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 HUMAN & ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY

CH-N0 CHAPTER NAME PAGE - N0

1 Population 1
2 Migration 22
3 Human Development 32
4 Human Settlements 41
5 Land Resources 48
6 Agriculture 56
7 Livestock 98
8 Water Resources 112
9 Mineral and Energy Resources 125
10 Manufacturing Industries 165

@Akash_Singhh
 CH-1 POPULATION IN INDIA
INTRODUCTION:
• The most important resource to a nation is its people.
• The current population of India is at 138.26 crores (2020),
according to UN data.
• Population of India is equivalent to 17.7% of the total world
population. India ranks number 2 in the list of countries
(and dependencies) by population.
• According to estimates in a recently released United Nations
report, India is expected to add 273 million people by the
year 2050.
• More often, it is argued that such a large population
invariably puts pressure on its limited resources and is also
responsible for many socio-economic problems in the
country.
• Decadal Growth rate of Population in India between 2001-
2011 was 17.64%. It decreased from 21.54% during 1991-
2001.
• India’s population is larger than the total population of
North America, South America and Australia put
together.
• The individual states of India have population comparative
to the population of many countries.

IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS

Term Explanation
Crude Birth Rate The annual number of live births per 1,000 people.
The annual number of live births per 1,000 women of childbearing age (often taken to be
General Fertility Rate from 15 to 49 years, but sometimes from 15 to 44).
The annual number of live births per 1,000 women in particular age groups (usually 15-
Age-Specific Fertility 19, 20-24 and so on).
Rates
Crude Death Rate The annual number of deaths per 1,000 people
Infant Mortality Rate The annual number of deaths of children of age less than 1-year-old per 1,000 live births.
The number of years which an individual at a given age can expect to live at present
Life Expectancy mortality levels.
Life expectancy of India is 69.16 years (2017)
The number of live births per woman completing her reproductive life, if her childbearing
at each age reflected the current age-specific fertility rates.
Total Fertility Rate
(TFR)
Gross Reproduction The number of daughters who would be born to a woman completing her reproductive
Rate life at current age-specific fertility rates
Net Reproduction Rate The number of daughters who would be born to a woman according to current age-specific
fertility and mortality rates.

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 Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR) is defined as the number of maternal deaths per 100,000
live births due to pregnancy or termination of pregnancy, regardless of the site or duration
Maternal Mortality of pregnancy.
Rate (MMR)
A population pyramid, also called an "age-gender-pyramid", is a graphical illustration
Population pyramid that shows the distribution of various age groups in a population (typically that of a country
or region of the world), which forms the shape of a pyramid when the population is
growing.
The number of females per thousand males is referred to as sex ratio.
Sex ratio
Child mortality rate Number child deaths under the age of 5
(CMR) years per 1000 live births. It’s ~50 in 2016. SDG Target 2030 - 11
Measure of the number of dependents aged zero to 14 and over the age of 65, compared
Dependency ratio with the total population aged 15 to 64.
Defined to be that period of time in a nation's demographic evolution when the proportion
Demographic window of population of working age group is particularly prominent.
The economic growth potential that can result from shifts in a population’s age
structure, mainly when the share of the working-age population (15 to 64) is larger than
the non-working-age share of the population (14 and younger, and 65 and older)”.
Demographic dividend

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION:
• India has a highly uneven pattern of population
distribution.
• The percentage shares of population of the states and
Union Territories in the country show that Uttar Pradesh
has the highest population followed by Maharashtra,
Bihar and West Bengal.
• U.P., Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh
along with Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Karnataka and Gujarat, (10 states) together account for
about 76 per cent of the total population of the country.
• Some states like UP, Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal,
Andhra Pradesh etc. are very densely populated. While
States like Arunachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and UT like
Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh have very less population
density.
• The national population density is 382 persons per
square kilometer. But the population is unevenly
distributed.

Population Density (Source: Census, 2011)

• There has been a steady increase of more than 200 persons per sq km over the last 50 years, as the density of
population increased from 117 persons/ sq km in 1951 to 382 persons/sq km in 2011.

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 • Population density is low in mountainous and desert areas like in Ladakh, western Rajasthan etc.
• Such an uneven spatial distribution of population in India suggests a close relationship between population and
physical, socioeconomic and historical factors.
• The density of population is crude measure to study the population pressure on land.
• To get a better insight into the human-land ratio in terms of pressure of population on total cultivable land, the
physiological and the agricultural densities should be found out which are significant for a country like India having a
large agricultural population.

Factors influencing the distribution of population distribution in India.

Physical

Socio-
Historical
economic

PHYSICAL FACTORS

CLIMATE
• Regions with harsh climate are sparsely populated.
• Example: Western Rajasthan has low density of population owing to the arid climate.
• Example: Coastal areas from Gujarat to West Bengal are densely populated due to moderate climate.

TERRAIN
• People avoid rugged and harsh terrains. Plain areas with minimal relief are favored by the people for settlements.
• Example: North Indian Plains, deltas and Coastal Plains have higher proportion of population than the plateaus and
hills of southern and central Indian States & Himalayan States.

AVAILABILITY OF WATER
• River plains, coastal areas and areas around lakes and ponds are densely populated.
• Example: Development of irrigation canal (Indira Gandhi Canal) in western Rajasthan have resulted in greater density
of population in the region.

AVAILABILITY OF MINERAL RESOURCES

• Mineral wealth of a region attracts settlers.
• Example: In spite of rugged terrain, large number of people reside in mineral rich plateaus of Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh
and Odisha.

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SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS

AVAILABILITY OF FERTILE FARMLANDS

• One reason for high population density in the North Indian plains is presence of large tracts of fertile plains where
subsistence agriculture can feed a large population.
DEVELOPED TRANSPORT SYSTEM
• Development of transport facilities is easier over plains.
• Limited scope for transportation in hilly regions deters large population density in these areas.

INDUSTRIALISATION & URBANISATION

• Development of industries and the resultant urbanization also encourages the concentration of population and migration
from rural areas.
• Thus, highly urbanized and industrialized regions have high population density.
• Example: urban regions of Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Bengaluru, Pune, Ahmedabad, Chennai and Jaipur have high
concentration of population due to industrial development and urbanisation drawing a large number of rural- urban
migrants.

HISTORICAL FACTORS
• It is observed that the regions falling in the river plains and coastal areas of India have remained the regions of
larger population concentration.
• Even though the uses of natural resources like land and water in these regions have shown the sign of degradation, the
concentration of population remains high because of an early history of human settlement and development of transport
network.

GROWTH OF POPULATION
• Growth of population is the change in the number of people living in a particular area between two points of time.
Its rate is expressed in percentage.
• The growth rate of population in India over the last one century has been caused by annual birth rate and death rate and
rate of migration and thereby shows different trends.

The Natural Growth The difference between the crude birth rates and death rates between two points of time is
Rate: known as the natural growth rate.

The Induced Growth It is explained by the volume of inward and outward movement of people in any given area.
Rate:

@Akash_Singhh

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 Fig. Decadal population Growth Rates (DPGR) in India

• There are four distinct phases of growth identified within the last century:

The period from 1901-1921 is referred to as a period of stagnant or stationary phase of growth of
India’s population, since in this period growth rate was extremely low, even recording a negative growth
rate during 1911-1921.
➢ Both the birth rate and death rate were high keeping the rate of increase low.
➢ Poor health and medical services, illiteracy of people at large and inefficient distribution system of
food and other basic necessities were largely responsible for a high birth and death rates in this period.
Phase I
The decades 1921-1951 are referred to as the period of steady population growth. 1921 is the
considered as the year of Demographic divide, as the growth rate has changed from being zero to
substantially positive.
➢ An overall improvement in health and sanitation throughout the country brought down the mortality
rate.
Phase ➢ The crude birth rate remained high in this period leading to higher growth rate than the previous phase.
II
The decades 1951-1981 are referred to as the period of population explosion in India, which was
caused by a rapid fall in the mortality rate but a high fertility rate of population in the country.
➢ Developmental activities were introduced through a centralized planning process and economy started
showing up, ensuring the improvement of living condition of people at large.
➢ Increased international migration bringing in Tibetans, Bangladeshis, Nepalis and even people from
Pakistan contributed to the high growth rate.

Phase
III
In the post 1981 till present, the growth rate of country’s population though remained high, has started
slowing down gradually.
➢ A downward trend of crude birth rate is held responsible for such a population growth.

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 ➢ This was, in turn, affected by an increase in the mean age at marriage, improved quality of life
particularly education of females in the country.
Phase
IV

REGIONAL VARIATION IN POPULATION GROWTH

• The States like Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Puducherry, and Goa show a low rate
of growth not exceeding 20 per cent over the decade. (1991-2001)
• During 2001-2011, the growth rates of almost all States and Union Territories have registered a lower figure compared
to the previous decade.
• The percentage decadal growth rates of the six most populous States, namely, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, West
Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh have all fallen during 2001-2011 compared to 1991-2001.

• The States like Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha,
Puducherry, and Goa show a low rate of growth not exceeding 20 per cent
over the decade.
• Kerala registered the lowest growth rate (9.4) not only in this group of states
but also in the country as a whole.
STATES WITH LOW • Nagaland experienced decline in population.
GROWTH RATES

• A continuous belt of states from west to east in the north-west, north, and north
central parts of the country has relatively high growth rate than the southern
states.
• It is in this belt comprising Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana,
Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh, Sikkim, Assam, West Bengal,
Bihar, Chhattisgarh, and Jharkhand, the growth rate on the average remained
STATES WITH HIGH 20-25 per cent.
GROWTH RATES

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 CAUSES OF DECLINING GROWTH RATE
• In 1952, India was the first country in the world to launch a national programme, emphasizing family planning to
the extent necessary for reducing birth rates to stabilize the population at a level consistent with the requirement of
national economy.
• Increased awareness and standard of living with emphasis on education has certainly helped in declining the
population growth rate.
• Different population policies aiming at population development rather than punitive action has helped India to reduce
its growth rate.

DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION
• Demographic transition theory (DTT) can be used to describe and predict the future population of any area.
• The theory tells us that population of any region changes from high births and high deaths to low births and low deaths
as society progresses from rural agrarian and illiterate to urban industrial and literate society. These changes occur in
stages which are collectively known as the demographic cycle.

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• The first stage has high fertility and high mortality because people reproduce more to compensate for the deaths due
to epidemics and variable food supply. The population growth is slow and most of the people are engaged in agriculture
where large families are an asset. Life expectancy is low, people are mostly illiterate and have low levels of technology.
Two hundred years ago all the countries of the world were in this stage.
• Fertility remains high in the beginning of
second stage but it declines with time. This is
accompanied by reduced mortality rate. Improvements
in sanitation and health conditions lead to decline in
mortality. Because of this gap the net addition to
population is high.
• In the last stage, both fertility and mortality
decline considerably. The population is either stable or
grows slowly. The population becomes urbanised,
literate and has high technical know- how and
deliberately controls the family size.
• This shows that human beings are extremely
flexible and are able to adjust their fertility.
• In the present day, different countries are at
different stages of demographic transition.
Demographic Transition Theory

New National Population Policy (2000):

• The national population policy (NPP) affirms the commitment of government towards voluntary consent of citizens,
while availing of reproductive health care services.
• The new national population policy (NPP) provides a policy frame work to meet the reproductive and child health
needs of the people of India for the next 10 years.
• To achieve zero growth rate of population by 2045.

Affordable

Accessible Available

• To reduce infant mortality rate below 30 per thousand live birth by 2010.
• To reduce birth rate to 21 per thousand by 2010
• To reduce total fertility rate to 2.1 by 2010
• It is estimated that the population of India will be 126.4 crore by 2016.
• A National Commission on Population Under the chairmanship of Prime Minister, all CMs, selected union
ministers, NGO & experts to oversee the implementation. (Although appears defunct body).
• Population Stabilization Fund (2005): An autonomous body, chaired by Health Minister, for awareness generation,
community participation, mobilising fiscal donations etc. Known for 2 schemes:
1. Prerna Scheme (for encouraging delayed marriage, childbirth and spacing. ASHA workers will give counselling
to couples, provide contraceptives etc)

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 2. Santushti Scheme (Public Private Partnership for sterilization services)

Critical Assessment of India’s Population Policy

India’s national population policies have failed to achieve their objectives as we remain world’s second largest populated
country. The population of India in 1951 was 35 crore, but by 2011, it had increased to 121 crore. There have been few
shortcomings.
1. The NPP have a narrow perspective, give much importance to contraception and sterilisation. The basic
prerequisite of meaningfully controlling population include poverty alleviation, improving the standards of living
and the spread of education.
2. On national scale the policy was not publicised and failed to generate mass support in favour of population control.
3. We have insufficient infrastructure owing to the lack of trained staff, lack of adequate aptitude among the staff and
limited use or misuse of the equipment for population control resulted in failure of the policy.
The use of coercion during the Emergency (1976-77) caused a serious resentment among the masses. This made the
very NPP itself.

Empowerment

Education Awareness

SDG 3 (3.7) → By 2030, ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health-care services, including
for family planning, information and education, and the integration of reproductive health into national
strategies and programmes.

IMPLICATIONS OF POPULATION GROWTH

• India is not growing uniformly. The latest National Family Health Survey (NFHS) indicates that the Total Fertility
Rate (TFR) varies significantly across various wealth Groups:
o The poorest wealth quintile has a TFR of 3.2 children per woman.
o The second lowest wealth quintile has a TFR of 2.5 children per woman.
o The richest wealth quintile has a TFR of 1.5 children per woman.
• This shows that population growth is more concentrated in economically weaker sections of society.
• Population growth acts as a hurdle in addressing effectively the problem of poverty, hunger and malnutrition and
also in providing the better quality of health and education.
• SDGs 1, 2, 3 and 4 (Goal 1: No Poverty, Goal 2: Zero Hunger, Goal 3: Good Health and Well-being, Goal 4: Quality
Education) are going to be affected adversely because of India’s existing pattern of growth in the population.
• Presently, India is producing around 25 million job seekers in the country, however, the country is able to provide
jobs only to 7 million. This gap of 18 million is increasing the burden of unemployment and underemployment in the
country, turning a demographic dividend into a demographic disaster.
• India’s population growth is not sustainable. India is only about 35-40% of China’s landmass.

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• In the 19th century, when Europe had a demographic explosion, it had occupied America, Australia etc. India does not
have another landmass to occupy and the available landmass cannot take this population growth.

POPULATION COMPOSITION

Rural – Urban Composition

• According to The World Bank, urban population in India
is 34% of total population
• The 2018 Revision of World Urbanization Prospects,
released by the UN Department of Economic and Social
Affairs, projects India’s urban population to rise to
52.8% in 2050.
• India has 640,867 villages according to the Census 2011
out of which 597,608 (93.2 per cent) are inhabited.
• A thorough examination of the pattern of distribution of
rural population of India reveals that both at intra-State
and inter- State levels, the relative degree of
urbanization and extent of rural-urban migration
regulate the concentration of rural population.
• The distribution of rural population is not uniform
throughout the country.
• The states like Bihar and Sikkim have very high
percentage of rural population.
• The states of Goa and Maharashtra have only little over
half of their total population residing in villages.

Rural Urban Composition, Census 2011

• The rural-urban migration is conspicuous in the case of urban areas along the main road links and railroads in the North
Indian Plains, the industrial areas around Kolkata, Mumbai, Bengaluru – Mysuru, Madurai – Coimbatore,
Ahmedabad – Surat, Delhi – Kanpur and Ludhiana – Jalandhar.

Linguistic Composition:
• India is a land of linguistic diversity. According to Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India the number
of raw returns of mother tongues has totaled 19,569 in the report of the 2011 census.
• However, 96.71 per cent of the population in the country have one of the 22 scheduled languages as their mother
tongue.
• Among the scheduled languages, the speakers of Hindi have the highest percentage.
• The smallest language groups are Kashmiri and Sanskrit speakers.
• It is noticed that the linguistic regions in the country do not maintain a sharp and distinct boundary.

Religious Composition:
• The Religious Composition reflects the distribution of total population by six major religious communities, namely,
Hindu, Muslim, Christian, Sikh, Buddhist, Jain.

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 Religion Regions
They are distributed as a major group in many states except the bordering districts; hill States
Hindus of north-east and in scattered areas of the Deccan Plateau and Ganga Plain.
They form a majority in Kashmir valley and Lakshadweep and are concentrated in Jammu
Muslims & Kashmir, certain districts of West Bengal and Kerala, many districts of Uttar Pradesh, in and
around Delhi and in Lakshadweep.
Their population is concentrated along the Western coast around b, Kerala and also in the hill
states of Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Chota-Nagpur area and Hills of Manipur.
Christians
Sikhs are mostly concentrated in a relatively small area of the country, particularly in the states
Sikhs of Punjab, Haryana and Delhi.
They are concentrated in the urban areas of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashtra.
Jains
They concentrated mostly in Maharashtra. The other areas where Buddhist are in the majority
are Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Ladakh in Jammu & Kashmir, Tripura, and Lahul and Spiti in
Buddhists Himachal Pradesh.

Occupational Composition
• According to the economic status the population of India is divided into three groups:
• Main workers: Main Worker is a person who works for at least 183 days (or six months) in a year.
• Marginal workers: Marginal Worker is a person who works for less than 183 days (or six months) in a year.
• Non-workers: They belong to an unemployed bunch of the population.

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• In India, the proportion of workers (both main and marginal) is only 37.5% (Periodic Labour Force Survey 2018- 19)
leaving a vast majority of about 60% as non-workers.
• It varies from about 39.6 in Goa to about 49.9% in Daman and Diu.
• This indicates an economic status in which there is a larger proportion of dependent population, further indicating
possible existence of large number of unemployed or under employed people.
• In the context of a country like India, the work participation rate tends to be higher in the areas of lower levels of
economic development since number of manual workers are needed to perform the subsistence or near subsistence
economic activities.
• As far as the occupation of country’s male and female population is concerned, male workers out-number female
workers in all the three sectors that is primary, secondary and tertiary.
• The number of female workers is relatively high in primary sector, though in recent years there has been some
improvement in work participation of women in secondary and tertiary sectors.
• It is important to note that the proportion of workers in agricultural sector in India has shown a decline over the
last few decades (58.2% in 2001 to 54.6% in 2011). Consequently, the participation rate in secondary and tertiary sector
has registered an increase.

Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR): LFPR is defined as the percentage of persons in the labour force
(i.e. working or seeking or available for work) in the population.
Female Labour Force Participation Rate: It is the share of working-age women who report either being
employed, or being available for work.
Worker Population Ratio (WPR): WPR is defined as the percentage of employed persons in the population.

Sex Ratio
• The number of females per thousand males is referred
to as sex ratio.
• According to the 2011 census, the sex ratio in India is 940
which was 933 in 2001.
• Kerala is the only state where the number of females is
more than that of males. It has sex ratio of 1084.
• Haryana lies at the bottom with 879 females per
thousand males.
• Among UTs, Puducherry has the highest (1037) sex
ratio and Daman Diu has the lowest (618).
• Three major states, i.e., J&K, Bihar and Gujarat have
shown decline in the sex ratio as compared to census
2001.

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 Child Sex Ratio:
• The Child Sex Ratio in India is defined as the number of females per thousand males in the age group of 0–6 years
in the human population.
• According to Census 2011, Child Sex Ratio in India is 918 which is lowest since Independence.
• Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Mizoram, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands are observing
an increasing trend in the Child Sex Ratio.

TRIBES & RACIAL GROUPS

• In India, tribal population makes up for 8.6% of the total
population and is found in all the states and UTs except
Punjab and Haryana.
• Most of the tribes in India are concentrated in Central
India, North eastern India and South Indian hills.
• Tribal communities in India are often identified by some
specific signs such as primitive traits, distinctive culture,
geographical isolation, shyness to contact with the
community at large, and backwardness.
• Along with these, some tribal groups have some specific
features such as:
o Dependency on hunting, gathering for food,
o Having primitive level of technology,
o Zero or negative growth of population,
o Extremely low level of literacy.

PARTICULARLY VULNERABLE TRIBAL

GROUPS
• In 1973, the Dhebar Commission created Primitive Tribal Groups (PTGs) as a separate category, who are less
developed among the tribal groups. In 2006, the Government of India renamed the PTGs as PVTGs.
• In this context, in 1975, the Government of India initiated to identify the most vulnerable tribal groups as a separate
category called PVTGs and declared 52 such groups, while in 1993 an additional 23 groups were added to the category,
making it a total of 75 PVTGs out of 705 Scheduled Tribes.
• PVTGs are more vulnerable among the tribal groups. Due to this factor, more developed and assertive tribal groups
take a major chunk of the tribal development funds because of which PVTGs need more funds directed for their
development.
• PVTGs have some basic characteristics –
o they are mostly homogenous, with a small declining or stagnant population,
o they are relatively physically isolated,
o absence of written language,
o pre agricultural level of technology and a slower rate of change etc.
• Among the 75 listed PVTG’s the highest number are found in Odisha.

Tribe Description
Limbu • Sikkim & Darjeeling Hill area
Karbi (Mikir) • Found in Mikir Hills of Assam
• Also known as Arleng

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 • Racially they belong to the Mongoloid group and linguistically they belong to Tibeto-
Burman group.
Dongria Kondh • Niyamgiri Hills in Odisha
• PVTG
• Reside in bauxite rich region – conflicts with mining companies.
Bonda • Odisha
Gonds, Korku • Madhya Pradesh
• Celebrate Hari Jiroti, a festival for planting fruit bearing trees at beginning of rains.
Chang Pa • Changlang Plateauin Ladakh
• Traditional producer of Pashmina wool.
Shompen • One of the two mongoloid tribes that live in Nicobar Islands, others being Nicobarese.

Agariya • Uttar Pradesh & Madhya Pradesh

• Also known as Lohar as they were involved in mining and smelting iron during the
British Raj.
Agaria • Group of salt pan workers in Gujarat.

Todas • Nilgiri area in Tamil Nadu • PVTG

Konyak • Nagaland
Lotha • Nagaland
Lepcha • Sikkim
• Important part of Kanchendzonga Biosphere Reserve
Misting • Majuli Island, Assam
Onge • Sentinel Islands, A&N

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT AND POPULATION GROWTH:

“Empowering women is the key to control population growth”. Discuss (mains 2019)
• Women are at times financially weak to pay for needed family planning and health services. Access to and control over
productive resources will result in increased voice, agency and meaningful participation in decision-making at all levels
from family planning to the time of conceiving.
• The failure of family planning is directly related to large-scale illiteracy that also contributes to the early age of
marriage, low status of women, high child-mortality rate etc. They are least aware of the various ways to control
population, usage of contraceptives and birth control measures.
• Uneducated families cannot grasp the issues and problems caused by the increasing population rate. Education has
a transformative impact on girls. Educated girls tend to work more, earn more, expand their horizons, marry and
start having children later with fewer children.
• Fertility rates are high because of misinformation about side-effects of contraceptives, lack of knowledge about the
benefits of small families, and religious or male opposition to contraception.
• Any woman with multiple children spends most of her life as a mother and wife. She cannot play any meaningful
role in her community and society until she is able to limit her family to a proper size. Family planning will not only
improve family welfare but also contribute to achieving social prosperity and personal happiness.
• It is also crucial to sensitize men and boys at a young age, so they become an integral part in bringing about a
transformation of women empowerment in Indian society. When men start respecting women and accepting them as
equals, a lot of gender-based inequalities will reduce considerably.

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 DEMOGRAPHIC DIVIDEND
• According to United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), demographic dividend means, "the economic growth
potential that can result from shifts in a population’s age structure, mainly when the share of the working-age
population (15 to 64) is larger than the non-working-age share of the population (14 and younger, and 65 and older)".
• India has 62.5% of its population in the age group of 15-59 years which is ever increasing and will be at the peak
around 2036 when it will reach approximately 65%.

Challenges Associated with Demographic Dividend

• Asymmetric demography: The growth in the working-age ratio is likely to be concentrated in some of India’s poorest
states and the demographic dividend will be fully realized only if India is able to create gainful employment
opportunities for this working-age population.
• Lack of skills: Most of the new jobs that will be created in
the future will be highly skilled and lack of skill in Indian
workforce is a major challenge. India may not be able to take
advantage of the opportunities, due to a low human capital
base and lack of skills.
• Low human development parameters: India ranks 130 out
of 189 countries in UNDP’s Human Development Index,
which is alarming. Therefore, health and education
parameters need to be improved substantially to make the
Indian workforce efficient and skilled.
• Informal nature of economy in India is another hurdle in
reaping the benefits of demographic transition in India.
• Jobless growth- There is mounting concern that future growth could turn out to be jobless due to de-industrialization,
de-globalization, the fourth industrial revolution and technological progress. As per the NSSO Periodic Labor Force
Survey 2017-18, India’s labor force participation rate for the age-group 15-59 years is around 53%, that is, around
half of the working age population is jobless.

What needs to be done?

• Building human capital: Investing in people through healthcare, quality education, jobs and skills helps build
human capital, which is key to supporting economic growth, ending extreme poverty, and creating a more inclusive
society.
• Skill development to increase employability of young population. India’s labour force needs to be empowered with the
right skills for the modern economy. Government has established the National Skill Development Corporation
(NSDC) with the overall target of skilling/ up skilling 500 million people in India by 2022.
• Education: Enhancing educational levels by properly investing in primary, secondary and higher education. India,
which has almost 41% of population below the age of 20 years, can reap the demographic dividend only if with a better
education system. Also, academic-industry collaboration is necessary to synchronise modern industry demands and
learning levels in academics. Establishment of Higher Education Finance Agency (HEFA) is a welcome step in this
direction.
• Health: Improvement in healthcare infrastructure would ensure higher number of productive days for young labour
force, thus increasing the productivity of the economy.
Success of schemes like Ayushman Bharat and National Health Protection scheme (NHPS) is necessary. Also,
nutrition level in women and children needs special care with effective implementation of Integrated Child
Development (ICDS) programme.
• Job Creation: The nation needs to create ten million jobs per year to absorb the addition of young people into the
workforce. Promoting businesses’ interests and entrepreneurship would help in job creation to provide employment to
the large labour force.
o India’s improved ranking in the World Bank’s Ease of Doing Business Index is a good sign.

15
 o Schemes like Start-up India and Make in India, if implemented properly, would bring the desired result in the near
future.
• Urbanisation: The large young and working population in the years to come will migrate to urban areas within their
own and other States, leading to rapid and large-scale increase in urban population. How these migrating people can
have access to basic amenities, health and social services in urban areas need to be the focus of urban policy planning.

Suggestive measures for population control

Measures for population

control

Social Economic Other

Measures Measures Measures

SOCIAL MEASURES:
1. Minimum age of Marriage → In India minimum age for marriage is 21 years for men and 18 years for women has
been fixed by law. As fertility depends on the age of marriage, this law should be firmly implemented and people should
also be made aware of this through publicity.
2. Raising the Status of Women → There is still discrimination to the women. So women should be given opportunities
to develop socially and economically. Free education should be given to them.
3. Spread of Education → The spread of education changes the outlook of people. The educated men prefer to delay
marriage and adopt small family norms. Educated women are health conscious and avoid frequent pregnancies and thus
help in lowering birth rate.
4. Adoption → Some parents do not have any child, despite costly medical treatment. It is advisable that they should
adopt orphan children.
5. Change in Social Outlook → Marriage should no longer be considered a social binding. Issueless women should not
be looked down upon.
6. Social Security → More and more people should be covered under-social security schemes. So that they do not depend
upon others in the event of old age, sickness, unemployment etc..

ECONOMIC MEASURES:
1. More employment opportunities → The first and foremost measure is to raise the employment avenues in rural as
well as urban areas. (Generally in rural areas there is disguised unemployment).
2. Development of Agriculture and Industry → If agriculture and industry are properly developed, large number of
people will get employment. When their income is increased they would improve their standard of living and adopt
small family norms.
3. Standard of Living → Improved standard of living acts as a deterrent to large family norm. In order to maintain their
higher standard of living, people prefer to have a small family.
4. Urbanisation → It is on record that people in urban areas have low birth rate than those living in rural areas.

OTHER MEASURES:
1. Late Marriage → This will reduce the period of reproduction among the females bringing down the birth rate.
2. Family Planning → This method implies family by choice and not by chance. By applying preventive measures, people
can regulate birth rate. The success of this method depends on the availability of cheap contraceptive devices for birth
control.
3. Publicity → The communication media like TV, radio and newspaper are the good means to propagate the benefits of
the planned family to the uneducated and illiterate people especially in the rural and backward areas of the country.

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 4. Incentives → The govt. can give various types of incentives to the people to adopt birth control measures. Monetary
incentives and other facilities like leave and promotion can be extended to the working class which adopts small family
norms.
5. Employment to Woman → The female labour force participation has had a decadal fall from 36.7 per cent in 2005 to
26 per cent in 2018, with 95% (195 million) women employed in the unorganised sector according to a report by
Deloitte. Access to quality education, reducing the digital divide, mentoring adolescent girls on vocational training and
apprenticeship avenues can build a strong linkage towards considering technology linked training and employment
options.

Mission Parivar Vikas

• The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare has launched “Mission Parivar Vikas” in 145 high focus districts
having the highest total fertility rates in the country.
• The main objective of ‘Mission Parivar Vikas’ will be to accelerate access to high quality family planning choices
based on information, reliable services and supplies within a rights-based framework.
• These 145 districts are in the seven high focus, high TFR states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Assam that constitute 44% of the country’s population.
• The key strategic focus of this initiative will be on improving access to contraceptives through delivering assured
services, dovetailing with new promotional schemes, ensuring commodity security, building capacity (service
providers), creating an enabling environment along with close monitoring and implementation.

THE POPULATION PYRAMID (THE AGE-SEX PYRAMID)

● The age-sex structure of a population refers to the number of females and males in different age groups.
● A population pyramid is used to show the age-sex structure of the population. The shape of the population pyramid
reflects the characteristics of the population.
● The male and female populations are broken down into 5-year age groups represented as horizontal bars along the
vertical axis, with the youngest age groups at the bottom and the oldest at the top.
● The shape of the population pyramid gradually evolves over time based on fertility, mortality, and international
migration trends.

Expanding Population

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● The age-sex pyramid in such a case is a triangular-shaped pyramid
with a wide base and is typical of less developed countries.
● These have larger populations in lower age groups due to high birth
rates.

Constant Population
● Here, the age-sex pyramid is bell-shaped and tapered towards
the top.
● This shows birth and death rates are almost equal leading to
a near-constant population.

Declining Population
● This pyramid has a narrow base and a tapered top
showing low birth and death rates.
● The population growth in developed countries is usually
zero or negative.

MALTHUS’ THEORY OF POPULATION GROWTH

• Malthus contended that the world’s population was growing more rapidly than the available food supply.
• He argued that the food supply increases in an arithmetic progression (1, 2, 3, 4, and so on), whereas the population
expands by a geometric progression (1, 2, 4, 8, and so on).
• According to him, the population could increase by multiples, doubling every twenty-five years. The gap between
the food supply and the population will continue to grow over time. Even though the food supply will increase, it would
be insufficient to meet the needs of an expanding population. Moreover, famine and other natural calamities cause
widespread sufferings and increase the death rate, which is nature’s check against the population.
• Unfortunately, humanity has only a limited ability to voluntarily reduce the growth of its population (through
‘preventive checks’ such as postponing marriage or practicing sexual abstinence or celibacy). Malthus believed
‘positive checks’ to population growth in the form of famines and diseases.

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 • Nature has its own ways of keeping a check on the increasing population. It brings the population level to the level of
the available food supply. The positive checks include famines, earthquakes, floods, epidemics, wars, etc. When
humans fail to control excessive population growth, nature plays its role.

MARX’S RESPONSE TO MALTHUS’ THESIS

• Karl Marx went one step further and argued that starvation was caused by the unequal distribution of wealth and
its

accumulation by capitalists. It has nothing to do with the population.

• The population is dependent on economic and social organization. The problems of overpopulation and limits to
resources, as enunciated by Malthus, are inherent and inevitable features associated with the capitalist system of
production.
• He does not believe in natural laws controlling the population. According to him, capitalism created population
growth in order to create a vast pool of cheap labor.

SOME REPORTS
State of World Population 2019:
• It is released by United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA)
• India accounts for over one-sixth of the world’s population in 2019 (1.37 billion out of 7.71 billion).
• It has grown at a rate (1.2% per year between 2010 and 2019) that is just over the world growth rate (1.2%).
• India’s life expectancy at birth is lower than the world’s (69 years to 72).
• It scores higher than the global average in terms of access to healthcare during childbirth, and also has a much lower
adolescent birth rate.
• India’s maternal mortality ratio in 2015 was 174 deaths per lakh live births (down from 448 in 1994) while the global
MMR in 2015 was 216.
• India’s fertility rate in 2019 is 2.3 births per woman, compared to 2.5 worldwide.

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World Population Prospects 2019:
• The United Nations released the ‘World Population Projections 2019' report.
• India is projected to surpass China as the world's most populous country in the next 8 years i.e. by around 2027.
• India is expected to add nearly 273 million people between 2019 and 2050.
• It will remain the most populated country through the end of the current century.
• Together, the population of India and Nigeria (projected to grow by 200 million) could account for 23% of the global
population increase to 2050.
• Over-65 population - In India, children under age five still outnumber the over-65 population.
• But the over-65 population is projected to overtake the under-five group between 2025 and 2030.
• By 2050, persons over age 65 will make up about one-seventh of India’s population.
• By then, the 15-24 years age group in India (13.8%), too, will outnumber the over-65 group (13.6%).
• So, children under age five are projected to constitute less than 6% of India’s population in 2050, as compared to 7%
globally.

Economic Survey 2019

Projected that by 2031: National TFR will fall below the replacement level (i.e. TFA < 2.1), because of:
➢ Continued urbanization.
➢ Improvements in health care → decline in infant mortality → mothers will not produce
➢ Second / third child to offset the loss of the first child.
➢ Increase in female education → family planning, birth control, postponement of marriage
➢ Other socio-economic drivers.
NITI Aayog to draft roadmap for achieving population stabilization
• NITI Aayog is organising a National Consultation titled “Realizing the vision of population stabilization: leaving no
one behind”.
• The working paper is expected to address key gaps in India’s family planning programmes.
• It will offer constructive recommendations to address regional disparities in outcomes by focusing on adolescents and
youths, inter-departmental convergence, demand generation, access to contraceptive services and quality of care.
• The recommendations from the consultation will contribute to a NITI Aayog working paper to help achieve India’s
vision of attaining population stabilization.
Key recommendations expected to emerge from the meeting are as follows:
• Increasing the basket of contraceptive choices, with greater focus on spacing methods and helping women make
informed choices about delaying pregnancy and spacing between children.
• Addressing social determinants of health such as age at marriage and sex-selective practices.
• Strengthening quality of care, including counseling services, managing side effects and family planning support.
• Increasing budgetary allocations for family planning, to align with the unmet needs of India’s young people who
constitute nearly 30 per cent of our population
• Addressing existing socio-cultural barriers towards contraception by investing extensively in innovative behaviour-
change communication strategies.
• Treating population stabilization and family planning as a national priority, fostering inter-departmental
convergence and ensuring multisectoral participation and integration.

