠❛❧❧ ✭♥♦ ♠❛tt❡r
❤♦✇ s♠❛❧❧✮ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❛r♦✉♥❞ t❤✐s ♣♦✐♥t✱ ✇❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡✿
◮ ❚❤❡r❡ ✐s ♦♥❧② ♦♥❡ ✇❛② t♦ ❡①t❡♥❞ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❜❡②♦♥❞ t❤✐s ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✳
✺✳✶✸✳ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦❢ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ✹✸✾

❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❛r♦✉♥❞ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t ✇✐❧❧ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❜❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❡✈❡r②✇❤❡r❡ ❡❧s❡✳ ❆ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
❧✐♥❡❛r ❛r♦✉♥❞ ❛ ♣♦✐♥t ✇✐❧❧ ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❜❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❡✈❡r②✇❤❡r❡ ❡❧s❡✳ ❆♥❞ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s t♦♦✳

❇❡❧♦✇ ✐s t❤❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ s✐t✉❛t✐♦♥✿

■♥ ♦t❤❡r ✇♦r❞s✱ ❛♥❛❧②t✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❡①tr❡♠❡❧② ✏♣r❡❞✐❝t❛❜❧❡✑✿ ❖♥❝❡ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❞r❛✇♥ ❛ t✐♥② ♣✐❡❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡
❣r❛♣❤✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♦♥❧② ♦♥❡ ✇❛② t♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡ t♦ ❞r❛✇ ✐t✳ ❲❡ ❝❛♥ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❧❧② ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t t❤✐s ✐❞❡❛ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿

◮ ❉r❛✇✐♥❣ ❛ ❝✉r✈❡ ✇✐t❤ ❛ s✐♥❣❧❡ str♦❦❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❡♥ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s ❛♥ ❛♥❛❧②t✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ❜✉t st♦♣♣✐♥❣
✐♥ t❤❡ ♠✐❞❞❧❡ t♦ ❞❡❝✐❞❡ ❤♦✇ t♦ ♣r♦❝❡❡❞ ✐s ❧✐❦❡❧② t♦ ♣r❡✈❡♥t t❤✐s ❢r♦♠ ❤❛♣♣❡♥✐♥❣✳

❲❤❛t ❦✐♥❞ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❝❛♥ ❜❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❜② ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s❄

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✺✳✶✸✳✷✷✿ ❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ❜② P♦✇❡r ❙❡r✐❡s

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② t✐♠❡s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ ♦♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ (a−R, a+

R)✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡s❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❛r❡ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥t M ✿

|f (n) (x)| ≤ M ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x ✐♥ (a − R, a + R) .

❚❤❡♥ f ✐s ❛♥❛❧②t✐❝✳

Pr♦♦❢✳

❏✉st ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ t❤❡ ❚❛②❧♦r s❡r✐❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ t❤✐s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t s❡r✐❡s✿

XM
.
n!

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✶✸✳✷✸

❲❡❛❦❡♥ t❤❡ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞♥❡ss ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥✳

✺✳✶✸✳ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦❢ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ✹✹✵

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ✺✳✶✸✳✷✹✿ ❚❛②❧♦r s❡r✐❡s ✈✐❛ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥s

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢

f (x) = x−3
❛r♦✉♥❞ a = 1✳ ❲❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ ❛♥❞ s✉❜st✐t✉t❡✿
f (x) = x−3 ⇒ f (1) = 1 ⇒ c0 = 1
f ′ (x) = (−3)x−4 ⇒ f ′ (1) = −3 ⇒ c1 = −3
f ′′ (x) = (−3)(−4)x−5 ⇒ f ′′ (1) = 12 ⇒ c2 = 12/2 = 6
(3) −6 (3)
f (x) = (−3)(−4)(−5)x ⇒ f (1) = −60 ⇒ c3 = −60/6 = −10
.. ... ... ... ... ...
n
(−1) (2 + n)! (n + 1)(n + 2)
f (n) (x) = (−3)(−4) · · · (−2 − n)x−3−n ⇒ f (n) (1) = ⇒ cn = (−1)n
2 2
❚❤❛t✬s t❤❡ nt❤ ❚❛②❧♦r ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥t✳ ❍❡♥❝❡✱
∞
X (n + 1)(n + 2)
f (x) = (−1)n (x − a)n .
n=1
2

❇✉t ✇❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡❄ ❚❤❡ r❛❞✐✉s ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ t♦ t❤❡ ♥❡❛r❡st ♣♦✐♥t
❢♦r ✇❤✐❝❤ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ❛♣♣❡❛rs t♦ ❜❡ 0✱ s♦ R = 1✳ ❲❡ ❝♦♥✜r♠ t❤✐s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❘❛t✐♦
❚❡st ✿  
 (n + 1)(n + 2) (n + 2)(n + 3)  (n + 1)(n + 2)
lim (−1)n ÷ (−1)n+1 = lim = 1.
n→∞ 2 2  n→∞ (n + 2)(n + 3)

❚❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❡♥❞✲♣♦✐♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❛r❡ 0 ❛♥❞ 2✳ ❚❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✐♦r ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱
❛♥❞ ✇❤❛t✬s ❧❡❢t ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ❛t t❤❡ ❡♥❞✲♣♦✐♥ts✿
X
x = 0, (n + 1)(n + 2) ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s✳
X
x = 2, (n + 1)(n + 2)(−1)n ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s✳

❚❤✉s✱ (0, 2) ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s✳ ■t ✐s ❛❧s♦ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s ❡✈❡♥ t❤♦✉❣❤
✐t✬s s♠❛❧❧❡r t❤❛♥ t❤❛t ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳

❚❤❡ ♠✐s♠❛t❝❤ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ❞♦♠❛✐♥s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡✐r ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s t❤❡ ✭♠❛✐♥✮ r❡❛s♦♥ ✇❤② t❤❡ ♠❛t❝❤ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦❢ ♣♦✇❡r
s❡r✐❡s ✐s ✐♠♣❡r❢❡❝t✳
❆t ❧❡❛st✱ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥✱ ❛❝❝♦r❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡ ❚❡r♠✲❜②✲❚❡r♠ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥✱
❛r❡ ♣❡r❢❡❝t❧② r❡✢❡❝t❡❞ ✐♥ t❤✐s ♠✐rr♦r✿
❚❛②❧♦r X ❚❛②❧♦r X
f −−−−−−−→ cn (x − a)n f −−−−−−−→ cn (x − a)n
   
  R R
d d  
y dx y dx y y
Z XZ
❚❛②❧♦r X ❚❛②❧♦r
f ′
−−−−−−−→ (cn (x − a)n )′ f dx −−−−−−−→ (cn (x − a)n ) dx

■♥ t❤❡ ✜rst ❞✐❛❣r❛♠✱ ✇❡ st❛rt ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛t t❤❡ t♦♣ ❧❡❢t ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ✇❡ ♣r♦❝❡❡❞ ✐♥ t✇♦ ✇❛②s✿
• ❘✐❣❤t✿ ✜♥❞ ✐ts ❚❛②❧♦r s❡r✐❡s✳ ❚❤❡♥ ❞♦✇♥✿ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t t❡r♠ ❜② t❡r♠✳
• ❉♦✇♥✿ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ ✐t✳ ❚❤❡♥ r✐❣❤t✿ ✜♥❞ ✐ts ❚❛②❧♦r s❡r✐❡s✳
❚❤❡ r❡s✉❧t ✐s t❤❡ s❛♠❡✦
❚❤✐s st✉❞② ✇✐❧❧ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❡ ✇✐t❤ ❢✉rt❤❡r ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ✐♥ ❈❤❛♣t❡r ✺❉❊✲✷✳
 ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s

❈♦♥t❡♥ts
✶ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❇❛❝❦❣r♦✉♥❞ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✹✶

✷ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✹✻

✸ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✹✽

✹ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ▼♦❞❡❧s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✺✶

✺ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ■♥❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✺✸

✻ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❈♦♠♣✉t✐♥❣ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✺✹

✼ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✺✺

✽ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✺✼

✾ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✺✾

✶✵ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ P❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡s ❛♥❞ r❡❧❛t❡❞ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✻✶

✶✶ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❙❡✈❡r❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✻✹

✶✷ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛♥❞ s❡r✐❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✻✻

✶✸ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ P♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ❛♥❞ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✻✽

✶✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❇❛❝❦❣r♦✉♥❞

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✶ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✹

❲❤❛t ❛r❡ t❤❡ ♠❛①✱ ♠✐♥✱ ❛♥❞ ❛♥② ❜♦✉♥❞s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡t ❙t❛t❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s st❛t❡♠❡♥t✿ ✏❚❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡
♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣❡rs❄ ❲❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t R❄ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ ❛ tr✉❡ st❛t❡♠❡♥t ✐s tr✉❡✑✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✺
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✷
❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡s❡ s❡ts ❛s ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ ✉♥✐♦♥s✿
■s t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ ❛ tr✉❡ st❛t❡♠❡♥t tr✉❡❄
✶✳ (0, 5)
✷✳ {3}
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸
✸✳ ∅
■s t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ ❛ tr✉❡ st❛t❡♠❡♥t
tr✉❡❄ ✹✳ {x : x > 0 ❖❘ x ✐s ❛♥ ✐♥t❡❣❡r}
✶✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❇❛❝❦❣r♦✉♥❞ ✹✹✷

✺✳ {x : x ✐s ❞✐✈✐s✐❜❧❡ ❜② 6} ❞r✐✈❡r ❣♦t ❧♦st ❛♥❞ ❞r♦✈❡ ✜✈❡ ❡①tr❛ ♠✐❧❡s✳

✺✳ ❋r✐❞❛②✱ ■ ❤❛✈❡ ❜❡❡♥ t❛❦✐♥❣ ❛ t❛①✐ t♦ t❤❡ st❛✲

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✻
t✐♦♥ ❛❧❧ ✇❡❡❦ ♦♥ ❝r❡❞✐t❀ ■ ♣❛② ✇❤❛t ■ ♦✇❡

❚r✉❡ ♦r ❢❛❧s❡✿ 0 = 1 =⇒ 0 = 1❄ t♦❞❛②✳

❲❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛♥ ❡①tr❛ ❝❤❛r❣❡ ♣❡r r✐❞❡ ♦❢ m ❞♦❧✲

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✼
❧❛rs❄
Pr♦✈❡ ♦r ❞✐s♣r♦✈❡✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✶✹
max{max A, max B} = max(A ∪ B) .
▲❡t f : A → B ❛♥❞ g : C → D ❜❡ t✇♦ ♣♦ss✐✲

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✽ ❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❋♦r ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱

st❛t❡ ✇❤❡t❤❡r ♦r ♥♦t ②♦✉ ❝❛♥ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ f ◦ g✿
✭❛✮ ■❢✱ st❛rt✐♥❣ ✇✐t❤ ❛ st❛t❡♠❡♥t A✱ ❛❢t❡r ❛ s❡r✐❡s ♦❢
❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥s ②♦✉ ❛rr✐✈❡ t♦ 0 = 1✱ ✇❤❛t ❝❛♥ ②♦✉ ❝♦♥✲ • D⊂B
❝❧✉❞❡ ❛❜♦✉t A❄ ✭❜✮ ■❢✱ st❛rt✐♥❣ ✇✐t❤ ❛ st❛t❡♠❡♥t
A✱ ❛❢t❡r ❛ s❡r✐❡s ♦❢ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥s ②♦✉ ❛rr✐✈❡ t♦ 0 = 0✱ • C⊂A
✇❤❛t ❝❛♥ ②♦✉ ❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡ ❛❜♦✉t A❄ • B⊂D

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✾ • B=C

❲❡ ❦♥♦✇ t❤❛t ✏■❢ ✐t r❛✐♥s✱ t❤❡ r♦❛❞ ❣❡ts ✇❡t✑✳ ❉♦❡s

✐t ♠❡❛♥ t❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ r♦❛❞ ✐s ✇❡t✱ ✐t ❤❛s r❛✐♥❡❞❄ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✶✺

❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇ ❜② ❛ ❧✐st ♦❢ s♦♠❡

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✶✵ ♦❢ ✐ts ✈❛❧✉❡s✳ ▼❛❦❡ s✉r❡ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ♦♥t♦✳

❆ ❣❛r❛❣❡ ❧✐❣❤t ✐s ❝♦♥tr♦❧❧❡❞ ❜② ❛ s✇✐t❝❤ ❛♥❞✱ ❛❧s♦✱ ✐t

x −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
♠❛② ❛✉t♦♠❛t✐❝❛❧❧② t✉r♥ ♦♥ ✇❤❡♥ ✐t s❡♥s❡s ♠♦t✐♦♥
❞✉r✐♥❣ ♥✐❣❤tt✐♠❡✳ ■❢ t❤❡ ❧✐❣❤t ✐s ❖❋❋✱ ✇❤❛t ❞♦ ②♦✉ y = f (x) −1 4 5 2
❝♦♥❝❧✉❞❡❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✶✻
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✶✶
❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇ ❜② ❛ ❧✐st ♦❢ s♦♠❡
■❢ ❛♥ ❛❞✈❡rt✐s❡♠❡♥t ❝❧❛✐♠s t❤❛t ✏❆❧❧ ♦✉r s❡❝♦♥❞✲
♦❢ ✐ts ✈❛❧✉❡s✳ ❆❞❞ ♠✐ss✐♥❣ ✈❛❧✉❡s ✐♥ s✉❝❤ ❛ ✇❛② t❤❛t
❤❛♥❞ ❝❛rs ❝♦♠❡ ✇✐t❤ ✇♦r❦✐♥❣ ❆❈✑✱ ✇❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❡❛s✲
t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ♦♥❡✲t♦✲♦♥❡✳
✐❡st ✇❛② t♦ ❞✐s♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡ s❡♥t❡♥❝❡❄

x −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✶✷
y = f (x) −1 0 5 0
❚❡❛❝❤❡rs ♦❢t❡♥ s❛② t♦ t❤❡ st✉❞❡♥t✬s ♣❛r❡♥ts✿ ✏■❢ ②♦✉r
st✉❞❡♥t ✇♦r❦s ❤❛r❞❡r✱ ❤❡✬❧❧ ✐♠♣r♦✈❡✑✳ ❲❤❡♥ ❤❡
✇♦♥✬t ✐♠♣r♦✈❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♣❛r❡♥ts ❝♦♠❡ ❜❛❝❦ t♦ t❤❡ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✶✼

t❡❛❝❤❡r✱ ❤❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❛♥s✇❡r✿ ✏❍❡ ❞✐❞♥✬t ✐♠♣r♦✈❡✱ t❤❛t

❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ h(x) = sin2 x + sin3 x ❛s
♠❡❛♥s ❤❡ ❞✐❞♥✬t ✇♦r❦ ❤❛r❞❡r✑✳ ❆♥❛❧②③❡✳
t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ g ◦ f ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s y = f (x)
❛♥❞ z = g(y)✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✶✸

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ ❝♦st ✐s f (x) ❞♦❧❧❛rs ❢♦r ❛ t❛①✐ tr✐♣ ♦❢ x ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✶✽
♠✐❧❡s✳ ■♥t❡r♣r❡t t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ st♦r✐❡s ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ f✳
❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇ ❜② ❛ ❧✐st ✐ts ✈❛❧✲
✶✳ ▼♦♥❞❛②✱ ■ t♦♦❦ ❛ t❛①✐ t♦ t❤❡ st❛t✐♦♥ 5 ♠✐❧❡s ✉❡s✳ ❋✐♥❞ ✐ts ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ❛♥❞ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t ✐t ❜② ❛ s✐♠✐❧❛r
❛✇❛②✳ t❛❜❧❡✳

✷✳ ❚✉❡s❞❛②✱ ■ t♦♦❦ ❛ t❛①✐ t♦ t❤❡ st❛t✐♦♥ ❜✉t t❤❡♥

x 0 1 2 3 4
r❡❛❧✐③❡❞ t❤❛t ■ ❧❡❢t s♦♠❡t❤✐♥❣ ❛t ❤♦♠❡ ❛♥❞ y = f (x) 0 1 2 4 3
❤❛❞ t♦ ❝♦♠❡ ❜❛❝❦✳

✸✳ ❲❡❞♥❡s❞❛②✱ ■ t♦♦❦ ❛ t❛①✐ t♦ t❤❡ st❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✶✾

■ ❣❛✈❡ ♠② ❞r✐✈❡r ❛ ✜✈❡ ❞♦❧❧❛r t✐♣✳
❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣
✹✳ ❚❤✉rs❞❛②✱ ■ t♦♦❦ ❛ t❛①✐ t♦ t❤❡ st❛t✐♦♥ ❜✉t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿ ✭❛✮ f (x) = (x + 1)3 ❀ ✭❜✮ g(x) = ln(x3 )✳
✶✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❇❛❝❦❣r♦✉♥❞ ✹✹✸

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✷✵ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✷✽

●✐✈❡♥ t❤❡ t❛❜❧❡s ♦❢ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ f, g ✱ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ t❛❜❧❡ ♦❢ ✭❛✮ ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ f ◦ g ❢♦r t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s
f ◦ g✿ 2
✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② f (u) = u + u ❛♥❞ g(x) = 3❄ ✭❛✮ ❲❤❛t
✐s t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ f ◦ g ❢♦r t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜②
√
x y = g(x) y z = f (y) f (u) = 2 ❛♥❞ g(x) = x❄
0 0 0 4
1 4 1 4 ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✷✾

2 3 2 0 ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇ ❜② ❛ ❧✐st ✐ts ✈❛❧✲

3 0 3 1 ✉❡s✳ ❋✐♥❞ ✐ts ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ❛♥❞ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t ✐t ❜② ❛ s✐♠✐❧❛r

t❛❜❧❡✳
4 1 4 2
x 0 1 2 3 4
❲❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ ❧❛st r♦✇s ✇❡r❡ ♠✐ss✐♥❣❄ y = f (x) 1 2 0 4 3

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✷✶
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸✵
❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❜❡❧♦✇ ❛s t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥
●✐✈❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s t❤❛t ❛r❡ t❤❡✐r ♦✇♥ ✐♥✲
f ◦g ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿
✈❡rs❡s✳
p
h(x) = 2x3 + x .
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸✶

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✷✷ ❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿ h(x) = tan(2x) ❛s t❤❡

❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s x ❛♥❞ y✳
❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ h(x) = 2 sin3 x + sin x + 5
❛s t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦♥❡ ♦❢ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s
tr✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸✷

❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✷✸

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ♣❡r❢♦r♠s t❤❡ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥✿ ✏t❛❦❡ x3 + 1

h(x) = ,
t❤❡ ❧♦❣❛r✐t❤♠ ❜❛s❡ 2 ♦❢ ✑✱ ❛♥❞ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ g ♣❡r❢♦r♠s✿
x3 − 1
✏t❛❦❡ t❤❡ sq✉❛r❡ r♦♦t ♦❢ ✑✳ ✭❛✮ ❱❡r❜❛❧❧② ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡ ❛s t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s x
t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡s ♦❢ f ❛♥❞ g✳ ✭❜✮ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ❢♦r ❛♥❞ y✳
t❤❡s❡ ❢♦✉r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ✭❝✮ ●✐✈❡ t❤❡♠ ❞♦♠❛✐♥s ❛♥❞
❝♦❞♦♠❛✐♥s✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸✸

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✷✹ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇ ❜② ❛ ❧✐st ♦❢ ✐ts

p ✈❛❧✉❡s✳ ■s t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦♥❡✲t♦ ♦♥❡❄ ❲❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t ✐ts

✶✳ ❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ h(x) = x2 − 1 ❛s ✐♥✈❡rs❡❄
t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s f ❛♥❞ g ✳
x 0 1 2 3 4
✷✳ Pr♦✈✐❞❡ ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ y =
y = f (x) 0 1 2 1 2
f (g(x)) ♦❢ f (u) = u2 + u ❛♥❞ g(x) = 2x − 1✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✷✺ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸✹

Pr♦✈✐❞❡ ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ y = f (g(x)) ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇ ❜② ❛ ❧✐st ♦❢ ✐ts
√
♦❢ f (u) = sin u ❛♥❞ g(x) = x✳ ✈❛❧✉❡s✳ ■s t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦♥❡✲t♦ ♦♥❡❄ ❲❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t ✐ts
✐♥✈❡rs❡❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✷✻
x 0 1 2 3 4
Pr♦✈✐❞❡ ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ y = f (g(x)) y = f (x) 7 5 3 4 6
♦❢ f (u) = u2 − 3u + 2 ❛♥❞ g(x) = x✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✷✼ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸✺

❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝✲ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s y = f (x) ❛♥❞ u = g(y) ❛r❡ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇
2 ❜② t❛❜❧❡s ♦❢ s♦♠❡ ♦❢ t❤❡✐r ✈❛❧✉❡s✳ Pr❡s❡♥t t❤❡ ❝♦♠✲
t✐♦♥ f (x) = 3x + 1❄ ❍✐♥t✿ ❈❤♦♦s❡ ❛♣♣r♦♣r✐❛t❡
❞♦♠❛✐♥s✳ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ u = h(x) ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❜② ❛ s✐♠✐❧❛r
✶✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❇❛❝❦❣r♦✉♥❞ ✹✹✹

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✹✹
t❛❜❧❡✿
x 0 1 2 3 4 ❚❤❡ t❛①✐ ❝❤❛r❣❡s $1.75 ❢♦r t❤❡ ✜rst q✉❛rt❡r ♦❢ ❛ ♠✐❧❡
y = f (x) 1 1 2 0 2 ❛♥❞ $0.35 ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥❛❧ ✜❢t❤ ♦❢ ❛ ♠✐❧❡✳ ❋✐♥❞
❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇❤✐❝❤ ♠♦❞❡❧s t❤❡ t❛①✐ ❢❛r❡ f ❛s ❛
y 0 1 2 3 4 ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ♠✐❧❡s ❞r✐✈❡♥✱ x✳
u = g(y) 3 1 2 1 0
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✹✺

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸✻
✭❛✮ ❆❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛❧❧②✱ s❤♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = x2
✐s ♥♦t ♦♥❡✲t♦✲♦♥❡✳ ✭❜✮ ●r❛♣❤✐❝❛❧❧②✱ s❤♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ g(x) = 2x+1 ✐s ♦♥❡✲t♦✲♦♥❡✳ ✭❝✮ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡
✐♥✈❡rs❡ ♦❢ g ✳
❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ k s♦ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥✐♥❣ t❤❡
♣♦✐♥ts (−6, 0) ❛♥❞ (k, −5) ✐s ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧ t♦ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡
❝♦♥t❛✐♥✐♥❣ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts (4, 3) ❛♥❞ (1, 7)✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✹✻

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ s❛t✐s✜❡❞ ❜② ❛❧❧ ♣♦✐♥ts t❤❛t ❧✐❡ 2

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸✼ ✉♥✐ts ❛✇❛② ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t (−1, −2) ❛♥❞ ❜② ♥♦ ♦t❤❡r
♣♦✐♥ts✳
❉❡s❝r✐❜❡ ✕ ❜♦t❤ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝❛❧❧② ❛♥❞ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛❧❧② ✕
t✇♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥s t❤❛t ♠❛❦❡ ❛ 1 × 1
sq✉❛r❡ ✐♥t♦ ❛ 2 × 3 r❡❝t❛♥❣❧❡✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✹✼

❋♦r t❤❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ❣r❛♣❤❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇✱ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❢♦❧✲

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸✽ ❧♦✇✐♥❣✿
❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ ♣❛ss✐♥❣ t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡
♣♦✐♥ts (−1, 1) ❛♥❞ (−1, 5)✳ 1 2 3
s♠❛❧❧❡st ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ❞❡❣r❡❡
s✐❣♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❡❛❞✐♥❣ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥t
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✸✾
❞❡❣r❡❡ ✐s ♦❞❞✴❡✈❡♥
❈♦♥s✐❞❡r tr✐❛♥❣❧❡ ABC ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ ✇❤❡r❡ A =
(3, 2)✱ B = (3, −3)✱ C = (−2, −2)✳ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡
❧❡♥❣t❤s ♦❢ t❤❡ s✐❞❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✹✵

❋✐♥❞ ❛❧❧ x s✉❝❤ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts

(3, −8) ❛♥❞ (x, −6) ✐s 5✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✹✽

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✹✶ ❋✐♥❞ ❛ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♣❧♦tt❡❞ ❜❡✲
❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦❢ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝✲ ❧♦✇✿
t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ (x − 1)2 + (y − 2)2 = 6 ✇✐t❤ t❤❡
❛①❡s✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✹✷

❙♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s✿

(
x − y = −1,
2x + y = 0.

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✹✸
❆ ♠♦✈✐❡ t❤❡❛t❡r ❝❤❛r❣❡s $10 ❢♦r ❛❞✉❧ts ❛♥❞ $6 ❢♦r
❝❤✐❧❞r❡♥✳ ❖♥ ❛ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r ❞❛② ✇❤❡♥ 320 ♣❡♦♣❧❡ ♣❛✐❞
❛♥ ❛❞♠✐ss✐♦♥✱ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ r❡❝❡✐♣ts ✇❡r❡ $3120✳ ❍♦✇
♠❛♥② ✇❡r❡ ❛❞✉❧ts ❛♥❞ ❤♦✇ ♠❛♥② ✇❡r❡ ❝❤✐❧❞r❡♥❄
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✹✾
❆ ❢❛❝t♦r② ✐s t♦ ❜❡ ❜✉✐❧t ♦♥ ❛ ❧♦t ♠❡❛s✉r✐♥❣ 240 ❢t
❜② 320 ❢t✳ ❆ ❜✉✐❧❞✐♥❣ ❝♦❞❡ r❡q✉✐r❡s t❤❛t ❛ ❧❛✇♥
♦❢ ✉♥✐❢♦r♠ ✇✐❞t❤ ❛♥❞ ❡q✉❛❧ ✐♥ ❛r❡❛ t♦ t❤❡ ❢❛❝t♦r②
♠✉st s✉rr♦✉♥❞ t❤❡ ❢❛❝t♦r②✳ ❲❤❛t ♠✉st t❤❡ ✇✐❞t❤
♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❛✇♥ ❜❡❄
✶✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❇❛❝❦❣r♦✉♥❞ ✹✹✺

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✺✵
y = f (−x) − 1✳
❆ ❢❛❝t♦r② ♦❝❝✉♣✐❡s ❛ ❧♦t ♠❡❛s✉r✐♥❣ 240 ❢t ❜② 320
❢t✳ ❆ ❜✉✐❧❞✐♥❣ ❝♦❞❡ r❡q✉✐r❡s t❤❛t ❛ ❧❛✇♥ ♦❢ ✉♥✐✲
❢♦r♠ ✇✐❞t❤ ❛♥❞ ❡q✉❛❧ ✐♥ ❛r❡❛ t♦ t❤❡ ❢❛❝t♦r② ♠✉st
s✉rr♦✉♥❞ t❤❡ ❢❛❝t♦r②✳ ❲❤❛t ♠✉st t❤❡ ✇✐❞t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡
❧❛✇♥ ❜❡❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✺✶