Why such move?

• India, with a current population size of 1.37 billion, has the second largest population in the world.
• Family planning is considered universally as the smartest development investment.
• For India to realize its sustainable development goals and economic aspirations, it is important to ensure that people
have informed access to contraception and quality family planning services.
• India is also at a stage where birth rates are falling but the population continues to grow due to the fact that more
than 30 % of the population is young and in the reproductive age group.

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 • Nearly 30 million currently married women in the age group of 15-49 years within this critical cohort have unmet needs
in family planning.
• This limits their ability to delay or avoid pregnancy by not having access or the agency to use contraception.

JANSANKHYA STHIRATA KOSH (JSK)

• Jansankhya Sthirata Kosh (JSK) an autonomous body under Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, implemented
the following schemes:
o Prerna Scheme (for delaying marriage, childbirth and spacing),
o Santushti Scheme (Public Private Partnership for sterilization services), and
o National Helpline (for information on family planning).
• Jansankhya Sthirata Kosh (JSK) is a registered society of the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare started with a Rs
100 crore grant from government.
• The society was established with the objective of highlighting the need for population stabilization. Its accounts can
be audited by the CAG.
• The “Jansankhya Sthirata Kosh” (JSK) (National Population Stabilisation Fund) has been registered as an autonomous
Society established under the Societies Registration Act of 1860.
• JSK has to promote and undertake activities aimed at achieving population stabilisation at a level consistent with
the needs of sustainable economic growth, social development and environment protection, by 2045.

United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA)

● It is a subsidiary organ of the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) and works as a sexual and reproductive
health agency.
● It was established as a trust fund in 1967 and began operations in 1969.
● In 1987, it was officially renamed the United Nations Population Fund but the original abbreviation, ‘UNFPA’ for
the United Nations Fund for Population Activities was retained.
● The UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) establishes its mandate.
● UNFPA is not supported by the UN budget, instead, it is entirely supported by voluntary contributions of donor
governments, intergovernmental organizations, the private sector, foundations and individuals.
● UNFPA works directly to tackle on health (SDG3), education (SDG4) and gender equality (SDG5).
● India can achieve a number of SDGs if it links them with family planning.

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 CH-2 MIGRATION
Topics covered:
➢ Introduction
➢ Streams of Migration
Migration ➢ Spatial Variation in Migration
➢ Causes of Migration
➢ Consequences of Migration
➢ International migration: Diaspora

@Akash_Singhh

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 Introduction:
● The Economic Survey of India 2017 estimates that the magnitude of inter-state migration in India was
close to 9 million annually between 2011 and 2016
● The 2001 census estimated the total number of internal migrants at 314 million based on place of last
residence, representing nearly 30% of the total population. According to the 2011 Census, the number
of internal migrants rose to 453.6 million.
● According to the International Migrant Stock 2019 report (released by the Population Division of the
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs), India with 17.5 million international
migrants has emerged as the top source of international migrants, constituting 6.4% of world’s total
migrant population.

Some basic terms:

Human Migration: It is the movement by people from one place to another with the intention of
settling, permanently or temporarily in a new location (within or outside the home
country). Such people are called migrants.
Immigration: Immigration is coming to a foreign country with the intention of permanently living
there.
Emigration: Emigration is leaving a resident country with the intent to settle elsewhere.
Refugees: These are the people who have been forced to flee their resident country because
of war, violence or persecution. Such people are protected by international law,
specifically the 1951 Refugee Convention.
Enroute: Migrants in between origin and destination are known as enroute.
Return Migration: When groups of people move back to where they came from.
Seasonal Migration: When people move with each season (e.g. farm workers following crop harvests or
working in cities off-season).
World Migration It is International Organization for Migration’s (IOM) flagship publication that
Report: features the latest trends in international migration, discusses emerging policy
issues and provides regional recent developments in Africa, America, Asia,
Europe, the Middle East and Oceania.
Migration stream and A number of migrants sharing a common origin and destination form a migration
counter-stream: stream. For every stream there is a reverse counter-stream.
International IOM is a leading inter-governmental organization in the field of migration and
Organization for works closely with governmental, intergovernmental and non-governmental
Migration (IOM): partners. It was established in 1951 and has its head office at Le Grand-Saconnex,
Switzerland.
Diaspora Diaspora is commonly understood to include Non-Resident Indians (NRIs),
Persons of Indian Origin (PIOs) and Overseas Citizens of India (OCI), of which
PIO and OCI card holders were merged under one category - OCI - in 2015.

Streams of Migration:
● Four streams are identified:
(a) rural to rural (R-R);
(b) rural to urban (R-U);
(c) urban to urban (U-U); and
(d) urban to rural (U-R)
● According to census 2011:
➢ Rural to Urban migration was 20.5 million
➢ Rural to Rural migration was 53.3 million.

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 ➢ Urban to Urban migration was 14.3 million
➢ Urban to rural was 6.2 million
● Apart from these streams of internal migration, India also experiences immigration from and emigration
to the neighboring countries.
● Indian Census 2011 has recorded that more than 5 million persons have migrated to India from other
countries.

Spatial Variation in Migration

● The cities of Mumbai, Delhi, and Kolkata are the largest
destinations for internal migrants in India
● Uttar Pradesh and Bihar are the biggest source states,
followed closely by Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, and
Rajasthan.
● The major destination states are Maharashtra, UP, Tamil
Nadu, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala.

Migration

Internal External
migration migration

Internal migration
• The number of internal migrants in India was 450 million as per the most recent 2011 census. This is
an increase of 45% over the 309 million recorded in 2001. Internal migrants as a percentage of
population increased from 30% in 2001 to 37% in 2011.

• When a person is enumerated in the census at a different place than his / her place of birth, she/he is
considered a migrant.

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 • Female Migration: Out of the total internal migrants, 70.7 percent are women (Census of India 2001)
and marriage is one of the major reasons for female migration in both the rural and urban areas.
• Male Migration: Migration for employment-related reasons is one of the prominent reasons for male
migration in both rural and urban areas.

Types of internal migration in India:

● Long term Migration, resulting in the relocation of an individual or household.
● Short term Migration, involving back and forth movement between a source and destination.
● Female Migration: Out of the total internal migrants, 70.7 percent are women (Census of India 2001)
and marriage is one of the major reasons for female migration in both the rural and urban areas.
● Male Migration: Migration for employment-related reasons is one of the prominent reasons for male
migration in both rural and urban areas.

Causes of Internal Migration:

● Urbanization: Rural-urban migration is a major characteristic of urban transition in countries.
➢ The rates of urbanization influence rural-urban wage differences.
➢ An increase in the demand for labour in urban areas and better wages increase migration.
➢ The pull factors of better job facilities, good salary, and more income, medical and educational
facilities are attracting the rural people to move to the cities.
➢ The push factors of no job facilities, low salary, less income, drought, less medical and education
compel people towards cities.
● Marriage: marriage is an important social factor for migration. As observed by Census 2001, in case of
intra-state migrant’s majority of the migration is from one rural area to another, due to marriage in case of
females.
● Employment:
➢ The prime reason for migration from rural to urban areas and urban to urban areas is search for better
employment in industries, trade, transport and services.
➢ People seasonally migrate for employment in different areas and different industries. For Example,
significant numbers of people from drought-prone regions—e.g. from areas of Andhra Pradesh,

25
 Karnataka, and Maharashtra—migrate seasonally to work in brickmaking, construction, tile factories,
and agricultural work. Such migration is of both rural-rural and rural-urban streams.
➢ Circular migrants are also attracted by agricultural work, such as the rice harvest season in West Bengal
and the sugar cane harvest in Gujarat.
● Education: Due to lack of educational facilities in rural areas, people migrate to the urban areas for better
academic opportunities. In the 2011 census, about 1.77% people migrated for education.
● Lack of security: Political disturbances and interethnic conflicts is another reason for internal migration.
● Environmental and disaster induced factors:
➢ There are migrants who are forced to move from rural to urban areas as a result of an environmental
disaster that might have destroyed their homes and farms.
➢ People are also forced to migrate from their traditional habitats due to gradual deterioration of changing
environmental conditions.
➢ There can also be forced displacement due to reasons such as developmental projects. According to a
Lok Sabha Report, 2013 around 50 million people have been displaced to the name of development
projects over 50 years in India.

Push Factors and Pull Factor:

Impact of Internal Migration:

Positive Impact:

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 • Labour Demand and Supply: Migration fills gaps in demand for and supply of labor, efficiently allocates
skilled labor, unskilled labor, and cheap labor.
• Economic Remittances: Economic wellbeing of migrants provides insurance against risks to households
in the areas of origin, increases consumer expenditure and investment in health, education and assets
formation.
• Skill Development: Migration enhances the knowledge and skills of migrants through exposure and
interaction with the outside world.
• Quality of Life: Migration, enhances chances of employment and economic prosperity which in turn
improves quality of life. The migrants also send extra income and remittance back home, thereby
positively impacting their native place.
• Social Remittances: Migration helps to improve the social life of migrants, as they learn about new
cultures, customs, and languages which helps to improve brotherhood among people and ensures greater
equality and tolerance.
• Food and Nutrition Security: According to the 2018 State of Food and Agriculture report by Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO), outmigration often leads to improved food and nutrition security for
migrants.
• Demographic Advantage: As a result of outmigration, the population density of the place of origin is
reduced and the birth rate decreases.
• Climate Change Adaptive Mechanism: Migration has also emerged as a possible adaptive mechanism
in the context of climate change and the occurrence of extreme weather events like floods, droughts, and
cyclones.

Negative Impact:
● Demographic Profile: Emigration in large numbers can alter demographic profiles of communities, as
most of the young men move out, leaving only the women and elderly to work on the land.
● Political Exclusion: Migrant workers are deprived of many opportunities to exercise their political rights
like the right to vote.
● Population Explosion and the Influx of workers in the place of destination increases competition.
● Brain Drain: Source state suffers from the loss of human capital.
● Increased Slum: Mass Migration results into an increase in slum areas, compromising quality of
infrastructure and life at the destination, which further translates into many other problems such as
unhygienic conditions, crime, pollution, etc.

Impact on Migrants (challenges faced by migrant workers):

● Employment in informal economy: Migrants dominate the urban informal economy which is marked by
high poverty and vulnerabilities. In an unorganized and chaotic labour market, migrant workers regularly
face conflicts and disputes at worksites. The common issues they face are non-payment of wages, physical
abuse, accidents and even death at work.
● Issue of Identification documents: Proving their identity is one of the core issues faced by poor migrant
labourers at destination areas. The basic problem of establishing identity results in a loss of access to
entitlements and social services, such as subsidized food, fuel, health services, or education that are meant
for the economically vulnerable sections of the population.
● Housing: Lack of affordable housing in Indian cities force migrants to live in slums. Many seasonal
migrants are not even able to afford rents in slums force them to live at their workplaces (such as
construction sites and hotel dining rooms), shop pavements, or in open areas in the city
● Financial Access: Migrant workers have limited access to formal financial services and remain unbanked
● Access to healthcare: Migrant workers have poor access to health services, which results in very poor
occupational health.

27
● Education of children: UNESCO’s 2019 Global Education Monitoring Report (GEM Report) shows
that children left behind by migrating parents and seasonal migrants face fewer educational opportunities
overall. According to the report, 80% of migrant children across seven Indian cities did not have access to
education near worksites. Among youth aged 15 to 19 who have grown up in a rural household with a
seasonal migrant, 28% were identified as illiterate or had an incomplete primary education.
● Social exclusion: There is growing hostility of urban governments, as well as middle-class citizens,
towards the urban poor, especially migrants to the cities.
● Political exclusion: Migrant workers are deprived of many opportunities to exercise their political rights.
A 2011 study pointed out that 22% of seasonal migrant workers in India did not possess voter IDs or have
their names in the voter list.

Challenges Faced By Society And Administration Due To Such Migration:

● Inclusion and Integration of Migrants: Internal migration is not viewed positively in India and policies
are often aimed at reducing internal migration, as a result, there is a lack of integration of migration with
the process of development.
● Psychological and Emotional Stress: Any person migrating to a new country faces multiple challenges,
from cultural adaptation and language barriers to homesickness and loneliness.
● Employment challenges: Foreign labor migrants often face unacceptable treatment from their employers.
For instance, some labor migrants are paid below their contract wage and may be forced to work long
hours and denied regular time off. Systems like reservation of jobs in many states and countries for the
locals (visa barriers in US, Saudi Arabia’s Nitaqat law) pose as the main hurdle.
● Contract Wage System: The problems faced by migrants in destination countries range from contract
violation, non-payment of salary, long working hours, and poor working conditions.
● Health Hazards: The poor and harsh living conditions coupled with difficult and risky working
conditions, lack of information, and lack of medical health support also leads to several health problems
of the migrants.
● Lack of Information: In spite of the challenges and problems faced by the migrants in the destination
countries, low tendency to seek assistance from the diplomatic missions in the destination countries were
also observed due to lack of knowledge, information about the role of diplomatic missions, trust and
effectiveness to enhance access to justice.

Steps taken:
● Inter-State Migrant Workmen (Regulation of Employment and Conditions of Service) Act of 1979:
It seeks to address the unjust working conditions of migrant workers, including the necessity of gaining
employment through middlemen contractors or agents who promise a monthly settlement of wages but do
not pay when the time comes.
● Enhancing livelihood opportunities for rural population: The government from time-to-time has taken
various initiatives to combat farmers’ distress and enhance livelihood opportunities in rural areas.
Examples: Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana-National Rural Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NRLM),
Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, Attracting and Retaining of Youth
in Agriculture (ARYA).
● Infrastructure development in rural areas:
➢ RURBAN Mission: It seeks to stimulate local economic development, enhance basic services, and
create well planned Rurban clusters (cluster villages). One of the main objectives is to reduce the rural-
urban divide-viz: economic, technological and those related to facilities and service
➢ PURA (Providing Urban Amenities to Rural Areas): It seeks to tackle the problem of migration of
people from rural to urban areas for employment. It seeks to develop technology in villages, provide
better connectivity, enhance livelihood opportunities etc.
➢ SMART VILLAGES: It is a concept adopted by national, state and local governments in India, as an
initiative focused on holistic rural development. The Eco Needs Foundation has initiated the concept

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 of “Smart Village”. Under this project the Foundation is adopting villages and putting efforts for
sustainable development by providing basic amenities like sanitation, safe drinking water, internal
road, tree plantation, water conservation

United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA)

• It was formed in the year 1948.
• It is the development pillar of the United Nations.
• UN DESA is a pioneer of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
• It brings the global community together to work towards common solutions to the world’s most
pressing problems.
• It helps countries translate their global commitments into national action in the economic, social
and environmental spheres.

Facts and Figures for mains

• The Constitution of India (Article 19) gives the right to all citizens “to move freely throughout the
territory of India and to reside and settle in any part of the territory of India”.
• As per Census 2011, 45 million Indians moved outside their district of birth for economic
opportunities (be it employment or business).
• In India, internal migration (fuelled by an increasing rate of urbanization and rural-urban wage
difference) is far greater than an external migration.
• India's urban population is expected to grow from 410 million in 2014 to 814 million by 2050.
• Instead of long term migration, there is a huge flow of short term migrants in the country.

Migrants and the SDGs

• The 2030 Agenda (with core principle to "leave no one behind," including migrants) for Sustainable
Development recognizes for the first time the contribution of migration to sustainable
development.
• 11 out of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) contain targets and indicators that are
relevant to migration or mobility.
• The SDGs’ central reference to migration is made in target 10.7, to facilitate orderly, safe, regular and
responsible migration and mobility of people, including through the implementation of planned and
well-managed migration policies.

COVID-19 crisis and internal Migrants:

● According to the World bank report ‘COVID-19 Crisis Through a Migration Lens’, nationwide
lockdown in India due to COVID-19 has impacted nearly 40 million internal migrants.
● Around 60,000 moved from urban centers to rural areas of origin in the span of a few days.
● The magnitude of internal migration is about two-and-a-half times that of international migration.
● Internal migrants have faced issues in health services, food, cash transfer and other social programmes.
● They are vulnerable to the loss of employment and wages during an economic crisis.
● Lockdowns in labour camps and dormitories would increase the risk of contagion among migrant
workers.
● The state boundaries became the sites of violent migrant-police encounters, as police resorted to
beating migrants for having violated the lockdown orders.
● Thousands of them, without any means of transport left to their villages back on foot, dying of starvation,
fatigue, and road accidents.

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● Though, on May 1, 2020, the Central government introduced special Shramik trains to take urban
migrants back to their villages, due to train cancellations and exorbitant fares, these special trains brought
little relief to urban migrants.

International (External) migration and Diaspora:

As per International Organization for Migration’s (IOM) latest report, ‘Global Migration Report 2020’,
India continues to be the largest country of origin of international migrants with a 17.5 million-strong diaspora
across the world.

Significance of Indian Diaspora:

● Economic Front:
➢ Indian diaspora is one of the richest minorities in
many developed countries, this helped them to lobby
for favourable terms regarding India's interests. For
example, at 2.8 million, Indians may number just 1%
of the U.S. population, but they are the most educated
and richest minority, according to a 2013 Pew
survey.
➢ The migration of less-skilled labour (especially to
West Asia) has also helped in bringing down disguised
unemployment in India.
➢ In general, migrants' remittances have positive systemic effects on the balance of payments.
Remittances of $70-80 billion help to bridge a wider trade deficit.
➢ By weaving a web of cross-national networks, the migrant workers facilitated the flow of tacit
information, commercial and business ideas, and technologies into India.
● Political Front:
➢ Many people of Indian origin hold top political positions in many countries, in the US itself they are
now a significant part of Republicans and Democrats, as well as the government.
➢ The political clout of India's diaspora can be estimated by the fact, the role it played in turning around
doubting legislators into voting for the India-U.S. nuclear deal.
● Foreign Policy Front:

30
 ➢ Indian diaspora is not just a part of India’s soft power, but a fully transferable political vote bank as
well.
➢ Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s reception at Madison Square Garden is a way of thanking the Indian-
American community members who played a big part in his electronic campaign and election funding.
➢ The institutionalization of “diaspora diplomacy” is a distinct indication for the fact that a country’s
diaspora community has become considerably more important as a subject of interest for foreign policy
and associated government activities.

Challenges Faced by Indian Diaspora:

● Heterogeneous diaspora: Indian Diaspora has different demands from the Indian Government.
➢ The diaspora from the Gulf, for example, look to India for support on welfare issues.
➢ While those from wealthier nations such as the US look to India for investment opportunities.
➢ The Indian communities in countries such as Fiji and Mauritius, meanwhile, desire to reconnect with
the country on cultural grounds.
● Anti-Globalization: With the rising Anti-globalization wave, there has been an increase in the incidents
of suspected hate crimes against the Indian community.
● West Asian Crisis: The volatility in West Asia, together with the fall in oil prices, has caused fears of a
massive return of Indian nationals, curtailing remittances and making demands on the job market.
● Returning Diaspora: India must also realise that diaspora in West Asia is semi-skilled and mainly
engaged in the infrastructure sector. After the infrastructure boom will get over India should be ready for
the eventuality of Indian workers returning.
● Regulatory Cholesterol: There are many inadequacies of the Indian system for the diaspora to collaborate
with India or to invest in the country.
➢ For example, grievances like red tape, multiple clearances, distrust of government are acting as
hindrances in fulfilling opportunities presented by Indian Diaspora.
● Negative Fallout: It must be remembered that having a strong diaspora does not always translate to
benefits for the home country. India has had problems with negative campaigning and foreign funding,
coming from abroad, for separatist movements like the Khalistan movement.

Measures taken by the Government:

• For giving special focus to the issues pertaining to the Indian
diaspora, the government set up a dedicated Ministry of oversees
Indian affairs in 2004. It provides all round services to the
diaspora
• In 2003 started Pravasi Bhartiya Diwas, to mark the
contribution of the overseas Indian community to the development
of India.
• Pravasi Bhartiya Bima Yojana- for the welfare of Indian
diaspora living abroad
• Know India Programme launched as an orientation programme
for diaspora youth conducted with a view to promote awareness on
different facets of life in India and the progress made by the
country in various fields.
• Oversees Citizenship of India Scheme (OCI)- Scheme provides
for benefits comparable to citizens in certain fields, like in economic and education fields etc.
• The Ministry of Overseas Indian Affairs is running a scheme known as “Tracing the Roots” to facilitate
PIOs in tracing their roots in India.
• The Swarnapravas Yojana- New Plan Scheme: This scheme has been launched for promoting the
employability of Indian workers abroad.

31
 CH-3 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
TOPICS COVERED:
1. INTRODUCTION
2. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
3. THE FOUR PILLARS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
4. MEASURING HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
5. INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS

@Akash_Singhh

32
 INTRODUCTION
• Human development can be defined as the process of enhancing people’s freedoms and opportunities and
improving their well-being.
• Human development focuses on improving the people’s live rather than assuming that economic growth will lead
to greater wellbeing for all.
• Economic growth is seen as a means to development, rather than an end in itself.
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Meaning of both growth and development changes over a period of time. The difference is that growth is quantitative,
whereas development is a qualitative concept.
Growth Development
Increase in market output leads to economic Economic development can be measured in terms of welfare
growth values and market output
It is a quantitative concept It is a qualitative concept
Economic growth is one dimensional in nature Economic development is multidimensional in nature
This is one of the major concerns of developed This is a major concern of developing countries
countries
Economic growth and development are not Economic development can only happen if economic growth
interdependent. takes place.
Indicators of Economic growth- Real GDP, Real Indicators of economic development - Human Development
per capita income, National income etc. Index, Physical Quality of Life Index, Net Economic Welfare
(NEW)

THE FOUR PILLARS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Equity Productivity

Empowerment Sustainability

• It refers to making equality in accessibility to opportunities available to everybody. The

opportunities available to people must be equal irrespective of their gender, race,
income, class and in the Indian case, caste. Yet this is very often not the case and happens
in almost every society.
• E.g. – In any country, it is interesting to see which group the most of the school dropouts
belong to. This should lead to an understanding of the reasons for such behavior. In
Equity India, a large number of women and persons belonging to socially and economically
backward sections drop out of school. This shows how the choices of these groups gets
limited by not having proper access to knowledge.

33
 • It means continuity in the availability of opportunities. To have sustainable human
development, each generation must have the same opportunities to make choices. All
environmental, financial and human resources must be used keeping the future in mind –
Sustainable development.
• Misuse of any of these resources will result into fewer opportunities for future generations.
Sustainability • A good example would be the importance of sending girls to school. If a community does
not stress on the importance of sending its girl children to school, these young women will be
losing on many opportunities. Their career choices will be curtailed and this would affect
other aspects of their lives. So, it is important for each generation to ensure the availability of
choices and opportunities to its future generations.
• Here it means human labor productivity or productivity in terms of human work. Such
productivity needs to be constantly enriched by building capabilities in people. Ultimately, it
Productivity is people who are the real resource of nations. Therefore, efforts to increase their
knowledge, or provide better health facilities ultimately results into better work efficiency.
• Means to have the power to make choices. Such power comes from increasing freedom
and capability to choose. Good governance with people-oriented policies are required to
Empowerment empower people.
• The empowerment of socially and economically disadvantaged groups holds special
importance.

Approaches to Human Development

Approaches

Income Basic Needs Capability Welfare

• This approach is one of the oldest approaches to human development. Human

development is seen as linked to income. The idea is that the level of income reflects the
level of freedom an individual has.
Income • Higher the level of income, the more is the level of human development.
Approach

• This approach looks at human beings as beneficiaries or targets of all developmental

activities.
• The approach argues for higher government expenditure on education, health and basic
Welfare amenities.
Approach • People are not participants but only passive recipients.
• The government is solely responsible for increasing levels of human development by
maximizing expenditure on welfare.
• This approach was initially proposed by the International Labor Organization (ILO).
• Six basic needs i.e. health, education, food, water supply, sanitation, and housing were
identified.
• The question of human choices is ignored and the emphasis is on the provision of basic needs
of specific sections.

34
 Basic Needs
Approach
• This approach is associated with Prof. Amartya Sen.
• Building human capabilities in the areas of health, education and access to resources is the
key to increasing human development.
Capability
Approach

MEASURING HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Human development Index (HDI)

• Published by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) on an annual basis, it is a statistical tool
used to measure a country’s overall achievement in its social and economic dimensions.
• The social and economic dimensions of a country are based on the health of people, their level of education
attainment and their standard of living.
• First report was published in 1991.
• The human development approach, developed by the economist Mahbub Ul Haq, is anchored in the Nobel
laureate Amartya Sen’s work on human capabilities. It had the purpose “to shift the focus of development
economics from national income accounting to people centered policies”.
• HDI is broken down into four tiers-

Very high human development

High human development

Medium human development

Low human development

• HDI measures average success of a country in three basic dimensions of human development:

A long and healthy

life

Access to
knowledge

A decent standard
of living

35
HDI 2019 Report
• Theme of the Report- “Beyond income, beyond averages,
beyond today: Inequalities in human development in the 21st
century”
• India’s position:
➢ India’s rank- 129 out of 189 countries. (Last year’s rank-
130)
➢ Despite lifting 271 million people out of poverty between
2005-15, India still remains home to 28% (364 million) of
the world’s poor.
➢ Between 1990 and 2018, India’s HDI value increased by
50 per cent (from 0.431 to 0.647), which places it above the
average for countries in the medium human development
group (0.634) and above the average for other South Asian
countries (0.642).
➢ This means that in the last three decades, life expectancy at
birth in India increased by 11.6 years, whereas the average
number of schooling years increased by 3.5 years. Per capita incomes increased 250 times.
➢ India is only marginally better than the South Asian average on the Gender Development Index (0.829 vs
0.828), and ranks at a low 122 (of 162) countries on the 2018 Gender Inequality Index.
• The Human Development Report 2019 is significant because it focuses on
inequalities in development.
• It shows inequalities beyond income which exist in society.
• It also measures loss in the human development progress due to inequalities.
Significance of the HDI • The report also highlights the gender gaps in development.
Report
• Alleged less consideration of technological development or contributions to the
human civilization.
• Focus exclusively on national performance and ranking.
• Less attention to development from a global perspective.
• Measurement error of the underlying statistics, and on the UNDP’s changes in
formula which can lead to severe misclassification in the categorization of “low”,
“medium”, “high” or “very high” human development countries.
Criticisms of the HDI
Report

The other indices included in 2019 Report are:

Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI)

Gender Development Index (GDI)

Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI)

Gender Inequality Index (GII) and

Inequality- Adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI)

• The IHDI shows percentage loss in HDI due to inequality.

36
 • The IHDI combines a country’s average achievements in health, education and income with how those
achievements are distributed among country’s population by “discounting” each dimension’s average value
according to its level of inequality.
• Thus, the IHDI is distribution-sensitive average level of human development. Two countries with different
distributions of achievements can have the same average HDI value.
• The HDI can be viewed as an index of ‘potential’ human development (or the maximum IHDI that could be
achieved if there were no inequality)
• The index does not take into account several factors, such as the net wealth per capita or the relative quality of
goods in a country. This situation tends to lower the ranking for some of the most advanced countries, such as the
G7 members and others.
• Under perfect equality, the IHDI is equal to the HDI, but falls below the HDI when inequality rises.
• India’s 2020 position drop by one position to 130 (as compared to the HDI Index 2019- 129) with a score of
0.477. Although, the IHDI score has improved from 0.468 in 2018.

Difference between IHDI and HDI

• The difference between the IHDI and HDI is the human development cost of inequality, also termed – the overall
loss to human development due to inequality.
• The IHDI allows a direct link to inequalities in dimensions, it can direct policies towards inequality reduction,
and leads to better understanding of inequalities across population and their contribution to the overall human
development cost.
• A recent measure of inequality in the HDI, the Coefficient of human inequality, is calculated as an unweighted
average of inequality across three dimensions.
• The IHDI is calculated for 150 countries.

Gender Development Index (GDI)

• The GDI measures gender gaps in human development achievements by accounting for disparities between
women and men in three basic dimensions of human development – health, knowledge and living standards
using the same component indicators as in the HDI.
• The GDI shows how much women are lagging behind their male counterparts and how much women need to
catch up within each dimension of human development.
• It is useful for understanding the real gender gap in human development achievements and is informative to
design policy tools to close the gap.
• India is only marginally better than the South Asian average on the Gender Development Index (0.829 vs 0.828).

Gender Inequality Index (GII)

• Gender inequality remains a major barrier to human development.
• Girls and women have made major strides since 1990, but they have not yet gained gender
equity. The disadvantages facing women and girls are a major source of inequality.
• All too often, women and girls are discriminated against in health, education, political
representation, labour market, etc.—with negative consequences for development of their
capabilities and their freedom of choice.
• The GII is built on the same framework as the IHDI - to better expose differences in the distribution of
achievements between women and men.
• It measures the human development costs of gender inequality. Thus, the higher the GII value the more
disparities between females and males and the more loss to human development.
• GII presents a composite measure of gender inequality using three dimensions:

37
 • In GII, India is at 122 out of
162 countries. Neighbors China
(39), Sri Lanka (86), Bhutan
(99), Myanmar (106) were
placed above India.
Economic status
• The report noted that group-
Expressed as labour based inequalities persist,
market participation
and measured by labour especially affecting women and
force participation rate Empowerment measured by girls and no place in the world
Reproductive Health of female and male proportion of parliamentary seats has gender equality.
occupied by females and
Measured by maternal populations aged 15 proportion of adult females and • The report notes that the
mortality ratio and years and older. males aged 25 years and older world is not on track to achieve
adolescent birth rates with at least some secondary gender equality by 2030 as per
education
the UN’s Sustainable
Development Goals (SDG - 5).
It forecasts that it may take 202
years to close the gender gap in
economic opportunity.
• The report presents a new
“Social Norms Index”
indicating how prejudices and
social beliefs obstruct gender
equality, which shows that only 14% of women and 10% of men worldwide have no gender bias.
• The report highlights that new forms of inequalities will manifest in future through climate change and
technological transformation which have the potential to deepen existing social and economic fault lines.

Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI)

• Index is developed by the Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative (OPHI)
and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).
• MPI presents both the incidence and intensity of poverty and tracks 101 countries on
deprivations across ten indicators in health, education, and standard of living
• MPI captures the multiple deprivations that people in developing countries face in their
health, education and standard of living.
• India accounts for 28% of the 1.3 billion multidimensional poor.
• SDG - 1 – Ending poverty in all its forms, everywhere.

Global Gender Gap Index

• It is published by world economic forum (WEF) annually.
• It was first published in 2006.
• The Index benchmarks 153 countries on their progress towards gender parity in four dimensions:

1 ➢Economic Participation and Opportunity

2 ➢Educational Attainment
3 ➢Health and Survival
4 ➢Political Empowerment
• The Index aims to track progress on relative gaps between women and men on health, education, economy and
politics

38
 Global Gender Gap Report 2020:
• Globally, the average (population-weighted) distance completed to gender parity is at 68.6%, which is an
improvement since the last edition. It will take 99.5 years to achieve full parity between men and women at the
current rate of change.
• The largest gender disparity is in political empowerment. Only 25% of the 35,127 seats in parliaments around
the world are occupied by women, and only 21% of the 3,343 ministers are women.
• Iceland has been the frontrunner on the Global Gender Gap Index for 11 years in a row. It has closed almost 88%
of its gender gap, followed by Nordic neighbors Norway, Finland and Sweden.
• Yemen is ranked the worst (153rd), while Iraq is 152nd and Pakistan 151st.

India- Specific Findings

• India has slipped to the 112th spot from its 108th position in the last edition.
• India has been ranked below countries like China (106th), Sri Lanka (102nd), Nepal (101st), Brazil (92nd),
Indonesia (85th) and Bangladesh (50th).
• Performance on Four Indicators: India has improved to 18th place on political empowerment but it has slipped
to 150th on health and survival, to 149th in terms of economic participation and opportunity and to 112th place
for educational attainment.
• Economic
o Among the 153 countries studied, India is the only country where the economic gender gap (0.354) is larger
than the political gender gap (0.411).
o India is among the countries with very low women representation on company boards (13.8%), while it was
even worse in China (9.7%).
• On health and survival, four large countries -Pakistan, India, Vietnam and China - fare badly with millions of
women there not getting the same access to health as men.

World Bank’s Human Capital Index

• The HCI has been constructed for 157 countries.
• It claims to seek to measure the amount of human capital that a child born today can expect to attain by age 18.
• The HCI index values are contended to convey the productivity of the next generation of workers, compared to
a benchmark of complete standard education and full health.
• The HCI has three components:

Survival As measured by under-5 mortality rates

Which combines information on the quantity and quality of education
(quality is measured by harmonizing test scores from major international
student achievement testing programs and quantity from number of years of
Expected years of Quality- school that a child can expect to obtain by age 18 given the prevailing pattern of
Adjusted School enrolment rates across grades in respective countries);
Health environment using: a. Adult survival rates and
b. The rate of stunting for children under age 5.

39
INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS

India’s neighbors in HDI-2019

Sri Lanka (71) and China (85), Bhutan (134), Bangladesh
(135), Myanmar (145), Nepal (147), Pakistan (152) and
Afghanistan (170).

Global scenario in HDI-2019

• Norway, Switzerland, Ireland placed at the top three positions in that order.
• Globally, there are 1.3 billion poor people.
• Around 661 million of these poor people live in Asia and the Pacific.
• South Asia constitutes 41% of the world’s poor.

40
 CH-4 SETTLEMENT
INTRODUCTION
• A human settlement is defined as a place inhabited more or less permanently.
• Human Settlement means cluster of dwellings of any type or size where human beings live.
• There may be some settlements which are temporary and are occupied for short periods, may be a season.

• It is widely accepted that settlements can be differentiated in terms of rural and urban, but there is no consensus
on what exactly defines a village or a town. Although population size is an important criterion, it is not a universal
criterion since many villages in densely populated countries of India and China have population exceeding that of
some towns of Western Europe and United States.
Rural Settlements
• Rural settlements are most closely and directly related to land.
• They are dominated by primary activities such as agriculture, animal husbandry, fishing etc.
• The rural settlements size is relatively small.

Types of Rural settlements

• The sparsely located small settlements are called villages, specialising in agriculture or other primary activities.
• Rural settlements in India can broadly be put into four types:

Rural Settlements

Semi- Hamleted
Clustered Dispersed
clustered

Clustered Settlements (agglomerated or nucleated)

• The clustered rural settlement is a compact or closely built up area of houses.

41
• In this type of village, the general living area is distinct and separated from
the surrounding farms, barns and pastures.

• The closely built-up area and its intervening streets present some
recognisable pattern or geometric shape
• Such settlements are generally found in fertile alluvial plains and in the
north eastern states. Sometimes develop along river valleys.
• Communities are closely knit and share common occupations.

Clustered Settlements
Semi-Clustered (or fragmented) Settlements
• Semi-clustered or fragmented settlements may
• result from tendency of clustering in a
• restricted area of dispersed settlement.
• More often such a pattern may also result from
• segregation or fragmentation of a large compact village
• Such settlements are widespread in the Gujarat plain and some parts of Rajasthan.

Hamleted Settlements
• These units are locally called panna, para, palli, nagla, dhani, etc. in various parts of the country.
• This segmentation of a large village is often motivated by social and ethnic factors.
Dispersed (or isolated) Settlements
• Dispersed or isolated settlement pattern in India appears in
the form of isolated huts or hamlets of few huts in remote
jungles or on small hills with farms or pasture on the
slopes.
• Many areas of Meghalaya, Uttarakhand, Himachal
Pradesh and Kerala have this type of settlement.
• A cultural feature such as a place of worship or a market,
binds the settlement together.

Dispersed Settlement
Factors affecting the location of rural settlements are:
• Land: People choose to settle near fertile lands suitable for
agriculture.
• Upland: Upland which is not prone to flooding was
chosen to prevent damage to houses and loss of life.
• Defense: During the times of political instability, war,
hostility of neighboring groups villages was built on
defensive hills and islands.
• Planned Settlements: Sites that are not spontaneously
chosen by villagers themselves, planned settlements are
constructed by governments by providing shelter, water
and other infrastructures on acquired lands. The scheme of
villagization in Ethiopia and the canal colonies in Indira
Gandhi canal command area in India are some of good examples.
• Water Supply
o Usually rural settlements are located near water bodies such as rivers, lakes, and springs where water can be
easily obtained.

42
 o Sometimes the need for water drives people to settle in otherwise disadvantaged sites such as islands surrounded
by swamps or low-lying river banks.
o Most water based ‘wet point’ settlements have many advantages such as water for drinking, cooking and
washing.
o Rivers and lakes can be used to irrigate farm land.
o Water bodies also have fish which can be caught for diet
and navigable rivers and lakes can be used for
transportation.

• Building Material
o The availability of building materials- wood, stone near
settlements is another advantage.
o Early villages were built in forest clearings where wood
was plentiful.

Patterns of Rural Settlement

1. Linear pattern: In such settlement’s houses are located
along a road, railway line, river, canal edge of a valley
or along a levee.
2. Rectangular pattern: Such patterns of rural
settlements are found in plain areas or wide inter
montane valleys. The roads are rectangular and cut each
other at right angles.
3. Circular pattern: Circular villages develop around
lakes, tanks and sometimes the village is planned in
such a way that the central part remains open and is used
for keeping the animals to protect them from wild
animals.
4. Star like pattern: Where several roads converge, star
shaped settlements develop by the houses built along the
roads.
5. T-shaped, Y-shaped, Cross-shaped or cruciform settlements: T-shaped settlements develop at tri-junctions of
the roads. While Y-shaped settlements emerge as the places where two roads converge on the third one and houses
are built along these roads. Cruciform settlements develop on the cross-roads and houses extend in all the four
direction.
6. Double village: These settlements extend on both sides of a river where there is a bridge or a ferry.

Problems of Rural Settlements:

• Rural settlements in the developing countries are large in number and poorly equipped with infrastructure. They
represent a great challenge and opportunity for planners.
• Supply of water to rural settlements in developing countries is not adequate. People in villages, particularly in
mountainous and arid areas have to walk long distances to fetch drinking water. Water borne diseases such as
cholera and jaundice tend to be a common problem.
• The countries of South Asia face conditions of drought and flood very often.
• Crop cultivation sequences, in the absence of irrigation, also suffer.
• The general absence of toilet and garbage disposal facilities cause health related problems.
• The houses made up of mud, wood and thatch, remain susceptible to damage during heavy rains and floods, and
require proper maintenance every year. Most house designs are typically deficient in proper ventilation.
• Unmetalled roads and lack of modern communication network creates a unique problem. During rainy season, the
settlements remain cut off and pose serious difficulties in providing emergency services.
• It is also difficult to provide adequate health and educational infrastructure for their large rural population.

43
URBAN SETTLEMENTS
• The definition of urban areas varies from one country to another.
• Urban settlements are generally compact and larger in size than rural settlements.
• They are engaged in a variety of non- agricultural, economic and administrative
functions.
• Urban settlements are classified as following:

SDG - 11

Classification of Urban Settlements

On Basis Of On Basis Of On Basis Of On Basis of

Age Population Functions Forms

In India, towns with population of 1,00,000 and above are called cities.

ON BASIS OF AGE

• Many Indian towns are more than a thousand years old. These towns developed as
religious or cultural centres.
Ancient Towns • For example, Varanasi, Prayagraj, Madurai and Patna (ancient Pataliputra).

• Developed in medieval times, these are fort towns which were developed by medieval
kingdoms.
Medieval Towns • For example, Lucknow, Agra, Hyderabad etc.

• These are the towns developed by the British and other European powers in India and
the towns established after independence.
• Europeans developed their coastal port towns, administrative centres and hill stations.
These include the coastal towns and ports of Surat, Bombay, Daman, Goa and
Puducherry etc. and hill stations of Shimla, Mussoorie, Dalhousie etc.
• They also added new civil and military areas to the already existing towns like
cantonment areas in many cities.
• After independence, a large number of towns have been developed as administrative
headquarters, e.g., Chandigarh, Bhubaneswar, Gandhinagar, Dispur, etc., and
industrial centres, such as Durgapur, Bhilai, Sindri, Barauni.
• Some old towns also developed as satellite towns around metropolitan cities, such as
Ghaziabad, Rohtak, Gurugram around Delhi.
Modern Towns

ON BASIS OF POPULATION
• Census of India classifies urban centres into six classes on basis of population size.

44
 • Class I towns have about 60% of total urban population.
1. Class I towns → >1,00,000 population • Cities accommodating population size between one
to five million are called metropolitan cities and more than
2. Class II towns → 50,000 – 99,999
five million are called mega cities.
3. Class III towns → 20,000 – 49,999
• Majority of metropolitan and mega cities are urban
4. Class IV towns → 10,000 – 19,999 agglomerations.
5. Class V towns → 5000 – 9,999
6. Class VI towns → < 5,000

Urban Agglomeration: An urban agglomeration may consist of any one of the following three
combinations:
1. A town and its adjoining urban outgrowths,
2. Two or more contiguous towns with or without their outgrowths,
3. A city and one or more adjoining towns with their outgrowths together forming a contiguous spread.

ON BASIS OF FUNCTIONS
• Administrative Towns: Towns supporting administrative headquarters of higher order are administrative towns,
such as Chandigarh, New Delhi, Bhopal, Shillong, Guwahati, Imphal, Srinagar, Gandhinagar, Jaipur, Chennai, etc
• Industrial Towns: Industries constitute prime motive force of these cities, such as Mumbai, Salem, Coimbatore,
Modinagar, Jamshedpur, Hugli, Bhilai, etc.
• Transport Cities: They may be ports primarily engaged in export and import activities such as Kandla, Kochchi,
Kozhikode, Vishakhapatnam, etc., or hubs of inland transport, such as Agra, Dhulia, Mughalsarai, Itarsi, Katni, etc.
• Mining Towns: These towns have developed in mineral rich areas such as Raniganj, Jharia, Digboi, Ankaleshwar,
Singrauli, etc.
• Cantonment Towns: These towns emerged as garrisson towns such as Ambala, Mhow, Babina, Jalandhar,
Udhampur, etc.
• Educational Towns: Starting as centres of education, some of the towns have grown into major campus towns,
such as Roorki, Varanasi, Aligarh, Pilani, Allahabad, etc.
• Religious & Cultural Towns: Varanasi, Mathura, Amritsar, Madurai, Puri, Ajmer, Pushkar, Tirupati, Kurukshetra,
Haridwar, Ujjain came to prominence due to their religious/cultural significance.
• Tourist Towns: Nainital, Mussoorie, Shimla, Pachmarhi, Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, Udagamandalam (Ooty), Mount Abu
are some of the tourist destinations.

Sub Urbanisation
It is a new trend of people moving away from congested urban areas to cleaner areas outside the city in
search of a better quality of living. Important suburbs develop around major cities and everyday thousands
of people commute from their homes in the suburbs to their work places in the city.

ON BASIS OF FORMS

45
• An urban settlement may be linear, square, star or crescent shaped. In fact, the form of the settlement, architecture
and style of buildings and other structures are an outcome of its historical and cultural traditions.
• Towns and cities of developed and developing countries reflect marked differences in planning and development.
While most cities in developed countries are planned, most urban settlements of developing countries have evolved
historically with irregular shapes. For example, Chandigarh and Canberra are planned cities, while smaller town
in India have evolved historically from walled cities to large urban sprawls.

Addis Ababa (The New Flower)

• The name of Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa, as the name
indicates (Addis-New, Ababa -Flower) is a ‘new’ city which
was established in 1878.
• The whole city is located on a hill-valley topography. The
road pattern bears the influence of the local topography. The
roads radiate from the govt headquarters Piazza, Arat and Amist
Kilo roundabouts. Mercato has markets which grew with time
and is supposed to be the largest market between Cairo and
Johannesburg. A multi-faculty university, a medical college, a
number of good schools make Addis Ababa an educational
centre.
• It is also the terminal station for the Djibouti-Addis Ababa
rail route. Bole airport is a relatively new airport. The city has
witnessed rapid growth because of its multi- functional nature Addis Ababa city
and being a large nodal centre located in the centre of Ethiopia.

Canberra
• Canberra was planned as the capital of Australia in
1912 by American landscape architect, Walter Burley
Griffin. He had envisaged a garden city for about 25,000
people taking into account the natural features of the
landscape. There were to be five main centres, each with
separate city functions.
• During the last few decades, the city has expanded to
accommodate several satellite towns, which have their
own centres. The city has wide-open spaces and many parks
and gardens.

According to WHO, "Healthy City” must have:

• A ’Clean’ and ‘Safe’ environment.
Canberra city
• Meets the ‘Basic Needs’ of ‘All’ its inhabitants.
• Involves the ‘Community’ in local government.
• Provides easily accessible ‘Health’ service.

Types of Urban Settlements:

1. Town: The concept of ‘town’ can best be understood with reference to ‘village’. Population size is not the only
criterion. Functional contrasts between towns and villages may not always be clear-cut, but specific functions such
as, manufacturing, retail and wholesale trade, and professional services exist in towns.

The census of India, 1991 defines urban settlements as “All places which have municipality, corporation,
cantonment board or notified town area committee and have a minimum population of 5000 persons, at
least 75 per cent of male workers are engaged in non-agricultural pursuits and a density of population
of at least 400 persons per square kilometres are urban.

46
 2. City: A city may be regarded as a
leading town, which has outstripped its
local or regional rivals. Cities are
much larger than towns and have a
greater number of economic functions.
They tend to have transport terminals,
major financial institutions and
regional administrative offices. When
the population crosses the one million
mark it is designated as a million city.
3. Conurbation: The term conurbation
was coined by Patrick Geddes in 1915
and applied to a large area of urban
development that resulted from the
merging of originally separate towns or
cities. Greater London, Manchester,
Chicago and Tokyo are examples.
4. Megalopolis: This Greek word
meaning “great city”, was popularised
by Jean Gottman (1957) and signifies
‘super - metropolitan’ region
extending, as union of conurbations.
The urban landscape stretching from
Boston in the north to south of
Washington in U.S.A. is the best known
example of a megalopolis.
5. Million plus cities: According to the 2011 census, there were 46 million-plus cities in India, with Mumbai, Delhi
and Kolkata having populations over 10 million.

Problems of Urban Settlements

1. Economic Problems:
• The decreasing employment opportunities in the rural as well as smaller urban areas of the developing countries
consistently push the population to the urban areas.
• The enormous migrant population generates a pool of un-skilled and semi-skilled labour force, which is already
saturated in urban areas
2. Socio-cultural Problems
• Cities in the developing countries suffer from several social ills. Insufficient financial resources fail to create
adequate social infrastructure catering to the basic needs of the huge population.
• The available educational and health facilities remain beyond the reach of the urban poor. Health indices also,
present a gloomy picture in cities of developing countries.
• Lack of employment and education tends to aggravate the crime rates. Male selective migration to the urban areas
distorts the sex ratio in these cities.
3. Environmental Problem:
o Vulnerability to risk posed by the increasing man-made and natural disasters. According to UNDP, 70 % of Indian
population is at risk to floods and 60% susceptible to earthquakes.
o The risk is higher in urban areas owing to density and overcrowding. Urban areas are becoming heat islands, ground
water is not being recharged and water crisis is persistent. Here making, water harvesting compulsory will be
beneficial
o Environmental concerns such as urban areas becoming heat islands, rising air pollution, groundwater pollution and
persistent water crisis.

47
 CH-5 LAND RESOURCES
INTRODUCTION

• Different types of lands are suited to different uses. Human beings thus, use land as a resource for production as
well as residence and recreation.
• Competing uses of land for forestry, agriculture, pastures, human settlements, and industries exert pressure on the
finite land resource influencing land-use patterns and sometimes causing degradation. Changes in land use and
land cover, and land degradation, have adverse impacts on forest resources and biodiversity. Given that they are
intertwined in various ways, there is a need for treatment of land, forests, pastures, and biodiversity as an integrated
resource.
• India supports approximately 16% of the world’s population and 20% of its livestock on 2.5% of its
geographical area. This pressure on land has led to its deterioration - soil erosion, water logging, salinization,
nutrient depletion, lowering of groundwater tables, and soil pollution - largely caused by human interventions.

LAND USE CATEGORIES

• Land-use records are maintained by land revenue department.

• The land use categories add up to reporting area, which is somewhat different from the geographical area.
• The difference between the two concepts are that while the former changes somewhat depending on the estimates
of the land revenue records, the latter does not change and stays fixed as per Survey of India measurements.
• The Survey of India is responsible for measuring geographical area of administrative units in India.
The land-use categories as maintained in the Land Revenue Records are as follows:
1. Forests: It is important to note that area under actual forest cover is different from area classified as forest. The
latter is the area which the Government has identified and demarcated for forest growth. The land revenue records
are consistent with the latter definition. Thus, there may be an increase in this category without any increase in the
actual forest cover.

2. Land put to Non-agricultural Uses: Land under settlements (rural and urban), infrastructure (roads, canals, etc.),
industries, shops, etc. are included in this category. An expansion in the secondary and tertiary activities would lead
to an increase in this category of land-use.

3. Barren and Wastelands: The land which may be classified as a wasteland such as barren hilly terrains, desert
lands, ravines, etc. normally cannot be brought under cultivation with the available technology.

4. Area under Permanent Pastures and Grazing Lands: Most of this type land is owned by the village ‘Panchayat’
or the Government. Only a small proportion of this land is privately owned. The land owned by the village panchayat
comes under ‘Common Property Resources

5. Area under Miscellaneous Tree Crops and Groves (Not included in Net sown Area) : The land under orchards
and fruit trees are included in this category. Much of this land is privately owned.

6. Culturable Waste-Land: Any land which is left fallow (uncultivated) for more than five years is included in this
category. It can be brought under cultivation after improving it through reclamation practices.

7. Current Fallow: This is the land which is left without cultivation for one or less than one agricultural year.
Following is a cultural practice adopted for giving the land rest. The land recoups the lost fertility through natural
processes.

8. Fallow other than Current Fallow: This is also a cultivable land which is left uncultivated for more than a year
but less than five years. If the land is left uncultivated for more than five years, it would be categorised as culturable
wasteland.

9. Net Area Sown: The physical extent of land on which crops are sown and harvested is known as net sown area.

48
 LAND-USE CHANGES IN INDIA
Land-use in a region, to a large extent, is influenced by the nature of economic activities carried out in that region.
However, while economic activities change over time, land, like many other natural resources, is fixed in terms of its
area.

Three types of changes that an economy undergoes, which affect:

1. The size of the economy (measured in terms of value for all the goods and services produced in the economy)
grows over time as a result of increasing population, change in income levels, available technology and associated
factors.
2. Secondly, the composition of the economy would undergo a change over time. In other words, the secondary
and the tertiary sectors usually grow much faster than the primary sector, specifically the agricultural sector. This
type of change is common in developing countries like India.
3. Thirdly, though the contribution of the agricultural activities reduces over time, the pressure on land for agricultural
activities does not decline.
The reasons for continued pressure on agricultural land are:
• In developing countries, the share of population dependent on agriculture usually declines much more slowly
compared to the decline in the sector’s share in GDP.
• The number of people that the agricultural sector has to feed is increasing day by day.
• India has undergone major changes within the economy over the past four or five decades, and this has influenced
the land-use changes in the country.
Soil degradation is the decline in soil quality caused by its improper use, usually for agricultural, pastoral,
industrial or urban purposes.
Land Degradation
Land Degradation can be broadly divided into:

Land Degradation

Physical Chemical Biological

Physical degradation is erosion, soil organic carbon loss, change in soil’s physical structure-e.g.
compaction, waterlogging. Globally soil erosion is the most important land degradation process
resulting in removal of topsoil. Soil productivity is depleted through reduced rooting depth, loss
of plant nutrients and physical loss of topsoil.

Physical
degradation
Chemical degradation refers to leaching, salinization, fertility depletion, acidification, nutrient
Chemical imbalances.
degradation
Biological degradation implies the loss of vegetation, rangeland degradation and loss in
Biological biodiversity including soil organic matter.
degradation

49
 What is Desertification?
According to Article 1 of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD, Paris,
1994), desertification means “land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from
various factors, including climatic variations and human activities”.

Causes of land degradation and desertification in India:

• Overgrazing, Deforestation and Careless Forest Management
• Urban Growth, Industrialisation and Mining -
• Natural causes -Include earthquakes, tsunamis, droughts, avalanches, landslides, volcanic eruptions, floods,
tornadoes, and wildfires.
• Land Shortage, Land Fragmentation and Poor Economy
• Population Increase
• Agricultural activities and practices
• Poor Irrigation and Water Management

Ecological implications of desertification

• Drifting of sand and its accumulation on fertile agricultural land.

• Excessive soil erosion by wind and to some extent by water.

• Deposition of sand in rivers, lakes decrease their water containing capacity.
• Lowering of water table leading to acute water shortage.
• Increase in area under wastelands.
• Decrease in agricultural production.
• Increase in frequency and intensity of droughts.

STATUS OF LAND DEGRADATION AND DESERTIFICATION IN INDIA

• According to recently released State of India’s
Environment 2017 report, nearly 30 per cent of
India is degraded or facing desertification.

• Of India’s total geographical area of 328.72 million

hectares (MHA), 96.4 MHA is under desertification.

• In eight states - Rajasthan, Delhi, Goa, Maharashtra,

Jharkhand, Nagaland, Tripura and Himachal Pradesh
- around 40 to 70 per cent of land has undergone
desertification.
• More to it, 26 of 29 Indian states have reported an
increase in the area undergoing desertification in the
past 10 years.
• Loss of soil cover, mainly due to rainfall and surface
runoff, is one of the biggest reasons for
desertification

Measures for prevention of land degradation and

desertification
• Integrating land and water management to protect
soils from erosion, salinization, and other forms
of degradation.

• Protecting the vegetative cover, which can be a major instrument for soil conservation against wind and water
erosion.

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 • Integrating the use of land for grazing and farming where conditions are favorable, allowing for a more efficient
cycling of nutrients within the agricultural systems.

• Applying a combination of traditional practices

with locally acceptable and locally adapted land
use technologies.

• Giving local communities the capacity to

prevent desertification and to manage dryland
resources effectively.

• Turning to alternative livelihoods that do not

depend on traditional land uses, such as
dryland aquaculture, greenhouse agriculture and
tourism-related activities, is less demanding on local
land and natural resources, and yet
provides sustainable income.

• Creating economic opportunities in dryland urban

centers and in areas outside of drylands.

WATERLOGGING
• The flat surfaces and depressions result in waterlogging.

• Waterlogged soils are soaked with water accumulated during the rainy season or due to leakage from various water
sources.

• Waterlogging is believed to be one of the chief causes of salinity.

United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)

• Adopted as a direct recommendation of the 1992 Rio Summit, UNCCD is the only international
legally binding instrument to effectively tackle desertification and the effects of drought.
• It was established in 1994. The Convention addresses specifically the arid, semi-arid and dry sub-
humid areas, known as the drylands.
• It aims to achieve a Land Degradation-Neutral (LDN) world consistent with the 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development.
• The UNCCD is particularly committed to a bottom-up approach, encouraging the participation of
local people in combating desertification and land degradation.
• The new UNCCD 2018-2030 Strategic Framework is the most comprehensive global commitment to
achieve Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) in order to restore the productivity of vast expanses of
degraded land, improve the livelihoods of more than 1.3 billion people, and reduce the impacts of
drought on vulnerable population.
OPTIMIZING THE USE OF LAND RESOURCES- NITI AYOG - NEW INDIA @ 75
Optimizing the Use of Land Resources, Ensuring that land markets function smoothly, through efficient allocation of
land across uses, provision of secure property rights and titles, and clear and consistent regulations around the operations,
leasing and sale of land are critical for India to achieve and sustain high economic growth.

To this end, the following goals have to be achieved by 2022-23:

• Legalise and ease land leasing.

• Consolidate fragmented plots of farmers to enhance efficiency and equity.

@Akash_Singhh

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• Create a digitized and integrated land records system that is easily accessible in all states.

• Increase efficiency in the management of forest land.

• Convert waste and fallow land to productive uses.

• Strengthen property rights, especially community rights over forest land.

Current Situation
• As measured by the land-to-population ratio, India is one of the most land scarce countries in the world.
Agriculture accounts for the bulk of land use although the sector contributed only 17.45 per cent of value added to
gross domestic product (GDP) in 2015. There has been a sharp fall in the average farm size from 2.28 ha in 1970-
71 to 1.15 ha in 2010-11

• The total recorded forestland in India is 76.4 million hectares, which is about 23.3 per cent of the total
geographical area. Although it has more than one-fifth of its land under forest cover, Indian forests contribute only
6.4 per cent of the demand for wood. Property rights over forestlands can be strengthened.

• The passing of the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights Act
(FRA)), which provides individual as well as community rights over forests and allows local communities/gram
sabha to protect and manage their customary forests on a sustainable basis, is a step forward.

• At the same time, there is an imperative need to make land available to meet the needs of a fast expanding
economy and rising population with a greater thrust on vertical development.

Constraints
• Restrictive agricultural tenancy laws: Agricultural tenancy laws passed by various state governments between
the 1950s and 1970s are highly restrictive.

• Conditions on leasing: While the states of Kerala and Jammu & Kashmir prohibit leasing out agricultural land
without any exception, states such as Bihar, Telangana, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Tripura, Karnataka
and Himachal Pradesh allow leasing out only by certain disabled categories of landowners, such as physically and
mentally handicapped persons, persons from the defence services, minors, widows, etc.

• Lack of ease in leasing: In other states, there is no explicit ban on land leasing, but there are restrictive clauses that
discourage landowners from leasing out land.

• High informal tenancy: Due to legal restrictions, many landowners prefer to keep land fallow rather than lease it
out, fearing they may lose their land rights for illegally leasing out land. At the same time, as market forces drive
land leasing, there is informal tenancy in several places. Informal tenants do not have either security of tenure or
access to institutional credit, insurance and disaster relief. As a result, productivity on tenanted land suffers.

• Small sized land parcels: Landholdings in India are small and highly fragmented, which not only results in
diseconomies of scale, but also makes the task of irrigation management and land improvement difficult. Punjab,
Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra have completed their first round of consolidation, but further sub-division
and fragmentation of land have necessitated reconsolidation. The progress in other states is either nil or
negligible.

• Productivity of forestland: There has been no systematic effort to increase the area and productivity of forests on
a sustainable basis. One important reason is the lack of human resources. The number of forest officials for
management of both timber and non-timber forest resources is lacking relative to the size of forests.

• Absence of conclusive titling and records: Deficient land records and lack of conclusive land title result in costly
litigation and adversely affects investment and economic growth.

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 Way Forward
1. Agricultural land:

• States may consider the Model Land Leasing Act, 2016. Further details on land leasing are given in the chapter on
Agriculture.

• Consolidate smaller plots of land through pooling to enhance productivity. The consolidation of fragmented
landholdings is essential to exploit scale economies and increase farm incomes. Pooling the land of willing farmers
and organizing them into land shares or joint stock companies will allow farmers to earn dividends based on their
equity shares. Farmers will also earn wages/salaries as an employee based on agricultural output.

2. Increase efficiency around the management of forest land:

• Implement effectively the Forest Rights Act (FRA) in all states to strengthen the property rights of forest dwellers,
tribal populations and local communities.

• Zone land on a priority basis to clearly demarcate forest and revenue lands.

• Bring more area under agro forestry using wasteland, non-cultivable fallow lands, etc.

• Revisit the policy on tree-felling. Encourage trees as a resource for farmers especially by easing restriction on
certain species of trees. Current restrictions on inter-state and inter-district movement of wood should also be
removed.

3. Updating and modernization of land record systems:

• Beyond creating and maintaining land records, efforts must be made to update and digitize these records in a
user-friendly manner.

4. Initiating Public Private Partnerships (PPPs) for wasteland development:

• Cultural wastelands, estimated at about 12 million ha, need to be improved and productively utilized as a potential
resource.

• This can be done either by gram panchayats with financial support from states/union government or through PPPs,
with clearly laid down procedures and norms.

• Strengthen property rights, plan urbanization and prevent land degradation.

• Define and identify common land, along with details of ownership, control and use rights.

• Recognize the customary land tenure system including community ownership in tribal areas.

• Remove encroachments on public land to ensure that land is used efficiently.

• Free estimated ceiling surplus land of over 1 lakh acres that has been under litigation for several years through
speedy disposal of cases.

• Define and demarcate revenue and forestland, including land used for shifting cultivation.

• Plan urbanization as per master plans with greater emphasis on vertical growth.

• Prevent land degradation and soil erosion through policies that promote fertilization and organic farming.

5. Using land as resource to finance urban development:

53
• Tools such as land value capture, incentive zoning, town planning schemes, and land-based taxes like land value
tax, vacant land tax, land value increment tax, etc., can be used to finance rapid and efficient urbanization.

THE NATIONAL LAND RECORDS MODERNIZATION PROGRAMME (NLRMP)

• Now Digital India Land Records Modernization Programme, aims to develop a well-functioning and transparent
electronic land records management system that will provide easy access to all available and relevant information
to give a fair comprehensive position of any plot of land to the landowner, concerned officers/agencies and interested
persons/entrepreneurs.

• This will improve real-time information on land, optimise use of land resources, benefit landowners and
prospectors, assist in policy and planning, reduce land disputes and check fraudulent/ benami transactions.

• While most states have started digitizing their records, all states must have digitized textual as well as spatial
records so that they are easily available and verifiable. In this area, commendable efforts have been made by the
states of Karnataka and Gujarat. It will also be desirable to link the land record database with banks.

• Other states should review their progress in terms of digitization and move toward complete and accessible up-
to-date records. In due course, states may move towards conclusive land titling.

SWAMITVA SCHEME
• SWAMITVA stands for Survey of Villages and Mapping with Improvised Technology in Village Areas.

• Under the scheme, the latest surveying technology such as drones will be used for measuring the inhabited land in
villages and rural areas.
• The mapping and survey will be conducted in collaboration with the Survey of India, State Revenue Department
and State Panchayati Raj Department under the Ministry of Panchayati Raj.
• The drones will draw the digital map of every property falling in the geographical limit of each Indian village.
• Property Cards will be prepared and given to the respective owners.

DESERTIFICATION AND LAND DEGRADATION ATLAS OF INDIA

• Space Applications Centre (SAC), ISRO has released out an inventory and monitoring of desertification of the entire
country in 2016.

• This Atlas presents state-wise desertification and land degradation status maps depicting land use, process of
degradation and severity level.

• This was prepared using IRS Advanced Wide Field Sensor (AWiFS) data of 2011-13- and 2003-05-time frames in
GIS environment.

• Area under desertification / land degradation for the both time frames and changes are reported state-wise as well
as for the entire country.

VARIOUS INSTITUTIONS FOR LAND CONSERVATION

• Indian Institute of Soil and Water Conservation (IISWC): Bio-engineering measures to check soil erosion due
to run-off of rain water

• Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI), Jodhpur: Sand dune stabilization and shelter belt technology to
check wind erosion
• Council through Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal: Reclamation technology, sub-surface
drainage, bio-drainage, agroforestry interventions and salt tolerant crop varieties to improve the productivity of
saline, sodic and waterlogged soils in the country.

WASTELANDS ATLAS – 2019

• The Department of Land Resources in collaboration with National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC),
Department of Space has published Wastelands Atlases of India – 2000, 2005, 2010 & 2011 editions.

54
 • The new wastelands mapping exercise, carried out by NRSC using the Indian Remote Sensing Satellite data is
brought out as the fifth edition of Wastelands Atlas – 2019.

• This 2019 Atlas provides district and state wise distribution of different categories of wastelands area including
mapping of about 12.08 Mha hitherto unmapped area of J&K.

OPERATIONAL LAND HOLDING IN INDIA

• In Agriculture Census 2015-16, the operational holdings are categorised in five size classes as follows: -

Sr. Category Size-Class

1 Marginal Below 1 hectare
2 Small 1 to 2 hectare
3 Semi- Medium 2 to 4 hectare
4 Medium 4 to 10 hectare
5 Large 10 hectare and above

• The operational holdings are also classified in three social groups, viz., Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and
Others.

• The average size holdings is highest in Nagaland (5.06 ha) followed by Punjab (3.62 ha).

• Countrywide the average operational holding size is 1.08 ha.

• It has been observed that Small farms are more efficient, especially in cultivating labour-intensive crops or tending
livestock, but land holdings are too small to generate sufficient household income.

The Digital India Land Records Modernisation Programme (DILRMP)

• The erstwhile National Land Records Modernisation Programme seeks to improve the quality of land records
in the country, make them more accessible, and move towards government-guaranteed titles.

Unique schemes by the states

• The Bhoomi Project in Karnataka -The state government began to digitize land records at the turn of the century
• The Rajasthan legislature passed the Rajasthan Urban Land (Certification of Titles) Act in April 2016. This
law ensures that the state government is a guarantor for land titles in Rajasthan, and will provide compensation in
case of issues of defective title.
Land-related conflicts in India affect about 3.2 million people and impact investments worth over Rs
12 trillion ($179 billion) - Report by Rights and Resources Initiative, a global coalition of non-profit
organizations, and Tata Institute of Social Sciences

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 CH-6 AGRICULTURE
PRIMARY ACTIVITIES
● Humans Engage in different activities to exploit natural resources and most ancient of them are Primary activities.
● Primary activities are directly dependent on environment and some of these activities are:

Gathering and hunting:

● These are the oldest economic activities known.
● Gathering is practiced in regions with harsh climatic
conditions.
● It often involves primitive societies, who extract both
plants and animals to satisfy their needs for food, shelter and
clothing.
● The main features of Gathering and Hunting activities are:
o Low Capital / Skill Investment
o Low Yield Per Person
o No Surplus in production
● Gathering is practised in the following areas of the world:
o Northern Canada, northern Eurasia and southern Chile
(High Altitude Areas)
o Low latitude zones such as the Amazon Basin, tropical
Africa, Northern fringe of Australia and the interior parts of Southeast Asia.

Nomadic Herding or Pastoral Nomadism:

● Nomadic herding or pastoral nomadism is a primitive
subsistence activity, in which the herders rely on animals
for food, clothing, shelter, tools and transport.
● They move from one place to another along with their
livestock, depending on the amount and quality of pastures
and water, thus there is an irregular pattern of movement.
● It is different from Transhumance in which there is a fixed
seasonal pattern of movement.
● Nomadic pastoralism is commonly practised in regions
with little arable land, typically in the developing world.
● Of the estimated 30–40 million nomadic pastoralists
worldwide, most are found in central Asia and Northern
and western regions of Africa, some parts of southern
Africa and Tundra regions.
● In the Himalayas, Gujjars, Bakarwals, Gaddis and Bhotiyas
are nomadic pastoralists who practice transhumance.

TYPES OF AGRICULTURE IN VARIOUS PARTS OF THE WORLD

Commercial Livestock Rearing:

● Commercial livestock rearing is more organised and capital-intensive activity in comparison to the Nomadic
pastoralism. It is generally practised in permanent ranches.
● Products such as meat, wool, hides and skin are processed and packed scientifically and exported to different world
markets emphasis is on breeding, genetic improvement, disease control and health care of the animals.

56
 ● New Zealand, Australia, Argentina, Uruguay and the United States of America are important countries where
commercial livestock rearing is practised.

Ranches refers to the large stock farms, usually fenced in, where animals are bred and reared on a commercial scale. They
are found especially in the United States.

Primary Subsistence Agriculture

● Subsistence agriculture is one in which the farming areas consume all, or nearly so, of the products locally grown.

Subsistence agriculture

Primitive Subsistence Agriculture Intensive Subsistence Agriculture

Primitive Subsistence Agriculture

● This agriculture is also known as Shifting Cultivation.
● It is widely practised by many tribes in the tropics, especially in Africa, south and Central America and south East Asia.
● When the vegetation is cleared by fire, and the ashes add to the fertility of the soil, it is called slash and burn
agriculture.
● After sometime (3 to 5 years) the soil loses its fertility and the farmer shifts to other parts and clears other patches of
the forest for cultivation.

Name Region
Jhum North-eastern India
Vevar and Dahiyaar Bundelkhand Region
(Madhya Pradesh)
Deepa Bastar District (Madhya
Pradesh)
Zara and Erka Southern States
Batra South-eastern Rajasthan
Podu Andhra Pradesh
Kumari Hilly Region of the Western
Ghats of Kerala
Kaman, Vinga and Odisha
Dhavi

Intensive Subsistence Agriculture

● In this type of farming system, crops are grown mainly for local consumption. If there is a surplus, then it is sold in
the market.

57
● This type of farming is largely found in densely populated regions of monsoon Asia.
● Basically, there are two types of intensive subsistence agriculture.
1. One is dominated by wet paddy and
2. Another is dominated by crops such as sorghum, soybeans, sugarcane, maize, and vegetables.
● Areas of Intensive Subsistence Farming are: Tonkin
Delta (Vietnam), lower Menem (Thailand); lower
Irrawaddy (Myanmar); and the Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta,
Eastern Coastal Plains (India).

Mediterranean Agriculture
● It is practised within the Mediterranean climatic region
where winter is wet and summer is dry.
● Farming is intensive, highly specialised and varied in the
kind of crops raised.
● Many crops such as wheat, barley and vegetables are raised
for domestic consumption, while others like citrus fruits,
olives and grapes are grown mainly for export.
● That's why this region is also called Orchard Lands of the
World and it is the heart of the world's wine industry.
This region is famous around the world for the production
of citrus fruits and grapes in the world.

Viticulture or grape cultivation is a speciality of the

Mediterranean region. Best quality wines in the world with distinctive flavours are produced from high quality grapes in
various countries of this region. The inferior grapes are dried into raisins and currants. This region also produces olives and
figs. The advantage of Mediterranean agriculture is that more valuable crops such as fruits and vegetables are grown in
winters when there is great demand in European and North American markets.

Plantation Agriculture
● This type of farming has developed in parts of Asia, Africa and Latin America, where the influence of the Europeans
have been important during the colonial period.
● Though practiced over a rather small area, this type of farming is quite important in terms of its commercial value.
● Tea, coffee, rubber and oil palm are the major products of this type of farming. Most of the plantations were developed
to provide some of the important tropical crops to the European markets.
● Important plantation regions:
➢ Tea gardens in India and Sri Lanka
➢ Banana and sugar plantations in the West Indies
➢ Coffee plantations in Brazil
➢ Rubber in Malaysia
● This is a highly capital-intensive farming and most of the crops are tree crops.