▼❛❦❡ ❛ ✢♦✇❝❤❛rt ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥ ♣r♦✈✐❞❡ ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✺✽

t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) t❤❛t r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts ❛ ♣❛r❦✐♥❣ ❢❡❡ ❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ❞r❛✇♥ ✇✐t❤ ❛ s♦❧✐❞ ❧✐♥❡ ✐s y = x3 ✳ ❲❤❛t
❢♦r ❛ st❛② ♦❢ x ❤♦✉rs✳ ■t ✐s ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿ ❛r❡ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r t✇♦❄
❢r❡❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ ✜rst ❤♦✉r ❛♥❞ $1 ♣❡r ❤♦✉r ❜❡②♦♥❞✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✺✷

❊①♣❧❛✐♥ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡s❡ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿

r √
x−1 x−1
❛♥❞ √ .
x+1 x+1

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✺✸

❈❧❛ss✐❢② t❤❡s❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✺✾

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ❜❡❧♦✇ ✐s t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❞❞ ❡✈❡♥ ♦♥t♦ ♦♥❡✲t♦✲♦♥❡ f (x) = A sin x + B ❢♦r s♦♠❡ A ❛♥❞ B ✳ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡s❡
f (x) = 2x − 1 ♥✉♠❜❡rs✳
g(x) = −x + 2
h(x) = 3

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✺✹

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y = f (x) ✐s ♣❧♦tt❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❙❦❡t❝❤

y = −f (x + 5) − 6✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✻✵

❍❛❧❢ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛♥ ❡✈❡♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s s❤♦✇♥ ❜❡✲

❧♦✇❀ ♣r♦✈✐❞❡ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ❤❛❧❢✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✺✺

■s t❤❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s t❤❛t ❛r❡ ♦❞❞✲

✴❡✈❡♥ ♦❞❞✴❡✈❡♥❄ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✻✶

❍❛❧❢ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛♥ ♦❞❞ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s s❤♦✇♥ ❛❜♦✈❡❀

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✺✻
♣r♦✈✐❞❡ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ❤❛❧❢✳
❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✈❡rs❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿ ✭❛✮ f (x) = (x + 1)3 ❀ ✭❜✮ g(x) = ln(x3 )✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✳✺✼

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡✲

❧♦✇✳ ❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y = 2f (3x) ❛♥❞ t❤❡♥
✷✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✹✹✻

✷✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶

P❧♦t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x)✱ ✇❤❡r❡ x ✐s

t❤❡ ✐♥❝♦♠❡ ✭✐♥ t❤♦✉s❛♥❞s ♦❢ ❞♦❧❧❛rs✮ ❛♥❞ f (x) ✐s t❤❡
t❛① ❜✐❧❧ ✭✐♥ t❤♦✉s❛♥❞s ♦❢ ❞♦❧❧❛rs✮ ❢♦r t❤❡ ✐♥❝♦♠❡ ♦❢
x✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ❝♦♠♣✉t❡❞ ❛s ❢♦❧❧♦✇s✿ ♥♦ t❛① ♦♥ t❤❡ ✜rst
$10, 000✱ t❤❡♥ 5% ❢♦r t❤❡ ♥❡①t $10, 000✱ ❛♥❞ 10%
❢♦r t❤❡ r❡st ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥❝♦♠❡✳ ■♥✈❡st✐❣❛t❡ ✐ts ❧✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞
❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t②✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✷

1
❊①♣❧❛✐♥ ✇❤② t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t lim sin ❞♦❡s ♥♦t ❡①✐st✳
x→0 x ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✾

❊①♣r❡ss t❤❡ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s ♦❢ t❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛s ❧✐♠✐ts

❛♥❞ ✐❞❡♥t✐❢② ♦t❤❡r ♦❢ ✐ts ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ❢❡❛t✉r❡s✿
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✸

✭❛✮ ❙t❛t❡ t❤❡ ε✲ δ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t✳ ✭❜✮ ❯s❡ t❤❡

2
❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ t♦ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❛t lim x = 0✳
x→0

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✹

✭❛✮ ❙t❛t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❧✐♠✐t✳ ✭❜✮ ❯s❡ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐✲

t✐♦♥ t♦ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❛t lim x3 6= 3✳
x→0
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✵

❚r✉❡ ♦r ❢❛❧s❡✿ ✏■❢ f ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♦♥ (a, b)✱ t❤❡♥ f

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✺
✐s ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ♦♥ (a, b)✑❄

✭❛✮ ❙t❛t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡ ❧✐♠✐t✳ ✭❜✮ ❯s❡

t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ t♦ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❛t lim x3 = +∞✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✶
x→+∞
❚r✉❡ ♦r ❢❛❧s❡✿ ✏■❢ f ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♦♥ [a, b]✱ t❤❡♥ f ✐s
❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ♦♥ [a, b]✑❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✻
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✷
●✐✈❡ ❛♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ t✇♦ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧
❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s✿ x=0 ❛♥❞ x = 2✳ ❚r✉❡ ♦r ❢❛❧s❡✿ ✏■❢ f ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♦♥ [a, b)✱ t❤❡♥ f
✐s ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ♦♥ [a, b)✑❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✼ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✸

●✐✈❡ ❛♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ❚r✉❡ ♦r ❢❛❧s❡✿ ✏■❢ f ✐s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ♦♥ [a, ∞)✱ t❤❡♥ f
❛s②♠♣t♦t❡✿ y = −1✱ ❛♥❞ ❛ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡✿ ✐s ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ♦♥ [a, ∞)✑❄
x = 2✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✹

❚r✉❡ ♦r ❢❛❧s❡✿ ✏❊✈❡r② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ♦♥ ❛

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✽
❝❧♦s❡❞ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✑❄
■❞❡♥t✐❢② ❛❧❧ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ❢❡❛t✉r❡s ♦❢ t❤✐s ❣r❛♣❤✿
✷✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ▲✐♠✐ts ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐t② ✹✹✼

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✺

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ■t ❤❛s ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡s✳

❉❡s❝r✐❜❡ t❤❡♠ ❛s ❧✐♠✐ts✳ ❍✐♥t✿ ✉s❡ ❜♦t❤ +∞ ❛♥❞
−∞✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✻

❆ ❤♦✉s❡ ❤❛s 4 ✢♦♦rs ❛♥❞ ❡❛❝❤ ✢♦♦r ❤❛s 7 ✇✐♥❞♦✇s✳

❲❤❛t ✇❛s t❤❡ ②❡❛r ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❞♦♦r♠❛♥✬s ❣r❛♥❞✲
♠♦t❤❡r ❞✐❡❞❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✼

■❧❧✉str❛t❡ ✇✐t❤ ♣❧♦ts ✭s❡♣❛r❛t❡❧②✮ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ✇✐t❤ t❤❡

❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r✿ ✭❛✮ f (x) → +∞ ❛s x → 1❀ ✭❜✮
f (x) → −∞ ❛s x → 2+ ❀ ✭❝✮ f (x) → 3 ❛s x → −∞✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✽

●✐✈❡♥ f (x) = −(x − 3)4 (x + 1)3 ✳ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❧❡❛❞✐♥❣

t❡r♠ ❛♥❞ ✉s❡ ✐t t♦ ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡ t❤❡ ❧♦♥❣ t❡r♠ ❜❡❤❛✈✐♦r
♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✷✳✶✾

✭❛✮ ❙t❛t❡ t❤❡ ■♥t❡r♠❡❞✐❛t❡ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✳ ✭❜✮

●✐✈❡ ❛♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ ✐ts ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥✳
✸✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✹✹✽

✸✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✶

❚❤r❡❡ str❛✐❣❤t ❧✐♥❡s ❛r❡ s❤♦✇♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❲❤❛t ✐s s♦

s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡♠❄ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡✐r s❧♦♣❡s✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✻

❚❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛r❡ ♣❧♦tt❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✷ P❧♦t t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥✳
✭❛✮ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✜rst 2 s❡❝♦♥❞s ♦❢ ✐ts ✢✐❣❤t
❛♥ ♦❜❥❡❝t ♣r♦❣r❡ss❡❞ ❢r♦♠ ♣♦✐♥t (0, 0) t♦ (1, 0) t♦
(2, 0)✳ ❲❤❛t ✇❛s ✐ts ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛♥❞ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡
❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥❄ ✭❜✮ ❲❤❛t ✐❢ t❤❡ ❧❛st ♣♦✐♥t ✐s (1, 1)
✐♥st❡❛❞❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✸

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t ✐s t✐♠❡ ❛♥❞ x ✐s t❤❡ ♣r✐❝❡ ♦❢ ❜r❡❛❞✳ ❲❤❛t

❝❛♥ ②♦✉ s❛② ❛❜♦✉t ✐ts ❞②♥❛♠✐❝s❄ ❇❡ ❛s s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ❛s
♣♦ss✐❜❧❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✼

❊❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ str❛✐❣❤t ❧✐♥❡s ❛r❡ ❞r♦✇♥ t❤r♦✉❣❤ t✇♦

♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✳ ❲❤❛t ❞♦ t❤❡② t❡❧❧ ✉s ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥❄
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✹

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥ts ❢♦r t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❣✐✈❡♥

❜② t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❞❛t❛✿

x y = f (x)
−1 2
1 2
3 3
5 3
7 −2
9 5

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✽
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✺
❋r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✱ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢
P❧♦t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❢♦r t❤❡ ❢♦❧✲ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = x2 + 1 ❛t a = 2
❧♦✇✐♥❣ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿ ✇✐t❤ h = 0.2 ❛♥❞ h = 0.1✳ ❊①♣❧❛✐♥ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡✳
✸✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✹✹✾

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✾

✭❛✮ ❈♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ❢♦r t❤❡

❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = 3x2 − x ❛t a = 1 ❛♥❞ h = .5✳
✭❜✮ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝❛♥t t♦ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤
♦❢ y = f (x) ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤✐s ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢
❝❤❛♥❣❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✶✹

❨♦✉ ❤❛✈❡ r❡❝❡✐✈❡❞ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❡♠❛✐❧ ❢r♦♠ ②♦✉r

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✶✵
❜♦ss✿ ✏❚✐♠✱ ▲♦♦❦ ❛t t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ✐♥ t❤✐s s♣r❡❛❞✲

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❊s✲ s❤❡❡t✳ ❚❤✐s st♦❝❦ s❡❡♠s t♦ ❜❡ ✐♥❝❤✐♥❣ ✉♣✳✳✳ ❉♦❡s
∆f ✐t❄ ■❢ ✐t ❞♦❡s✱ ❤♦✇ ❢❛st❄ ❚❤❛♥❦s✳ ✕ ❚♦♠✑✳ ❉❡s❝r✐❜❡
t✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t
∆x ❢♦r
x = 0, 4, ❛♥❞ 6 ❛♥❞ ∆x = 0.5✳ ②♦✉r ❛❝t✐♦♥s✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✶✺

■❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧✱ ❞♦ t❤❡✐r ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❤❛✈❡

t♦ ❜❡ ❡q✉❛❧ t♦♦❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✶✻

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡ t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t (2, 1) t♦

t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s
2
ex ✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✶✶

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✶✼
❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❊s✲
t✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ❢♦r ❲❤❛t ❞♦ t❤❡s❡ str❛✐❣❤t ❧✐♥❡s t❡❧❧ ✉s ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝✲
x = 2, 4, 9 ❛♥❞ ∆x = 1✳ t✐♦♥❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✶✷

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❊st✐♠❛t❡

∆f
t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t ❢♦r x=1
∆x
❛♥❞ ∆x = 2, 1, 0.5✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✶✽

✭❛✮ ❙t❛t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝✲

t✐♦♥ ❛t ♣♦✐♥t a✳ ✭❜✮ Pr♦✈✐❞❡ ❛ ❣r❛♣❤✐❝❛❧ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛✲
t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✶✾

❋r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✱ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢

f (x) = x2 + 1 ❛t a = 2✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✶✸ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✷✵

❚❤❡ s❡❝❛♥t ❧✐♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛r❡ s❤♦✇♥ ❜❡✲ ❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❊st✐✲
❧♦✇✳ ❲❤❛t ❞♦ t❤❡② t❡❧❧ ②♦✉ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛✲ ♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ f ′ (x) ❢♦r x = 0, 4,
❜✐❧✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛t x = 0❄ ❛♥❞ 6.
✸✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✹✺✵