EXTENSIVE COMMERCIAL GRAIN CULTIVATION

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 ● This type of agriculture system is mainly practiced in the Eurasian steppes in regions of chernozem soil, Canadian and
American Prairies, the Pampas of Argentina, the Veld of South Africa, the Australian Downs and the Canterbury
Plain of New Zealand.

● The main characteristics of this type of agriculture are:

o highly mechanized cultivation
o farms are very large
o predominance of wheat
o low yield per acre but yield per capita is high.

MIXED FARMING
● This type of agricultural system is found in the highly
developed parts of the world: north-western Europe,
eastern North America, Russia, Ukraine, and the temperate
latitudes of parts of the southern continents.
● Farming is very intensive and sometimes highly
specialized.
● Traditionally, farmers have practised a mixed economy by
raising animals and growing crops on the same farm.
● Mixed farming is characterised by high capital
expenditure on farm machinery and building, extensive
use of chemical fertilisers and green manures and also by
the skill and expertise of the farmers.

DAIRY FARMING
● Dairy is the most advanced and efficient type of rearing of milch animals. It is highly capital intensive. Animal sheds,
storage facilities for fodder, feeding and milking machines add to the cost of dairy farming. Special emphasis is laid on
cattle breeding, health care and veterinary services.
● It is highly labour intensive as it involves rigorous care in feeding and milching. There is no off season during the
year as in the case of crop raising.
● It is practised mainly near urban and industrial centres which provide neighbourhood markets for fresh milk and
dairy products. The development of transportation, refrigeration, pasteurisation and other preservation processes
have increased the duration of shortage of various dairy products.

MARKET GARDENING AND HORTICULTURE

● It is practised mainly in the same region as that of mixed farming that consists of cultivation of vegetables, fruit and
flowers solely for the urban market.
● It is well-developed in the densely populated industrial districts of north-western Europe (Britain, Denmark,
Netherlands, Belgium, and Germany) and in North-Eastern USA.

59
The regions where farmers specialise in vegetables only, the farming is known as truck farming. The distance of truck
farms from the market is governed by the distance that a truck can cover overnight, hence the name truck farming.

FACTORY FARMING
• Factory farming is a method of mass food production in which animals are kept in very confined areas in order to
get the best possible profit.
• This farming is particularly concentrated in Developed countries like USA, European nations, Australia etc.

CO-OPERATIVE FARMING
● A group of farmers form a co-operative society by pooling in their resources voluntarily for more efficient and
profitable farming. Individual farms remain intact and farming is a matter of cooperative initiative.
● Co-operative societies help farmers, to procure all important inputs of farming, sell the products at the most favourable
terms and help in processing of quality products at cheaper rates.
● Co-operative movement originated over a century ago and has been successful in many western European countries
like Denmark, Netherlands, Belgium, Sweden, Italy etc. In Denmark, the movement has been so successful that
practically every farmer is a member of a co-operative.

COLLECTIVE FARMING
● The basic principle behind this type of farming is based on social ownership of the means of production and
collective labour.
● Collective farming or the model of Kolkhoz was introduced in the erstwhile Soviet Union to improve upon the
inefficiency of the previous methods of agriculture and to boost agricultural production for self-sufficiency.
● The farmers used to pool in all their resources like land, livestock and labour. However, they were allowed to retain
very small plots to grow crops in order to meet their daily requirements.
● Yearly targets were set by the government and the produce was also sold to the state at fixed prices.
● Produce in excess of the fixed amount was distributed among the members or sold in the market. The farmers
had to pay taxes on the farm produce, hired machinery etc.
● Members were paid according to the nature of the work allotted to them by the farm management.
● Exceptional work was rewarded in cash or kind. This type of farming was introduced in the former Soviet Union
under the socialist regime which was adopted by the socialist countries. After its collapse, these have already been
modified.

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 INDIAN AGRICULTURE
INTRODUCTION
● India is an agricultural economy where approx. 49% of the people depend directly or indirectly on agriculture.
● Net sown area still accounts for about 47% of the total land area of India.
● In India, over 80 per cent of water is used in irrigation. Of the net sown area of around 140 million hectares (Mn
ha), close to half (68.4 Mn ha) is irrigated (2019)
● Major states like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha among others are still majorly dependent
on Agriculture.

GDP compositions in 2018-19 are as follows (ES2020)

Agriculture Services
(16.5%) (55.3%)

Industry (28.6%)

Facts/Data related to Agriculture sector

Share of agriculture and allied sectors in Gross Value Addition (GVA) has declined from 18.2 percent in 2014-
15 to 16.5 percent in 2019-20.
The Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing sector is estimated to grow by 2.8 percent in 2019-20 as compared to
growth of 2.9 percent in 2018-19.
According to the 2010-11 Agricultural Census, 47% of landholdings had become less than half a hectare in size.
These holdings are too small to support a family of five so that many farmers now seek alternative sources of
income - NITI 3-year action agenda
About 80 percent of farmers own less than two hectare.

SALIENT FEATURES OF AN INDIAN AGRICULTURE

● Subsistence type of agriculture.
● Dependent on unreliable and erratic monsoon (about 60 percent)
● India’s vast relief, varying climate and soil conditions produce a variety of crops
● All tropical, subtropical and temperate crops are grown across geographical areas.
● Predominance of food crop → about 2/3rd of total cropped area.
● Backbone of rural economy.
● Plays critical role in ensuring food security
● Poor electricity, storage, water, credit & marketing infrastructure.
● Supports allied sectors and activities – cattle, poultry etc.
● Major involvement of women in Indian agriculture sector
● Characterized by poor mechanization, inadequate Agricultural research and extension services.
● Fragmented nature of agricultural holding.

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PRODUCTIVITY OF AGRICULTURE
● Productivity of Agriculture is defined as the number of crops produced per unit land.
● Productivity levels in Indian agriculture are very low as compared to the productivity levels of other countries –
China, USA etc.
● Like in 2018, average productivity in India was 3075 Kg/ha while world average was 3200kg/ha.
● Fertiliser use, irrigation and rainfall cause significant variation in productivity
● Productivity in the regions of Green revolution are certainly higher than other areas. Other high productivity
regions are Tamil Nadu, Kerala, West Bengal and Maharashtra.
● The productivity in Gangetic plain is reducing because of Land bifurcation leading to reduced size of land
holdings.
● Key issues affecting agricultural productivity include the decreasing sizes of agricultural land holdings, continued
dependence on the monsoon, inadequate access to irrigation, imbalanced use of soil nutrients resulting in loss
of fertility of soil, uneven access to modern technology in different parts of the country, lack of access to formal
agricultural credit, limited procurement of food grains by government agencies, and failure to provide
remunerative prices to farmers.

Cropping Intensity
● The ratio of the gross cropped area to the net sown area.
● As the land is cropped multiple times, the cropping intensity increases.
● It depends on factors like climate, demand of crops, availability of irrigation and other inputs etc.

Boosting productivity

Boosting productivity in agriculture in a sustainable manner requires us to work on four fronts:

The main reason for low crop intensity is access to water and moisture for crop production in Rabi
season. Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) provides a sound framework for the
expansion as well as effective use of water in irrigation.
Irrigation
We need to enhance seed-research capacity as well as multiply stations so that seed replacement rate
should be increased. Soil health cards need to be promoted as they are important for customizing
Seeds and fertilizer use.
Fertilizer
Genetically modified (GM) seeds have emerged as a powerful new technology promising high
productivity, improved quality and lower use of fertilizers, weedicides and pesticides in the last one to
two decades.
New Precision farming and related new technologies allow highly efficient farming and resource
Technology conservation.

Crop diversification provides the farmers with a wider choice in the production of a variety of crops
in a given area so as to expand production related activities on various crops and also to bring down
Diversification the possible risk

CROPS
● A crop is a plant or animal product that can be grown and harvested extensively for profit or subsistence.

Basic facts
India produced 284.83 Mn tons of food grains in 2018.
India is the world's largest producer of milk, pulses and jute.
India occupies a leading position in global trade of agricultural products, agricultural export basket accounts for a little
over 2.15 per cent of the world agricultural trade.

Crop classification based upon the type of produce

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 Type Description Examples

Food crops Crops used for human consumption Cereals, i.e. grass like plants with starchy edible
seeds having high nutritional value – rice, wheat,
maize. Pulses for e.g. gram tur etc.

Cash crop Grown for sale in raw or processed form Cotton, jute, tobacco, castor, oilseeds

Plantation Grown in plantations covering large Tea, coffee, coconut, rubber, spices, etc.
crop estates.

Horticulture Fruits and vegetables Fruits (apple, mango, bananas) and vegetables
(onion, tomato etc.)

Crop classification based upon climate

Tropical Temperate
Crops grown well in hot and warm climate Crops grown well in cool climate
e.g. rice, sugarcane, jawar e.g. wheat, gram, potato

Crop classification based on growing season

The kharif Season starts in June and ends in October and largely coincides with Southwest Monsoon under
which the cultivation of tropical crops such as rice, cotton, jute, jowar, bajra and tur is possible.

The rabi Season begins with the onset of winter in October-November and ends in March-April. The low
temperature conditions during this season facilitate the cultivation of temperate and
subtropical crops such as wheat, gram and mustard.

Zaid Short duration summer cropping season beginning after harvesting of rabi crops. The
cultivation of watermelons, cucumbers, vegetables and fodder crops during this season is done
on irrigated lands. However, this type of distinction in the cropping season does not exist in
southern parts of the country.

FOOD GRAINS
Food grains are dominant crops in all parts of the country whether they have subsistence or commercial agricultural
economy.

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 Food grains

Cereals Pulses

1. Cereals
● The cereals occupy about 54 per cent of the total cropped area in India.
● India produces a variety of cereals, which are classified as fine grains (rice, wheat) and coarse grains (jowar,
bajra, maize, ragi), etc.

2. Pulses
● Pulses are a very important ingredient of vegetarian food as these are rich sources of proteins.
● These are legume crops which increase the natural fertility of soils through nitrogen fixation.
● India is a leading producer of pulses and accounts for about one-fifth of the total production of pulses in the
world.
● The cultivation of pulses in the country is largely concentrated in the drylands of Deccan and central plateaus
and north-western parts of the country.
● Pulses occupy about 11 per cent of the total cropped area in the country. Being the rainfed crops of drylands, the
yields of pulses are low and fluctuate from year to year.
● Gram and tur are the main pulses cultivated in India.

In India, the dryland farming is largely confined to the regions having annual rainfall less than 75 cm. These regions
grow hardy and drought resistant crops such as ragi, bajra, moong, gram and fodder crops.

MAJOR FOOD CROPS IN INDIA

1. RICE
• Rice is preferred staple food in southern and north-eastern India.
• India produced 116.42 mmt in 2018-19, 2nd highest production in world after China.
• India had the highest export volume of rice worldwide, at 9.8 million metric tons as of 2018/2019.
• West Bengal is the largest producer followed by Uttar Pradesh.

● Rice is tropical and kharif crop (warm and wet climate is ideal)
● Temperature: Between 22-32°C with high humidity.
● Annual Rainfall: above 150 cm
Favourable conditions ● Requires semi aquatic conditions
● Soil Type: Deep clayey and loamy soil
● Rice is a staple food for the overwhelming majority of the population in India.
● About one-fourth of the total cropped area in the country is under rice cultivation.
● Though it is considered to be a crop of tropical humid areas, it has about 3,000 varieties
Geo. Distribution which are grown in different agro-climatic regions.
● These are successfully grown from sea level to about 2,000 m altitude and from humid
areas in eastern India to dry but irrigated areas of Punjab, Haryana, western U.P. and
northern Rajasthan.
● In southern states and West Bengal, the climatic conditions allow the cultivation of two
or three crops of rice in an agricultural year.
● In the Himalayas and north-western parts of the country, it is grown as a kharif crop during
the southwest Monsoon season.
Other information In West Bengal farmers grow three crops of rice called ‘aus’, ‘aman’ and ‘boro’.

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 Farmers in West Bengal are experimenting with the Pokkali variety of rice to tide over a crisis-like situation created
by severe seawater incursion into paddy fields in the Sundarbans (owing to Cyclone Amphan). Vyttila-11
varieties of pokkali seedlings were brought from Kerala. The pokkali variety of rice is known for its saltwater
resistance and flourishes in the rice paddies of coastal Alappuzha, Ernakulam and Thrissur districts of Kerala.

Kuttanad Below Sea Level Farming System of Kerala is Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (GIAHS)
site in India.

2. WHEAT
• Wheat is preferred staple food in northern and north-western parts of India.
• India's wheat production has increased to a record 101.20 million tonne (MT) for the crop year 2018-19 (July-
June), up by 1.3% from a year ago.
• India is the third largest producer of wheat after EU and China.
• Largest producer of wheat in India is Uttar Pradesh followed by Punjab and Haryana.

● Temperature: Between 10-15°C (Sowing time) and 21-26°C (Ripening & Harvesting) with
bright sunlight.
● Wheat is a temperate crop which requires a cool climate with moderate rainfall.
● It shows great adaptability & can be grown in tropics as well (yields are low in tropics).
Favourable ● Wheat is rabi crop (Winter crop)
conditions ● Rainfall: Around 75-100 cm.
● Soil Type: Well-drained fertile loamy and clayey loamy (Ganga-Sutlej plains and black soil
region of the Deccan)
● Light drizzles and cloudiness (E.g. Weather brought by Western Disturbances) at the time of
ripening help in increasing the yield.
● Wheat is the second most important cereal crop in India after rice.
● India produces about 12 percent of the world's total wheat production.
● It is primarily a crop of temperate zones. Hence, its cultivation in India is done during winter
i.e. rabi season.
● About 85 percent of total area under this crop is concentrated in north and central regions of
the country i.e. Indo-Gangetic Plain, Malwa Plateau and Himalayas up to 2,700 m altitude.
▪ Being a rabi crop, it is mostly grown under irrigated conditions.
▪ But it is a rainfed crop in Himalayan highlands and parts of Malwa plateau in Madhya Pradesh.

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 ▪ Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh are five leading wheat
Geo. Distribution producing states.
Other information Rice-wheat cropping system is labour, water, capital and energy-intensive, and becomes less
profitable as availability of these resources diminishes. The problem is further exacerbated by
dynamics of climate change.

3. MILLETS
● Temperature: Between 27-32°C
● Rainfall: Around 50-100 cm.
● Soil Type: Can be grown in inferior alluvial or loamy soil because they are less sensitive to soil deficiencies
● India is the largest producer followed by Niger.
● Entirely grown under subsistence farming
● Grown for fodder crops
● Very nutritious and affordable, important for Nutrition security but least preferred given low remunerative
outcomes.
● Millets include jawar, bajara, ragi etc.

Jawar
● Jawar – 3th most important crop after rice and wheat
● Jowar has high nutritional value.
● Jowar is grown in both Kharif and Rabi seasons. It is sown in both kharif and rabi seasons in southern states. But it
is a kharif crop in northern India where it is mostly grown as a fodder crop
● Suitable for rainfed areas of dryland farming.
● Require around 30 cm rainfall – dry situation
● The coarse cereals together occupy about 16.50 per cent of total cropped area in the country. Among these, jowar
or sorghum alone accounts for about 5.3 per cent of total cropped area.
● It is the main food crop in semi-arid areas of central and southern India.
● Maharashtra alone produces more than half of the total jowar production of the country.
● Other leading producer states of jowar are Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.

Bajra
● Bajara Is the second most important millet.
● Grown in the areas of 40-50 cm of annual rainfall.
● Bajra is sown in hot and dry climatic conditions in north-western and western parts of the country.

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 ● It is a hardy crop which resists frequent dry spells and drought in this region.
● It is cultivated alone as well as part of mixed cropping.
● This coarse cereal occupies about 5.2 per cent of the total cropped area in the country.
● Leading producers of bajra are the states of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Haryana.
● Being a rainfed crop, the yield level of this crop is low in Rajasthan and fluctuates a lot from year to year.
● Yield of this crop has increased during recent years in Haryana and Gujarat due to introduction of drought
resistant varieties and expansion of irrigation under it.

Maize
● Maize is rainfed kharif crop.
● Maize is a food as well as fodder crop grown under semi-arid climatic conditions and over inferior soils.
● This crop occupies only about 3.6 per cent of total cropped area.
● India is the Sixth Largest producer of the crop in the world.
● Maize cultivation is not concentrated in any specific region. It is sown all over India except eastern and north-
eastern regions.
● The leading producers of maize are the states of Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, Rajasthan
and Uttar Pradesh.
● Yield level of maize is higher than other coarse cereals. It is high in southern states and declines towards central
parts.

4. OILSEEDS

● Temperature: Between 15-30°C

● Rainfall: Around 30-75 cm.

● Soil Type: Loam to clayey loam and well drained sandy loams.
Favourable ● The oilseeds are produced for extracting edible oils.
conditions
● Groundnut, rapeseed and mustard, soybean and sunflower are the main oilseed crops grown in
India.

● Drylands of Malwa plateau, Marathwada, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Telangana, Rayalaseema region

of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka plateau are oilseeds growing regions of India.

● Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Gujarat are main producers of major oilseeds
accounting for over two-third area and three-fourth of production.

● These crops together occupy about 14 percent of total cropped area in the country

Geo. Distribution

Groundnut
● It is largely a rainfed kharif crop of drylands. But in southern India, it is cultivated during rabi season as well.
● It is a tropical crop that requires 50-75 cm of rainfall.
● It covers about 3.6 per cent of the total cropped area in the country.
● Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra are the leading producers.
● Yield of groundnut is comparatively high in Tamil Nadu where it is partly irrigated. But its yield is low in
Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.

Rapeseed and Mustard

● Rapeseed and mustard comprise several oilseeds as rai, sarson, toria and taramira.
● These are subtropical crops cultivated during rabi season in north-western and central parts of India.

67
● These are frost sensitive crops and their yields fluctuate from year to year.
● But with the expansion of irrigation and improvement in seed technology, their yields have improved and stabilised
to some extent.
● About two-third of the cultivated area under these crops is irrigated. These oilseeds together occupy only 2.5 per
cent of the total cropped area in the country.
● Rajasthan contributes about one-third production
while other leading producers are Uttar Pradesh, Haryana,
West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh. Yields of these crops
are comparatively high in Haryana and Rajasthan.

Soyabean
● Soyabean is mostly grown in Madhya Pradesh and
Maharashtra.
● These two states together produce about 90 per cent of
total output of soyabean in the country.

Sunflower
● Sunflower cultivation is concentrated in
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and adjoining
areas of Maharashtra.
● It is a minor crop in northern parts of the country where
its yield is high due to irrigation.

Sesamum
● India accounts for one-third of the world production
and is the largest producer.
● Since it is a rainfed kharif crop the production fluctuates
greatly with time.
● Sesamum is produced in almost all parts of the country.
● West Bengal is the largest producing state (one-third of the total production of India). The other major producers
are Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, etc.

5. CASH CROPS
● Cash crops are crops that are grown for sale in the market. E.g. Cotton, jute, tobacco, castor, oilseeds, sugarcane
etc.
● They occupy only about 15 percent of cropped area but account for over 40 percent of agriculture production
by value.

Cotton
● Cotton is chiefly a tropical and sub-tropical crop.
● Temperature: Between 21-30°C
● Rainfall: Around 50-100 cm
● Soil Type: Well drained deep black soils (regur-lava
soil) of the Deccan Plateau, Malwa Plateau and those of
Gujarat are best suited for cotton cultivation.
● It is a tropical and subtropical crop grown in the kharif
season in semi-arid areas of the country.
● India grows both short staple (Indian) cotton as well as
long staple (American) cotton called ‘Narma’ in north-
western parts of the country.
● Cotton occupies about 4.7 per cent of the total cropped
area in the country.
● India is the Largest producer of cotton. (2018-19)

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 ● Almost 65 per cent of the area under cotton is rainfed with erratic and poorly distributed rains. It is also
subjected to severe attack of pests and diseases.

● There are three cotton growing areas, i.e. parts of Punjab, Haryana and northern Rajasthan in north-west, Gujarat
and Maharashtra in the west and plateaus of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
● Largest producer is Gujarat followed by Maharashtra. (2018-19)
● Labor - Since picking of cotton is not yet mechanized, a lot of cheap and efficient labour is required.

TYPES OF COTTON
It has the longest fibre whose length varies from 24 to 27 mm. The fibre is fine and lustrous and is used
Long staple for making superior quality cloth. About half of the total cotton produced in India is long staple. It is
cotton largely grown in Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Andhra
Pradesh.
The length of its fiber is between 20 mm and 24 mm. About 44 per cent of the total cotton production
Medium staple in India is of medium staple. Rajasthan, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka
cotton and Maharashtra are its main producers.

This is inferior cotton with fibre less than 20 mm long. It is used for manufacturing inferior cloth and
Short staple fetches less price. About 6 per cent of the total production is of short staple cotton. U.P, Andhra
cotton Pradesh, Rajasthan, Haryana and Punjab are its main producers.

BT COTTON → Bt stands for the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis. Bacillus thuringiensis produces a toxin called bt.
toxin which is detrimental for certain kind of pest (bollworms) that infects cotton crop. This trait of Bacillus thuringiensis
is induced into cotton by genetic modification. The Bt cotton was first tested in U.S.A. and it to cultivation there in
1995. China (1997) and India (2002) also followed the cultivation of Bt cotton.

Jute
● Jute is the second most important fiber crop in India after cotton.
● Humid climate (120-150 cm) with 80-90 percent relative
humidity during the period of its growth.
● It is a cash crop in West Bengal and adjoining eastern
parts of the country.
● India lost large jute growing areas to East Pakistan
(Bangladesh) during partition.
● At present, India produces about three-fifth of jute
production of the world.
● West Bengal accounts for about three-fourth of the
production in the country. Bihar and Assam are other jute
growing areas.
● Just like cotton, jute also exhausts the fertility of soil
rapidly. It is necessary that the soil is replenished annually by
the silt-laden flood water of the rivers.
● Large supply of cheap labor and lot of water are necessary for
processing the jute fiber post-harvest.
● Over 99 per cent of the total jute of India is produced in just
five states of West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Andhra Pradesh
and Odisha.
● Being concentrated only in a few states, this crop accounts for
only about 0.5 per cent of the total cropped area in the
country.
● Jute is used for making coarse cloth, bags, sacks and decorative items.

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Sugarcane
● Temperature: Between 21-27°C with hot and humid climate.
● Rainfall: Around 75-100 cm.
● Soil Type: Deep rich loamy soil.
● Sugarcane is a crop of tropical areas. Under rainfed conditions, it is cultivated in sub-humid and humid climates.
But it is largely an irrigated crop in India.
● India became the largest sugarcane producer in 2018-19, beats brazil for first time in 16 years.
● In the Indo-Gangetic plain, its cultivation is largely concentrated in Uttar Pradesh.
● Sugarcane growing area in western India is spread over Maharashtra and Gujarat.

Q. Why is the sugar industry shifting from northern to peninsular India?

- The tropical climate of Peninsular India results in higher yield per unit hectare of land.
- Higher sucrose content in peninsular cane as here grows tropical varieties of Sugarcane. Tropical sugarcane areas
are the northern plains.
- Sub-tropical variety has low sugar content.
- Sugar factories shut in winter. From northern plains the factories shifted to Punjab, Haryana, South India and
Western India.
- Long crushing season in the south.
- Cooperative sugar mills are more successful in management in south India.

DISTRIBUTION OF SUGARCANE
Three distinct belts of sugarcane cultivation can be identified in India.
● Low yield
● High summer temperatures ranging from 30° to 35°C leads to low growth and
fibrous crop.
● Loo (dry scorching wind in May and June with a desiccating effect) hampers
the normal growth of the cane.
● In winter months (December and January) the crop is likely to be damaged by
severe cold and frost.
● Crushing cannot be done in winter. [only 8 month crushing season. Factories
Sutlej-Ganga plain from Punjab to remain idle for 4 winter months]
Bihar (51 per cent of the total area
and 60 per cent of the country's
total production)
Black soil belt from Maharashtra to ● High Productivity
Tamil Nadu along the eastern ● No winds like ‘loo’ during the summer.
slopes of the Western Ghats (to ● Reasonably high temperature during winter.
protect from high speed monsoon ● Frost free climate throughout the year.
winds). ● Yearlong crushing

Coastal Andhra and the Krishna ● South India offers more favourable climatic conditions for the growth of
Valley sugarcane.

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 ‘

6. PLANTATION CROP
A plantation is a large-scale estate meant for farming that specializes in cash crops. The crops that are grown include
cotton, coffee, tea, cocoa, sugar cane, sisal, oil seeds, oil palms, fruits, rubber trees and forest trees.

Tea

● Temperature: Between 20-30°C

Favourable conditions
Geo. Distribution
● Rainfall: Around 150-300 cm.
● Soil Type: Deep and fertile well-drained soil, rich in humus and organic
matter.
● Tea leaves have rich content of caffeine and tannin.
● It is an indigenous crop of hills in northern China.
● It is grown over undulating topography of hilly areas and well drained soils in
humid and sub-humid tropics and sub-tropics.
● In India, tea plantations started in the 1840s in Brahmaputra valley of Assam
which still is a major tea growing area in the country.
● Later on, its plantation was introduced in the sub-Himalayan region of West
Bengal (Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri and Cooch Bihar districts)
● Tea is also cultivated on the lower slopes of Nilgiris and Cardamom hills in
Western Ghats.
● Tea requires an abundant supply of cheap and skilled labour at every
stage.
● It is one of the largest employers of women among the organized
industries of India.
● India is the second largest producer of tea in the world (2019), producing an
average 1,325,050 tonnes each year.
● Assam is the largest producer among Indian states.

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 ● India is the fourth largest exporter after China, Sri Lanka and Kenya.
● 14% of global tea exports and nearly 20% of the tea produced in the country
is exported, according to Tea Board India.
● Declining export because:
India’s Assam CTC Tea faces competition from Kenya while orthodox tea
faces competition from Sri Lanka & Mozambique.
• Issues with the Industry
- The lack of innovation in tea plant and the agricultural practices (e.g. slower
pace of replantation) accompanying it has stagnated the leaf quality and output
- Rising input prices, is making tree farming less profitable.
- Large share of tea production comes from small, independent farmers, will
find tea production unsustainable.
Other information - Monsoon Dependence.
- Various tariff and non-tariff barriers by many importing countries. For
example Phyto-sanitary related objection raised by the EU, is hampering
exports.
- Trade Policy related: The FTP 2015, which reduced exports concessions to
tea from 5% to 3%.
- The tea farms in India are often hit by strikes and labour unrest.
- Many areas known for tea gardens, like Assam and the Darjeeling hills, suffer
from insurgency, social unrest and extortion. This scares away fresh
investment and fresh capital.

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 Coffee
● It is indigenous to Abyssinia Plateau (Ethiopia).
● Coffee was first raised in the Baba Budan Hills of
Karnataka. British planters established large coffee estates in
1820s near Chikmagalur (Karnataka), Wayanad, Shevoroys
and Nilgiris in TN.

● Temperature: Between 15-28°C

● Rainfall: Around 150-250 cm.

● Soil Type: Well drained, deep friable loam soil.

Favourable conditions ● Coffee is a tropical plantation crop. Its seeds are roasted, ground and are used
for preparing a beverage.

● Coffee is cultivated in the highlands of Western Ghats in Karnataka, Kerala

and Tamil Nadu. Karnataka alone accounts for more than two-third of total
production of coffee in the country
Geo. Distribution

● There are three varieties of coffee i.e. Arabica, Robusta and Liberia. India mostly
grows superior quality coffee, Arabica, which is in great demand in the
International market.

● Coffee cultivation requires plenty of cheap and skilled labor.

● Northern and eastern aspects of slopes are preferred as they are less exposed
to strong afternoon sun and the south-west monsoon winds.

● Karnataka produces more than 70% of Coffee followed by Kerala.

Other information ● Almost the entire production is shared by three states namely Karnataka (71%),
Kerala (22%) and Tamil Nadu (6.5%).

In wetland farming, the rainfall is in excess of soil moisture requirement of plants during the rainy season. Such regions
may face flood and soil erosion hazards. These areas grow various water intensive crops such as rice, jute and sugarcane
and practice aquaculture in the freshwater bodies.

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Rubber
● Rubber is obtained from the latex of Hevea brasiliensis and many other tropical trees. It begins to yield latex in 5-
7 years after planting.
● Hevea brasiliensis requires hot (25°-35°C) and humid climate (200 cm). The rainfall should be well distributed
throughout the year.
● Deep well drained loamy soils are best suited for rubber plantations.
● Almost entire rubber is produced in Kerala (92%), Tamil Nadu (3%) and Karnataka (2%) and Tripura (2%)
is the fourth largest producer. Andaman & Nicobar Islands also produce small quantities of rubber.

7. SPICES
● Pepper, cardamom, chillies, turmeric, ginger etc. are some of the important spices produced in India. They are
used for flavoring foodstuffs.
● Well drained sandy, clayey or red loams and laterites are best suited soils for the cultivation of most of the spices
mentioned above.
● These soil conditions exist predominantly in the hilly regions of Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
● India is an exporter of spices. There has been a constant increase in area and production of spices in India.

Pepper ● Its distribution is highly concentrated in Kerala (94%), Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

● Cardamom – ‘queen of aromatic spices’ – is mainly used for medicines. India produces a major
part of the world's total cardamom.
Cardamom ● The entire production comes from three states viz., Kerala (53%), Karnataka (42%) and Tamil
Nadu.
● Andhra Pradesh and Telangana are the largest producers of chilies.
● Guntur, East Godavari and West Godavari in are the major chili producing districts in AP.
Chilies

● India (80%) is the largest producer of ginger in the world.

Ginger ● Meghalaya, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, etc. are the main producers.

● Turmeric is native to tropical South-East Asia.

● India is an important producer of turmeric in the world.
Turmeric ● Andhra Pradesh (more than half) is the largest producer.

8. HORTICULTURE
● India is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world after China.
● Horticulture sector contributes about 25-30 per cent of GDP from agriculture.
● India is the largest producer of bananas and mangoes.

● Cashew kernel is used as a dry fruit.

● India holds first position in the world in the production of cashew.
● Coasts of Maharashtra (29.9%), Andhra Pradesh (15.7%), Odisha, Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil
Nadu are the major producers.
Cashew Nut

● Mango is the native to the Indian monsoon lands.

● More than half of the world’s mangoes are produced in India. It is also the largest exporter.
● Alfonso mango is an important export variety.
● Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, West
● Bengal, Odisha, are the main producers.
Mango

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 Apple ● Apple is a temperate fruit crop.
● It requires sunny climate with gentle winds.
● Partial sun reduces yields.
● It requires average temperature (~22°C) during the growing season. In the non-growing season,
apple crop can tolerate very low temperatures.
● Low temperature, rain, fog and cloudy weather hampers growth at the time of maturity.
● Well distributed 100-125 cm rainfall throughout the growing season is optimal. Apple orchard
regions should be free from hail storms and frost.
● Kullu and Shimla districts in Himachal Pradesh, Kashmir Valley and hilly areas of Uttarakhand
are important apple growing areas.
● Banana is a tropical and sub-tropical crop.
● Although cultivation is spread all over India. But peninsular India provides ideal conditions for its
cultivation.
Banana ● Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra account for about half of total production.

● Most of orange orchards are rainfed.

● Although orange is grown in almost all states, its cultivation is more prominently concentrated in
the hilly region of Uttarakhand.
● Kangra valley of Himachal Pradesh, Darjeeling in W. Bengal, Khasi and Jaintia Hills in Meghalaya,
Kodagu district of Karnataka are the important orange growing regions.

Orange

● Peach is temperate fruit that is highly perishable (more than apple).

Peach

CROP DIVERSIFICATION
It refers to a shift from the regional dominance of one crop to production of a number of crops.

Why is it Needed?
● Maintaining soil fertility: Only those crops are grown
in a particular region which are suitable to a particular
agro climate zone and it helps in maintaining soil
fertility because excessive use of nutrients, irrigation is
not required.
● To arrest depletion of groundwater: It will help in
diversifying cropping patterns from water guzzling
crops such as paddy to pulses, oilseeds, maize with the
aim of tackling the problem of depleting water tables.
● Diversification can also provide habitat for beneficial
insects and at the same time reduce colonization by
pests.
● Additional employment opportunities
● Reducing risk from agriculture sector
● Insurance against vagaries of nature, pests etc.
● Higher level of income – reduction in poverty (SDG-1)

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TYPES OF FARMING
On the basis of main source of moisture for crops, the farming can be classified as-

Main source of moisture

Irrigated Rainfed

● Irrigated farming can be of two types –

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 Irrigated farming

Protective Productive

Type Description
Protective The objective of protective irrigation is to protect the crops from adverse effects of soil moisture
deficiency which often means that irrigation acts as a supplementary source of water over and above the
rainfall.
Productive Productive irrigation is meant to provide sufficient soil moisture in the cropping season to achieve high
productivity
Rainfed It is further classified on the basis of adequacy of soil moisture during cropping season into dryland and
farming wetland farming
Dryland In India, the dryland farming is largely confined to the regions having annual rainfall less than 75 cm.
farming These regions grow hardy and drought resistant crops such as ragi, bajra, moong, gram and guar (fodder
crops) and practice various measures of soil moisture conservation and rainwater harvesting.
Wetland The rainfall is in excess of soil moisture requirement of plants during the rainy season. Such regions may
farming face flood and soil erosion hazards. These areas grow various water intensive crops such as rice, jute and
sugarcane and practice aquaculture in the freshwater bodies.

CLIMATE SMART AGRICULTURE

● According to the World bank, Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is an integrated approach to managing landscapes
- cropland, livestock, forests and fisheries - that address the interlinked challenges of food security and climate
change.
● Climate Smart Agriculture also known as Climate Resilient Agriculture. It is the development of agriculture under
new realities of climate change.
● “Agriculture that sustainably increases productivity, enhances resilience (adaptation), reduces/removes GHGs
(mitigation) where possible, and enhances achievement of national food security and development goals” – FAO

Climate-smart agriculture helps in the following ways:

● Triple win-increase yield
● Make yield resilient
● Make farm a solution to climate changes problem
● Reduction and removal of GHGs
● Would help in achieving SDGs and food security.
● Adapt and build resilience to climate change
● Reduce and/or remove greenhouse gas emissions, where possible.