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✷✶

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❊st✐✲

♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ f ′ (x) ❢♦r x = 2, 4,

❛♥❞ 9✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✷✷

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❊st✐♠❛t❡

t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ f′ ❢♦r x=0 ❛♥❞ x = 4✳

❙❤♦✇ ②♦✉r ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✸✳✷✸

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❊st✐✲

♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ f ′ (x) ❢♦r x = 1, 3✱

❛♥❞ 6✳
✹✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ▼♦❞❡❧s
✹✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ▼♦❞❡❧s
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✶
❚❤❡ ♣♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ❝✐t② ❞❡❝❧✐♥❡s ❜② 10% ❡✈❡r② ②❡❛r✳
❍♦✇ ❧♦♥❣ ✇✐❧❧ ✐t t❛❦❡ t♦ ❞r♦♣ t♦ 50% ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t
♣♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥❄
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✷
❚❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x) s❤♦✇♥ ❜❡❧♦✇ r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts t❤❡
❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ ✭✐♥ ♠✐❧❡s✮ ♦❢ ❛ ❤✐❦❡r ❛s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✐♠❡
✭✐♥ ❤♦✉rs✮✳ ❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ❤✐❦❡r✬s ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛s t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r✲
❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✸
❚❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦❜❥❡❝t ❛t t✐♠❡ t ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜②
v(t) = 1 + 3t2 . ■❢ ❛t t✐♠❡ t = 1 t❤❡ ♦❜❥❡❝t ✐s ❛t
♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ x = 4, ✇❤❡r❡ ✐s ✐t ❛t t✐♠❡ t = 0❄
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✹
❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛
♠♦✈✐♥❣ ♦❜❥❡❝t ❛r❡ s❤♦✇♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❉❡s❝r✐❜❡ ✇❤❛t ✐s
❤❛♣♣❡♥✐♥❣✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✺
❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛
♠♦✈✐♥❣ ♦❜❥❡❝t ❛r❡ s❤♦✇♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❉❡s❝r✐❜❡ ✇❤❛t ✐s
❤❛♣♣❡♥✐♥❣✳
✹✺✶
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✻
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ ❛❧t✐t✉❞❡✱ ✐♥ ♠❡t❡rs✱ ♦❢ ❛♥ ♦❜❥❡❝t ✐s
❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t2 + t✱ ✇❤❡r❡ t ✐s t✐♠❡✱ ✐♥
s❡❝♦♥❞s✳ ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❛❧t✐t✉❞❡ ✐s
12 ♠❡t❡rs❄
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✼
❚❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦❜❥❡❝t ❛t t✐♠❡ t ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜②
v(t) = 1 + et . ■❢ ❛t t✐♠❡ t = 0 t❤❡ ♦❜❥❡❝t ✐s ❛t
x = 2, ✇❤❡r❡ ✐s ✐t ❛t t✐♠❡ t = 1❄
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✽
❚❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥ ♦❜❥❡❝t ❛t t✐♠❡ t ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜②
a(t) = 3t. ■❢ ❛t t✐♠❡ t = 1 t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♦❢ ♦❜❥❡❝t ✐s
❛t v(1) = −1, ✇❤❛t ✐s ✐t ❛t t✐♠❡ t = 0❄
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✾
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ s(t) r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐❝❧❡
❛t t✐♠❡ t ❛♥❞ v(t) ✐ts ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✳ ■❢ v(t) = sin t − cos t
❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✐s s(0) = 0, ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥
s(1).
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✶✵
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ s♣❡❡❞ ♦❢ ❛ ❝❛r ✇❛s ❣r♦✇✐♥❣ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✲
♦✉s❧② ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t❤❡ r✉❧❡ 55 + 5t ♣❡r ❤♦✉r✱ ✇❤❡r❡ t ✐s
t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ❤♦✉rs ♣❛ss❡❞ s✐♥❝❡ ✐t ✇❛s 250 ♠✐❧❡s
❛✇❛② ❢r♦♠ ❛ ❝✐t②✳ ❍♦✇ ❢❛r ✐s ✐t ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❝✐t② ❛❢t❡r
3 ❤♦✉rs ♦❢ ❞r✐✈✐♥❣ t♦✇❛r❞s ✐t❄
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✶✶
▲❡t x r❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ t✐♠❡ ♣❛ss❡❞ s✐♥❝❡ t❤❡ ❝❛r ❧❡❢t
t❤❡ ❝✐t②✳ ❚❤❡ t❛❜❧❡ ❜❡❧♦✇ t❡❧❧s ❢♦r ✇❤❛t ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢
x t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❛r ❛r❡
♣♦s✐t✐✈❡✱ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡✱ ♦r ③❡r♦✳ ▲❡t f (x) r❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡
✹✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ▼♦❞❡❧s ✹✺✷

❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❛r ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❝✐t②✳ ❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤

♦❢ f✳
x ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ❛❝❝❡❧❡r❛t✐♦♥

0 0 +
1 + −
2 0 −
3 − −

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✶✷

❚❤❡ ❤❡✐❣❤t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❧ ✭✐♥ ❢❡❡t✮ t s❡❝♦♥❞s ❛❢t❡r ✐t ✐s

t❤r♦✇♥ ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② f (t) = −16t2 + 8t + 6✳ ❊①♣❧❛✐♥
t❤❡ ♠❡❛♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs −16, 8, 6✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✶✸

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ♦❢ ❛ ❝❛r ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳

P❧♦t t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❞✐s✲
t❛♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❛r ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ st❛rt✐♥❣ ♣♦✐♥t✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✶✹

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ s♣❡❡❞ ♦❢ ❛ ❝❛r ✇❛s ❝❤❛♥❣✐♥❣ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✲

♦✉s❧② ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ t❤❡ r✉❧❡ 60 − t2 ♣❡r ❤♦✉r✱ ✇❤❡r❡ t ✐s
t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ❤♦✉rs ♣❛ss❡❞ s✐♥❝❡ ♥♦♦♥✳ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡
❛✈❡r❛❣❡ s♣❡❡❞ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❛r ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ 1 ♣♠ ❛♥❞ 3 ♣♠✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✶✺

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ ❛❧t✐t✉❞❡✱ ✐♥ ♠❡t❡rs✱ ♦❢ ❛♥ ♦❜❥❡❝t ✐s

❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

y = t2 + t, t ≥ 0,

✇❤❡r❡ t ✐s t✐♠❡✱ ✐♥ s❡❝✳ ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t② ✇❤❡♥

t❤❡ ❛❧t✐t✉❞❡ ✐s 12 ♠❡t❡rs❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✹✳✶✻

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❛ ❢r❡❡ ❢❛❧❧✐♥❣ ♦❜❥❡❝t

❢r♦♠ t❤✐s ❞❛t❛✿
✺✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ■♥❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✹✺✸

✺✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ■♥❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✶ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✶✵

❋✐♥❞ ❛❧❧ ❧♦❝❛❧ ♠❛①✐♠❛ ❛♥❞ ♠✐♥✐♠❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❧♦❝❛❧ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ❛♥❞ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦❢
3
f (x) = x − 3x − 1✳ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = x3 − 3x✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✷ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✶✶

✭❛✮ ❆♥❛❧②③❡ t❤❡ ✜rst ❛♥❞ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ✭❛✮ ❆t

❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥
4
f (x) = x −2x 2
✳ ✭❜✮ ❯s❡ ♣❛rt ✭❛✮ t♦ s❦❡t❝❤ ✇❤❛t ♣♦✐♥ts ✐s f ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s❄ ✭❜✮ ❆t ✇❤❛t ♣♦✐♥ts

✐ts ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f✳ ❞♦❡s t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f ❡①✐st❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✸

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s t❤❛t ❢♦❧❧♦✇ ❛r❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡✳

✭❛✮ ❋✐♥✐s❤ t❤❡ st❛t❡♠❡♥t ✏■❢ h′ (x) = 0 ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x
✐♥ (a, b)✱ t❤❡♥✳✳✳✑✳ ✭❜✮ ❋✐♥✐s❤ t❤❡ st❛t❡♠❡♥t ✏■❢
f (x) = g ′ (x) ❢♦r ❛❧❧ x ✐♥ (a, b)✱ t❤❡♥✳✳✳✑✳
′

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✹
√
❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = xe−x ✳
❏✉st✐❢② t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ❜② st✉❞②✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ f ✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✶✷
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✺
■♥❞✐❝❛t❡ ✇❤✐❝❤ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ st❛t❡♠❡♥ts ❜❡❧♦✇ ✐s
✭✶✮ ❙t❛t❡ ❘♦❧❧❡✬s ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❛♥❞ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡ ✐t ✇✐t❤ ❛ tr✉❡ ♦r ❢❛❧s❡ ✭♥♦ ♣r♦♦❢ ♥❡❝❡ss❛r②✮✿
s❦❡t❝❤✳ ✭❜✮ ◗✉♦t❡ ❛♥❞ st❛t❡ t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✭s✮ ♥❡❝❡s✲
s❛r② t♦ ♣r♦✈❡ ✐t✳ ✭❝✮ ❲❤❛t t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦❧❧♦✇s ❢r♦♠ ✶✳ ■❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✐s ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣✱ t❤❡♥ s♦ ✐s f −1 .
✐t❄
✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❤❛s ❛♥ ❛s②♠♣t♦t❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✻ ✸✳ ■❢ f ′ (c) = 0✱ t❤❡♥ c ✐s ❛ ❧♦❝❛❧ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ♦r ❛

❧♦❝❛❧ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠ ♦❢ f✳
❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ Pr♦✲
✈✐❞❡ ❥✉st✐✜❝❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ❢❡❛t✉r❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✿ ✹✳ ■❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❜❧❡ t❤❡♥ ✐t ✐s ❝♦♥✲
t✐♥✉♦✉s✳
x2 + 7x + 3
f (x) = .
x ✺✳ ■❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧✱ t❤❡✐r ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s
❛r❡ ❛❧s♦ ❡q✉❛❧✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✼
✻✳ ■❢ t✇♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧✱ t❤❡✐r ❛♥t✐✲

✭❛✮ ❙t❛t❡ t❤❡ ▼❡❛♥ ❱❛❧✉❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✳ ✭❜✮ ❱❡r✐❢② t❤❛t ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ❛r❡ ❛❧s♦ ❡q✉❛❧✳
x
t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = x+2 s❛t✐s✜❡s t❤❡ ❤②♣♦t❤❡s❡s ♦❢
t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [1, 4]✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✽

❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = x4 − x2 ✳

Pr♦✈✐❞❡ ❥✉st✐✜❝❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ❢❡❛t✉r❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✺✳✾

❋✐♥❞ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ♠❛①✐♠❛ ❛♥❞ ♠✐♥✐♠❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱

f (x) = x3 − 3x ♦♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [−2, 10]✳
✻✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❈♦♠♣✉t✐♥❣ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ✹✺✹

✻✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❈♦♠♣✉t✐♥❣ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✶ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✶✷

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f (1) = 3 ❛♥❞ f ′ (1) = 2✳ ❯s❡ t❤✐s ✐♥❢♦r♠❛✲ ■s ✐t ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ t❤❛t ❜♦t❤ F (x) ❛♥❞ F (2x) ❛r❡ ❜♦t❤
t✐♦♥ t♦ ✜❧❧ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❜❧❛♥❦s✿ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ s♦♠❡ ♥♦♥✲③❡r♦ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❄

′
f −1 ( ) = ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✶✸

❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f (x) = x2 ex ✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✷

❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡ t❤✐s✿ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✶✹

g(t) = t cos t sin t . ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ h(x) = x2 + x + 1.

❲❤❛t ❞♦❡s ✐t t❡❧❧ ②♦✉ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ s❤❛♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤
♦❢ f ?
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✸

❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡✿ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✶✺

ln(sin x)
.
x ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ h(x) = 2xπ ✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✹ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✶✻

❈♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f (x) = ex

2 +3x
✳ ❈♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ f (x) = ln(3x + 2)✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✶✼
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✺

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ h(x) = xex ✳
❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡ d
dx sin x · ex+1 ✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✶✽

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✻
❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✿ ✭❛✮ 3xe + eπ ✱
✭❜✮ 7 ln x + (1/x) − ln 2.


❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡ d
dx cos t + e ✳ ❍✐♥t✿ ✇❛t❝❤ t❤❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✳
t

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✶✾
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✼

❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡ dy
❢♦r
❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡ dy
dx ❢♦r y = sin e2x . dx √
y= ex .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✽ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✷✵

❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ♦❢ f (x) = xesin x . ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ s❧♦♣❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ❧✐♥❡s t♦ t❤❡ ❡❧❧✐♣s❡
x2 + 2y 2 = 1 ❛t t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ✇❤❡r❡ ✐t ❝r♦ss❡s t❤❡
❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ❧✐♥❡ y = x✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✾

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f ′ (1) = 2✱ g ′ (2) = 3✱ ❛♥❞ h′ (1) = 6✱ ✇❤❡r❡ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✷✶

h = g ◦ f ✳ ❲❤❛t ✐s f (1)❄
❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡ dy
dx ❢♦r y = sin cos(−x)✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✶✵
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✷✷
■s ✐t ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ t❤❛t ❜♦t❤ F (x) ❛♥❞ F (2x) ❛r❡ ❜♦t❤
❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ s♦♠❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❄ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ x sin y + y 2 = x✳ ❋✐♥❞ dx ✳
dy

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✻✳✶✶

■s sin x + 3x ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ cos x2 ❄

✼✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✹✺✺

✼✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✶ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✽

✭❛✮ ❙t❛t❡ t❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡

✭❜✮ ❯s❡ ♣❛rt ✭❛✮ t♦ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡ Z 1 Z 4 Z 2
Z 1 f dx = 2, f dx = 0, f dx = 2 .
x 0 0 1
sin dx .
3
−1
❋✐♥❞
Z 3 Z 1 Z 4
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✷ f dx, (f (x) + 3) dx, f dx .
1 0 2
✭❛✮ ❙t❛t❡ t❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s✳
✭❜✮ ❯s❡ ♣❛rt ✭❛✮ t♦ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡
Z x
d 2
et dt .
dx 0
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✾

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✸
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❜②✿
Z x
✭❛✮ Z▼❛❦❡ ❛ s❦❡t❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t✲❡♥❞ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s F (x) = f dx.
1√
2
❢♦r x dx ✇✐t❤ n = 4 ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✳ ✭❜✮ ❙t❛t❡ t❤❡
0 ❋✐♥❞✱ ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢ F ✱ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣✿
❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✳
Z 4 Z 2 Z −1 Z 2
f dx, f dx, f dx, (f (x) − 1) dx .
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✹ 0 1 0 1

●✐✈❡♥ f (x) = x2 + 1, ✇r✐t❡ ✭❜✉t ❞♦ ♥♦t ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡✮

t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ❢♦r t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ f ❢r♦♠ −1 t♦
2 ✇✐t❤ n = 6 ❛♥❞ ❧❡❢t ❡♥❞s ❛s s❛♠♣❧❡ ♣♦✐♥ts✳ ▼❛❦❡
❛ s❦❡t❝❤✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✶✵

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✺
❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦❢ f ❜❡❧♦✇ ♦♥ t❤❡ ✐♥✲
t❡r✈❛❧ [−1, 1.5] ✇✐t❤ n = 5✳ ❲❤❛t ❛r❡ ✐ts s❛♠♣❧❡
Pr♦✈✐❞❡ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✈✐❛ ✐ts ♣♦✐♥ts❄ ❲❤❛t ❞♦❡s ✐t ❡st✐♠❛t❡❄
❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✳ ▼❛❦❡ ❛ s❦❡t❝❤✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✻

❚❤❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧
Z ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ✐♥❝❧✉❞❡s
b
t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ f (x) dx = F (b) − F (a)✳ ✭❛✮ ❙t❛t❡
a
t❤❡ ✇❤♦❧❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠✳ ✭❜✮ Pr♦✈✐❞❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡
✐t❡♠s ❛♣♣❡❛r✐♥❣ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✼

✭❛✮ ❙t❛t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧

Z b
f (x) dx ❛♥❞ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡ t❤❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ❛
a
s❦❡t❝❤✳ ✭❜✮ ❯s❡ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ t♦ ❥✉st✐❢② t❤❛t ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✶✶

Z b Z b ❲r✐t❡ ✭❞♦♥✬tZ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡✮ t❤❡ ❧❡❢t✲❡♥❞ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦❢

cf (x) dx = c f (x) dx 5
a a t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ f (x) dx ❢♦r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f s❤♦✇♥ ❜❡❧♦✇
0
❢♦r ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t c✳ ✇✐t❤ n = 5 ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s✳
✼✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ✹✺✻

Z
• u dv = uv...

• u = cos t =⇒ du = ...

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✶✼

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❛t F ✐s ❛♥ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥✲

t✐❛❜❧❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ✳ ■❢ F ✐s ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ ♦♥ [a, b]✱ ✇❤❛t
❝❛♥ ②♦✉ s❛② ❛❜♦✉t f ❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✶✷

❲r✐t❡ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❛♥❞ ✐❧❧✉str❛t❡ ✇✐t❤ ❛Zs❦❡t❝❤

3
t❤❡
❧❡❢t✲❡♥❞ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ L4 ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ f (x) dx
1
❢♦r t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♣❧♦tt❡❞ ❛❜♦✈❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✶✸

❲r✐t❡ t❤❡ ♠✐❞✲♣♦✐♥t

Z ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ t❤❛t ❛♣♣r♦①✐✲
1
♠❛t❡s t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ sin x dx ✇✐t❤✐♥ .01✳
0

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✶✹

❙❡t ✉♣ t❤❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡

♦❢ r❛❞✐✉s R ❛s t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t✇♦ ❝✉r✈❡s✱ ♣r♦✈✐❞❡
❛♥ ✐❧❧✉str❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✳ ❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡
❢♦r ❡①tr❛ ✺ ♣♦✐♥ts✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✶✺
Z 8
▲❡t I = f dx✳ ✭❛✮ ❯s❡ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ y = f (x)
2
❜❡❧♦✇ t♦ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ L4 , M4 , R4 ✳ ✭❜✮ ❈♦♠♣❛r❡ t❤❡♠
t♦ I ✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✼✳✶✻

❈♦♠♣❧❡t❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ st❛t❡♠❡♥ts✿

• (f (x) · x2 )′ = f ′ (x) · x2 + ...
Z
• x−1 dx = ...
Z
• f ′ (x) dx = ...
✽✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✹✺✼

✽✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✽✳✶ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✽✳✾

❊①❡❝✉t❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❜② s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥
✭❞♦♥✬t ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t✐♥❣ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✮✿ Z
2
Z
√ xex dx .
cos x + sin x dx, u = sin x .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✽✳✶✵

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✽✳✷ ❋✐♥❞ ❛❧❧ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿

f (x) = e−x .
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ s(t) r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐❝❧❡
❛t t✐♠❡ t ❛♥❞ v(t) ✐ts ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✳ ■❢ v(t) = sin t − cos t
❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✐s s(0) = 0, ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✽✳✶✶

s(1). ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ F ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) =

3x2 − 1 s❛t✐s❢②✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥ F (1) = 0✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✽✳✸
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✽✳✶✷
❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡ Z
e3x dx . ❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧
Z 1
x3 dx .
0
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✽✳✹

❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡ Z ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✽✳✶✸

2 √
x −1
(e + x+x ) dx . ❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡✿ Z Z
1 2
x dx − x2 dx .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✽✳✺
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✽✳✶✹
❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡ Z
2
ex 2x dx .
❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡✿ Z Z
−2
x dx − x−2 dx .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✽✳✻ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✽✳✶✺

❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡ Z ■♥t❡❣r❛t❡ ❜② ♣❛rts✿

2x sin 5x dx . Z
3xe−x dx .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✽✳✼
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✽✳✶✻
❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡
❯s❡ t❤❡ t❛❜❧❡ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s t♦ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡✿
Z 3
et+1 dx . Z
1
❍✐♥t✿ ✇❛t❝❤ t❤❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✳ sin−1 2x dx .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✽✳✽ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✽✳✶✼

❈❛❧❝✉❧❛t❡✿ Z  ❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡✿ Z 1
sin x2 +77
′ 1
e dx . dx .
0 2x
✽✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ✹✺✽

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✽✳✶✽

❯s❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ t♦ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✿

Z π
sin x cos2 x dx .
0

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✽✳✶✾

■♥t❡❣r❛t❡ ❜② ♣❛rts✿

Z
x(ln x)2 dx .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✽✳✷✵

❯s❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ t♦ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✿

Z 1
1
√ dx .
0 4 − x2

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✽✳✷✶

❯s❡ t❤❡ t❛❜❧❡ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s t♦ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡✿

Z p p
x2 ( x2 − 4 − x2 + 9) dx .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✽✳✷✷

❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡ Z
x sin x dx .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✽✳✷✸

❯s❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ u = 1 + x2 t♦ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧

Z p
1 + x2 x5 dx .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✽✳✷✹

❯s❡ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥ t♦ ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✿

Z π
sin x cos2 x dx .
0

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✽✳✷✺

❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤❡ ✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✿

Z ∞
1
dx .
1 2x

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✽✳✷✻

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ F ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) =

x
e +x s❛t✐s❢②✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥ F (0) = 1✳
✾✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✹✺✾

✾✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✶ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✾

√
❚❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ y= x, y = ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ x✲❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss ♦❢ t❤❡
2 3
0, ❛♥❞ x = 1 ✐s r❡✈♦❧✈❡❞ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✳ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ y = x ❛♥❞ y = x ✳
s✉r❢❛❝❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ s♦❧✐❞ ❣❡♥❡r❛t❡❞✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✶✵

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✷ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ ❛ r✐❣❤t ❝✐r❝✉❧❛r ❝♦♥❡ ♦❢ r❛❞✐✉s

❆ ❝❤♦r❞ ♦❢ ❛ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ✐s ❛ str❛✐❣❤t ❧✐♥❡ s❡❣♠❡♥t ✇❤♦s❡

R ❛♥❞ ❤❡✐❣❤t h ❜② ❛♥② ♠❡t❤♦❞ ②♦✉ ❧✐❦❡✳

❡♥❞✲♣♦✐♥ts ❧✐❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡✳ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤

♦❢ ❛ ❝❤♦r❞ ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r t♦ t❤❡ ❞✐❛♠❡t❡r✳ ❲❤❛t ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✶✶
❛❜♦✉t ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧❄
❈♦♠♣✉t❡ t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝r♦ss s❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢
t❤❡ s♣❤❡r❡ ♦❢ r❛❞✐✉s 1✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✸

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ ❛ s❡❣♠❡♥t ✐♥ ❛ sq✉❛r❡ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✶✷

♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧ t♦ ✭❛✮ t❤❡ ❜❛s❡✱ ✭❜✮ t❤❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✳ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥ ❜❡❧♦✇ y = 2x
❢♦r 0 ≤ x ≤ 1✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✹
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✶✸
❋✐♥❞ ✭❜② ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥✮ t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ♦❢ r❛❞✐✉s
r✳ ❚❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ ❛ s♦❧✐❞ ✐s t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛s
♦❢ ✐ts ❝r♦ss✲s❡❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❊①♣❧❛✐♥ ❛♥❞ ❥✉st✐❢② ✉s✐♥❣ ❘✐❡✲
♠❛♥♥ s✉♠s✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✺

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ❡♥❝❧♦s❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡s ❜❡❧♦✇✿ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✶✹

❚❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ y = x2 +

1, y = 0, x = 0 ❛♥❞ x = 1 ✐s r❡✈♦❧✈❡❞ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡
x✲❛①✐s✳ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ s♦❧✐❞ ❣❡♥❡r❛t❡❞✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✶✺

❚❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤s ♦❢ y = x2 +

1, y = 0, x = 0, ❛♥❞ x = 1 ✐s r❡✈♦❧✈❡❞ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡
y ✲❛①✐s✳ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ s♦❧✐❞ ❣❡♥❡r❛t❡❞✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✻
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✶✻
2
❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❜② y = x −1 ❆♥ ❛q✉❛r✐✉♠ 2 ♠ ❧♦♥❣✱ 1 ♠ ✇✐❞❡✱ ❛♥❞ 1 ♠ ❞❡❡♣ ✐s
❛♥❞ y = 3✳ ❢✉❧❧ ♦❢ ✇❛t❡r✳ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ✇♦r❦ ♥❡❡❞❡❞ t♦ ♣✉♠♣ ❤❛❧❢
♦❢ t❤❡ ✇❛t❡r ♦✉t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛q✉❛r✐✉♠ ✭t❤❡ ❞❡♥s✐t② ♦❢
3
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✼
✇❛t❡r ✐s 1000 ❦❣✴♠ ✮✳

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ f ✐s ❛♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡
Z ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✳ ✭❛✮ ❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t
a ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✶✼
f ✐s ❛❧s♦ ♦❞❞ t❤❡♥ f dx = 0✳ ✭❜✮ ❙✉❣❣❡st ❛
−a ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉r❢❛❝❡ ♦❢ r❡✈♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ❛r♦✉♥❞
√
r❡❧❛t❡❞ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r ❛♥ ❡✈❡♥ f✳ t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s ♦❜t❛✐♥❡❞ ❢r♦♠ y= x, 4 ≤ x ≤ 9✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✽ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✶✽

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❝❡♥tr♦✐❞ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❝❡♥tr♦✐❞ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❜② t❤❡
2
❝✉r✈❡s y = x , y = 1✳ ❝✉r✈❡s y = 4 − x 2 , y = x + 2✳
✾✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s ✹✻✵

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✶✾

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❜② y = x2 − 1

❛♥❞ y = 3✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✷✵

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ✉♥❞❡r t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

x
f (x) = e ❢r♦♠ x = −1 t♦ x = 1✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✷✶

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) =

2
2x − 3 ♦♥ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ [1, 3]✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✾✳✷✷
√
❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥ ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❜② y = x✱
t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡s x=1 ❛♥❞ x = 4✳
✶✵✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ P❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡s ❛♥❞ r❡❧❛t❡❞ ✹✻✶

✶✵✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ P❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡s ❛♥❞ r❡❧❛t❡❞

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✶ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✼

❉❡s❝r✐❜❡ t❤❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛rt✐❝❧❡ ✇✐t❤ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✭✶✮ ❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡ x = cos t, y =
(x, y)✱ ✇❤❡r❡ sin 2t✳ ✭✷✮ ❚❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝ts ✐ts❡❧❢✳ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❛♥✲
❣❧❡ ♦❢ t❤✐s ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥✳
x = 2 + t cos t, y = 1 + t sin t,

❛s t ✈❛r✐❡s ✇✐t❤✐♥ [0, ∞)✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✽

❋✐♥❞ ❛♥ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s♣✐r❛❧ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✷
♦r✐❣✐♥ ❛s ❜❡❧♦✇✿

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❡ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡ ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜②

x = cos 3t, y = 2 sin t.

❙❡t ✉♣✱ ❜✉t ❞♦ ♥♦t ❡✈❛❧✉❛t❡✱ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s t❤❛t r❡♣✲

r❡s❡♥t ✭❛✮ t❤❡ ❛r❝✲❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡✱ ✭❜✮ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛
♦❢ t❤❡ s✉r❢❛❝❡ ♦❜t❛✐♥❡❞ ❜② r♦t❛t✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ ❛❜♦✉t
t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✸

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ❝✉r✈❡ C ✐s t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = f (x)✳

✭❛✮ ❋✐♥❞ ❛ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ C ✳ ✭❜✮ ❋✐♥❞
❛ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ C t❤❛t ❣♦❡s ❢r♦♠ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✾
r✐❣❤t t♦ ❧❡❢t✳
P❧♦t t❤✐s ❡♥t✐r❡ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡✿ x = sin t, y =
cos 2t✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✹

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✶✵
❋✐♥❞ ❛❧❧ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡
❋✐♥❞ ❛ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ❝✉r✈❡ s✐♠✐❧❛r
x = cos 3t, y = 2 sin t t♦ t❤❡ ♦♥❡ ❜❡❧♦✇✱ ❛ s♣✐r❛❧ ✇r❛♣♣✐♥❣ ❛r♦✉♥❞ ❛ ❝✐r❝❧❡✳
❲❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t ♦♥❡ t❤❛t ✐s ✇r❛♣♣✐♥❣ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ✐♥s✐❞❡❄
✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t ✐s ❡✐t❤❡r ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ♦r ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧✳
✭♥♦ ♣r♦♦❢ ♥❡❝❡ss❛r②✮✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✺

❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡✿

x = | cos t|, y = | sin t|, −∞ < t < +∞.