Practices under Climate smart Agriculture:

● Minimum soil disturbance
● Zero tillage is ideal, but the system may involve controlled tillage in which no more than 20 to 25% of the soil
surface is disturbed.
● Retention of crop residues or other soil surface cover
● Use of crop rotations - Crop rotation helps reduce build-up of weeds, pests and diseases. Where farmers do not
have enough land to rotate crops, intercropping can be used. Legumes are recommended as rotational crops for
their nitrogen-fixing functions.
● Increasing organic content of soil
● Promoting carbon soil capture

77
Key initiatives
● Paramparagat Krishi vikas yojana
● Soil health cards
● PM Fasal Bima Yojana
hits poor’s
● PM Krishi sinchai yojana most
● National mission for sustainable agriculture
● National Initiative on Climate Resilient
rural and
Agriculture (NICRA) farmers
droughts &
● National Adaptation Fund heatwaves
distress
● National and State Action Plan on Climate
Impact of
Change. climate
change on
agri.

depletes
1.5% loss in
natural
GDP
resources

Less agri.
production

THE INTEGRATED FARMING SYSTEM

● Integrated Farming refers to an agriculture system that integrates livestock and crop production. It is also called an
Integrated Biosystem.

crop

livestock farming

● The Integrated Farming system has revolutionized conventional farming of livestock, aquaculture, horticulture,
agro-industry and allied activities.
● It is a combined approach aimed at efficient sustainable resource management for increased productivity in the
cropping system.

@Akash_Singhh

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 ● The IFS approach has multiple objectives of sustainability, food security, farmer’s security and poverty reduction
by involving livestock, vermicomposting, organic farming etc.
● IFS provides multiple benefits that are sustainable and can pave the way for climate-smart agriculture. India
needs to adopt a “well designed” Integrated Farming System (IFS) to realize the vision of doubling farmers’

income by 2022 (Ashok Dalwai Committee) and having sustainable agricultural practices

IRRIGATION
● Irrigation is described as the artificial application of water to the land or soil.
● It is the substitute or supplement of rainwater with another source of water.

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 Tanks

Drip irrigation River Lift Systems

IRRIGATION

Wells Canals

Well and Tube Well Irrigation:

● Wells are mainly found in U.P., Bihar, Tamil Nadu, etc.
● There are various types of wells – shallow wells, deep wells, tube wells, artesian wells, etc. From the shallow wells
water is not always available as the level of water goes down during the dry months.
● Deep wells are more suitable for the purpose of irrigation as water from them is available throughout the year.
● At places where groundwater is available, a tube well can be installed near the agricultural area. A deep tube well
worked by electricity, can irrigate a much larger area than a surface well.
● Tube wells are mostly used in U.P., Haryana, Punjab, Bihar and Gujarat.

Merits
Well is the simplest, cheapest and independent
source of irrigation and can be used as and when
the necessity arises.
Several chemicals such as nitrate, chloride,
sulphate, etc. found in well water add to the
fertility of soil.
More reliable during periods of drought when
surface water dries up.
Demerits
Only a limited area can be irrigated. In the event of a drought,
the ground water level falls and enough water is not available.
Tube wells can draw a lot of groundwater from its
neighboring areas and make the ground dry and unfit for
agriculture.
Wastage of water due to subsidized electricity in green
revolution region

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 Canal Irrigation:
● Canals can be an effective source of irrigation in areas of low-level relief, deep fertile soils, perennial source of
water and extensive command area.
● Therefore, the main concentration of canal irrigation is in the northern plain of India, especially the areas comprising
Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Punjab.
● The digging of canals in rocky and uneven areas is difficult and uneconomic. Thus, canals are practically absent
from the Peninsular plateau area. However, the coastal and the delta regions in South India do have some canals for
irrigation.
● Two types: Inundation canals, which are taken out from the rivers without any regulating system like weirs etc. at
their head. Such canals provide irrigation mainly in the rainy season when the river is in flood and there is excess
water.
● Perennial Canals are those which are taken off from perennial rivers by constructing a barrage across the river.
Most of the canals in India are perennial.

Merits
Most of the canals provide perennial irrigation
and supply water as and when needed.
This saves the crops from drought conditions and
helps in increasing the farm production.
Demerits
Many canals overflow during the rainy season and
flood the surrounding areas.
Canal irrigation is suitable in plain areas only.

81
 This sediment is deposited in the agricultural
fields which make soil more fertile.
Initial cost involved in canal irrigation is more, it
is quite cheap in the long run.
The canal water soaks into the ground and results in
water-logging along the canal route.
Excessive flow of water in the fields raises the
ground water level.
Capillary action brings alkaline salts to the surface
and makes large areas unfit for agriculture

Tanks Irrigation:
● A tank is developed by constructing a small bund of earth or stones built across a stream. The water impounded by
the bund is used for irrigation and other purposes. Tank comprises an important source of irrigation in the
Karnataka Plateau, MP, Maharashtra, Odisha, Kerala Bundelkhand area of MP, Rajasthan and Gujarat.

Merits Demerits
Most of the tanks are natural and do not involve heavy cost
Many tanks dry up during the dry season and fail to
for their construction provide irrigation when it is required.
Tanks have a longer life span. Much water is evaporated from the large expanse of
shallow water and is therefore not available for irrigation.
In many tanks, fishing is also carried on, which Lifting of water from tanks and carrying it to the fields is
supplements both the food resources and income of the a strenuous and costly exercise.
farmer

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 Drip irrigation:
● In drip irrigation, water is applied near the plant root through emitters or drippers, on or below the soil surface, at a
low rate varying from 2-20 liters per hour. The soil moisture is kept at an
optimum level with frequent irrigations.
● Among all irrigation methods, drip irrigation is the most efficient and can
be practiced for a large variety of crops, especially in vegetables, orchard
crops, flowers and plantation crops.

Merits Demerits
Fertilizer and nutrient loss is minimized due to localized Initial cost can be more.
application and reduced leaching.
Field leveling is not necessary. Recycled non-potable Can result in clogging, wastage of water, time and harvest,
water can be used. if not installed properly.
Water application efficiency increases. Lack of skilled labor.

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 Soil erosion and weed growth is lessened. Maintenance is costly

Sprinkler Irrigation:
● In this method, water is sprayed into the air and allowed to fall
on the ground surface somewhat resembling rainfall. The spray
is developed by the flow of water under pressure through small
orifices or nozzles.

● The sprinkler irrigation system is a very suitable method for

irrigation on uneven lands and on shallow soils.
● Nearly all crops are suitable for sprinkler irrigation systems
except crops like paddy, jute, etc.
● The dry crops, vegetables, flowering crops, orchards, plantation
crops like tea, coffee are all suitable and can be irrigated through
sprinklers.

Merits Demerits
Suitable to all types of soil except heavy clay Lack of skilled labor to manage it
Water saving to 30% - 50 % Higher initial cost.
Increase in yield Under high wind conditions and high temperature distribution and
application efficiency is poor.
Saves land as no bunds etc. are required. Reduces productivity of soil in long term

Fertigation
● Fertigation is a method of fertilizer application in which fertilizer is incorporated within the irrigation water by
the drip system.
● In this system fertilizer solution is distributed evenly in irrigation. The availability of nutrients is very high
therefore the efficiency is more.
● In this method liquid fertilizer as well as water soluble fertilizers are used. By this method, fertilizer use
efficiency is increased from 80 to 90 per cent.

Advantages of fertigation
• Nutrients and water are supplied near the active root zone through fertigation which results in greater absorption
by the crops.
• As water and fertilizer are supplied evenly to all the crops through fertigation there is possibility for getting 25-50
per cent higher yield.
• Fertilizer use efficiency through fertigation ranges between 80-90 per cent, which helps to save a minimum of 25
per cent of nutrients.
• By this way, along with less amount of water and saving of fertilizer, time, labour and energy use is also reduced
substantially.

PRADHAN MANTRI KRISHI SINCHAI YOJANA (PMKSY)

PMKSY envisages amalgamation of -
1. Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme (AIBP) of the Ministry of Water Resources, River Development & Ganga
Rejuvenation (MoWR RD & GR)
2. Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP) of Department of Land Resources (DoLR)
3. On Farm Water Management (OFWM) of Department of Agriculture and Cooperation (DAC)

84
 Objectives:
● Achieve convergence of investments in irrigation at
the field level
● Har Khet ko pani - Expand cultivable area under
assured irrigation
● More crop per drop - Improve on-farm water use
efficiency to reduce wastage of water & enhance the
adoption of precision-irrigation and other water
saving technologies
● Enhance recharge of aquifers and introduce
sustainable water conservation practices by
exploring the feasibility of reusing treated municipal
based water for peri-urban agriculture
● Attract greater private investment in precision
irrigation systems.

Salient features
• Decentralized State level planning and projectized execution' structure, in order to allow States to draw up a
District Irrigation Plan (DIP) and a State Irrigation Plan (SIP). These plans need to be prepared in order to
access PMKSY fund.
• It will be supervised and monitored by Inter-Ministerial National Steering Committee (NSC) under PM with
Union Ministers of all concerned Ministries. A National Executive Committee (NEC) is to be constituted under the
Chairmanship of the Vice Chairman, NITI Aayog to oversee programme implementation.
• PMKSY has been formulated amalgamating ongoing schemes viz. Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme
(AIBP); Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP); and On Farm Water Management (OFWM)
component of National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA).
• Water budgeting is done for all sectors namely, household, agriculture and industries.
• Investments will happen at farm level. So, farmers know what is happening and can provide valuable feedback.
• Recently, Long Term Irrigation Fund has been instituted under PMKSY in NABARD for funding and fast
tracking the implementation of incomplete major and medium irrigation projects.

NATIONAL WATERSHED PROJECT

● Watershed project involves conservation, regeneration and judicious use of all the resources like land, water,
plants, animals and humans within the watershed area.
● The National Watershed Project also known as Neeranchal. National Watershed Project is a World Bank assisted
watershed management project.
● The objective of this project is to support Integrated Watershed Management Program (IWMP) through technical
assistance to improve incremental conservation outcomes for the natural resources including water, soil and forests
while enhancing agricultural yields in a sustainable manner for farming communities.
● Water-stressed regions of India such as Northwest India, Vidarbha region of Maharashtra etc. are prone to drought
and water scarcity thus affecting the agricultural production in the regions. The National Watershed Project has the
potential in increasing agricultural production in these regions.

SOIL NUTRITION
● Nutrition provided to the soil plays an important role in soil fertility and productivity. It can be provided through
Manure or fertilizer. However, fertilizer is more commonly used.

• In initial years the yields increased

• Provided increased income to farmers especially in North Western states
Advantages: • Improvement in soil fertility.
• Macro nutrient imbalance in soil.
• Degradation of soil.

85
 • Drain on the economic resources of the country due to huge urea subsidies, next only to oil and
food subsidies.
Disadvantages: • Fertilizers entering the food chain impacting ecology and human health.
• Stagnant or reducing yields in the last few years.
• Holistic approach to improve farming using environment friendly methods
• Technology like drip irrigation, balanced use of fertilizers, good quality seeds, storage and
transport infrastructure.
Future solutions: • Agroforestry, food processing to increase farmer income so that pressure on increasing yields is
reduced.
• Analysis of existing situation in country, soil, climate and crops to come up with new scientific
ratio of NPK in fertilizers.

SUSTAINABLE PRACTICES OF SOIL NUTRITION

Organic farming:
● Organic farming can be defined as an agricultural process that uses biological fertilizers and pest control acquired
from animal or plant waste.

● Advantages of Organic Farming:

- Economical- In organic farming no expensive fertilizers, pesticides, HYV seeds are required for the plantation
of crops. Therefore, no extra expense.
- Good return on Investment- With the usage of cheaper and local inputs, a farmer can make a good return on
investment.
- High Demand– There is a huge demand for the organic product in India and across the globe, generating more
income through export.
- Nutritional - As compared to chemical and fertilizer utilized products, organic products are more nutritional,
tasty, and good for health.
- Environment-Friendly - The farming of organic products is free of chemicals and fertilizers, so it doesn’t harm
the environment.

● Disadvantages:
- Incompetent – The major issue of organic farming is the lack of Inadequate infrastructure and marketing of the
product.

86
 - Less production- The organic farming products are lesser in the initial years as compared to the chemical
product. So, the farmers find it difficult to accommodate large scale production.
- Shorter shelf-life- Organic products have more flaws and shorter shelf life than the chemical product.( organic
fruits and vegetables aren't treated with waxes or preservatives, they may spoil faster.)
- Limited production- Off-season crops are limited and have fewer choices in organic farming.
- As the yield productivity is less in organic farming the cost of food is very high.

Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana:

● To promote natural resource based integrated and climate resilient sustainable farming systems.
● To reduce the cost of agriculture to farmers through sustainable integrated organic farming systems thereby
enhancing farmer's net income per unit of land.
● To protect the environment from hazardous inorganic chemicals by adoption of eco-friendly low-cost traditional
techniques and farmer friendly technologies.
● To empower farmers through their own institutional development in the form of clusters and groups with
capacity to manage production, processing, value addition and certification management.
● To make farmers entrepreneurs through direct market linkages with local and national markets

Zero budget natural Farming (ZBNF):

● Zero budget natural farming is a method of chemical-free agriculture
drawing from traditional Indian practices.
● It was originally promoted by agriculturist Subhash Palekar, who
developed it in the mid-1990s as an alternative to the Green
Revolution’s methods that are driven by chemical fertilizers and
pesticides and intensive irrigation.
● Andhra Pradesh has pledged to switch to ZBNF by 2024 and govt’s
support.

ZBNF is based on 4 pillars:

It is a mixture of fresh cow dung and aged cow urine (both

Jeevamrutha from India's indigenous cow breed), jaggery, pulse flour,
water and soil; to be applied on farmland
It is a concoction of neem leaves & pulp, tobacco and green
Bijamrita chilies prepared for insect and pest management, that can be
used to treat seeds.

Acchadana (Mulching) It protects topsoil during cultivation and does not destroy it
by tilling.
It is the condition where there are both air molecules and
Whapasa water molecules present in the soil.

SEEDS: PRESENT SCENARIO AND MEASURES

● Among the various inputs required for crop production, Seed is the most basic and vital one, hence timely
availability of good quality seeds is the deciding factor in the growth of the agriculture sector in India.

• Issues involved in acquiring quality seeds:

- The high cost of hybrid as well as genetically modified seeds especially with respect to the seeds of commercial
crops.
- Introduction of some spurious seeds by some private companies in the market.
- High fertilizer and irrigation requirement of hybrid seeds.
- Requirement of a special environment by genetically modified seeds to germinate.

87
- Due to the huge demand supply gap, India suffers from a dismal seed Replacement Ratio.

Seed replacement Ratio (SRR): Seed Replacement Rate (SSR) or Seed Replacement Ratio is a measure of how much
of the total cropped area was sown with certified seeds in comparison to farm saved seeds

Government Measures under Seed mission:

● To ensure easy availability of high-quality certified seeds at reasonable prices to farmers, the agriculture ministry
has launched the National Mission on Seeds for the 12th Plan Period.
● To increase production of certified quality seeds
● To enhance the seed replacement rate (SRR).
● To upgrade quality of farm saved seeds
● To establish a seed reserve at regional levels to meet requirement during natural calamities
● Up-gradation of public sector seed producing agencies

What needs to be done?

● The government should prepare and monitor seed production and formulate a supply plan for meeting the
requirement of seeds according to the season.
● With the help of proper extension service government can make farmers aware of the value of SRR in the
productivity of crops especially in case of pulses.
● The government should increase its contribution in production as well in distribution of good quality seeds to
the farmers as compared to the contribution of private seed companies, so that the farmers are ensured of getting
good quality seeds at a reasonable price.
● The government should make such policies that allow regular check on black marketing of seeds.
● The government should promote the concept of “Zero Budget Natural Farming” in which quality seeds are
developed by farmers themselves.

AGRI-MODERNIZATION & MECHANIZATION

Green Revolution:
● Launched in 1965-66 as HYV program
● Model: Philippines and Mexico
● M.S. Swaminathan brought HYV developed by Norman Borlaug

Objective of Green Revolution:

● Manage food crisis
● Develop self-sufficiency in food production
● Modernization of agriculture
● Develop agro-industry interface

Components of Green Revolution

Use of
High Yielding
Chemical
Varieties
Fertilizers and
(HYV)
Pesticides

Mechanizatio
Irrigation n of
Agriculture

88
 Impact of Green Revolution

POSITIVES
● The Green Revolution has remarkably increased Agricultural Production. The biggest beneficiary of the
revolution was the Wheat Grain.
● Green Revolution increased the per hectare yield in case of
wheat from 850 kg per hectare to an incredible 2281 kg/hectare
in its early stage.
● India reached its way to self-sufficiency and was less dependent
on imports. The production in the country was sufficient to meet
the normal and emergency demand.
● Rather than depending on the import of food grains from other
countries India started exporting its agricultural produce.
● There was a rise in rural employment. The tertiary industries
created employment opportunities for the workforce.
● The adoption of new technology has also given a boost to
agricultural employment because of diverse job opportunities
created by multiple cropping and shifts towards hired workers -
transportation, irrigation, food processing, marketing. etc
● There has been more consistency with the annual harvest because the fields are worked in a similar way each
year.

● New technology and modernization of agriculture have strengthened the linkages between agriculture and
industry.
● It has helped to create numerous strains of plants that are resistant to disease and pests. It makes farmers more
secure financially.
● The Green Revolution in India majorly benefited the farmers of the country. Farmers not only survived but also
prospered during the revolution. Their income saw a significant raise which enabled them to shift from sustenance
farming to commercial farming.

NEGATIVE
● Retardation of agricultural growth due to inadequate irrigation cover, fragmentation of farm size, failure to evolve
new technologies, inadequate use of technology, declining plan outlay, unbalanced use of inputs and weaknesses in
credit delivery system.
● Regional dispersal of the evolution created regional
inequalities. The benefits of the green revolution
remained concentrated in the areas where the new
technology was used.
● Since the revolution for the number of years remained
limited to wheat production, its benefits were mostly
accrued only to wheat-growing areas.
● Interpersonal inequalities between large and small
scale farmers.
● Adverse effects on the distribution of pattern of income
in rural areas. It led to widening the inter-regional and
intra-regional disparities in income
● The new technologies introduced during the revolution
called for substantial investments which were beyond
the means of a majority of small farmers.
● Farmers having large farmlands continued to make
greater absolute gains in income by reinvesting the
earnings in farm and non-farm assets, purchasing land
from the smaller cultivators, etc.

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● Ecological cost of the green revolution is tremendous and unsustainable.
● The farmers are largely dependent on the market for the supply of inputs and for the demand for their products.
● Demand for agricultural credit has also increased as the new technology has increased the cash requirements of the
farmers. Poor farmers were not able to get loans easily.
● There has been displacement of agricultural labour by extensive agricultural mechanization and left them
unemployed.
● The hybrid crops have also created environmental impacts like soil pollution, water pollution due to excessive
use of fertilisers, pesticides etc. needed by these crops.

CONCLUSION
● There are both positive and negative impacts of the Green Revolution on farmers.
● Due to the Green Revolution there was a considerable increase in the food grains production which was
extremely necessary for farmers to increase production so that agriculture became remunerative.
● Due to the Green Revolution, the agricultural sector of India is able to meet the increasing demand for food grains.
However, now is the high time to bring a green revolution which is also farmers friendly.

EVERGREEN REVOLUTION
● Evergreen revolution refers to productivity improvement in perpetuity without ecological and social harm.
● The evergreen revolution involves the integration of ecological principles in technology development and
dissemination.

Need for Evergreen revolution:

● Need for the Evergreen revolution arose due to failures of the green revolution.
● More than five decades after India launched the Green Revolution, it has not only failed to eliminate hunger but
also malnutrition is at its high.
● Wheat and rice have largely displaced more nutritious pulses and other cereals such as millets in consumption.
● Soil has lost its fertility due to unscientific application of fertilizers.
● Due to mechanization of agriculture, the likeliness for sons instead of daughters led to skewed sex ratio in Punjab,
Haryana.(Perspective that men can handle machines better than women)
● Indian agriculture became cereal- centric and regionally biased.
● Water logging in fields and salinity increased due to excess irrigation.
● Farmers got burdened with debts from moneylenders, banks.
● Given growing population and over-exploitation of land resources, the pressure on food security will continue
to rise.
● 65% of the population is still living in the villages and over 70% of the rural people are dependent on agriculture
for their livelihood.
● The Green Revolution was mainly confined to well irrigated areas. It was not successful in rain-fed areas, which
contribute significantly to the country’s total food-grain production.
● The environmental consequences and ecological costs are offsetting the progress made so far.

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 ● Depletion and pollution groundwater. The lakes and ponds are becoming less developed due to eutrophication
– a direct consequence of the Green Revolution.
● Growth in the agricultural sector has been almost stagnant.
● GM crops are caught in various controversies related to intellectual property, ecological consequences, health
consequences etc.
● Global warming is said to engulf productive coastal lands due to rise in sea levels. This creates an urgent need to
raise agricultural productivity.
● It is necessary to develop a suitable strategy to improve agricultural development in India.
● To ensure equitable and sustainable growth

Evergreen Revolution Should Ensure -

▪ Improving agricultural production
▪ Generating gainful self-employment for the small farmers and weaker sections of the society.
▪ Scaling up food production without disturbing the ecological balance.
▪ Boosting agricultural development, women empowerment (65-70% labourers in agriculture) and environmental
protection. (Women are the major power in agriculture as about in crop production is contributed by women).
▪ Reclaiming degraded and low fertile lands and lands deprived of irrigation.

OTHER REVOLUTIONS

Black Revolution Related with petroleum production

Blue Revolution Related with fish production
Brown Revolution Related with leather production
Golden Revolution Related with overall horticulture, honey and fruits productions
Green Revolution Related with agriculture production
Grey Revolution Related with fertilizers
Pink Revolution Meat and poultry production
Silver Revolution Related with egg production
White Revolution Related with dairy and milk production
Yellow Revolution Related with oil seed production

BRINGING GREEN REVOLUTION IN EASTERN INDIA (BGREI)

▪ Green Revolution that turned India from ‘begging bowl’
to leading producer of food-grains.
▪ The BGREI program was announced in the Union Budget
of 2010-11.

▪ BGREI is about bringing similar benefits to eastern

India that largely remained untouched of the wonder that
converted the north-west into a ‘grain bowl’.
▪ BGREI is a flagship programme under Rashtriya Krishi
Vikas Yojana (RKVY).
▪ It is intended to address the constraints limiting the
productivity of “rice-based cropping systems”.
▪ BGREI focuses on bringing the second Green Revolution
in eastern region, which has rich water resources.

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Objectives of BGREI
Extension
of
Government Initiatives to Strengthen BGREI agriculture
▪ The ICAR has established IARI, Hazaribagh (Jharkhand) Equitable technologie Yield
▪ Establishment of Indian Institute of Agricultural and maximizati
Biotechnology, Ranchi. sustainable on of rice
▪ It has also established the National Research Centre for growth and wheat
Integrated Farming at Motihari (Bihar) to further BGREI
strengthen the agricultural research for the eastern region.
water Harness the
harvesting water
Ways To Make Second (Evergreen) Green Revolution A and potential in
Success Story conservatio Balance Eastern
▪ Precision Agriculture - farmers can make the most efficient regional
use of vital inputs such as water and fertilizer by applying developme
them in precise amounts. nt
▪ Testing labs - Testing of samples of soil from agricultural fields is vital for achieving nutrient stewardship.
▪ Technology - Mobile-based applications for farmers will form an important part of the data-driven precision
agriculture approach.
▪ Efficient Use of Water
▪ Laser levelling - Laser levelling has been shown to improve crop yields, reduce labour time spent wedding, and, in
particular, reduce water use for irrigation by up to 20-25 per cent.
▪ Developing additional water sources through tube wells, dug wells and farm ponds.
▪ Micro and drip irrigation
▪ Utilizing potential of fertigation technology
▪ Climate smart agriculture
▪ Promotion of Flood, Drought, and Salinity tolerant rice varieties.
▪ Use of Drum seeders for timely planting of direct seeded rice.
▪ Cultivation practices to increase biological and economic stability.
▪ Selection of improved varieties to suit Agro-climatic necessities
▪ Soil management by proper method of tillage.
▪ Organic farming.

GENETICALLY MODIFIED CROPS (GM CROPS)

● According to WHO, GMOs or Genetically modified organisms are organisms in which the genetic material (DNA)
has been altered in a way that does not occur naturally by mating and/or natural recombination.
● Crops or foods using GM organisms are referred to as GM crops or Genetically modified crops.
● BT cotton, a non-food crop, has been the only GM crop cultivated in India yet attempts have been made to
commercially release BT Brinjal and develop DMH -11, a transgenic mustard.

Issues and Challenges with GM Crops

● Monopoly → patent laws give developers of the GM crops a lot of control over the food supply e.g. the “terminator
seeds” allows farmers to use the seeds just once.
● Outcrossing → the migration of genes from GM plants into conventional crops or wild species may have an indirect
effect on food safety and food security.
● Decline in yield → after a few years with respect to many GM crops which in turn leads to diminishing returns.
● Environment concerns → like the susceptibility of non-target organisms (e.g. bees and butterflies), the loss of
biodiversity of crop/plant species, presence of toxins (produced in GM crops) in every part of the plant may reach
the soil/water table.
● Resistance developed by pathogens → to the toxins produced by GM crops. E.g. the pink bollworm has grown
resistant to the toxins produced by BT cotton seed of Monsanto

AGRICULTURE FINANCE
This can be divided into two categories:

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 Non-institutional sources Institutional sources

● Moneylenders ● Cooperative
● Relatives ● Scheduled Commercial Banks
● Traders ● Regional Rural Banks
● Commission agents
● Landlords

Issues of Agriculture finance in India:

● Insufficiency → In spite of the expansion of rural credit structure, the volume of rural credit in the country is still
insufficient as compared to its growing requirement arising out of the increase in prices of agricultural inputs.
● Inadequate amount of sanction→ The amount of loan sanctioned to the farmers by the agencies is also very much
inadequate for meeting their different aspects of agricultural operations. Considering the amount of loan sanctioned
as inadequate and insignificant, the farmers often divert such loan for unproductive purposes and thereby dilute the
very purpose of such loan.
● Lesser attention of poor farmers → Rural credit agencies and its schemes have failed to meet the needs of the
small and marginal farmers. Thus, lesser attention has been given on the credit needs of the needy farmers whereas
the comparatively well-to-do farmers are getting more attention from the credit agencies for their better
creditworthiness.
● Inadequate institutional coverage → In India, the institutional credit arrangement continues to be inadequate as
compared to its growing needs. The development of co-operative credit institutions like Primary agricultural credit
societies, land development banks, commercial banks and regional rural banks, have failed to cover the entire rural
farmers of the country.
● Red tapism → Institutional agricultural-credit is subjected to red-tapism. Credit institutions are still adopting
cumbersome rules and formalities for advancing loans to farmers which ultimately force the farmers to depend more
on costly non-institutional sources of credit.

Government measures:
● Kisan credit card→The Kisan Credit Card (KCC) scheme was launched with the aim of providing short-term
formal credit to farmers.
● Investment loan→Loan facility to the farmers is available for investment purposes in the areas viz. Irrigation,
Agricultural Mechanization, Land Development, Plantation, Horticulture and Post-Harvest Management.
● Interest subvention scheme
● Micro-irrigation Fund under NABARD
● SHG Bank linkage programme
AGRICULTURAL MARKETING
• Agricultural marketing covers all the activities in the movement of agricultural products from the farms to the
consumers.
• Agriculture markets are regulated by APMC Acts

Agricultural Produce Market Committee (APMC)

Act
• Agriculture is a state subject and almost all state governments enacted APMC act in 1950’s or so, to bring
transparency and end discretion of traders.
• Under the APMC acts, States are geographically divided in to markets which are headed by market committees
and any production in that area shall be brought to a market committee for sale.

Problems of Agro-marketing in India:

● Large no. of middle men
● Lack of grading and standardization
● Inadequate transport system
● Lack of storage infra
● Lack of credit facility to farmers
● Lack of market info to farmers

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● Indian farmers receive 25% of the retail price of their produce (US farmers get 70%)

Measures taken by Government:

● Regulated Markets → Amendments in APMC act and ECA act are recent developments.
● Development of infrastructure → It includes efforts of connectivity under PMGSY, Efforts to improve other
infrastructure under Pradhan Mantri Kisan Sampada Yojana or development of food parks.
● Co-operative marketing → Promotion of co-operative culture and ideas like contract farming are being discussed
with enthusiasm.
● Policy instruments → Measures like Minimum support price, buffer stock and public distribution system come
under this head.

• NAM is a pan-India electronic trading portal which seeks to network the existing APMCs and other
market yards to create a unified national market for agricultural commodities.
• Small Farmers Agribusiness Consortium (SFAC) has been selected as the lead agency to implement
it.
• 585 wholesale regulated markets/ APMC Markets have been so far integrated with e-NAM
E-NAM: platform in 16 States and 2 Union Territories (UTs).
• For the local trader in the mandi / market, NAM offers the opportunity to access a larger national
market for secondary trading.
• Bulk buyers, processors, exporters etc. benefit from being able to participate directly in trading at the
local mandi / market level, thereby reducing their intermediation costs.
• Fund Allocation – The Scheme is being funded through Agri-Tech Infrastructure Fund (AITF).
• Recently, the first inter-State trade on e-Nam between Andhra Pradesh and Telangana has been carried
out.

MINIMUM SUPPORT PRICE (MSP)

● The MSP is the rate at which the government buys grains from farmers. Reason behind the idea of MSP is to counter
price volatility of agricultural commodities due to the factors like variation in their supply, lack of market integration
and information asymmetry.
● The MSP is fixed on the recommendations of the Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP). It is
approved by the Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA) chaired by the Prime Minister.

Impact of MSP on Cropping pattern:

Crop selection gets distorted in favor of those crops which have a high share of subsidies or attract large volumes of
subsidies. For example, cheap electricity and irrigation subsidies motivated Punjab farmers to go for water guzzling
crops like rice.

NEED FOR CROP INSURANCE

● In our country nature has always been moody. Crop insurance provides protection to farmers against losses
caused by crop failure and thereby ensures stability in farm income.
● It also reduces, to some extent, government expenditure incurred on relief measures extended to meet the havoc
caused by natural calamities such as droughts and floods, locusts, plant diseases.
● It also strengthens the position of co-operatives and other institutions that finance agriculture to the extent it
enables the farmer members to repay their loans in years of crop failure.
● By protecting the economic interest of the farmers against possible risk or loss, it accelerates adoption of new
agricultural practices.
● It may act as an anti-inflationary measure, by locking up part of the resources in rural areas.
● The government launched a new crop insurance scheme, PM’s Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY) with a view to de-
risk agriculture from the vagaries of nature.

FEMINIZATION OF AGRICULTURE
● As per the 10th Agriculture Census (2015-16), the percentage of female operational holdings in the country have
increased from about 13% percent during 2010-11 to around 14% during 2015-16.
● Agriculture, contributing around 16% of the GDP, is increasingly becoming a female dominated activity.

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 ● Agriculture sector employs 80% of all economically active women; they comprise 33% of the agricultural labor
force and 48% of self-employed farmers.
● About 18% of the farm families in India, according to NSSO Reports are headed by women
● According to the Economic Survey 2017-18, a rise in migration of men from rural to urban areas has resulted in
feminization of agriculture.

Steps Taken by Government

● Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Pariyojana (MKSP)
- Implemented by the Ministry of Rural Development, it is a programme exclusively for women farmers.
- It is a sub-component of Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana-National Rural Livelihood Mission.
- It aims to empower women by enhancing their participation in agriculture and to create sustainable livelihood
opportunities for them.
- Upto 60% (90% for North Eastern States) of the funding support for such projects is provided by the government.
- It is in line with the provisions of the National Policy for Farmers (2007).
● At least 30% of the budget allocation has been earmarked for women beneficiaries in all ongoing
schemes/programmes and development activities.
● Government has increased its focus on women self-help groups (SHG) to connect them to micro-credit through
capacity building activities and to provide information and ensure their representation in different decision-making
bodies.
● Recognizing the critical role of women in agriculture, the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare has
declared 15th October of every year as Women Farmer’s Day.

GOVERNMENT SCHEMES

Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi (PM-Kisan)

➢ To provide income support to all Small and Marginal land holding farmer families having
cultivable land.
➢ To supplement the financial needs of the farmers in procuring various inputs to ensure proper crop
health and appropriate yields, commensurate with the anticipated farm income.
Objective:
➢ Income support of Rs.6000/- per year is provided to all land holding farmer families across the
country, irrespective of land size, in three equal instalments of Rs.2000/- every four months.
➢ Definition of family for the Scheme is husband, wife and minor children.
➢ Responsibility of identification of beneficiary farmer families rests with the State / UT
Governments.
➢ Fund is directly transferred to the bank accounts of the beneficiaries.
➢ Farmers can do their self-registration through the Farmers Corner in the portal or through
Common Service Centers.
➢ The benefit shall be paid to only those farmers families whose names are entered into the land
records except for Forest dwellers, North-eastern states and Jharkhand which has separates
provisions for land record.

Salient features:

Pm Fasal Bima Yojana

● Every year, in one part of India or the other food crops are affected by natural calamities (like flood, drought and
plant diseases).
● The farmers have to be assured that they will be compensated for such loss in crops. Otherwise, they cannot be
drawn into the campaign to increase productivity of land under their plough.

Salient features of PMFBY are as follows.

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● PMFBY targets to cover 50% India’s cropped area in the next three years. There will be a uniform premium of
only 2% to be paid by farmers for all Kharif crops and 1.5% for all Rabi crops.
● In case of annual commercial and horticultural crops, the premium to be paid by farmers will be only 5%.
● There is no upper limit on Government subsidy. Even if the balance premium is 90%, it will be borne by the
Government.
● The new scheme will also seek to address a long-standing demand of farmers and provide farm-level assessment
for localized calamities, including hailstorms, unseasonal rains, landslides and inundation

Pradhan Mantri Kisan Maan-Dhan Yojana (PM-KMDY):

● It is an old age pension scheme to provide social security net to around 3 crore Small and Marginal old age
farmers as they have minimal or no savings to provide for old age and to support them in the event of consequent
loss of livelihood

Mission For Integrated Development Of Horticulture:

● Promote holistic development of Horticulture sector (including bamboo & coconut)
● Encourage aggregation of farmers into groups such as FPOs.
● Enhance horticulture production, augment farmers’ income and strengthen nutritional security.
● Improve productivity by ways of germplasm, planting material and water use efficiency through micro irrigation.
● Support skill development and create employment generation opportunities.

COOPERATIVE FARMING
● Cooperative farming promotes pooling of resources and practicing joint agriculture.
● Cooperative farming is not a new concept in India.

Why Cooperative farming?

● Economies of scale - As the size of farms increases, the per hectare cost of using tube-well tractors comes down.
● Small farms - some land is wasted in forming the ‘boundaries’ among them. When they’re combined into a big
cooperative farm, we can also cultivate on that boundary land.
● Overall, Large farms are economically more beneficial than small farms.
● Solves the problem of sub-division and fragmentation of holdings.
● Cooperative farms have more men-material-money resources to increase irrigation potential and land productivity.
Members would not have been able to do it individually on their small farm.
● Case studies generally point out that with cooperative farming, per acre production increases. Eg AMUL in
Gujarat, SOFA in Salem, MAHA farmers cooperative in Maharashtra etc

CONTRACT FARMING
● Contract farming is the process of agricultural production carried out according to an agreement between
unequal parties, companies, government bodies or individual entrepreneurs on one side and economically weaker
farmers on the other which establishes conditions for the production and marketing of farm products.

Pros of contract farming from the perspective of farmers interests:

● Makes small scale farming competitive – small farmers can access technology, credit, marketing channels and
information while lowering transaction costs
● Assured market for their produce at their doorsteps, reducing marketing and transaction costs
● It reduces the risk of production, price and marketing costs.
● Contract farming can open up new markets which would otherwise be unavailable to small farmers.
● It also ensures higher production of better quality, financial support in cash and /or kind and technical
guidance to the farmers.
● In the case of agri-processing level, it ensures consistent supply of agricultural produce with quality, at the right
time and at a lesser cost.
• It provides a framework for the protection and
Farmers (Empowerment and Protection)
empowerment of farmers with reference to the sale and
Agreement on Price Assurance and Farm Services
purchase of farm products.
Ordinance, 2020(Contract farming ordinance)

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 • The provisions of the Ordinance will override all state APMC laws.
• Farming agreement: The Ordinance provides for a farming agreement prior to the production or rearing of any
farm produce, aimed at facilitating farmers in selling farm produces to sponsors
• Duration of agreement: The minimum period of an agreement will be one crop season, or one production cycle of
livestock. The maximum period will be five years.
• Exemptions from existing laws: Farming produce under a farming agreement will be exempted from all state Acts
aimed at regulating sale and purchase of farming produce.
• Pricing of farming produce: The price to be paid for the purchase of a farming produce will be mentioned in the
agreement.
• Delivery and payment: The Ordinance provides that the sponsor will be responsible for all preparations for the
timely acceptance of deliveries and will take deliveries within the agreed time.
• Dispute Settlement: The Ordinance requires a farming agreement to provide for a conciliation board as well as a
conciliation process for settlement of disputes

Reinventing Agriculture in the Time of COVID-19

• Peak harvest with no procurement: This is the peak of Rabi season in India and crops like wheat, gram, lentil,
mustard, etc. were at a harvestable stage or almost reaching maturity.
• Labour unavailability due to reverse migration
• The shortage of migrant labour has resulted in a sharp increase in daily wages for harvesting crops.
• Input shortage: Due to global trade disturbance, farmers are facing the shortage of agricultural inputs like fertilizer
and pesticides.
• Fall in prices: Agricultural prices have collapsed due to lack of market access.
• The rise in labour costs and Fall in prices farmers are staring at huge losses and hence allowing crops to rot in the
fields, a better ‘stop-loss’ mechanism.
• Lockdown induced debt and Cash Flow Constraints: The most important issue that farmers have to surmount
is the problem of repaying their crop loans, gold loans and other informal debts.

MAINS PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTION

1. How has the emphasis on certain crops brought about changes in cropping patterns in the recent past? Elaborate the
emphasis on millet production and consumption - GS 3, Mains 2018
2. What are the major reasons for declining rice and wheat yield in the cropping system? How crop diversification is
helpful to stabilize the yield of the crop in the system? GS 3, Mains 2017
3. Given the vulnerability of Indian agriculture to vagaries of nature, discuss the need for crop insurance and bring out
the salient features of the Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY). GS 3 Mains 2016

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CH-7 LIVESTOCK AND FISHERIES
Topics covered:
➢ Introduction
➢ Dairy development: Operation Flood
Livestock ➢ Cooperative dairy
➢ Indigenous cattle
➢ Economic Survey 2019-2020
Fishery ➢ Marine Fishing
➢ Inland Fishing
➢ Deep sea fishing and associated issues
➢ Facts for mains
➢ NITI Aayog – India @75

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 LIVESTOCK
Introduction:
• Livestock is commonly defined as domesticated animals raised in
an agricultural setting to produce labor and commodities such as
meat, eggs, milk, fur, leather, and wool.
• There are about 300 million bovines, 65.07 million sheep, 135.2
million goats and about 10.3 million pigs as per 19th livestock census
in the country.
• According to estimates of the Central Statistics Office (CSO), the
value of output livestock sector at current prices was about ₹
5,91,691 crore during 2015-16 which is about 28.5 per cent of the
value of output from agricultural and allied sector.
• India accounts for about 17% of the cattle population.
• 64% of the buffalo population.
• India is the largest producer of milk in the world. Milk production
in the country was 188 million tons in 2018-19 with a yearly growth
rate of 6.5 percent
• The per capita availability of milk in India during 2017-18 was 375
gm/day.
Significance of Animal Rearing:
• It is well recognized that humans depend upon
animals for income, employment, food, social Revolutions Related Livestock Farming:
security, fuel (dung cakes), cultural aspects and a • Blue Revolution: Fish Production
variety of other reasons. • Brown Revolution: Leather
• The animal production system in India is principally • Golden Revolution: Honey Production
part of a mixed crop-livestock farming system and • Silver Revolution: Egg Production / Poultry
important for the security and survival of large Production
number of poor populaces. • Red Revolution: Meat Production
• This production system assumes special significance • White Revolution/Operation Flood: Milk
in economic growth, increasing income, increasing Production
urbanization, changes in taste and preference that
have led to nutritional changes reflecting the importance of milk, meat, egg and fish in the daily diets of
the people.
• Animal rearing has multidimensional potential. For instance, Operation Flood, launched in 1970,
helped dairy farmers direct their own development, increased milk production ("a flood of milk"),
augmented rural incomes and ensuring reasonable prices for consumers.
Key to Poverty Reduction Strategies:
• It provides self-employment to millions of people especially rural households.
• It has contributed significantly to the empowerment of women and has increased their income and role in
society.
• It is a major risk mitigation approach for small and marginal farmers, particularly across the rain-fed
regions of India.
• It is at the centre of poverty alleviation programs from equity and livelihood standpoints.
• It is faster than many other sectors of agriculture and continuing this trend will contribute as main sector
for development of Indian economy.
• Livestock productivity has been identified as one of the seven sources of income growth by the Inter-
Ministerial Committee under the government’s target of doubling of farmers’ income by the year 2022.
Livestock Production

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• According to estimates of the Central Statistics Office (CSO), the value of output livestock sector at
current prices was about ₹ 5,91,691 crore during 2015-16 which is about 28.5 per cent of the value of
output from agricultural and allied sector.
• At constant prices the value of output from livestock is about 29 per cent of the value of the output from
total agriculture and allied sector. India continues to be the largest producer of milk in the world.
• Milk production during 2016-17 and 2017-18 was 165.4 million tonnes
and 176.3 million tonnes respectively showing an annual growth of 6.62
Milk Production per cent. The per capita availability of milk was around 375 grams per
day in 2017-18.

• Currently the total poultry population is 729.21 million (as per 19th
Livestock Census) and egg production was around 88.14 billion during
Egg Production 2016-17. The per capita availability (2017-18) was around 74 eggs per
annum.

• Wool production in the beginning of Twelfth Plan (2012-13 was 46.05

million kgs and increased to 48.1 million kgs in 2014-15 but declined to
Wool Production 43.5 million kgs in 2016-17. The production has shown negative growth
during 2017-18.

• The meat production registered a healthy growth from 2.3 million tonnes
at the end of Tenth Five Year Plan (2006-07) to 5.5 million tonnes at the
Meat Production end of the Eleventh Five Year Plan (2011-12). Meat production in the
beginning of Twelfth Plan (2012-13) was 5.95 million tonnes which
further increased to 7.7 million tonnes in 2017-18.

Operation Flood:
• National Dairy Development Board launched operation flood launched in 1970 to replicate Anand (in
Gujarat) pattern in other parts of the country.
• The operation made India – world’s largest milk producer.
• Outcomes:
o It increased milk supply and income of the farmers, mainly small and landless farmers
o Women empowerment – Operation flood take assistance from SEWA and established 6000 women
dairy cooperative societies
o To NDDB has indigenous expertise in animal health, animal nutrition, artificial insemination,
Management Information System (MIS), dairy engineering and food technology.
Cooperative dairy:
• Individual farmer submits the milk container at the milk collection centres and gets money according to
weight and quality of milk
• Bonus or share from the profit to cooperative members.
• AMUL:
o Farmers of kheda district with help of Sardar Patel and Morarji Desai organised a cooperative
union.
o Further expansion of the cooperative led to the formation of AMUL.
o Amul was first dairy to produce cheese and baby food from buffalo milk
o Amul provides artificial insemination, veterinary facilities, insurance cover and quality green
fodder to the farmers of the union.
National Livestock Mission

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 • Objective: The objective of this mission is to ensure quantitative and qualitative improvement in
livestock production systems and capacity building of all stakeholders of livestock economy.
Sub-Missions: There are four sub-missions of National Livestock Mission as follows:
1. The Sub-Mission on Fodder This sub-mission addresses the problems of scarcity of animal feed
and Feed Development: and fodder and bring its deficiency to nil.
2. Sub-Mission on Livestock This sub-mission focuses on productivity enhancement,
Development: entrepreneurship development and employment generation
(bankable projects), strengthening of infrastructure of state farms with
respect to modernization, automation and biosecurity, conservation of
threatened breeds, minor livestock development, rural slaughter houses,
fallen animals and livestock insurance.
3. Sub-Mission on Pig This sub-mission on Pig Development in North-Eastern States would
Development in North- support the State Piggery Farms, and importation of germ-plasm so that
Eastern Region: eventually the masses get the benefit as it is linked to livelihood and
contributes in providing protein-rich food in 8 States of the NER.
4. Sub-Mission on Skill This mission focuses on extension of machinery at field level for
Development, Technology livestock activities. Special Emphasis on Animal Health. One of the
Transfer and Extension: biggest issues of the livestock sector is animal diseases such as FMD,
PPR, Brucellosis, Avian Influenza etc. The National Livestock Mission
has also special emphasis on such diseases. Under this, the Government
has launched Foot and Mouth Disease Control Programme (FMD-
CP) and other such programmes in this direction.

Indigenous cattle:
• Indigenous cattle breed is vulnerable to extinction.
• In India, total 83% of cow population is indigenous.
• But there is decline in indigenous cattle population.
• There are 37 recognized indigenous cattle breeds in India Examples- Gir, rathi, Sahiwal, Kasaragod,
Kankrej, Amrithmahal.
• The average milk yield is lower than hybrid, but their quality of milk is very rich.
• They produce quality compost manure for areca nut, rice and coconut farms.
• They can be fed on kitchen leftovers, straw, local grass and agricultural by-products.
• Existing superior indigenous breed can provide research input to develop better breed in the future.
Constraints of Livestock Development
• Improving productivity of farm animals is one of the major challenges. The average annual milk yield of
Indian cattle is 1172 kg which is only about 50% of the global average.
• The Frequent outbreaks of diseases like Food and Mouth Diseases, Black Quarter infection, Influenza
etc. continue to affect Livestock health and lowers the productivity.
• India’s huge population of ruminants contributes to greenhouse gases emission adding to global
warming.
• Crossbreeding of indigenous species with exotic stocks to enhance genetic potential of different species
has been successful only to a limited extent.
• Limited Artificial Insemination: After more than three decades of crossbreeding, the crossbred
population is only 16.6% in cattle, 21.5% in pigs and 5.2% in sheep.

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• Though globalization will create avenues for increased participation in international trade, stringent food
safety and quality norms would be required.
• Livestock sector did not receive the policy and financial attention it deserved. The sector received only
about 12% of the total public expenditure on agriculture and allied sectors, which is disproportionately
lesser than its contribution to agricultural GDP.
• The sector has been neglected by the financial institutions. The share of livestock in the total agricultural
credit has hardly ever exceeded 4% in the total (short-term, medium-term and long-term). The institutional
mechanisms to protect animals against risk are not strong enough.
• Currently, only 6% of the animal heads (excluding poultry) are provided insurance cover. Livestock
extension has remained grossly neglected in the past.
• Only about 5% of the farm households in India access information on livestock technology.
• Hardly 5% of the cropped area is utilized to grow fodder. India is deficit in dry fodder by 11%, green
fodder by 35% and concentrates feed by 28%. The common grazing lands too have been deteriorating
quantitatively and qualitatively.
• Lack of access to markets may act as a disincentive to farmers to adopt improved technologies and quality
inputs. Except for poultry products and to some extent for milk, markets for livestock and livestock
products are underdeveloped, irregular, uncertain and lack transparency. Further, these are often
dominated by informal market intermediaries who exploit the producers.
• Likewise, slaughtering facilities are too inadequate. About half of the total meat production comes from
un-registered, make-shift slaughterhouses. Marketing and transaction costs of livestock products are high
taking 15-20% of the sale price.
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD)
• It is an infectious and sometimes fatal viral disease.
• Affects cloven-hoofed animals, including domestic and wild bovids.
• Symptoms: The virus causes a high fever for two or three days, followed by blisters inside the mouth
and on the feet that may rupture and cause lameness.
• The virus responsible for the disease is a picornavirus, the prototypic member of the genus Aphthovirus.
Measures Taken to control the disease:
• Government has launched National Animal Disease Control Programme for Foot and Mouth
Disease.
• It is a 100% centrally funded programme, with a total outlay of Rs.12,652 crore from 2019 to 2024.
• It aims to control Foot and Mouth Disease and Brucellosis by 2025 with vaccination and eventual
eradication by 2030.

Measures to Promote Livestock Sector

• Increasing commercialization of livestock products by improving technologies, increasing market
connectivity, processing and storage centre, training etc.
• Making provision for adequate availability of quality fodder.
• Targeting a significant portion of cultivable land for growing fodder crops.
• By setting up a consortium with National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD)
and National Centre for Disease Control (NCDC) to fund the dairy cooperatives.
• Keeping a disaster management fund for livestock in case of natural calamities.
• Cross breeding of indigenous species with exotic stocks to enhance genetic potential of different species.
• To distribute the disease-free, high genetic merit bulls of indigenous breeds for natural service.
• Encouraging Public-Private Partnership for sustainable livestock rearing.
• Animal Husbandry Infrastructure Development Fund (AHIDF) launched.
Animal Husbandry Infrastructure Development Fund

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 • This Fund will incentivise infrastructure investments in dairy, meat processing and animal feed
plants.
• Size of the fund is 15000 Crore.
• Who is eligible? Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs), MSMEs, Section 8 Companies, Private
Companies and individual entrepreneur with only 10% margin money contribution by them.
• Rest of the Funds: The balance 90% would be the loan component to be made available to them by
scheduled banks.
• GOI will provide 3% interest subvention to eligible beneficiaries.
• There will be 2 years moratorium period for repayment of the loan with 6 years repayment period
thereafter.
➢ Ministry of Drinking Water & Sanitation has launched the GOBAR
(Galvanizing Organic Bio-Agro Resources) - DHAN scheme. The scheme
is being implemented as part of the Swachh Bharat Mission (Gramin).
➢ The scheme aims to positively impact village cleanliness and generate
wealth and energy from cattle and organic waste. The scheme also aims at
GOBAR Dhan Scheme: creating new rural livelihood opportunities and enhancing income for
farmers and other rural people.
➢ It is a project under National Programme for Bovine Breeding and Dairy
Development (BBDD)
Rashtriya Gokul ➢ It aims to conserve Indigenous Breeds in a scientific manner.
Mission: ➢ Develop indigenous breeds for higher productivity.
➢ Superior nutrition and enhancing the milk production and productivity of
indigenous bovines
➢ Upgradation of indigenous bovine germ-plasm.

ECONOMY SURVEY 2019-20

Steps taken to improve productivity of Livestock and dairy Sector:
• Rashtriya Gokul Mission (RGM): breed improvement programme for indigenous breeds so as to improve the
genetic makeup and increase the stock, as they are known for their suitability in extreme climatic conditions.
• E-Pashu Haat Portal: For connecting breeders and farmers regarding availability of quality bovine germplasm.
• National Livestock Mission: For intensive development of livestock, especially small livestock along with
adequate availability of quality feed and fodder.
• Livestock Health & Disease Control Scheme: Assistance provided for prevention and control of animal
diseases like Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD), classical swine fever, etc.
• Dairy Development: strengthening infrastructure for production of quality milk, procurement, processing and
marketing of milk and milk product through dairy development scheme.

20th Livestock census:

• Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and Dairying has released the 20th Livestock Census report
recently.
• The total Livestock population is 535.78 million in the country showing an increase of 4.6% over
Livestock Census-2012.
• West Bengal observed the highest increase of 23%, followed by Telangana (22%).
• The total number of cattle in the country has shown an increase of 0.8 %.

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• The increase is mainly driven by a sharp increase in cross-bred cattle and higher female indigenous
cattle population.
• Uttar Pradesh has observed a maximum decrease in cattle
population though the state has taken several steps to save
cattle.
• West Bengal has seen the highest rise of 15% in cattle
population.
• The population of the total exotic/crossbred
cattle has increased by 27%.
• Cross-bred animals contributed around 28% to India’s
total milk production in 2018-19.
• The milch population of exotic and crossbred cattle such
as Jersey or Holsteins shows higher milk yields and thus farmers prefer animals yielding more milk.
• A decline of 6% in the total indigenous cattle population has been observed.
o India’s indigenous cattle numbers continue to decline, notwithstanding the government’s efforts to
promote conservation of desi breeds through the Rashtriya Gokul Mission (RGM).
o The sharpest fall has been observed in the states (Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Maharashtra, etc.) with tough cow slaughter laws.
• The total milch animals have shown an increase of 6%.
o Due to higher yields, foreign breeds constitute more than half the population of milch animals.
o The more the number of animals that produce milk, the more would be pressure on land and
fiercer would be competition between man and animals for survival.
o The figures show that nearly 75% of total cattle in the country are female (cows)-- a clear sign of dairy
farmers' preferences for milk-producing cattle. This also gained momentum in the past couple of years
due to the government's assistance in terms of providing sex-sorted artificial insemination (AI), with
semen of high-yielding bulls, free of cost at farmers' doorstep.

• The backyard poultry has increased by around 46%.

o The sharp increase in backyard poultry is a significant change in the rural landscape which shows a
sign of poverty alleviation.

• Total Bovine population (Cattle, Buffalo, Mithun and Yak) has shown an increase of about 1%.

• The population of sheep, goat and Mithun grew in double digits while the count of horses and ponies,
pigs, camels, donkeys, mules and yaks declined.

Codex Alimentarius Commission

India also needs to ensure that it meets sanitary and phytosanitary standards – as laid down by Codex
Alimentarius Commission which is formed by FAO and WHO – which are currently a hindrance to
export.

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 Role of Livestock in Farmers’ Economy
• Engages lots of women and encourages participation of women in the workforce.

• Income generation

• Employment generation

• Food security

• Social security - acts as insurance against uncertain agriculture sector.

• Dung and manure production for agriculture.

• As livestock is less prone to global warming and climate change, it can be considered more reliable
than rain fed agriculture.
• Government has also called for a ‘Pink Revolution’ for increasing production of meat. It makes animal
rearing even more attractive
• There is also a symbiotic relation between livestock and farming as livestock also provides for
manure.
• Manure is another important component in rural areas and it may also act as a vehicle to promote
organic farming.

Fishery Development
Marine fishing

Major Fishing Areas

The world's most productive fisheries are found in the cold and shallow waters above the continental
shelves located in the Northern Hemisphere.
• The North-West Atlantic → The region extends
from Greenland in the north to Cape Hatteras in
the south. The fisheries of this region are based on
a rich combination of rivers, bays and shallow
offshore banks. The fishing banks extend along the
coasts of New England and Eastern Canada from
Nantucket Island to New Found-land and into
the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The grand bank of New-
Found land is by far the largest, and fished both by
Europeans and North Americans.

• The North-East Atlantic → The region includes

the fishing grounds of north western Europe
extending from north to the Arctic circle to the Mediterranean Sea. The remote cold waters around
Iceland are fished by Iceland, Norway, Russia, the Netherlands, France, and Britain. The most intensively
fished region is the North Sea, where all the surrounding countries, chiefly Norway, Britain, Germany
and Denmark, share the catch of herring, cod, and flat fish.
• The North-West Pacific Region → Extends from the Bering Sea to the East China Sea. It is the world's
greatest fishing region. Japan leads in catch, followed by China, South and North Koreas, and eastern
Russia. Within the enclosed seas, e.g., the Sea of Okhotsk, Sea of Japan, Yellow Sea and the East

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 China Sea are found intensive forms of inshore as well as deep-sea fishing. There are probably more
people engaged in fishing here than in any other part of the world. Commercial fishing is best developed
in Japan where the industry is very highly organized and modern fishing methods are in use.
• The North-east Pacific → The region extends from Alaska to California and owes its importance to the
large quantities of salmon and tuna. Large quantities of crabs, shrimps and oysters are also caught for the
North American market. Catches in the north-east Pacific by the USA and Canada are smaller than
those by Japan and Russia.

India’s Fishing Potential:

• India has a coastline of 7516.6 Km (6100 km of mainland coastline + coastline of 1197 km Indian
islands) touching 13 States and Union Territories (UTs).

• Indian ocean – least exploited of all oceans in the world in

terms of fishing.
• In India, 75% of marine fish production come from west
coast.
• Presently India is the second largest fish producing and
second largest aquaculture nation in the world.
• Indian fisheries sector is a sunrise sector.
• India is also a major producer of fish through
aquaculture and ranks second in the world after China.
• India is home to more than 10 percent of the global fish
diversity (According to FAO). The total fish production
during 2017-18 (provisional) stood at 12.61 million metric tonne (MMT) with a contribution of 8.92
MMT from inland sector and 3.69 MMT from marine sector.

Largest producer of Marine fishing:

• Gujarat is the leading state in Marine fish (7.01 Lakh tones) in the country. (Handbook on Fisheries
Statistics - 2018)
• Kerala is the second largest producer followed by Maharashtra, Tamil nadu and Andhra Pradesh.
Problems of Marine fishing:
• Chronic Poverty among fishing community.
• India’s off-shore and deep-sea fishing is very poor.
• Low use of technology – landing, freezing, canning, transport.
• Lack of standardization of fishery products.
• Poor infra – cold storages, mechanized boats
• Marine fishing – seasonal (monsoon and tropical cyclone hinder
fishing)
Deep Sea fishing is characterized by:
• Generally, at an average sea depth of 200m.
• Large mechanized fishing vessel
• Technologically advance and large net/ gears
• On –board Refrigeration facilities.
• GPS system (most recently, NAViC)
Open sea cage farming
• Floating cage in open sea.

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 • Hatchery produced seedlings in cage
• Fishes are fed by fishermen + patrolling
• Central Marine Fishery Institute provide skills to
fishermens.

Inland fishing:

Fisheries sector

Marine Inland Aquaculture

Introduction:
• According to FAO → Inland fisheries are "any activity conducted to extract fish and other aquatic
organisms from inland waters”.
• Capture fisheries in inland waters have long provided an important source of food for mankind. They
are critical for a subset of countries in the world, providing an important source of nutrition, food
security as well as micro-nutrients.
• Inland fisheries (Also known as Freshwater aquaculture) are the commercial fishing operations
taking place in freshwater bodies – lagoon, backwaters, lake, artificial ponds, etc.
• India has large natural resources, and water bodies such as ponds & tanks, wetlands, brackish water,
cold water, lakes & reservoirs, rivers and canals.
• Largest species of fish are found in India, and there is also a tremendous scope for breeding of colorful
ornamental fish.
• The total fish production of 12.59 million metric tonnes was registered during 2017-18 with a
contribution of 8.90 million metric tonnes from inland sector.
• The percentage contribution of inland fish production in the total fish production of 29% during the
year 1950-51 and has increased to 71% in the year 2017-18.
• Andhra Pradesh has recorded the highest production of inland fish. (Handbook on Fisheries Statistics -
2018)
Largest producer of Inland fishing
• Andhra Pradesh: fishing cooperatives – supply to West
Bengal
• West Bengal: Ganga delta, large demand
• Gujrat: low local demand, 97% export
• Kerala: lakes and lagoons -85% of produce is
processed – intensively fished area
Blue Revolution:
• Started during 1970s – 5th FYP
• Govt. set up Fish Farmers Development Agency.
• Later on brackish water fish farmers development
agency was set up
• Objective:
o Adoption of new technique of fish breeding, fish
rearing, fish marketing and fish export
o It led to increase in production of Shrimp – Nellor
of Andhra Pradesh – Shrimp capital of India.

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 Aim of Blue Revolution Scheme is to increase the fish
production and productivity to up to 8% annual
growth rate and to produce 15 million tonnes of fish
by 2020.

Brackish water aqua-culture:

• Carp culture introduced in 1980s
• Artificial brackish water ponds are called carp culture.
• Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra.
• Andhra Pradesh: >73% of carp production (shrimp, prawn)
India’s Robust Fisheries Sector:
• India recorded an average annual growth of 14.8 percent in production of fish and fish products in the last
decade as compared to the global average of 7.5% in the same period.
• The 232-billion-dollar fish and fish related products global industry is expanding at a rate of 6 percent
annually and India has huge potential to meet this ever-increasing demand.
• India exported fish worth 45,000 crore rupees in 2017-18 and has the potential to scale of this figure to
4 lakh 50 thousand crore rupees.
• The export of Marine Fish products has registered growth of 21.35% (Quantity) and 19.11 % (Value)
during the year 2017-18.
Success Stories in Various States:
• Gujarat shifted from an insistence on cooperatives as lessees of ponds and tanks to a public auction and
changed the tenure of lease from a single year to several years.
• This created a huge incentive to the entrepreneurs. This has increased the production manifold.
• Private entrepreneurs strengthened the ponds, replenished water when it started drying up, and spent
money for protection against poachers.
• Cage fisheries in large reservoirs seem to be yielding good results in Jharkhand and Andhra Pradesh.
• Cage aquaculture involves the growing of fishes in existing water resources while being enclosed in a net
cage which allows free flow of water.
• Its aim is to augment fish production to achieve its target of 15 million tonnes by 2020 under the blue
revolution and raise it thereafter to about 20 million tonnes by 2020 to 2023.
Challenges of Fishery Sector:
• The sector suffers from low-scale, stagnating yields of inland and freshwater aquaculture, and poor
infrastructure such as cold storage facilities, leading to an estimated 15-20 % post-harvest loss.
• The access to quality seed and feed for fish farming coupled with inadequate availability of credit makes
the poor fisher communities not to invest in fish farming.
• For inland harvesting of fish there is no code of conduct for leasing of water bodies and no separate
provision of drought affecting this sector.
• Loss of habitat and indiscriminate fishing, marine fishing has declined due to depleting resources, energy
crisis and resultant high cost of fishing.
• Enhanced human activity in aquatic areas creates the frequent occurrence of dead zone/ Hypoxic zones
leading to shifting or permanent loss of fishing zone.
• With the increased usage of Fiber Reinforced Plastic (FRP), and poor-quality boats have amplified
leading to ill-effects on marine culture.
Step that can be taken:
• On par of agriculture: Aquaculture needs to be treated at par with agriculture in terms of water, power
tariff, tax benefits, subsidy, insurance and credit.
• Research on aquatic health management and development of disease resistant strains of fish.

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 • Implementation of Dr. B Meenakumari committee recommendations such as creation of buffer zone
(between 200 meters and 500 meters in depth) and scientific use of fishing net should be implemented.
• Special insurance system for the fishing community and cooperation in safety and security of fishermen
with neighbouring countries should be paramount to averse the loss of many fishers lives. The policies
should aim at protection of livelihoods of fishers from various other economic and conservational
activities.
• Revival of cooperative sector with constant engagement of center government would help in achieving
the doubling the famers Income 2022.
• In the inland sector, while reservoirs and freshwater aquaculture would be the two main pillars of growth,
other resources such as upland water bodies, floodplain lakes and wetlands, irrigation canals, saline and
waterlogged areas also need to be gradually mainstreamed to start contributing to the production.
• Programmes aimed at production and distribution of quality seed and feed for aquaculture and also
culture-based-capture fisheries, husbandry of farmed species would be essential to optimize production
and productivity from inland fisheries and aquaculture in the country.
• While the estimated potential of the offshore waters offers opportunities for increase in production, the
fishing fleet has limited capacity to harness the deep-sea resources. This calls for up- gradation of the fleet
as well as skills and capacities of the fishers and incentives to promote diversified fishing in the offshore
waters. Use of Fish Aggregating Devices (FADs) and Artificial Reefs (ARs) for stock enhancement and
promotion of mariculture could enhance production.
• In the area of legislation, the existing Marine Fishing Regulation Act (MFRA) of the coastal
States/Union Territories (UTs) needs revision to incorporate the requirements of Code of conduct
for Responsible Fisheries (CCRF), etc. Similarly, a model bill is needed for inland fisheries and
aquaculture and a Central Act is required to regulate fishing by wholly Indian-owned fishing vessels
in the EEZ.
Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana:
• The scheme is aimed to turn India into a hotspot for fish and aquatic products through appropriate
policy marketing and infrastructure support.
• The government intends to bring all fishermen under the ambit of farmer welfare programs and
social security schemes.
• The new scheme has been introduced under the newly established department of fisheries
announced by the government in its interim budget this year.
• The government has allocated 804.75 crore rupees for the fisheries sector in the current fiscal.

NITI Aayog document – India @ 75 on Livestock and Fisheries

1. Breed indigenous cattle with exotic breeds.
2. Promote and develop bull mother farms.
3. Village level procurement systems: Installing bulk milk chillers and facilities for high value conversion
of milk are needed to promote dairy in states.
4. Convergence of schemes in fisheries sector: Integrate the Blue Revolution scheme with MGNREGA.
5. Capacity building for fish breeders and farmers.

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 FACTS FOR MAINS - FISHERIES
• India is the third largest fish producer in the world and second in in-land fish production.
• It contributes 1.1% to the country’s GDP.
• It provides employment to 11 million people engaged fully, partially or in subsidiary activities
pertaining to the sector.
• India’s fish production stood in tune of 10.07 million metric tons in 2015. Of this, about 60%
came from marine resources. Currently fish processing is mostly targeted for export markets.
• Frozen shrimp is the largest item in terms of value contributing to 63.5% of the total exports,
and frozen fish is the largest in terms of volume contributing to 34.62%.

Meena Kumari Committee on deep sea fishing, 2015:

• The Blue Revolution in India was started in 1970s during the Fifth Five-Year Plan.

• Fishing in India is a major industry in its coastal states, employing over 11 million people.

• The committee has its focus on the Blue Revolution in India, according to which the new deep-sea fishing
policy was drafted. The new policy-
a. Promotes imports of foreign technologies.
b. Will increase foreign investments.
c. Will help increase revenue and production of fisheries which at present is below optimal level.
d. Develop backward and forward linkages, cold storage and supply chain.
e. Big vessels with a length 15 meter or more that can be owned or acquired by Indian entrepreneurs
of the country with collaboration of foreign investment up to 49 per cent.

Hurdles in implementation of recommendations:

• EEZ guidelines allow deep sea fishing with letter of permission from the center but 10 coastal states have
opposed this.

• Foreign and commercial interests in deep sea will lead to indiscriminate fishing and prove hazardous
to marine resources.

• The big vessels have the permission to export their catch directly from the sea without touching the
shore.

• View-points of fishing community is not consulted.

• Traditional fisherman community too is not very pleased with the Meena Kumari committee suggestion
of creating a buffer zone between the near and off shore regions in order to enhance resources in
coastal and deep sea regions.

• The concerns of this community needs to addressed at the earliest because though India needs a blue
revolution and modern technology, it should not be at the cost of livelihood.

• A more inclusive and comprehensive approach at grass root level needs to be looked at.

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 India’s current deep-sea fishing policy and guidelines:
• Deep-sea fishing begins at the end of the continental shelf and generally at an average sea depth of
200m.

• Expert Committee report headed by B. Meenakumari by defining deep sea fishing as “fishing activities
beyond 12 nautical miles from the coastline” acknowledging the distance rather than the depth of the
sea.

• It further recognized fishing vessels of length above 15m as deep-sea fishing vessel. This almost covers
all the vessels of the India.

• It allows private investment in the deep-sea fishing (enterprises with 49 % foreign equity can now
operate in EEZ). This will increase competition and conflict with the traditional fishers as they use to do
fishing beyond Territorial Sea (TS). Further they would require license for beyond 12 nautical miles. In
that case, they would be departed from fishing in their Territorial Seas.

• To help breeding in monsoon a 60 days moratorium is placed on fishing in coastal areas from June to
July. This has also been objected by fishermen as it will adversely affect their livelihood.

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 CH-8 WATER
Introduction

• Water is a cyclic resource with abundant supplies on the globe. Approximately, 71 per cent of the earth’s
surface is covered with it but freshwater constitutes only about 3 per cent of the total water.

• India accounts for about 2.45 per cent of the world’s surface area, 4 per cent of the world’s water
resources and about 16 per cent of the world’s population.

• The total water available from precipitation in the country in a year is about 4,000 cubic km.
• India experiences an average precipitation of 1170 mm per year.
• The availability from surface water and replenishable groundwater is 1,869 cubic km.
• Out of this only 60 per cent can be put to beneficial uses.
• Thus, the total utilizable water resource in the country is only 1,122 cubic km.

Water Resources of
India

Surface Water Resources Ground Water Resources

Surface Water Resources

• There are four major sources of surface water → These are rivers, lakes, ponds, and tanks.
• The mean annual flow in all the river basins in India is estimated to be 1,869 cubic km.
• However, only about 690 cubic km (37 per cent) of the available surface water can be utilized because:
➢ Over 90% of annual flow of the Himalayan rivers occur over a four-month period.
➢ Potential to capture such resources is complicated and limited by suitable storage reservoir sites.
Ground Water Resources
• The total replenishable groundwater resources in the country are
about 432 cubic km.
• Ganga and the Brahmaputra basins, have about 46 per cent of
the total replenishable groundwater resources.
• The level of groundwater utilization is relatively high in the river
basins lying in north-western region and parts of south India.
• The groundwater utilisation is very high in the states of Punjab,
Haryana, Rajasthan, and Tamil Nadu.
• However, there are States like Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Kerala, etc.,
which utilize only small proportion of their groundwater potentials.
• India also relies excessively on groundwater resources, which
accounts for over 50% of irrigated area with 20 million tube wells installed.
• India has built nearly 5,000 major or medium dams, barrages, etc. to store the river waters and enhance
ground water recharging.

Water Demand and Utilization

• Agriculture accounts for most of the surface and ground water utilization, it accounts for 89 per cent of
the surface water and 92 per cent of the groundwater utilization.

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 • While the share of industrial sector is limited to 2 per cent of the surface water utilisation and 5 per
cent of the ground-water.
• The share of domestic sector is higher (9 per cent) in surface water utilization as compared to groundwater.

Central Ground Water Board

It is a subordinate office of the Ministry of Water Resources and is the National Apex Agency entrusted
with the responsibilities of providing scientific inputs for management, exploration, monitoring,
assessment, augmentation and regulation of groundwater resources of the country. It was established in
1970

Deterioration of Water Quality

Major water quality deterioration factors:
• Water scarcity
• Pathogenic pollution
• Leaching of chemicals in groundwater
• Oxygen depletion and eutrophication
• Salinity and alkalinity
• Toxicity

Types of pollution sources:

Types of pollution sources

Point source pollution Non-point source of Pollution

Point source Source can be identified:

pollution -
➢ Domestic wastewater
➢ Industrial wastewater
Sources cannot be identified:
Non-point ➢ Rural and slum pollution, open defecation, garbage etc
source of ➢ Agricultural runoff
Pollution - ➢ Storm water
➢ Deposition of Air pollutants.
Some other ➢ Heavy metals
pollutants: ➢ CoD & BoD
➢ Flooding during monsoon

@Akash_Singhh

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Water Scarcity
• Water scarcity is the lack of freshwater resources to satisfy water demand. It is manifested by partial
or no satisfaction of expressed demand, economic competition for water quantity or quality, disputes
between users, irreversible groundwater depletion, and negative effects on the environment.