❉❡s❝r✐❜❡ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✻

❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡s✿

1
• x(t) = , y(t) = sin t, t > 0
t ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✶✶
• x = cos t, y = 2
●✐✈❡♥ ❛ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡ x = sin t, y = t2 ✳ ❋✐♥❞
2
• x = 1/t, y = 1/t , t > 0 t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡✭s✮ t❛♥❣❡♥t t♦ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ ❛t t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥✳
✶✵✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ P❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡s ❛♥❞ r❡❧❛t❡❞ ✹✻✷

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✶✷ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✷✷

❋✐♥❞ ❛ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ❝✉r✈❡ t❤❛t ❲❤❛t ❝❛♥ ②♦✉ s❛② ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❛r② ♣❛rts ♦❢ t❤❡
❧♦♦❦s ❧✐❦❡ t❤❡ ✜❣✉r❡ ❡✐❣❤t ♦r ❛ ✢♦✇❡r ✭♥♦ ♣r♦♦❢ ♥❡❝✲ r♦♦ts ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s❄
❡ss❛r②✮✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✶✸

❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡✿

x = t2 − 1, y = 2t2 + 3 .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✶✹

❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡ r❡♣r❡✲

s❡♥ts t❤❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥ ♦❜❥❡❝t ♦♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡✿ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✷✸

P❧♦t t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ r = 2 cos(3θ)✳ ❋♦r ✺ ❡①tr❛ ♣♦✐♥ts✱

x = 3t − 1, y = t2 − 1 .
✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡✭s✮ t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥ t❛♥❣❡♥t t♦ t❤❡
✭❛✮ ❲❤❡♥ ❞♦❡s t❤❡ ♦❜❥❡❝t ❝r♦ss t❤❡ x✲❛①✐s❄ ✭❜✮ ❝✉r✈❡✳
❲❤❡♥ ❞♦❡s t❤❡ ♦❜❥❡❝t ❝r♦ss t❤❡ y ✲❛①✐s❄
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✷✹

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✶✺ ✭❛✮ P❧♦t t❤❡s❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ✐♥ ♣♦❧❛r ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s✿ (r, θ) =

❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t ❛s ❛ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡ t❤❡ r♦t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛
r♦❞ ♦❢ ❧❡♥❣t❤ 2 t❤❛t ♠❛❦❡s ♦♥❡ ❢✉❧❧ t✉r♥ ❡✈❡r② 3
s❡❝♦♥❞s✳
(0, 1), (1, 0), (1, π), (2, 3π)✳ ✭❜✮ ❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡s❡ t❤r❡❡
♣♦❧❛r ❝✉r✈❡s✿ r = 1, θ = 0, r = θ✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✷✺

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✶✻ ❋✐♥❞ ❛ ♣♦❧❛r r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ❝✉r✈❡ s✐♠✐❧❛r t♦

t❤❡ ♦♥❡ ❜❡❧♦✇✱ ❛ s♣✐r❛❧ ✇r❛♣♣✐♥❣ ❛r♦✉♥❞ ❛ ❝✐r❝❧❡✳
❖♥❡ ❝✐r❝❧❡ ✐s ❝❡♥t❡r❡❞ ❛t (0, 0) ❛♥❞ ❤❛s r❛❞✐✉s 1✳ ❲❤❛t ❛❜♦✉t ♦♥❡ t❤❛t ✐s ✇r❛♣♣✐♥❣ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ✐♥s✐❞❡❄
❚❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ✐s ❝❡♥t❡r❡❞ ❛t (3, 3)✳ ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ r❛✲ ✭♥♦ ♣r♦♦❢ ♥❡❝❡ss❛r②✮✿
❞✐✉s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ✐❢ t❤❡ t✇♦ ❝✐r❝❧❡s t♦✉❝❤❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✶✼

❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t ✐♥ ♣♦❧❛r ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s t❤❡s❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ❣✐✈❡♥

❜② t❤❡✐r ❈❛rt❡s✐❛♥ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s✿ ✭❛✮ (1, 2)❀ ✭❜✮
(−1, −1)❀ ✭❝✮ (0, 0)✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✶✽

❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t ✐♥ ❈❛rt❡s✐❛♥ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s t❤❡s❡ ♣♦✐♥ts

❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② t❤❡✐r ♣♦❧❛r ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s✿ ✭❛✮ θ = 0, r =
−1❀ ✭❜✮ θ = π/4, r = 2❀ ✭❝✮ θ = 1, r = 0✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✶✾ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✷✻

✭❛✮ ❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡r ✐♥ t❤❡ ■♥❞✐❝❛t❡ ✐❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ st❛t❡♠❡♥ts ❛r❡ tr✉❡ ♦r
st❛♥❞❛r❞ ❢♦r♠✿ (2 + 3i)(−1 + 2i)✳ ■♥❞✐❝❛t❡ t❤❡ r❡❛❧ ❢❛❧s❡✿
❛♥❞ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❛r② ♣❛rts✳ ✭❜✮ ❋✐♥❞ ✐ts ♠♦❞✉❧❡ ❛♥❞ ❛r✲ ✶✳ ■♥ ♣♦❧❛r ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s✱ (1, π/2) ❛♥❞
❣✉♠❡♥t✳ (−1, −π/2) r❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♣♦✐♥t✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✷✵
✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ r = 3 + cos θ ♣❛ss❡s t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡
♦r✐❣✐♥✳
❙✐♠♣❧✐❢② (1 + i)2 ✳
✸✳ ❚❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ r = cos 2θ ✐s ❝❧♦s❡❞✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✵✳✷✶ ✹✳ ❚❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ r = 1 + cos θ ✐s ❜♦✉♥❞❡❞✳
✭❛✮ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ r♦♦ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ x2 + 2x + 2✳ ✺✳ ❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ r = θ2 ❝❛♥ ❜❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❛s ❛
✭❜✮ ❋✐♥❞ ✐ts x✲✐♥t❡r❝❡♣ts✳ ✭❝✮ ❋✐♥❞ ✐ts ❢❛❝t♦rs✳ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡ ✐♥ ❈❛rt❡s✐❛♥ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s✳
✶✵✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ P❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡s ❛♥❞ r❡❧❛t❡❞ ✹✻✸

✻✳ ■♥ ♣♦❧❛r ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s✱ A = (1, π/2) ❛♥❞ B=

(−1, −π/2) r❡♣r❡s❡♥t t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♣♦✐♥t✳

✼✳ ❚❤❡ s❧♦♣❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦❧❛r ❝✉r✈❡ r =0 ✐s ❡q✉❛❧

t♦ 0✳

✽✳ ❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✉r✈❡ r = cos 2θ ✐s ❛ s♣✐r❛❧✳

✾✳ ❚❤❡ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡ x = t2 , y = sin t ✐s

❜♦✉♥❞❡❞✳

✶✵✳ ❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ r = θ2 ❝❛♥ ❜❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❛s ❛

♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡ ✐♥ ❈❛rt❡s✐❛♥ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s✳

✶✶✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❙❡✈❡r❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✹✻✹

✶✶✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❙❡✈❡r❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✶ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✻

❉r❛✇ ❛ ❢❡✇ ❧❡✈❡❧ ❝✉r✈❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x, y) = ❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❡①✐st✿
2
x + y✳ xy
lim 2
.
(x,y)→(0,0) x + y2
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✷

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ y = g(x) ♦❢ ♦♥❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ✐s ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✼

s❤♦✇♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❙✉♣♣♦s❡ ♥♦✇ t❤❛t z = f (x, y) = g(x) ❉r❛✇ t❤❡ ❝♦♥t♦✉r ♠❛♣ ✭❧❡✈❡❧ ❝✉r✈❡s✮ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝✲
✐s ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ❞❡♣❡♥❞s ♦♥❧②
t✐♦♥ f (x, y) = ey/x ✳ ❊①♣❧❛✐♥ ✇❤❛t t❤❡ ❧❡✈❡❧ ❝✉r✈❡s
♦♥ x✱ ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛✳ ❋✐♥❞ ❛❧❧ ♣♦✐♥ts
❛r❡✳
✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡ ❣r❛❞✐❡♥t ♦❢ f ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ 0✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✽

❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s

z = f (x, y) t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ ✇❤✐❝❤ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧✲

❧♦✇✐♥❣ s✐❣♥s✿

fx > 0, fxx > 0, fy < 0, fyy < 0 .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✾

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s z = f (x, y)

✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇ ❛❧♦♥❣ ✇✐t❤ ❢♦✉r ♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✳

❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ❣r❛❞✐❡♥t ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ♦♥ ❛ s❡♣❛r❛t❡ xy ✲♣❧❛♥❡✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✸

❋✐♥❞ ❛❧❧ ❝r✐t✐❝❛❧ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x, y) =

2x3 − 6x + y 2 − 2y + 7✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✹

❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ❝♦♥t♦✉r ✭❧❡✈❡❧✮ ❝✉r✈❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥

s❤♦✇♥ ❜❡❧♦✇✱ ❛❧♦♥❣ ✇✐t❤ ♣♦✐♥ts A, B, C, D✱ ♦♥ t❤❡

xy ✲♣❧❛♥❡✿

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✶✵

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❣r❛❞✐❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x, y) = x2 y −3

❛t t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t (1, 1)✳ ❯s❡ t❤✐s ✐♥❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ t♦ s❦❡t❝❤
t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ f ✐♥ t❤❡ ✈✐❝✐♥✐t② ♦❢ t❤✐s ♣♦✐♥t✳ ❊①♣❧❛✐♥✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✶✶

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s z = f (x, y)

✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇ ❛❧♦♥❣ ✇✐t❤ ❢♦✉r ♣♦✐♥ts ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✳

Pr♦✈✐❞❡ t❤❡ s✐❣♥s ✭♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ♦r ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡✮ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣❛r✲

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✺
t✐❛❧ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ f ❛t t❤❡s❡ ♣♦✐♥ts✳ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱
❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ❧❡✈❡❧ ❝✉r✈❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x, y) = ∂f
2xy + 1 z = −1, 0, 1, 2 . <0 ❛t ♣♦✐♥t A✳
❢♦r t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ∂x
✶✶✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❙❡✈❡r❛❧ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✹✻✺

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✶✻

❉r❛✇ t❤❡ ❝♦♥t♦✉r ♠❛♣ ✭❧❡✈❡❧ ❝✉r✈❡s✮ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✲

✐♥❣ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✿

• g(x, y) = ln(x + y)
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✶✷
• f (u, v) = uv
❋✐♥❞ ❛❧❧ ❝r✐t✐❝❛❧ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x, y) =
2x3 − 6x + y 2 − 2y + 7✳ • h(x, y) = 2x − 3y + 7

• z = x2 + y 2

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✶✸ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✶✼

▼❛❦❡ ❛ s❦❡t❝❤ ♦❢ ❝♦♥t♦✉r ✭❧❡✈❡❧✮ ❝✉r✈❡s ❢♦r t❤❡ ❢♦❧✲ ❙❦❡t❝❤ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s
❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿ z = f (x, y) t❤❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s ♦❢ ✇❤✐❝❤ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ ❢♦❧✲
❧♦✇✐♥❣ s✐❣♥s✿

1 2 3 4
fx + + − +
fxx − + + −
fy − − + +
fyy − + − +

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✶✽

❚❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s z = f (x, y)

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✶✹ ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜❡❧♦✇ ❛❧♦♥❣ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ♣♦✐♥t ♦♥ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤✿ ✶✳
❆✱ ✷✳ ❇✱ ✸✳ ❈✱ ✹✳ ❉✳ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ t❤❡ s✐❣♥s ♦❢ t❤❡
❚❤❡ ✇❛✈❡ ❤❡✐❣❤ts h ✐♥ t❤❡ ♦♣❡♥ s❡❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞ ♦♥ t❤❡
s♣❡❡❞ v ♦❢ t❤❡ ✇✐♥❞ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t✐♠❡ t t❤❛t
❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s fx , fxx , fy , fyy ❛t t❤❛t ♣♦✐♥t✿

t❤❡ ✇✐♥❞ ❤❛s ❜❡❡♥ ❜❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❛t t❤❛t s♣❡❡❞✳ ❱❛❧✉❡s

♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ h = f (v, t) ❛r❡ r❡❝♦r❞❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ t❛✲
❜❧❡ ❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❊st✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ h ✇✐t❤
r❡s♣❡❝t t♦ v ✇❤❡♥ v = 40 ❛♥❞ t = 15✳ ❙❤♦✇ ②♦✉r
❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥s✳

v\t 15 20 25
30 16 17 18
40 25 28 31
50 36 40 45

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✶✳✶✺

❚❤❡ ❝♦♥t♦✉r ✭❧❡✈❡❧✮ ❝✉r✈❡s ❢♦r ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❛r❡ ❣✐✈❡♥

❜❡❧♦✇✳ ❚❤❡② ❛r❡ ❡q✉❛❧❧② s♣❛❝❡❞✳ ❙❦❡t❝❤ ❛ ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡
❣r❛♣❤ t❤❛t ♣r♦❞✉❝❡❞ ✐t ❛♥❞ ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡ ✐t✳
✶✷✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛♥❞ s❡r✐❡s ✹✻✻

✶✷✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛♥❞ s❡r✐❡s

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✶ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✾

Pr❡s❡♥t t❤❡ ✜rst 5 t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✿ ■♥ t❤❡ ❜❡❣✐♥♥✐♥❣ ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ ②❡❛r✱ ❛ ♣❡rs♦♥ ♣✉ts $5000
✐♥ ❛ ❜❛♥❦ t❤❛t ♣❛②s 3% ❝♦♠♣♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❛♥♥✉❛❧❧②✳ ❍♦✇
a1 = 1, an+1 = −(an + 1) . ♠✉❝❤ ❞♦❡s ❤❡ ❤❛✈❡ ❛❢t❡r 15 ②❡❛rs❄