• One-third of the global population (2 billion people) live under situations of severe water scarcity at least
one month of the year.

Measure of water scarcity

• The water availability declines below 1000 cu. meters, the country will suffer from chronic water scarcity.
Lack of water will then start to severely affect human health and well-being as well as economic
development.

• If the annual per capita supply declines below 500 cu. meters, the country will reach the stage of absolute
scarcity.

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 Falkenmark Indicator or Water Stress Index
• It is one of the most commonly used measures of water scarcity.
• It defines water scarcity in terms of the total water resources that are available to the population
of a region; measuring scarcity as the amount of renewable freshwater that is available for each person
each year.
• If the amount of renewable water per person per year in a country is:
o Below 1,700 m3, the country is said to be experiencing water stress.
o Below 1,000 m3, it is said to be experiencing water scarcity.
o Below 500 m3, it is experiencing absolute water scarcity.

Water Crisis in India

• Water crisis is the difficulty of obtaining sources of fresh water for use due to depletion and
deterioration of available water resources.
• Water shortages may be caused by climate change, such as altered weather patterns including droughts
or floods, increased pollution, and increased human demand and overuse of water.
• In addition, water scarcity in India is expected to worsen
as the overall population is expected to increase to 1.6
billion by year 2050.

Causes for Water Stress in India

• Population growth leads to high water demand both by
households and agriculture.

• Large agricultural sector accounts for most of the water

use in India leaving less resources for industry and
households.

• Rapid urbanization: High water demand by the dense

population living in cities in India is causing stress on
groundwater and surface water resources.

• Climate change: Climate change will have significant impacts on water resources in Himalayas and
monsoonal rainfall.

• Rising temperatures will increase evaporation and lead to increases in precipitation, though there will be
more stark regional variations in rainfall.

• Both droughts and floods may become more frequent in different regions at different times, and dramatic
changes in snowfall and snow melt are expected in mountainous areas.

• Depletion of aquifers: Due to the expanding human population, many of the world's major aquifers are
becoming depleted. due both for direct human consumption as well as agricultural irrigation by
groundwater.

• Pollution and water protection: Many pollutants threaten water supplies, but the most widespread,
especially in developing countries, is the discharge of raw municipal sewage, untreated industrial waste
and agricultural runoff carrying pesticides, insecticides and fertilizers into natural waters.

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• Although India has made improvements over the past decades to both the availability and quality of
municipal drinking water systems, its large population has stressed planned water resources and rural areas
are left out.

A recent report by the Central Water Commission and ISRO asserted that India is not yet in “water
scarcity condition”, but in a “water-stressed condition”, with reducing per capita water availability.

Consequences of Water Crisis

• Increased International Conflict: Indian freshwater resources in Himalayas are crucial for Pakistan,
Afghanistan, Tibet, Bangladesh, Nepal, Myanmar etc. as well. Prolonged water stress may lead to
international conflicts.

• Lack of Access to Clean Water: Only 33% of the country has access to traditional sanitation. Without
access to clean freshwater, these vulnerable populations are exposed to deadly water-borne illnesses and
water gathering can limit educational and economic opportunities

• Food Shortages: With a global population on pace to reach 9.6 billion by 2050, shrinking water resources
will make it difficult for food production to keep up with rising demand. The United Nations warns that
political turmoil, social unrest, civil war and terrorism could result from food shortages unless food
production is increased by 60% by 2050. Agriculture already accounts for about 70% of global freshwater
withdrawals to keep up with current food demand

• Energy Shortages: World energy requirements are rapidly increasing with modernization and population
growth; however, energy production is one of the world’s greatest consumers of freshwater resources. In
the United States, thermoelectric power plants accounted for 38% of freshwater withdrawals in 2010.
Global electricity demand is projected to grow 70% by the year 2035 with India and China accounting for
half of the growth.

• Economic Slowdown: The United Nations estimates that half of the world’s population will live in areas
of high-water stress by the year 2030. It is difficult to have a thriving economy when fresh water is not
easily accessible for industrial, farming, and individual use. Production of water-intensive goods like cars,
food, and clothing could be limited by lack of freshwater resources.

• In addition, rapid growth in India's urban areas has stretched government solutions, which have been
compromised by over- privatization leading to exclusion of urban poor from formal water supply.

Solutions To Water Crisis

• CO2 cleaning: Water is used in many industrial applications, sometimes as a wet coolant or cleaning
agent on a grand scale. CO2 cleaning involves the use of carbon dioxide in solid form, highly propelled
dry ice particles out of a nozzle to clean a variety of different surfaces.

• Put a realistic price on water: We charge so little for it, yet it costs so much to manage, that there's little
motivation to address the pressing needs of the aging water infrastructure.

• Educate to change consumption and lifestyles: In the end, changing the face of this crisis involves
education to motivate new behaviours. Coping with the coming era of water scarcity will require major
overhaul of all forms of consumption.

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 • Invent new water conservation technologies: In areas where aquifers are drying up and rainwater is
increasingly unpredictable, innovation is needed.

• Recycle waste water

• Solar-powered water purifiers: Hot climates suffer from water shortage the most. Deepika Kurup
invented a way to use zinc oxide and titanium dioxide in containers that expose it to ultraviolet radiation
and cleanse the water, making it suitable to drink.

• Improve irrigation and agricultural practices: Some 70 percent of the world’s freshwater is used for
agriculture like drip irrigation, sprinkle irrigation, less extraction of ground water.

• Develop energy efficient desalination plants: To date, desalination has been an energy- intensive
solution to water scarcity. Typically, the Middle East has capitalized on its large energy reserves to build
desalination plants. But Saudi Arabia could be fostering a new kind of desalination with its recent
announcement to use solar-powered plants.

• Improve water catchment and harvesting: Rainwater harvesting is a method to capture and store
rainwater for various uses. It is also used to recharge groundwater aquifers. It is a low cost and eco-friendly
technique for preserving water by guiding the rain water to borewell, pits and wells:
o Rainwater harvesting increases water availability,
o Checks the declining groundwater table,
o Improves the quality of groundwater through dilution of contaminants, like fluoride and nitrates,
o Prevents soil erosion, and flooding and
o Arrests salt water intrusion in coastal areas if used to recharge aquifers.

• Look to community-based governance and partnerships: Community organizations elevate the

experiences of those whose voices merit more influence.

• Improve distribution infrastructure: Poor infrastructure is devastating to health and the economy. It
wastes resources, adds costs, diminishes the quality of life, and allows preventable water-borne diseases
to spread among vulnerable populations.

• Address pollution: Measuring and monitoring water quality is essential to human health and biodiversity.

• R&D / Innovation: Access to water in a water- scarce world will become a much higher priority in
business decisions. Communities are likely to pursue public-private partnerships that draw on the
innovative capacities of companies. One example— cities that operate sewage treatment plants are likely
to pursue partnerships with clean energy producers to fertilize algae and other biofuel crops with
wastewater.

Measures taken by Government to de-stress Water Crisis:

• Ministry of Jal Shakti launched ‘Jal Shakti Abhiyan’– campaign for water conservation and water
security. The campaign run through citizen participation while focus on water-stressed districts and blocks
in the country.
• Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchay Yojana (PMKSY) – ‘Har khet ko pani’ and ‘More Crop per Drop’
– focuses on improving water use efficiency.

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• Other measures such as National Water Mission, National Mission for Clean Ganga, Dam
Improvement and Rehabilitation Programme, Ground water management, Flood control and Forecast,
Biodiversity Conservation, Wetland conservation, Green India Mission, CAMPA, etc.
• Jal Kranti Abhiyan: The government is making active efforts to revolutionize villages and cities through
block-level water conservation schemes. It aims at turning one water scarce village in each district of
the country into water surplus water village through a holistic and integrated approach by adopting
conservation and management techniques.
• National Water Mission:
o The Government of India has launched the National Water Mission with the objective of conservation
of water, minimizing wastage and ensuring more equitable distribution both across and within
states through integrated water resources development and management.
o One of the objectives of the Mission is to increase the water use efficiency by 20%.
• The new 'Jal Shakti' Ministry is formed by merging erstwhile two ministries, namely:
o Ministry of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation
o Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation
• Atal Bhujal Yojana - Aims to promote sustainable ground water management with community
participation in select over-exploited and water stressed areas.
• Restructured Natioanal Rural Drinking Water Programme - Improving coverage of piped drinking
water in rural areas. Increase level of service delivery. Thrust on coverage of water quality affected
habitations.
JAL JEEVAN MISSION
Government of India has restructured and subsumed the ongoing National Rural Drinking Water
Programme (NRDWP) into Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM) to provide Functional Household Tap Connection
(FHTC) to every rural household i.e., Har Ghar Nal Se Jal (HGNSJ) by 2024.

Water Conservation
1. Enhance water availability: it is achieved by focusing on the
protection and restoration of natural ecosystems, increasing green
cover, managing riparian forest buffers, adoption of diversified
agriculture, water budgeting, recycling and re-use.
2. Improve water quality: by effective law enforcement and stringent
regulations, pollution control, restrictions on pouring of sewage,
urban waste, industrial wastes, establishment of STPs and water
treatment plants and adoption of bioremediation techniques.
3. Reducing water-related risks: adoption of integrated watershed
management programme, flood control mechanisms, climate
resilient agriculture, promotion of alternate income activities and
sustainable livelihoods and disaster management.

Mihir Shah Committee Report for India’s Water Reforms

Restructuring the CWC and CGWB’ has recommended for the formation of a new National Water
Commission (NWC) to be established as the nation’s apex facilitation organization dealing with water
policy, data and governance.

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 Best water conservation practices
• In Rajasthan, there is a scheme called ‘Mukhya Mantri Jal Swavlamban Abhiyan’. One of its
objectives is to ensure effective implementation of water conservation and water harvesting related
activities in rural areas.

• Maharashtra has launched a project called ‘Jalyukt-Shivar’, which aims to make 5000 villages free of
water scarcity every year.

• The Telangana government has launched a mission called “Mission Kakatiya”, the objective of which
is to enhance the development of agriculture-based income for small and marginal farmers, by accelerating
the development of minor irrigation infrastructure, strengthening community-based irrigation
management and adopting a comprehensive programme for restoration of tanks.

Facts about water

• 70% of India’s water is contaminated.
• 75% of households do not have drinking water on its premises.
• 84% of rural households do not have access to piped water.
• 54% of the country’s groundwater is declining rapidly than it is being replenished.
• Chennai witnessed the worst drinking water woes.
• Nearly half of the country (around 600 million people) face severe water scarcity with around 2
lakh people dying every year due to inadequate access to potable water.

Availability of Water in India

• India receives an average rainfall of about 1170 mm which corresponds to an annual precipitation of
about 4000 BCM (Billion Cubic Meter) including snowfall.

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• For instance, on the one side, there are water surplus states such as Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh and
on the other side, there are water scarce states such as Maharashtra (Vidarbha, Beed), Karnataka, Tamil
Nadu, Rajasthan and parts of Gujarat.

• The groundwater in most of the parts of northwestern India is now available at 100 meters below the
ground.

Central Water Commission (CWC)

• Central Water Commission is a premier Technical Organisation in the country in the field of water
resources.
• It is charged with the general responsibilities of initiating, coordinating and furthering, in consultation
with the State Governments concerned, schemes for control, conservation and utilization of water
resources throughout the country, for purpose of Flood Control, Irrigation, Navigation, Drinking Water
Supply and Water Power Development.

NITI Aayog Composite Water Management Index:

• With the objective of achieving effective utilization of water, NITI Aayog has developed the Composite
Water Management Index.
• The index revolves around issues ranging from water scarcity and related morass like deaths due to lack
of access to safe water, its projected increase in demand over the years and finding ways for its effective
conservation.
• A tool for water management’ stated that 21 major cities are expected to run out of groundwater as
soon as 2020, affecting nearly 100 million people.
• Establish a clear baseline and benchmark for state-level performance on key water indicators.

Interlinking of Rivers Project

The government has identified four priority links for the preparation of detailed project reports (DPR) under
the Peninsular Component:
1. Ken - Betwa link project (UP and M.P.),
2. Damanganga - Pinjal link project (Maharashtra and Gujarat),
3. the Par - Tapi - Narmada link project (Maharashtra and Gujarat)

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 4. the Godavari - Cauvery link project (Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu)

Dam Rehabilitation and Improvement Project

• It is a world bank assisted state sector scheme.
• It was started in 2010. The project is scheduled to
be completed in 2020.

Objectives:
• Rehabilitation of Dam and its Appurtenant
Structures
• Institutional Strengthening
• Project Management.

Arguments in favour of Interlinking of Project

• Judicious Use of Water Resources

• Address the issue of Water Stress-

• Can improve the irrigation coverage

• Power generation

• Disaster Management

Arguments against the Interlinking of Project

• Artificial change of course

• Bypass the crucial dryland areas

• Impact on Environment

• Impact on rivers-

• Lead to shoreline loss

• Impact on Monsoons

• Increased vulnerability

• Federal contentions

Ground Water Extraction Rules

• India is the largest user of ground water in the world which is about 25% of the global ground water
extraction.

• 90% of the annual ground water extraction is primarily for agricultural activities.

• 10% of the extraction is for drinking and domestic as well as industrial uses.

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 • Industrial use is estimated to account for only 5% of the annual ground water extraction in the country.

• Central Ground Water Authority is constituted under the Environment Protection Act, 1986 in
1997.
Challenges in Water governance
• Information - The lack of credible “water information.

• Multiple institutions

• Unsustainable extraction

• Absence of National Policy

• Water infrastructure perform far below its optimum

• Soil moisture - Soil moisture represents another major challenge

• Increasing water footprint

National Aquifer Mapping and Management Programme

• The National Aquifer Mapping and Management program (NAQUIM) is being implemented by
the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB).

• NAQUIM envisages mapping of aquifers (water bearing formations),

their characterization and development of Aquifer Management Plans to facilitate sustainable
management of groundwater resources.

Day Zero instances

• Day Zero is a situation when taps in a region start running dry.

• The Capital of South Africa ‘Cape Town’, last year, launched a countdown to the day when tap water
would be cut-off to millions of residents as a result of a three-year drought.

• Brazil’s Sao Paulo faced its own Day Zero in 2015. The city turned off its water supply for 12 hours a
day forcing many businesses and industries to shut down.

• In 2008, Barcelona in Spain had to import tankers full of fresh water from France.

Day Zero instances in India

• It has been reported that Shimla, Himachal Pradesh and Udupi and Mangaluru in coastal Karnataka are
on the verge of becoming Tier 2 cities which would have a ‘Day Zero’ situation soon

Traditional ways of water conservation

India with its rich culture and heritage in terms of images, rituals, traditional knowledge to conserve water,
cultural practices and metaphors on water wisdom can suffice the efforts of water conservation in a traditional
way by using cultural images on water, ancient practices and work by water warriors to affirm the value of
traditional heritage on water wisdom.

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 • Women's Role: In ancient times, women were considered as the gatekeepers of water ecologies and were
responsible for:
o Building water bodies like step-wells, tanks and even ponds such as the world heritage site of Queens
Step-well (Rani Ki Vav) in Patan, Gujarat, and the Rani and Padam Sagar in Jodhpur, Tank
Nagamandala in Karnataka.

• Cleaning and Maintenance of water bodies

• Performance of dances and songs like:

o Girja Devi singing the story of a woman making her way to fetch water.
o Tales of Vidyadhari Bai of Varanasi practising to capture in her voice the friction of the rope against
the stone wall of the well.
o Songs like "Ganga Geet" in Uttarakhand.
o Bhawai dance of Rajasthan.

• Performance of water rituals like:

o Worship of water body.
o Jal yatras on Bhagwat pooja.
o Jal yagya etc.

• Sacred aspect: of water bodies can utilised for cleaning and maintenance water bodies.
o Like in Uttarakhand it is believed that the water spirit (masaan) is present in all irrigation channels
and he needs to be mollified to protect the crops.
o Rajasthan’s pre - monsoon ritual called Lasipa ensures gathering, cleaning, and desilting of all
water bodies by all villagers.
o During fertility festivals of Gangaur and Akkha Teej, women come together to clean lakes and tanks.

• Tribal Practices: Irrigation of the paddy fields in the entire Ziro valley (where the main source of water
for households and irrigation is from a single small river and some spring wells) is carried out through a
network of irrigation canals.

• Heritage knowledge: On irrigation is also practised in the remote cold desert of Spiti.

• The Khuls (channels) are designed to carry long distances the water from glaciers to villages. On reaching
a village the water falls in a central tank and the use is regulated by the community.

Traditional water knowledge

• Rain water harvesting such as building tanks.

• Rejwani system where water percolates through sand, settles on the gypsum layer, and is brought for use
by a complex capillary system called Beri.

• Patali pani which are the deep aquifers that is determined by geological formation.

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• Community ownership: Traditionally, the water management was a community responsibility.

• Neeruganti in Karnataka was a person who controlled and managed distribution of water.

• System of water ownership is still prevalent in Spiti and Arunachal and few desert areas

Traditional water conservation systems around India

It is a community-managed irrigation system in the Tapi river basin in Maharashtra. It starts

Phad with check dam built across a river and canals to carry water to agricultural blocks with
outlets to ensure excess water is removed from the canals.
Zing It is found in Ladakh, are small tanks that collect melting glacier water. A network of guiding
channels brings water from the glacier to the tank.
Kuhls They are surface water channels found in the mountainous regions of Himachal Pradesh. The
channels carry glacial waters from rivers and streams into the fields.
Zabo or It is practised in Nagaland. Rainwater that falls on forested hilltops is collected by channels
Ruza that deposit the run-off water in pond-like structures created on the terraced hillsides.
System
The Shompen tribe of the Great Nicobar Islands uses this system, in which bamboos are
Jackwells placed under trees to collect runoff water from leaves and carries it to Jackwells which are
pits encircled by bunds made from logs of hard wood.
It is developed in Madhya Pradesh, in which the water is diverted from hill streams into
Pat system irrigation channels by diversion bunds. They are made across the stream by piling up stones
and teak leaves and mud.
It is tank system, widely used in Tamil Nadu which acts as flood-control systems, prevent
Eri soil erosion and wastage of runoff during periods of heavy rainfall, and also recharge the
groundwater.
Johads They are small earthern check dams used to conserve and recharge ground water, mainly
constructed in an area with naturally high elevation.
Panam keni The Kuruma tribe (a native tribe of Wayanad) uses wooden cylinders as a special type of
well, which are made by soaking the stems of toddy palms and immersed in groundwater
springs.
They are traditional floodwater harvesting systems indigenous to South Bihar. Ahars are
Ahar Pynes reservoirs with embankments on three sides and Pynes are artificial rivulets led off from
rivers to collect water in the ahars for irrigation in the dry months.
Jhalara Jhalaras are typically rectangular-shaped stepwells that have tiered steps on three or four
sides in the city of Jodhpur.
Bawari Bawaris are unique stepwells that were once a part of the ancient networks of water storage
in the cities of Rajasthan.
Taanka It is a cylindrical paved underground pit into which rainwater from rooftops, courtyards or
artificially prepared catchments flows. It is indigenous to the Thar Desert region of Rajasthan.
Also called dhora, is a long earthen embankment that is built across the hill slopes of gravelly
Khadin uplands. It is indigenous to Jaisalmer region and similar to the irrigation methods of Ur region
(Present Iraq).
Kund It is a saucer-shaped catchment area that gently slopes towards the central circular
underground well. It is found in the sandier tracts of western Rajasthan and Gujarat.

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 CH-9 MINERAL AND ENERGY RESOURCES
Topics covered:
• Types of Mineral Resources
• Distribution of Minerals in India
Mineral Resources:
• Measures by government
• Mining – issues and govt. measures
• Types of Energy resources
• Distribution of Energy resources
Energy Resources:
• Development of resources with time
• Government measures
• Energy security
• INDCs and Paris Accord
• Facts and stats for mains

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Introduction:
• India is endowed with a rich variety of mineral resources due to its varied geological structure. Bulk of
the valuable minerals are products of pre-Palaeozoic age.
• They are mainly associated with metamorphic and igneous rocks of the peninsular India.
• The vast alluvial plain tract of north India is devoid of minerals of economic use.
• The mineral resources provide the country with the necessary base for industrial development.
• Minerals have certain characteristics. These are unevenly distributed over space. There is inverse
relationship in quality and quantity of minerals i.e. good quality minerals are less in quantity as
compared to low quality minerals. The third main characteristic is that all minerals are exhaustible over
time. These take long to develop geologically and they cannot be replenished immediately at the time
of need. Thus, they have to be conserved and not misused as they do not have the second crop.

Agencies involved in the exploration of minerals

In India, systematic surveying, prospecting and exploration for minerals is undertaken by the Geological
Survey of India (GSI), Oil and Natural Gas Commission (ONGC), Mineral Exploration Corporation Ltd.
(MECL), National Mineral Development Corporation (NMDC), Indian Bureau of Mines (IBM), Bharat
Gold Mines Ltd. (BGML), Hindustan Copper Ltd. (HCL), National Aluminium Company Ltd. (NALCO)
and the Departments of Mining and Geology in various states.

Types of Minerals
A mineral is a natural substance of organic or inorganic origin with definite chemical and physical properties.

Minerals

Metallic minerals Non - metallic minerals

Other Non- Metallic

Ferrous Non-Ferrous Fuel Minerals Minerals

• On the basis of chemical and physical properties, minerals are grouped as −

➢ Metallic minerals
➢ Non-metallic minerals.
• Major examples of metallic minerals are iron ore, copper, gold, etc.
• Metallic minerals are further sub-divided as ferrous and non-ferrous metallic minerals.
• The minerals containing iron is known as ferrous and without iron is known as non-ferrous (copper,
bauxite, etc.)
• Non-metallic minerals are either organic in origin such as fossil fuels also known as mineral fuels which
are derived from the buried animal and plant life such as coal and petroleum. Other type of non-metallic
minerals are inorganic in origin such as mica, limestone and graphite, etc
Occurrence of Minerals
• Minerals are not evenly distributed over the earth’s surface. They are concentrated in particular areas
or rock formations.

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 • Metallic minerals, such as copper, tin, lead etc. may occur in almost pure form in veins – a fissure in
rock strata containing a thin deposit of crystalline rock formed by extremely hot magma rising up – and
lodes (very thick veins).
• Other metallic minerals are obtained from ores, in which several metals are associated like silver and
mercury, lead and zinc etc.
• Some minerals occur in beds or layers which have formed due to deposition, accumulation and
concentration in horizontal strata in earth’s crust. Examples include coal, iron ore etc.
• Minerals like gypsum, potash salts and common salt are formed by evaporation of lakes in desert areas.
• Minerals like gold, tin and platinum are highly resistant to weathering and may get reduced to small
particles carried off by running water. These are known as alluvial deposits. Gold, platinum, chromite,
diamonds and zircon are recovered from alluvial deposits by placer mining methods.
• In some places like Urals of Russia, Canadian shield, Katanga plateau in Zaire, Chhotanagpur plateau in
India, a variety of minerals are found in great abundance.
• But the Amazon basin, the Netherlands, Denmark and some of the Central American countries are poor in
minerals.
• Some minerals are found in restricted areas of the world. These minerals include tin, vanadium, nickel,
cobalt, gold and asbestos etc.

Minerals and Physiography of India:

1. Shield Regions

1.1 Chotanagpur plateau 1.2 Dharwad region

Description Shield Region Metallic Minerals

• Chota Nagpur Plateau is a store house
of mineral resources such as mica, bauxite,
copper, limestone, iron ore and coal. The
Damodar valley is rich in coal and it is
considered as the prime centre of coking
coal in the country.
• Dharwad region - The minerals found in
the area are Bauxite, Kaolin and Red ochre.
A deposit of highly siliceous bauxite clay
has been located about three kilometers
south. Similar deposits are noticed near
Alwal Villages of Dharwad taluk.

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 2. Rift valley- Gondwana time

2.1 Damodar valley 2.2 Mahanadi valley

Description Rift valley Region Coal Reserves

• Gondwana Supergroup includes continental
rift-basin deposits with minor marine inputs
formed between late Carbonaceous and middle
Jurassic. Deposition took place mainly in three
river valley basins:
1. Damodar Valley,
2. Son-Mahanadi Valley, and
3. Pranhita-Godavari Valley.
• All these, barring the Barren Measures, contain
economically exploitable coal seams.

3. Marine Transgression

3.1 Gulf of Khambhat 3.2 Gulf of Kutchh

Description Marine transgression Petroleum Reserves

• A marine transgression is a geologic event

during which sea level rises relative to the
land and the shoreline moves toward higher
ground, resulting in flooding.
• Transgressions can be caused either by the
land sinking or the ocean basins filling with
water (or decreasing in capacity).

Distribution of Minerals in India

• Minerals are unevenly distributed on the earth’s surface.

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 • All minerals are exhaustible in nature, i.e., will exhaust after a certain time.
• However, these minerals take long time to form, but they cannot be replenished immediately at the time
of need.
• More than 97% of coal reserves occur in the valleys of Damodar, Sone, Mahanadi, and Godavari
rivers.
• Petroleum reserves in India are located in the sedimentary basins of Assam, Gujarat, and Mumbai
High (i.e. off-shore region in the Arabian Sea – shown in the map given below). Some new petroleum
reserves are also found in the Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri basins.

5 mineral rich regions in India:

1. Northern belt
2. Central belt
3. Southern region
4. SW region
5. NW region
Northern Belt:
• Chota Nagpur plateau
➢ Kynite (100%), Iron (90%), Chromium (90%), Mica (75%), coal
(70%) Manganese, copper, limestone
• Assam Petroleum Reserve
➢ Lignite coal

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Central Belt:
• Chhattisgarh region - Iron in Extension of Chhota Nagpur
plateau, limestone in Chhattisgarh
• Godavari- Wardha valley – coal field

South- East region:

• East Karnataka: Bellary-hospet region- iron
• Andhra Pradesh: Cuddapah, Kurnool
• Nellore (Andhra Pradesh) – mica, Manganese, lignite coal
• Telangana: Bauxite
• Tamil Nadu: Neyveli – lignite coal

South- West region:

• Karnataka: Dharwad, Shimoga, chitradurg, Tumkur, Chikmaglur: Iron,
Manganese, limestone
• Goa: iron ores
• Maharashtra: Ratnagiri – iron

North West region:

• Gujarat and Rajasthan

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 o Petroleum
o Salt from kutchh and pyala lake of Rajasthan
o Lake Sambhar, Lake Didwana in Rajasthan – Gypsum, Borax

Major Minerals And Their Global Distribution

Iron Ore:
• Based on the amount of ore and iron content, iron ore is classified into various types:
1. MAGNETITE ((FE3O4):
➢ It is a good quality ore and has very high iron content (about 70%).
➢ Black in colour and has magnetic properties.

2. HAEMATITE (FE2O3):
➢ Reddish ore with 60-70% iron.

3. LIMONITE:
➢ Yellowish ore with 40% to 60% iron.

4. SIDERITE
➢ Ore with less than 40% iron.
➢ It contains many impurities and hence mining, in many
places, is economically unviable.

• India’s iron ore mostly – Hematite

• India -2nd largest producer of hematite after Russia
• Magnetite – Russia largest producer
• China – Hematite, Limonite
DISTRIBUTION OF IRON ORE:
• In Africa, Liberia, South Africa and Algeria are important
producers.

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• In China, there are large iron ore reserves in the Shenyang region of Manchuria, Wuhan and Tai-ye in
Chang Jiang valley, Hainan island etc. important centres.
• Australia is an important producer and exporter of iron ore. Its reserves are found in Western Australia.
• In South America, Brazil has the largest reserves.
• In North America, USA and Canada are important producers where Great Lakes area has abundant
reserves.
• In Russia, Kerch peninsula and Kursk region, Ural Mountains have important iron ore mines.
• In Europe, Sweden and France have major reserves. Rhine valley in Germany, Lorraine, Normandy and
Pyrenees of France are important centres.

State Mineral rich regions / mines – Iron Ore

Jharkhand Hazaribaug (Lohardaga), Singhbhum [Noamundi, Kariburi, Mahaburi,
Gua], Daltongunj
Odisha Bonai, Sukinda, Badampahar, Gurumahisani
KN Shimoga, Chitradurg, Chikmaglur, Tumkur, Kemangundi and
Kudremukh mines
Chhatisgarh Dalli rajhara (to Bhilai steel plant), Bailadila (to Vishakhapatnam steel
industries)
MH Ratnagiri
AP Kurnool, Anantpur

Manganese:
• Manganese is most commonly derived from ferrous ores which also
contain a significant amount of iron.
• It is a hard and brittle metal that is added to steel to increase its strength.
• Iron & Steel Industry is the major consumer of manganese ore wherein
manganese ore is
• Used directly as a blast furnace feed.
• South Africa, Ukraine and Australia have the largest reserves.
• Abundant deposits are found in Ukraine, Caucasus mountains, Urals and
Republic of Georgia.

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 • China is also leading producer along with India.
• Other major producers are Australia, Ghana, Gabon, Morocco, South Africa etc.

State Mineral rich region - Manganese

Jharkhand All the iron region: Biggest mine - Chaibasa
Madhya Pradesh Balaghat

State wise reserves of Manganese:

• Odisha (44%),
• Karnataka (22%),
• Madhya Pradesh (13%),
• Maharashtra (8%),
• Andhra Pradesh (4%)
• Jharkhand and Goa (3% each),
• Rajasthan, Gujarat and West Bengal (remaining 3 per cent).

Copper:
• Copper is a non-ferrous metal which is in high demand by the industry worldwide.
• It is found in metamorphic and igneous rocks in forms sulfides and oxides.

DISTRIBUTION OF COPPER
• Chile and Peru have more than one third of the world’s copper reserves.
• The copper mining areas in North America extend along the Western Cordilleras in Mexico, USA and
Canada.
• In Europe, Russia and Poland have resources. Armenia, Georgia, Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan also have
significant resources.

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 State Mineral rich regions - Copper
Jharkhand Raka mines, Mosabani mines
Andhra Pradesh Kurnool, Guntur, Nellore
Himachal Pradesh Kangra valley, Kullu valley
West Bengal Jalpaiguri, Darjeeling

Bauxite:
• Bauxite is the ore of aluminium, which makes up 8 percent
of the earth’s crust.
• World’s greatest bauxite producers and exporters are in
tropical and subtropical lands but aluminium is
manufactured is manufactured in developed countries.
• Bauxite occurs near the surface and is generally mined by
highly mechanized open cast methods.

State Mineral rich regions

Jharkhand Garhjat hills
Odisha Panchampatmali hills, Niyam giri,
Gandhmardhan hills
Madhya Pradesh Balaghat, Amarkantak
Maharashtra Ratnagiri
Gujrat Khed, Amreli

DISTRIBUTION OF BAUXITE
• Australia, Guinea, Jamaica and Brazil have major reserves.
• USA has bauxite reserves in Arkansas, Alabama and Georgia.
• Russian deposits are located in Urals

Mica:

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 • Mica is a naturally occurring non-metallic mineral that is based on a collection of silicates.
• Mica can be easily and accurately split into very thin sheets or films of any specified thickness.
• It has a unique combination of elasticity, toughness, flexibility and transparency.
• Mica is a very good insulator that has a wide range of applications in electrical and electronics industry.
• India has enjoyed the monopoly in the production and export of sheet mica in the world.
• USA, Ukraine, Russia, Brazil, Tanzania are other major producers.

State Mineral rich regions

Odisha Kodarma (largest in the world)
Andhra Pradesh Nellore
Bihar Munger
Karnataka Alleppey

Limestone
• Limestone rocks are composed of either calcium carbonate, the double carbonate of calcium and
magnesium, or mixture of both.
• Limestone also contains small quantities of silica, alumina, iron oxides, phosphorus and sulphur.
• Limestone deposits are of sedimentary origin and exist in all the geological sequences from Pre-
Cambrian to Recent except in Gondwana.
• 75 per cent Limestone is used in cement industry, 16 per cent in iron and steel industry [It acts as
flux] and 4 per cent in the chemical industries.
• Rest of the limestone is used in paper, sugar, fertilizers, etc.
• Almost all the states of India produce some quantity of limestone.
• Over three-fourths of the total limestone of India is produced by Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Andhra
Pradesh, Gujarat, Chhattisgarh and Tamil Nadu.
• Madhya Pradesh is the largest producer of limestone [16 per cent].
• Large deposits occur in the districts of Jabalpur, Satna, Betul, etc.

Gypsum
• Gypsum is a hydrated sulphate of calcium.
• It is a white opaque or transparent mineral.
• It occurs in sedimentary formations such as limestones, sandstones and shales.
• It is mainly used in making ammonia sulphate fertilizer and in cement industry.
• It makes upto 4-5 per cent of cement.
• It is also used in making plaster of Paris, moulds in ceramic industry, tiles, plastics, etc.
• It is applied as surface plaster in agriculture for conserving moisture in the soil and for aiding nitrogen
absorption.
• Rajasthan is by far the largest producer of gypsum in India [99 per cent of the total production of
India].
• The main deposits occur in the Tertiary clays and shales of Jodhpur, Nagaur and Bikaner. Jaisalmer,
Barmer, Chum, Pali and Ganganagar also have some gypsum bearing rocks.
• The remaining gypsum is produced by Tamil Nadu [Tiruchirapalli district], Jammu and Kashmir,
Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh in order of production.

Chromite
• Chromite is an oxide of iron and chromium = Combination of chromium, iron and oxygen.
• It is the only economic ore of chromium.

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• The chromium extracted from chromite is used in chrome
plating and alloying for production of corrosion resistant super
alloys, nichrome, and stainless steel.
• Used in many other metallurgical, refractories and chemical
industries.
• Reserves of chromite in India is estimated at 203 MT.
• 93 per cent of the resources are in Odisha [Sukinda valley in
Cuttack and Jajapur]
• Odisha is the sole producer [99 per cent] of chromite ore. Over
85 per cent of the ore is of high grade [Keonjhar, Cuttack and
Dhenkanal].
• Minor deposits are spread over Manipur, Nagaland, Karnataka,
Jharkhand, Maharashtra, TN & AP.

State Mineral rich regions

Maharashtra Ratnagiri
Karnataka Shimoga
Odisha Sukinda Largest reserve

Lead and Zinc

• Lead is a corrosion resistant heavy
metal with a low melting point.
• Zinc is a silvery blue-grey metal with
a relatively low melting and boiling
point.
• Both lead & zinc are found to occur
together in galena, pyrites and other
sulphide ores along with other
metals like silver and cadmium.
• Galena is found in veins in
limestones, calcareous slates and
sandstones and occasionally in
metamorphic rocks.
• Major producers are USA, Russia,
Australia, Canada, Peru, Spain
and Mexico.