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✶✵
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✷

❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t ✐♥ s✐❣♠❛ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✿ ❆♥ ♦❜❥❡❝t ❢❛❧❧✐♥❣ ❢r♦♠ r❡st ✐♥ ❛ ✈❛❝✉✉♠ ❢❛❧❧s ❛♣✲
♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡❧② 16 ❢❡❡t t❤❡ ✜rst s❡❝♦♥❞✱ 48 ❢❡❡t t❤❡
−1 − 2 − 3 − 4 − 5 − ... − 10 . s❡❝♦♥❞ s❡❝♦♥❞✱ 80 ❢❡❡t t❤❡ t❤✐r❞ s❡❝♦♥❞✱ 112 ❢❡❡t
t❤❡ ❢♦✉rt❤ s❡❝♦♥❞✱ ❛♥❞ s♦ ♦♥✳ ❍♦✇ ❢❛r ✇✐❧❧ ✐t ❢❛❧❧ ✐♥
11 s❡❝♦♥❞s❄
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✸

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ s✉♠✿ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✶✶

❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t ✐❢ ✐t ❡①✐sts✿

−1 − 2 − 3 − 4 − 5 − ... − 10 .
(−1)n
lim .
n→∞ n
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✹

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ s✉♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ s❡✲ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✶✷

q✉❡♥❝❡✿ 
n

−1, 2, −4, 8, −5, ... ❊✈❛❧✉❛t❡ t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t✿ lim ln ✳
n→∞ n+1

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✺ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✶✸

4
X ●✐✈❡ ❛♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❛ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧✲
❈♦♠♣✉t❡ n2 ✳ ❧♦✇✐♥❣✿ ✭❛✮ an → 0 ❛s n → ∞✱ ✭❜✮ an → 1 ❛s
n=1 n → ∞✱ ✭❝✮ an → +∞ ❛s n → ∞✱ ✭❞✮ an ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s
❜✉t ♥♦t t♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t②✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✻
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✶✹
❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t n+1n
✐s ❛♥ ✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✳ ❲❤❛t
❲r✐t❡ ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤❡ nt❤ t❡r♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✿
❦✐♥❞ ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ✐s n+1
n ❄ ●✐✈❡ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡s ♦❢ ✐♥❝r❡❛s✲
✐♥❣ ❛♥❞ ❞❡❝r❡❛s✐♥❣ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✳ 1 3 7 15 31
− , , − , , − , ...
2 4 8 16 32

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✼
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✶✺
❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ♥❡①t ✐t❡♠ ✐♥ ❡❛❝❤ ❧✐st✿
❊①♣❧❛✐♥ ✇❤② t❤❡ ❧✐♠✐t lim sin n ❞♦❡s ♥♦t ❡①✐st✳
n→∞
✶✳ 7, 14, 28, 56, 112, ...
✷✳ 15, 27, 39, 51, 63, ... ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✶✻

✸✳ 197, 181, 165, 149, 133, ... ✭❛✮ ❙t❛t❡ t❤❡ ❙q✉❡❡③❡ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✳ ✭❜✮ ●✐✈❡ ❛♥ ❡①❛♠✲
♣❧❡ ♦❢ ✐ts ❛♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✽ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✶✼

❆ ♣✐❧❡ ♦❢ ❧♦❣s ❤❛s 50 ❧♦❣s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❜♦tt♦♠ ❧❛②❡r✱ 49 Pr❡s❡♥t t❤❡ ✜rst 5 t❡r♠s ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ❛♥❞ t❡❧❧ ✐❢
❧♦❣s ✐♥ t❤❡ ♥❡①t ❧❛②❡r✱ 48 ❧♦❣s ✐♥ t❤❡ ♥❡①t ❧❛②❡r✱ ❛♥❞ ✐t ✐s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t✿
s♦ ♦♥✱ ✉♥t✐❧ t❤❡ t♦♣ ❧❛②❡r ❤❛s 1 ❧♦❣✳ ❍♦✇ ♠❛♥② ❧♦❣s
❛r❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣✐❧❡❄ a1 = 1, an+1 = (an − 1)2 .
✶✷✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s ❛♥❞ s❡r✐❡s ✹✻✼

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✶✽

✭❛✮ ❙t❛t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ ❛ s❡r✐❡s✳ ✭❜✮

❯s❡ ✭❛✮ t♦ ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❡ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✶✾

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s

∞
X (−1)n + 2
.
3n
n=0

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✷✵

❚❡st t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ s❡r✐❡s ❢♦r ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ✭✐♥❝❧✉❞✐♥❣

❛❜s♦❧✉t❡✴❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥❛❧✮✿
X (−1)n−1
.
(1.1)n

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✷✶

❆♣♣❧② t❤❡ ■♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❚❡st t♦ s❤♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ p✲s❡r✐❡s

✇✐t❤ p = 1/3 ❞✐✈❡r❣❡s✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✷✷

❚❡st t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ s❡r✐❡s ❢♦r ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ✭✐♥❝❧✉❞✐♥❣

❛❜s♦❧✉t❡✴❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥❛❧✮✿
X 1
(−1)2n .
nn

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✷✳✷✸

❚❡st t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ s❡r✐❡s ❢♦r ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ✭✐♥❝❧✉❞✐♥❣

❛❜s♦❧✉t❡✴❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥❛❧✮✿
X n1/2
.
n2 − 1
✶✸✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ P♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ❛♥❞ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ✹✻✽

✶✸✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ P♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ❛♥❞ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✸✳✶ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✸✳✾

❊st✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❚❛②❧♦r s❡r✐❡s ❝❡♥t❡r❡❞ ❛t a = 1 ♦❢ t❤❡
T1 ♦❢ ♦r❞❡r 1 ❝❡♥t❡r❡❞ ❛t a = 1 ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = x4 ✳
s❤♦✇♥ ❛❜♦✈❡✳ Pr♦✈✐❞❡ ❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r t❤✐s T1 ✳ ❲❤❛t
❛❜♦✉t T2 ❀ ✇❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ s✐❣♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡
♥❡①t t❡r♠ t❤❛t ❛♣♣❡❛rs ✐♥ T2 ❄ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✸✳✶✵

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ r❛❞✐✉s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✸✳✷ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s✿ n
X (x − 1)
√ n .
❲❤❛t ❞❡❣r❡❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ♦♥❡ ✇♦✉❧❞ ♥❡❡❞ t♦ n2
❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ e.01 ✇✐t❤✐♥ .001❄ ✭❆♥s✇❡rs ♠❛② ✈❛r②
❛♥❞ ②♦✉rs ❞♦❡s♥✬t ❤❛✈❡ t♦ ❜❡ ♣❡r❢❡❝t ❜✉t ✐t ❤❛s t♦
❜❡ ❥✉st✐✜❡❞✳✮ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✸✳✶✶

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ T2 (x) ♦❢ ♦r❞❡r 2 ❝❡♥✲

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✸✳✸ t❡r❡❞ ❛t a = π ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ f (x) = sin2 x.
✭❛✮ ❙t❛t❡ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡✳ ✭❜✮
●✐✈❡ ❛♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❛ s❡r✐❡s t❤❛t ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ❜✉t ♥♦t ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✸✳✶✷
❛❜s♦❧✉t❡❧②✳
●✐✈❡ ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♣❧♦tt❡❞
❜❡❧♦✇ ❛t x = 5 ❛♥❞ ❛t x = 2✿
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✸✳✹

❲❤❛t ❞❡❣r❡❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ♦♥❡ ✇♦✉❧❞ ♥❡❡❞ t♦

❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ sin(−0.01) ✇✐t❤✐♥ 0.001❄ ❊①♣❧❛✐♥ t❤❡
❢♦r♠✉❧❛✿ n+1
|x − a|
En ≤ Kn+1
(n + 1)!
❛♥❞ ✇❤② ②♦✉ ❝❛♥ ❝❤♦♦s❡ Kn+1 = 1✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✸✳✶✸

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✸✳✺ ❯s❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ f (x) = sin x t♦ ❡st✐✲

♠❛t❡ sin .02 .
❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s✿
X (x − 2)n
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✸✳✶✹
.
n
❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ f (x) = ln x ❛t
a = 1✳ ❯s❡ ✐t t♦ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ ln .99✳
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✸✳✻

❊①♣❧❛✐♥ ❤♦✇ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❜② ♣♦✇❡r s❡✲

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✸✳✶✺
r✐❡s ❛♥❞ ❤♦✇ t❤❡② ❜♦t❤ ❛r❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡❞✳ ❉❡♠♦♥✲
√
str❛t❡ ♦♥ f (x) = ex ✳ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥
√ ♦❢ f (x) = x ❛t
a = 1. ❯s❡ ✐t t♦ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ 1.1 .
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✸✳✼

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ♦❢ ❞❡❣r❡❡ 4 t❤❛t ✇♦✉❧❞ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✸✳✶✻

❤❡❧♣ t♦ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t❡ e1.01 ✳ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ f (x) = sin 3x ❛t

a = 0. ❯s❡ ✐t t♦ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ sin −.02 .
❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✸✳✽

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ r❛❞✐✉s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧ ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✸✳✶✼

t❤❡ s❡r✐❡s √
X n
2(x + 1) ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥
√ ♦❢ f (x) = 1 + 3x
.
n2 ❛t a = 0. ❯s❡ ✐t t♦ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ 1.03 .
✶✸✳ ❊①❡r❝✐s❡s✿ P♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ❛♥❞ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥s ✹✻✾

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✸✳✶✽
√
3
❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ t♦ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ 26.9 .

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✸✳✶✾

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ f (x) = x1/3

1/3
❛t a = 1✳ ❯s❡ ✐t t♦ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ 1.1 ✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✸✳✷✵

❯s❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ t♦ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ sin π/2✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✸✳✷✶

❯s❡ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ t♦ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ sin π/4✳

❊①❡r❝✐s❡ ✶✸✳✷✷

●✐✈❡ ❛♥ ❡①❛♠♣❧❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t❤❡ ❜❡st ❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣✲

♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✇❤✐❝❤ ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥t
❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥✳
◆❡①t✳✳✳
 ■♥❞❡①
❆❞❞✐t✐✈✐t② ♦❢ ■♥t❡❣r❛❧✱ ✻✼
❆❞❞✐t✐✈✐t② ♦❢ ■♥t❡❣r❛❧s✱ ✶✻✻
❆❞❞✐t✐✈✐t② ♦❢ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ❙✉♠s✱ ✻✻
❆❞❞✐t✐✈✐t② ♦❢ ❙✉♠s✱ ✻✻
❆❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦❢ ❈♦♠♣❧❡① ◆✉♠❜❡rs✱ ✸✶✼
❛♥❛❧②t✐❝ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✹✸✹
❆♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✱ ✶✵✵
❆♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s✱ ✾✾
❆♥t✐✲❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t ◗✉♦t✐❡♥ts✱ ✾✾
❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ ✶✶✵
❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦♥ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✱ ✶✶✵
❛r❡❛ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ❣r❛♣❤s✱ ✶✽✺
❆r❡❛ ❇❡t✇❡❡♥ ●r❛♣❤s ❛s ■♥t❡❣r❛❧✱ ✶✽✺
❛r❣✉♠❡♥t ♦❢ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡r✱ ✸✷✺
❛ss♦❝✐❛t❡❞ ♣♦❧❛r ❛♥❞ ❈❛rt❡s✐❛♥ s②st❡♠s✱ ✸✵✷
❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ ✷✼
❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✷✶✻✱ ✷✶✼
❇♦✉♥❞s ❢♦r ■♥t❡❣r❛❧s✱ ✼✸
❇♦✉♥❞s ❢♦r ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ❙✉♠s✱ ✼✸
❈❛rt❡s✐❛♥ s②st❡♠✱ ✸✵✾✱ ✸✶✷
❝❡❧❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✸✸✻
❝❡❧❧s✱ ✸✸✵
❈❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ▼❛ss✱ ✶✾✻
❝❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ♠❛ss✱ ✶✾✾
❈❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ▼❛ss ✕ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❈❛s❡✱ ✷✵✵
❈❡♥t❡r ♦❢ ▼❛ss ✕ ❉✐s❝r❡t❡ ❈❛s❡✱ ✶✾✽
❝❡♥tr♦✐❞✱ ✷✾✼
❈❤❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡✱ ✸✸✻
❈❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ❱❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ♦❢ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❋♦r♠✱ ✶✸✹
❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❢♦r ■♠♣r♦♣❡r ■♥t❡❣r❛❧s✱ ✶✻✽
❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ■♥t❡❣r❛❧s✱ ✼✶
❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ❙✉♠s✱ ✼✵
❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❙✉♠s✱ ✼✵
❝♦♠♣❧❡① ❝♦♥❥✉❣❛t❡✱ ✸✶✻
❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡r✱ ✸✶✻
❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥ts ♦❢ ✈❡❝t♦r✱ ✸✵✾
❈♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t✇✐s❡ ❈♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✱ ✸✷✷
❈♦♥st❛♥❝② ✈s✳ ❩❡r♦ ❉❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✱ ✾✼
❈♦♥st❛♥❝② ✈s✳ ❩❡r♦ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡✱ ✾✻
❈♦♥st❛♥❝② ✈s✳ ❩❡r♦ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ◗✉♦t✐❡♥t✱ ✾✼
❝♦♥st❛♥t ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥✱ ✸✹✼
❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❈♦♠♣❧❡① ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✱ ✸✷✸
❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ■♥t❡❣r❛❧s✱ ✶✵✼✱ ✶✶✺✱ ✶✻✻
❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ❙✉♠s✱ ✶✵✼
❈♦♥st❛♥t ▼✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❙✉♠s✱ ✶✵✻
❈♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ●❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ Pr♦❣r❡ss✐♦♥✱ ✸✼✽
❈♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ◆♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ■♥t❡❣r❛❧✱ ✶✻✼
❈♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ❙✉♠s✱ ✷✷✷
❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ ✸✷✷
❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ✉♥✐❢♦r♠❧②✱ ✸✻✺
❈♦♥✈❡rs✐♦♥ ❇❡t✇❡❡♥ P♦❧❛r ❆♥❞ ❈❛rt❡s✐❛♥✱ ✸✵✸
❈♦♥✈❡rs✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❈♦♠♣❧❡① ◆✉♠❜❡rs✱ ✸✷✻
❝②❧✐♥❞❡r✱ ✷✹✸
❉❡❝✐♠❛❧s ❛s ❙❡r✐❡s✱ ✸✾✵
❉❡✜♥✐t❡ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② ❙✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✱ ✶✹✵
❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ ✵✲❢♦r♠✱ ✸✸✸
❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✷✽
❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ ✷✵
❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦✈❡r ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡❧② ♦r✐❡♥t❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ ✸✷
❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ ♦✈❡r ③❡r♦✲❧❡♥❣t❤ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ ✸✶
❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡ q✉♦t✐❡♥t✱ ✸✹
❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠ ♦❢ ❞❡❣r❡❡ ✵✱ ✸✹✶
❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠ ♦❢ ❞❡❣r❡❡ ✶✱ ✸✸✾
❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ■♥t❡❣r❛❧s✱ ✶✵✵
❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ❙✉♠s✱ ✾✾
❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ❙✉♠s✱ ✾✾
❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❚❛②❧♦r P♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s✱ ✸✺✽
❉✐r❡❝t ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❚❡st ❢♦r ❙❡r✐❡s✱ ✹✵✷
❉✐s❝r❡t❡ ❛♥❞ ❉✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❋♦r♠s✱ ✸✹✷
❞✐s❝r❡t❡ ❢♦r♠✱ ✸✸✵
❉✐st❛♥❝❡ ❋♦r♠✉❧❛ ❢♦r ❉✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥ ✸✱ ✷✹✷
❞♦♠❛✐♥ ♦❢ ♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s✱ ✹✷✶
❊rr♦r ❇♦✉♥❞ ❢♦r ❚❛②❧♦r ❆♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥✱ ✸✺✾
❊rr♦r ❇♦✉♥❞ ♦❢ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ❙✉♠s ■✱ ✷✷✺
❊rr♦r ❇♦✉♥❞ ♦❢ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ❙✉♠s ■■✱ ✷✷✼
❊st✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❊rr♦r ♦❢ ◆✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥✱ ✷✷✾
❡①t❡r✐♦r ❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❢♦r♠ ♦❢ ❞❡❣r❡❡ ✵✱ ✸✹✶
✢♦✇ ✈❡❧♦❝✐t②✱ ✷✵✻
✢✉①✱ ✷✵✼
❋♦r♠✉❧❛s ❢♦r ❋✐♥✐t❡ ❙✉♠s✱ ✺✷
❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s✱ ✶✶✵✱ ✸✹✷
❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ■✱ ✼✼
❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ■■✱ ✼✽
❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❉✐s❝r❡t❡ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ■✱ ✹✺✱ ✸✸✹
❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ♦❢ ❉✐s❝r❡t❡ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ■■✱ ✹✻✱ ✸✸✺
❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❛♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡✱ ✶✶✾
❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ s❡r✐❡s✱ ✸✼✼
❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✱ ✷✽✹
❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡✱ ✷✼✸
❤❛r♠♦♥✐❝ s❡r✐❡s✱ ✸✼✻
✐♠❛❣❡ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t✇♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✱ ✷✽✹
✐♠❛❣✐♥❛r② ♥✉♠❜❡rs✱ ✸✶✸
✐♠♣r♦♣❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧s✱ ✶✺✾✱ ✶✻✸
■♠♣r♦♣❡r ■♥t❡❣r❛❧s ♦❢ ❘❡❝✐♣r♦❝❛❧s ■✱ ✶✻✵
■♠♣r♦♣❡r ■♥t❡❣r❛❧s ♦❢ ❘❡❝✐♣r♦❝❛❧s ■■✱ ✶✻✹
✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥ts ♦❢ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✱ ✷✼
✐♥❞❡✜♥✐t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✱ ✶✶✾
■♥t❡❣r❛❜✐❧✐t②✱ ✶✻✻
■♥t❡❣r❛❜✐❧✐t② ♦❢ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✻✷
 ✹✼✸

■♥t❡❣r❛❜✐❧✐t② ♦❢ P✐❡❝❡✇✐s❡ ❈♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✻✽ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦✈❡r ③❡r♦✲❧❡♥❣t❤ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ ✸✾

■♥t❡❣r❛❜✐❧✐t② ♦❢ ❘❡str✐❝t✐♦♥✱ ✻✸ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ❙✉♠s ♦❢ ❈♦♥✈❡① ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✷✷✹
■♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❚❡st✱ ✸✾✾ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ❙✉♠s ♦❢ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥❡ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✷✷✸
✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ ✶✲❢♦r♠✱ ✸✹✵
■♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✻✵ s❝❛❧❛r ♣r♦❞✉❝t✱ ✸✶✶
■♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❖✈❡r ◆❡❣❛t✐✈❡❧② ❖r✐❡♥t❡❞ ■♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ ✻✹ s❡❝♦♥❞❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✱ ✷✼
■♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❖✈❡r ❩❡r♦✲❧❡♥❣t❤ ■♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ ✻✸ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s✱ ✷✵
■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② P❛rts✱ ✶✹✼ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ s✉♠s✱ ✷✶✱ ✷✹
■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❜② ❙✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✱ ✶✷✾ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ s✉♠s✱ ♣❛rt✐❛❧ s✉♠s✱ ✸✻✽
✐♥t❡r✐♦r ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ ✹✷✸ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ t❡♥❞s t♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t②✱ ✸✷✷
■♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❢♦r ■♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♦❢ ▼♦♥♦t♦♥❡ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✷✷✸ s❡r✐❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ❛❜s♦❧✉t❡❧②✱ ✹✶✶
■♥t❡r✈❛❧ ❢♦r ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ■♥t❡❣r❛❧✱ ✷✷✺ s❡r✐❡s ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥❛❧❧②✱ ✹✶✷
■♥t❡r✈❛❧ ♦❢ ❈♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡✱ ✹✷✸ ❙❡t ♦❢ ❆♥t✐❞❡r✐✈❛t✐✈❡s✱ ✶✶✶
s✐❣♠❛ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥✱ ✷✶✱ ✷✷
▲❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ ❈✉r✈❡✱ ✷✸✺ s♦❧✐❞ ♦❢ r❡✈♦❧✉t✐♦♥✱ ✷✺✵
❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ ❝✉r✈❡✱ ✷✸✹ s♣❤❡r❡✱ ✷✹✸
❧✐♥❡❛r ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥✱ ✸✹✽ st❛♥❞❛r❞ ❢♦r♠ ♦❢ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡r✱ ✸✶✼
▲✐♥❡❛r ❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ■✱ ✶✷✸ ❙tr✐❝t ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ❙✉♠s✱ ✼✷
▲✐♥❡❛r ❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ■■✱ ✶✷✺ ❙tr✐❝t ❈♦♠♣❛r✐s♦♥ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❙✉♠s✱ ✼✷
▲✐♥❡❛r✐t② ♦❢ ■♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥✱ ✶✵✾ ❙✉♠ ♦❢ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✸✷
s✉♠ ♦❢ ❞✐s❝r❡t❡ ✶✲❢♦r♠✱ ✸✸✹
♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡ ♦❢ ✈❡❝t♦r✱ ✸✶✷ s✉♠ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✷✾
♠❛ss✱ ✶✾✵✱ ✶✾✶ s✉♠ ♦❢ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡✱ ✸✼✶
♠❛ss ♦❢ ❞✐s❦✱ ✷✵✸ s✉♠ ♦❢ s❡r✐❡s✱ ✸✼✶
♠❡s❤ ♦❢ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥✱ ✺✼ s✉♠ ♦❢ ✈❡❝t♦rs✱ ✸✶✶
♠♦❞✉❧✉s ♦❢ ❝♦♠♣❧❡① ♥✉♠❜❡r✱ ✸✷✺ s✉♠ ♦✈❡r ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡❧② ♦r✐❡♥t❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ ✸✷
♠♦♠❡♥t✱ ✶✾✺ s✉♠ ♦✈❡r ③❡r♦✲❧❡♥❣t❤ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ ✸✶
▼♦♥♦t♦♥❡ ❈♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡✱ ✶✻✼ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❈♦♠♣❧❡① ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✱ ✸✷✸
▼♦♥♦t♦♥✐❝✐t② ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✱ ✶✻✼ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ■♥t❡❣r❛❧s✱ ✶✵✺✱ ✶✶✹✱ ✶✻✻
▼✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❈♦♠♣❧❡① ◆✉♠❜❡rs✱ ✸✷✼ ❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ❙✉♠s✱ ✶✵✹
❙✉♠ ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❙✉♠s✱ ✶✵✸
◆❡✇t♦♥✲▲❡✐❜♥✐③ ❋♦r♠✉❧❛✱ ✼✽
♥♦❞❡✱ ✷✻ ❚❛②❧♦r ❆♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥✱ ✸✻✵
❚❛②❧♦r ❈♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts✱ ✸✺✹
♦r❞❡r ♦❢ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡ ❢♦r s❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✱ ✹✵✺ ❚❛②❧♦r ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧✱ ✸✺✸
♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡✱ ✷✻✺ ❚❛②❧♦r P♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧s ♦❢ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✸✺✻
♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ ✷✻✕✷✽ ❚❛②❧♦r s❡r✐❡s✱ ✹✸✻
♣❛t❤ ♦❢ ♣❛r❛♠❡tr✐❝ ❝✉r✈❡✱ ✷✼✷ ❚❡r♠✲❜②✲❚❡r♠ ❆❧❣❡❜r❛ ♦❢ P♦✇❡r ❙❡r✐❡s✱ ✹✷✾
♣❧❛♥❡✱ ✷✹✶ ❚❡r♠✲❜②✲❚❡r♠ ❈❛❧❝✉❧✉s ♦❢ P♦✇❡r ❙❡r✐❡s✱ ✹✸✶
P❧❛♥❡s P❛r❛❧❧❡❧ t♦ ❈♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ P❧❛♥❡s✱ ✷✸✾ t♦t❛❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t✱ ✶✾✹✱ ✷✾✻
♣♦✐♥t✇✐s❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✸✻✸ ❚r✐❣♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ ❙✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥s✱ ✶✹✺
♣♦❧❛r ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s✱ ✸✵✷ ❯♥✐q✉❡♥❡ss ♦❢ ▲✐♠✐t✱ ✸✷✷
♣♦✇❡r s❡r✐❡s ❝❡♥t❡r❡❞ ❛t ♣♦✐♥t✱ ✸✻✽✱ ✹✷✶ ❯♥✐q✉❡♥❡ss ♦❢ ❙✉♠ ♦❢ ❙❡r✐❡s✱ ✸✼✹
♣r✐♠❛r② ♥♦❞❡s✱ ✷✼
Pr♦❞✉❝t ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❈♦♠♣❧❡① ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✱ ✸✷✹ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✱ ✷✼✼
Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❆✈❡r❛❣❡✱ ✷✶✽ ✈❡❝t♦r ✐♥ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥ ✷✱ ✸✵✽
✈❡❝t♦r ✐♥ ①②✲♣❧❛♥❡✱ ✸✵✾
q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❛♣♣r♦①✐♠❛t✐♦♥✱ ✸✹✾ ✈❡❝t♦r ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s✱ ✸✶✶
◗✉♦t✐❡♥t ❘✉❧❡ ❢♦r ❈♦♠♣❧❡① ❙❡q✉❡♥❝❡s✱ ✸✷✺ ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ s♦❧✐❞✱ ✷✹✽
❱♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ ❙♦❧✐❞ ♦❢ ❘❡✈♦❧✉t✐♦♥✱ ✷✺✵✱ ✷✺✻
r❛❞✐✉s ♦❢ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡✱ ✹✷✹
❱♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ ❲❛s❤❡r✱ ✷✺✸
❘❛❞✐✉s ♦❢ ❈♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ P♦✇❡r ❙❡r✐❡s✱ ✹✷✹
❘❛t✐♦ ❛♥❞ ❘♦♦t ❚❡sts ❢♦r P♦✇❡r ❙❡r✐❡s✱ ✹✷✻ ❲❡✐❣❤t❡❞ ❆✈❡r❛❣❡✱ ✶✾✼
❘❛t✐♦ ❚❡st ❢♦r P♦✇❡r ❙❡r✐❡s✱ ✹✶✽ ✇❡✐❣❤ts✱ ✶✾✹
❘❛t✐♦ ❚❡st ❢♦r ❙❡r✐❡s✱ ✹✶✻ ✇♦r❦✱ ✷✶✵
❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✱ ✺✼
❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠✱ ✸✻ ❩❡r♦ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✈s✳ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ■♥t❡❣r❛❧✱ ✾✽
❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ❙✉♠ ♦❢ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥✱ ✹✵ ❩❡r♦ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✈s✳ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ❙✉♠✱ ✾✼
❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ s✉♠ ♦✈❡r ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡❧② ♦r✐❡♥t❡❞ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧✱ ✸✾ ❩❡r♦ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✈s✳ ❈♦♥st❛♥t ❙✉♠✱ ✾✼