Distribution of Lead and Zinc ores - India and World

• Rajasthan is endowed with the largest resources of lead-zinc ore (88.61 per cent),
• Andhra Pradesh (3.31 per cent),
• Madhya Pradesh (2.16 per cent),
• Bihar (1.67 per cent)
• Maharashtra 9 (1.35 per cent).
• Almost the entire production comes from Rajasthan.

Gold

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 • It is a precious metal and till very recently
constituted the international standard of
exchange.
• It is used in ornamentation, dentistry,
pharmaceuticals, electronics industry and chemical
industry.
• Important reserves are located in South Africa,
Canada, USA, Zimbabwe and Ghana.
• Gold is also known as international currency.
• Kolar Gold Field, Hutti Gold Field and Ramgiri Gold Field are the most important gold fields.

Diamond
• Diamond is the hardest naturally occurring substance
found on Earth.
• Diamonds are formed in mantle. They brought to the
earth’s crust due to volcanism. Most of the diamonds
occur in dykes, sill etc. [Volcanic Landforms].
• Diamonds are used in ornaments, polishing the
surfaces of metals and in gem cutting.
• The most important industrial use of diamonds is in
cutting-edges of drills used for exploration and mining
of minerals [Diamond is the hardest substance and it can
break other substances without itself getting broken].
• The Vindhayan system have diamond bearing regions
from which Panna and Golconda diamonds have been
mined.
1. Panna belt in Madhya Pradesh;
2. Wajrakarur Kimberlite pipe in Anantapur district and
3. Gravels of the Krishna river basin in Andhra Pradesh.
• Reserves have been estimated only in Panna belt and
Krishna Gravels in Andhra Pradesh.
• The new kimberlite fields are discovered recently in
Raichur-Gulbarga districts of Karnataka.
• Reserves of diamonds in India are not yet exhausted and
modern methods are being applied for intensive
prospecting and mining.
• Cutting and polishing of diamonds is done by modem
techniques at important centres like Surat, Navasari,
Ahmedabad, Palampur etc.
• Russia holds what is believed to be the world’s largest and richest diamond resources.
• Botswana is the leading diamond- producing country in terms of value, and the second largest in terms
of volume. The two important ones are Orapa and Jwaneng, two of the most prolific diamond mines in the
world.
Mining
Role of Mining in Indian Economy:
• Indian economy is expected to grow by approximately 7% in the years to come. Sectors like
infrastructure and automobiles will receive a renewed thrust, that would further generate demand
for power and steel in the country. The mining sector provides raw materials to these fast-growing
sectors.

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• The total value of mineral production (excluding atomic & fuel minerals) during 2017-18 has been
estimated at $16.6 bn, which shows an increase of about 13% over that of the previous year.
• The mining sector’s contribution to the GDP is 2.3-2.5 % at present. Mineral production in India
grew at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 5.72% between 2013-14 and 2017-18.
• It can cut down the import costs as the country is the 3rd largest steel producer, with a production
of 101.4 million tonnes of crude steel in 2017.
• India is the largest producer of sheet mica in the world and has the 7th largest bauxite reserves
at around 2,908.85 million tonnes in FY17.
• It is a labour-intensive sector and provides employment for both unskilled labour and skilled
labour. Being a part of the primary sector, it largely provides unskilled jobs.
• The Development of the mining-based industry also gives a boost to the associated industries and
leads to the overall development of the region.
The Legislative Framework of Mining Sector in India
• The entry at serial No. 23 of List II (State List) to the Constitution of India mandates the state
government to own the minerals located within their boundaries,
• The entry at serial No. 54 of List I (Central List) mandates the central government to own the
minerals within the Exclusive Economic Zone of India (EEZ). In pursuance to this Mines &
Minerals (Development and Regulation) (MMDR) Act of 1957 was framed.
• International Seabed Authority (ISA) regulates mineral exploration and extraction. It is guided
by the UN treaty and India being a party to the treaty has received an exclusive right to explore
polymetallic nodules over 75000 sq. km in Central Indian Ocean Basin.
• The MMDR Amendment Act of 2015 introduces Mineral Concessions Grant through auctions to
bring transparency and remove discretion; The District Mineral Foundation (DMF) to address the
pending grievance of the people affected by mining; and the National Mineral Exploration Trust
(NMET) for incentivising regional and detailed exploration to fill the gaps in exploration in the
country, and stringent measures to check illegal mining.
Challenges/Concerns Faced by Mining Sector in India
• Displacement and rehabilitation issues:
➢ Large scale displacement of local people leads to grievances and improper rehabilitation
measures, thereby, leading to people’s alienation and develop distrust over the government
machinery.
➢ It's not just a loss of land for the local population rather the loss of a tribal way of life and their
rich cultural heritage.
➢ It has given space to left-wing extremism in the resource-rich areas like Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand,
Odisha, etc.
➢ Mining also puts the lives of miners at risk due to the rudimentary ways adopted and the absence
of adequate safety gear and protocols. For instance, mine-related accidents at Ksan coal mine
in Meghalaya- Jaintia Hills (2018), Chasnala near Dhanbad in 1975.
➢ Human Rights violations have taken place in forms of mine-related deaths, inadequate
rehabilitation, and developmental steps, etc. Massive local protests have taken place against
mining in Niyamgiri Hills of Odisha, POSCO in Odisha, Sterlite protest in Tamil Nadu.
• Rathole mining:
➢ This is a form of illegal mining, especially practised in North eastern areas like Meghalaya
(Ksan coal mine incident). It involves digging of very small tunnels [only of 3-4 feet high], done
both vertically and horizontally.

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 ➢ The coal seam is extremely thin in Meghalaya, no other methods would not be economically
viable. In Meghalaya, this is the locally developed technique and the most commonly used one.
• Environmental/Health issues:
➢ Environmental pollution has been caused by the Makrana marble mines in Rajasthan, the
Granite mines of Karnataka have left a large hole on earth, Damodar river has been severely
polluted by coal mining.
➢ Loss of biodiversity and local heritage due to mining activities.
➢ The prevalence of mining in an area causes various diseases like fibrosis, Pneumoconiosis, and
silicosis in workers as well as locals.
➢ Water Pollution – water from streams and rivers in mining areas have become acidic and unfit
for drinking. Eg: Meghalaya’s Kopili river, Damodar river etc.
➢ Contaminated air with high particulate matters is also a major problem in mining rich regions.
• Administrative issues:
➢ Arbitrary allocation of coal mines leads to the long litigation and eventually cancellation of
allocations and charges of corruption in block allocations.
➢ Delay in environmental clearances due to bureaucratic hindrances.
➢ Judicial interventions lead to long delay and losses for investors. For ex: SC imposed a heavy
penalty on illegal mining without green clearances in Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, and
Odisha in 2017. Banning of Vedanta group in Niyamgiri Hills of Odisha and shut down of 88
illegal mining leases in Goa in 2018.
Government’s initiatives
• Star rating of mining leases to establish a sustainable development framework for the Indian mining
sector.
• An MoU was signed between the Indian Bureau of Mines (IBM) and the National Remote Sensing
Centre (NRSC), ISRO in January 2016 to undertake a pilot project on “monitoring of mining
activities using satellite imagery” to deter illegal mining.
• The Mining Surveillance System (MSS) is launched to check illegal mining through automatic remote
sensing detection technology.
• District Mineral Foundation Fund (DMF) was established for the welfare of mining-affected
people and areas under Pradhan Mantri Khanij Kshetra Kalyan Yojana [PMKKKY].
• The National Mineral Exploration Policy has been released to attract private exploration agencies.
• 100% FDI permitted via automatic route for mining and exploration of metal and non-metal ores.
And approval route for mining of titanium bearing minerals and its ores.
The National Mineral Policy 2019
It includes provisions which will give a boost to the mining sector such as:
• Encouraging the private sector to take up exploration, on a revenue sharing model.
• Provision of merger and acquisition of the mining entities and transfer of mining leases and creation
of dedicated mineral corridors, and use of coastal waterways and inland shipping for evacuation and
transportation of minerals to boost private sector mining areas.
• It also mentions long term import-export policy for mineral, which will help the private sector in
planning and bring stability in business.
• The policy also makes efforts to harmonize taxes, levies, and royalty with the world benchmarks to
help the private sector.
• Provisions for e-governance, IT-enabled systems, awareness and information campaigns have been
incorporated for regulations.

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• The utilisation of the District Mineral Fund for the equitable development of project affected
persons and areas.
• It also introduces the concept of intergenerational equity that deals with the well-being not only of
the present generation and also of the generations to come.
• It also proposes to constitute an inter-ministerial body to institutionalise the mechanism for ensuring
sustainable development in mining.
Mineral Laws (Amendment) Bill, 2020.
• Removal of restriction on end-use of coal:
➢ Currently, companies acquiring Schedule II and Schedule III coal mines through auctions can use
the coal produced only for specified end-uses such as power generation and steel production.
➢ The Bill removes this restriction on the use of coal mined by such companies. And thus companies
will be allowed to carry on coal mining operation for own consumption, sale or for any other
purposes, as may be specified by the central government.
• Eligibility for auction of coal and lignite blocks:
➢ The Bill clarifies that the companies need not possess any prior coal mining experience in
India in order to participate in the auction of coal and lignite blocks.
• Composite license for prospecting and mining:
➢ The Bill adds a new type of license, called prospecting license-cum-mining lease. It will be a
composite license providing for both prospecting and mining activities.
➢ Currently, separate licenses are provided for prospecting and mining of coal and lignite,
called prospecting license, and mining lease, respectively. Prospecting includes exploring,
locating, or finding mineral deposit.
• Advance action for auction:
➢ The Bill provides that state governments can take advance action for auction of a mining lease
before its expiry.
➢ Under the MMDR Act, mining leases for specified minerals (minerals other than coal, lignite, and
atomic minerals) are auctioned on the expiry of the lease period.
• Transfer of statutory clearances to new bidders:
➢ The Bill provides that the various approvals, licenses, and clearances given to the previous
lessee will be extended to the successful bidder for a period of two years.
➢ During this period, the new lessee will be allowed to continue mining operations. However, the
new lessee must obtain all the required clearances within this two-year period.
➢ Currently, upon expiry, mining leases for specified minerals (minerals other than coal, lignite, and
atomic minerals) can be transferred to new persons through auction. This new lessee is required
to obtain statutory clearances before starting mining operations.
• Prior approval from the central government:
➢ The Bill provides that prior approval of the central government will not be required by the
state government in granting licenses for coal and lignite, in certain cases.
➢ These include cases where the allocation has been done by the central government, and the mining
block has been reserved to conserve a mineral.
➢ Under the MMDR Act, state governments require prior approval of the central government for
granting reconnaissance permit, prospecting license, or mining lease for coal and lignite.

Energy Resources
Introduction:
• The energy sector is fundamental to growth and development.

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 • Energy is one of the major parts of the economic infrastructure, being the basic input needed to
sustain economic growth. There exists a strong relationship between economic development and
energy consumption.
• The more developed is a country, the higher is the per capita of energy consumption and vice-versa.
Human civilization relies on different sources of energy.
• Presently, 304 million Indians do not have access to electricity and around 500 million Indians are
dependent on solid biomass for cooking.
• India’s per capita electricity consumption remains a fraction of major economies (in 2017,its
per capita energy consumption was about 625.6 kilogram of oil equivalent (kgoe) against the world
average of 1860 kgoe ).
• India’s energy mix is dominated by coal with a 49.6 per cent share, followed by oil (28 percent),
biomass (11.6 per cent), gas (7.3 per cent), renewable and clean energy (2.2 per cent) and nuclear
energy (1.2 per cent).
Types of Energy resources

• These sources of energy are also known as non-renewable

sources of energy and are available in limited quantity apart
Conventional Sources from hydro-electric power. The resources which are widely
used and constitute the major source of energy.
• Examples → Coal, Oil, Natural gas, Wood etc.
• Limited, Non-renewable, Costly, Cause Pollution &
Exhaustible
• These non-conventional sources are also known as renewable
sources of energy. Examples include solar energy, bioenergy,
Non-Conventional Sources tidal energy, wind energy, Geothermal Energy, OTEC (Ocean
thermal energy conversion) etc.
• Renewable, Cheap, Pollution free & Inexhaustible

Difference Between Conventional and Non-conventional Sources of Energy

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Conventional Energy resources:

Coal
• Coal is the most important and abundant fossil fuel in India used for thermal power generation, smelting
of iron ore, production of steel and domestic heating.
• Also called black gold.
• Found in sedimentary strata [layers of soil].
• Contains carbon, volatile matter, moisture and ash [in some cases Sulphur and phosphorous]
• Mostly used for power generation and metallurgy.
• Coal reserves are six times greater than oil and petroleum reserves.

Classification of Coal:

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 Peat • First stage of transformation.
• Contains less than 40 to 55 per cent carbon → more
impurities.
• Contains sufficient volatile matter and lot of moisture
[more smoke and more pollution].
• Left to itself, it burns like wood, gives less heat, emits
more smoke and leaves a lot of ash.
Lignite • Brown coal.
• Lower grade coal.
• 40 to 55 per cent carbon.
• Dark to black brown.
• Moisture content is high (over 35 per cent).
• It undergoes Spontaneous Combustion [Bad. Creates fire accidents in mines]
Bituminous • Soft coal; most widely available and used coal.
Coal • 40 to 80 per cent carbon.
• Does not have traces of original vegetable material.
• Calorific value is very high due to high proportion of carbon and low moisture.
• Used in production of coke and gas.
Anthracite • Best quality; hard coal.
Coal • 80 to 95 per cent carbon.
• Negligibly small proportion of moisture.
• Ignites slowly → less loss of heat → highly efficient.
• In India, it is found only in Jammu and Kashmir and that too in small quantity.

Distribution in India
• India has the fifth largest coal reserves in the world after USA>Russia>Australia>China.
• Indian coal has high ash content and high fusion temperature.
• Around 98% of India’s coal reserves and 99% of total coal production are from Gondwana fields.
• Deposits of Tertiary coal are mainly confined to the extra peninsula. Important areas of Tertiary
coal include parts of Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Himalayan foothills of
Darjeeling in West Bengal and J&K.
• Lignite deposits occur in the tertiary sediments in the southern and western parts of peninsular shield
particularly in Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, Kerala, Gujarat & Rajasthan and also Jammu &
Kashmir.
A. Gondwana coal fields [250 million years old]
• Gondwana coal makes up to 98 per cent of the total reserves and
99 per cent of the production of coal in India. Satpuras,
denudation [weathering + erosion] has exposed coal bearing
Gondwana strata.
• The carbon content in Gondwana coal [250 million years old] is
less compared to the Carboniferous coal [350 million years
old][Almost Absent in India] because of its much younger age.
• Gondwana coal forms India's metallurgical grade as well as superior
quality coal.

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• The Damuda series (i.e. Lower Gondwana) possesses the best worked coalfields accounting for 80 per
cent of the total coal production in India. 80 out of 113 Indian
coalfields are located in the rock systems of the Damuda series
[lower Gondwana Age].
• Coking as well as non-coking and bituminous as well as sub-
bituminous coal are obtained from Gondwana coal fields.
• Anthracite is generally not found in the Gondwana coal fields.
• The volatile compounds and ash (usually 13 - 30 per cent) and
doesn’t allow Carbon percentage to rise above 55 to 60 per cent. [It
requires few million years more if the quality has to get better.
Remember Gondwana coal is 100 million years younger than
Carboniferous coal].
• Gondwana coal is free from moisture, but it contains Sulphur
and phosphorus.
• These basins occur in the valleys of certain rivers viz., the Damodar
(Jharkhand-West Bengal); the Mahanadi (Chhattisgarh- Odisha);
the Son (Madhya Pradesh Jharkhand); the Godavari and the
Wardha (Maharashtra-Andhra Pradesh); the Indravati, the Narmada, the Koel, the Panch, the Kanhan
and many more.

B. Tertiary Coal Fields [15-60 million years old]

• Tertiary coal 15 to 60 million years old. Carbon content is very low.
• Mainly confined to the extra-Peninsula [Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Assam, Arunachal
Pradesh etc.]
• Coal generally has low carbon and high percentage of moisture and Sulphur.[It takes few hundred
million years for the carbon content to improve].
• Important areas of Tertiary coal include parts of Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland,
Himalayan foothills of Darjeeling in West Bengal, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Kerala, Tamil Nadu (90 per cent of the reserves) and the union territory of Pondicherry also bear
tertiary coal reserves [exceptions].
Coal Reserves in India by State

State Distribution
• Jharkhand has the first rank in coal reserves and its production. Most of the coal
fields in the state of Jharkhand are located in a narrow belt running in the east-
west direction almost along 24 degrees north latitude from the Gondwana period.
Jharkhand • The main coal mining centres of the state are Auranga, Bokaro, Dhanbad,
Jharia, Giridh, Karanpur, Ramgarh and Hutar.
• Jharia coalfield is one of the oldest and richest coal fields of India. It lies south
of Dhanbad and stores the best of metallurgical coal (bituminous) in the country.
• Bokaro coalfield lies in Hazaribagh district.
• Odisha has the second largest coal reserves in the country and it carries more than
24 per cent of the total coal reserves. It produces about 15 per cent of the total coal
production of India.
Odisha • Most of the coal deposits of the state are found in Sambalpur, Dhenkanal, and
Sundargarh districts.
• Talchar coalfield of Odisha stretch over Dhenkanal and Sambalpur districts covers
an area of about 500 sq km.
• Other coalfields of the state include Rampur-Himgir and Ib river.

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 • Chattisgarh has the third largest coal reserve in India and carries about 17 per cent
of the total coal reserves. However, the state has the first rank in the production of
Chattisgarh coal.
• Korba coalfield lies in the valley of river Hasdo (tributary of Mahanadi).
• Other coalfields of the state include Hasdo-Arand, Chirmiri, Jhimli, and Johilla.
• West Bengal carries about 11 per cent of the total coal reserves of India. The
deposits are found in Bardhman, Darjeeling, Bankura, Jalpaiguri, and Puruliya
West Bengal districts of the state.
• Raniganj coalfield is the most important coal reserve and mining coalfield of
West Bengal. It stretches over 185 sq km in Bardhman and Birbhum district to the
northwest of Kolkata. It is known for good quality coal with about 50 to 65 per cent
carbon content.
Madhya • About 8 per cent of the coal reserves of the country are found in Madhya Pradesh.
Pradesh The main coal deposits of the state lie in Singrauli, Muhpani, Satpura, Pench
Kanhan and Sohagpur.
• Singrauli is the largest coalfield of MP. It supplies coal to the thermal power plants
at Singrauli and Obra

Global Distribution of Coal

• Viable coal deposits are available with more than 70 countries with USA, Russia, China and Australia
with largest reserves.
• China and India are the top coal producers in the world.

• Most of the Russia’s coal in Siberian Region is untapped.

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• Carboniferous coal of Great Lakes and Appalachians region helped USA become a leading industrialized
nation.
• Coal reserves in Ruhr and Rhineland region coupled with rich iron deposits have made Germany a
leading industrial super power of Europe.
• England too benefited immensely from its coal reserves of South Whales, Yorkshire, Manchester,
Liverpool etc. Industrial revolution began here mainly due to rich coal reserves.

Not all deposits of minerals are recoverable in a viable fashion with levels of current technology. Estimated
reserves are uncertain predictions based on geological and engineering data about the presence of a certain
mineral. Proven reserves are considered to be recoverable economically with current technology

Problems of Indian coal:

• Not enough high-grade cocking coal – depend on import
• Good and low-grade coal found together – selective mining so wasteful
• Land for coal mining is becoming a major issue.
• There is a tendency to expand opencast mining and discourage underground operation even for
better quality coal reserves. This aggravates the land availability problem.
• There is no competitive coal market
• Deep mining techniques primitive → high casualty
• Policy does not allow simultaneous exploration of coal and Coal Bed Methane
• Efficiency of Indian coal mining is very low – lack of tech + equipment
• Poor connectivity from mines to consumer locations
• The distribution of coal is uneven.
• High ash content and low caloric value.
• Pilferage at several stages also adds to losses – bad transportation infrastructure.
• Short life of metallurgical coal.

Rat hole Mining:

• A rat-hole mine involves digging of very small tunnels, usually only 3-4 feet deep, in which workers,
more often children, enter and extract coal.
• According to available government data, Meghalaya has a total coal reserve of 640 million tonnes,
most of which is mined unscientifically by individuals and communities.

Impact of Rat hole mining:

• The water sources of many rivers, especially in Jaintia Hills district, have turned acidic.
• The water also has high concentration of sulphates, iron and toxic heavy metals, low dissolved oxygen
(DO) and high BOD, showing its degraded quality.
• The roadside dumping of coal is a major source of air, water and soil pollution.
• Off road movement of trucks and other vehicles in the area for coal transportation also adds to
the ecological and environmental damage of the area.
• The practice has been declared as unsafe for workers by the NGT.
• The mines branch into networks of horizontal channels, which are at constant risk of caving in or
flooding.

Petroleum and Mineral Oil:

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 • Petroleum (Petra → rock; Oleum → oil) or mineral oil (commonly known as crude oil) is a fossil fuel
mined from sedimentary rocks of the earth.
• Petroleum fuels on burning gives little smoke and leaves no ash. So they are better than coal.
• It is formed from the remains of ancient marine organisms that were buried in the ocean floor.
• These remains get converted into hydrocarbons rich fuel by the action of pressure and temperature.
• Composition → 90 to 95 per cent Hydrocarbons. 5 – 10% organic compounds containing oxygen,
nitrogen, sulphur and traces of organometallic compounds.
Formation of Petroleum and Mineral Oil

• All sedimentary rocks do not contain oil.

• Most of the oil gets collected in the anticlines or fault traps.
• Oil on a commercial scale is usually found in crests of anticlines [where the sedimentary rock strata are
inclined and folded].
• An oil reservoir must have three prerequisite conditions:

1 Porosity (tiny gaps in So as to accommodate sufficiently

soil) large amounts of oil;
2 Permeability (allowing To discharge oil and/or gas when
liquids or gases to pass well has been drilled;
through it)
3 Porous sandstone beds The porous sandstone beds or
or fissured limestone fissured limestone containing oil
should be capped below by
impervious beds [not allowing fluid
to pass through].

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 Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
• The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) was founded in Baghdad, Iraq,
with the signing of an agreement in September 1960 by five countries namely Islamic Republic
of Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela. They were to become the Founder
Members of the Organization.
• The mission of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is to coordinate
and unify the petroleum policies of its Member Countries and ensure the stabilization of oil markets
in order to secure an efficient, economic and regular supply of petroleum to consumers, a steady
income to producers and a fair return on capital for those investing in the petroleum industry.
• Member countries: Algeria, Angola, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya,
Nigeria, the Republic of the Congo, Saudi Arabia (the De facto leader), the United Arab Emirates
and Venezuela.

Distribution of Petroleum and Mineral Oil in India

• Most of the oil reserves in India are associated with anticlines and fault traps in the sedimentary rock
formations of tertiary times.
• Mumbai High, the Khambhat Gulf and the Assam are the most productive areas.
• Process began in tertiary period [3 million years ago].
• In tertiary period, aquatic life was abundant in various forms, especially the Page minor microscopic
forms of flora and fauna.
• Conditions for oil formation were favourable especially in the lower and middle Tertiary period.
• Dense forests and sea organisms flourished in the gulfs, estuaries, deltas and the land surrounding them
during this period.

Distribution of Petroleum and Mineral

Oil in India

On shore distribution On shore distribution

On shore distribution:
• The oilfields located on the mainland away from the coasts are called on shore field.
Brahmaputra valley of
North-east India:
Rajasthan Oilfields
• Oldest oil producing region in country. Digboi oilfield in Assam is
the oldest in India.
• The Naharkatiya field and The Moran-Hugrijan field are other
important fields of this region.
• One of the largest inland oil discoveries were made in Banner district of
Rajasthan.
• Other important discoveries → Mangala oil field, Sarswati and
Rajeshwari oil fields.
• These oilfields are the largest on shore oil producing fields of India.

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 Gujarat Oilfields • Ankleshwar, Khambhat or Lunej, Ahmedabad and Kalol, Nawgam,
Kosamba, Kathana, Barkol, Mahesana and Sanand are important
oilfields of Gujarat region.

Off shore distribution:

• Mumbai High, Bassein and Aliabet.

Western Coast • Mumbai High: rock strata of Miocene age.
• Sagar Samrat, Bassein: south of Mumbai High.
• Aliabet: Aliabet island in the Gulf of Khambhat.
• The basin and delta regions of the Godawari, the Krishna and the
Eastern Coast Cauvery rivers hold great potential for oil and gas production.
• The Rawa field in Krishna-Godawari off-shore basin is an important
one.
• The Narimanam and Kovilappal oilfields in the Cauvery on-shore
basin are also important.

Extent of Oil Bearing Strata in India

• 14.1 lakh sq km or 42 per cent of India covered with sedimentary rocks.
• 10 lakh sq km form marine basins of Mesozoic and Tertiary times.
• Total continental shelf of probable oil bearing rocks amounts to 3.2 lakh sq km.
• The total sedimentary area including both on shore and offshore comprises 27 basins.
• Mumbai High, the Khambhat Gulf and the Assam are the most productive areas.

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Petroleum Refining in India:
• India's first oil refinery started working way back in 1901 at Digboi in Assam.
• 1954: another refinery at Tarapur (Mumbai).
• Refinery hub and refining capacity exceeds the demand. Excess refined oil and other petroleum products
are exported.
• Oil from wells is transported to nearest refineries through pipelines.
• India’s current refining capacity of 249.9 million tonnes per annum (2020) exceeds domestic
consumption of petroleum products which was 213.7 million tonnes in the previous fiscal.
• Jamnagar refinery in Gujarat is world’s largest refinery.
Advantages of Pipeline Disadvantages of Pipeline
• Ideal to transport liquids and gases. • It is not flexible, i.e., it can be used only for a few
• Pipelines can be laid through difficult terrains fixed points.
as well as under water. • Its capacity cannot be increased once it is laid.
• Economical • It is difficult to make security arrangements for
• It needs very little maintenance. pipelines.
• Pipelines are safe, accident-free and • Detection of leakage and repair is also difficult.
environmental friendly.

Oil refineries in India:

@Akash_Singhh

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 • Salaya-Mathura Pipeline (SMPL)
Crude Oil Pipelines • Paradip-Haldia-Barauni Pipeline (PHBPL)
• Mundra-Panipat Pipeline (MPPL)
• Guwahati-Siliguri Pipeline (GSPL)
• Koyali -Ahmedabad Pipeline (KAPL)
• Barauni-Kanpur Pipeline (BKPL)
• Panipat-Delhi Pipeline (PDPL)
• Panipat-Rewari Pipeline (PRPL)
• Chennai – Trichy - Madurai Product Pipeline (CTMPL)

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 Petroleum Product • Chennai-Bangalore Pipeline
Pipelines • Naharkatia-Nunmati-Barauni Pipeline → first pipeline constructed in
India
• Mumbai High-Mumbai-Ankleshwar-Koyali Pipeline.
• Hajira-Bijapur-Jagdishpur (HBJ) Gas Pipeline == world's largest
underground pipeline.
• Jamnagar-Loni LPG Pipeline == longest LPG pipeline in the world.
• Kochi-Mangalore-Bangalore pipeline
• Vishakhapatnam Secunderabad pipeline
• Mangalore-Chennai pipeline
• Vijayawada-Vishakhapatnam pipeline

Petroleum and Mineral Oil - World distribution

• More than half of the world’s proven oil reserves are located in the Middle East (including Iran but
not North Africa).
• Canada, United States, Latin America, Africa, and the region occupied by the former Soviet Union
contains less than 15 percent of the world’s proven reserves. [Reserves are identified quantities of
petroleum that are considered recoverable under current economic and technological conditions.]
• The amount of oil a given region produces is not always proportionate to the size of its proven reserves.
• For example, the Middle East contains more than 50 percent of the world’s proven reserves but accounts
for only about 30 percent of global oil production.
• The United States, by contrast has less than 2 percent of the world’s proven reserves but produces about
10 percent of the world’s oil.

• Saudi Arabia has the largest proven oil reserves.

• Approximately 20 percent of the world’s proven reserves.
• The discovery that transformed Saudi Arabia into a leading oil country
Oilfields in Saudi was Al- Ghawār oil field. (still has 70 billion barrels after 60 years of
Arabia production)
• Another important discovery was the Saffaniyah offshore field in the
Persian Gulf. It is the third largest oil field in the world and the largest
offshore.

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 Oil Fields in Iraq, • The Middle Eastern countries of Iraq, Kuwait, and Iran are each estimated
Kuwait, & Iran to have 25 percent of all proven reserves in the world.
• These countries have a number of supergiant fields.
• Al-Burqan oilfield of Kuwait is the world’s second largest oil field.
Oil Fields in Russia • Russia is thought to possess the best potential for new discoveries.
• It has significant proven reserves of 5 percent of the world total—and is the
world’s leading petroleum producer.
• There are two supergiant oil fields – Western Siberia and Yenisey
Khatanga.
• Kamchatka peninsula and Sakhalin Island are said to have significant oil
reserves.
• Volga-Caspian Region has many oil and gas fields.
• North America has many sedimentary basins.
• Many oilfields have been found in North Slope region of Alaska and East
Texas.
• United States has produced more oil than any other country.
• Its proven oil reserves amount to 2 percent of the world total.
• The Rocky Mountain region contains an enormous amount of petroleum
Oil Fields in United reserve.
States, Mexico, & • Mexico has more than 10 billion barrels of proven oil reserves and is one
Canada of the top 10 oil producers in the world.
• Canada has less than 10 billion barrels of proven reserves of conventional
liquid oil.
• But huge deposits of oil sands in the Athabasca region in western Canada
bring the country’s total proven oil reserves to approximately 175 billion
barrels, behind only oil giants Saudi Arabia and Venezuela.
• Canada’s largest oil field is off Newfoundland.
• Venezuela is the largest oil exporter in the Western Hemisphere.
Oilfields in Venezuela & • 210 billion barrels of proven oil reserves (world’s second largest).
Brazil • Most of these reserves are located in the Orinoco belt.
• Brazil has 14 billion barrels of proven oil reserves (second largest in South
America)
Oilfields in United • The United Kingdom is an important North Sea producer, and its proven
Kingdom oil reserves of some three billion barrels are the largest in the European
Union.
• The main oil-producing countries of Africa are: Libya, Algeria, Nigeria
and Egypt.
• Niger delta in Nigeria contains enormous amount of oil.
Oilfields in African • Egypt is self-sufficient in oil production.
Region • Algeria is another significant producer of petroleum where much of the
national income comes from oil-export.
• Libya became a consistent producer of petroleum. The total oil reserve of
Libya is around 3 per cent of global reserve.

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Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR) facility:
• To ensure energy security, the Government had decided to set up
5 million metric tons (MMT) of strategic crude oil storages at
three locations namely, Visakhapatnam, Mangalore and Padur
(near Udupi).
• These strategic storages would be in addition to the existing
storages of crude oil and petroleum products with the oil
companies and would serve as a cushion during any external
supply disruptions.
• In the 2017-18 budget, it was announced that two more such
reserves will be set up Chandikhole in Jajpur district of Odisha
and Bikaner in Rajasthan as part of the second phase.
• The construction and maintenance of the Strategic Crude Oil
Storage facilities is being managed by Indian Strategic
Petroleum Reserves Limited (ISPRL), a Special Purpose
Vehicle, which is a wholly owned subsidiary of Oil Industry Development Board (OIDB) under the
Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas.

Need for strategic oil reserves:

• In 1990, as the Gulf war engulfed West Asia, India was in the throes of a major energy crisis. By all
accounts India’s oil reserves at the time were adequate for only three days. While India managed to avert
the crisis then, the threat of energy disruption continues to present a real danger even today.
• It is unlikely that India’s energy needs will dramatically move away from fossil fuels in the near future.
Over 80% of these fuels come from imports, a majority of which is sourced from West Asia. This is
a major strategic risk and poses a massive financial drain for an embattled economy and its growing current
account deficit.
• To address energy insecurity, the Atal Bihari Vajpayee government mooted the concept of strategic
petroleum reserves in 1998. Today, with India consuming upwards of four million barrels of crude every
day (January 2015 figures), the case for creating such reserves grows stronger.

Natural Gas:
• Natural gas is mixture of hydrocarbons primarily Ethane and methane.
• It is formed during the formation of petroleum so it is often found dissolved in crude oil.
• Some of the world’s largest gas fields occur in arctic, Russia, Iran and USA.
• Distribution in India: Reserves found in Krishna Godavari Basin, Brahmaputra valley, Gulf of Khambhat
and Barmer district of Rajasthan.

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 • Sometimes, pressure of natural gas forces oil up to the
surface. Such natural gas is known as associated gas or wet
gas.
• Some reservoirs contain gas and no oil. This gas is termed
non-associated gas or dry gas.
• Often natural gases contain substantial quantities of
hydrogen sulfide or other organic sulfur compounds. In this
case, the gas is known as “sour gas.”
• Coalbed methane is called ‘sweet gas’ because of its lack of
hydrogen sulfide.
• On the market, natural gas is usually bought and sold not by
volume but by calorific value.

Natural Gas Formation

It is similar to the formation of Petroleum. Natural gas was formed millions of years ago when plants and
tiny sea animals were buried by sand and rock. Layers of mud, sand, rock, plant, and animal matter
continued to build up until the pressure and heat turned them into oil and natural gas.

Importance of Natural Gas to India

• Power stations using gas accounted for nearly 10 per cent of
India’s electricity.
• Despite the country reeling under a power crisis, gas power
stations are lying idle due to lack of feedstock.
• The Government has frozen the construction of new gas plants
until 2015- 16 because of gas shortages.
• Existing plants are operating below capacity on expensive
imported liquefied natural gas (LNG).
• India’s oil reserves are insufficient for its growing energy
needs and situation is made worse by policy paralysis which
increases the gestation period of the projects.
• We need to diversify our energy basket through alternate fuels so that we need not have to bear the brunt
of external shocks.

Distribution of Natural Gas in India

• KG basin, Assam, Gulf of Khambhat, Cuddalore district of Tamil Nadu, Barmer in Rajasthan etc.

Unconventional Hydrocarbons:
• Conventional reservoirs of oil and natural gas are found in
permeable sandstone.
• Unconventional Gas Reservoirs occur in relatively impermeable
sandstones, in joints and fractures or absorbed into the matrix of
shales [Shale is a Sedimentary Rock], and in coal seams.
• Given current economic conditions and state of technology, they are
more expensive to exploit.
• Example: Tight gas, shale gas, and coal- bed methane.

Coal Bed • India has the fifth largest proven coal reserves in the world.
Methane:

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 • The CBM resources in the country are about 92 TCF (2600 BCM) in 12
states of India.
• It is a natural gas formed from being trapped within shale rocks.
Shale Gas: • ONGC estimates 187.5 Trillion Cubic Feet (TCF) of shale gas in Cambay,
KG, Cauvery, Ganga and Assam basins in India.
• A naturally occurring, ice-like combination of natural gas and water found in
the world’s oceans and Polar Regions.
Gas hydrate: • US Geological Survey states that India has the second largest gas hydrates
in World.
• The Krishna Godavari, Cauvery and Kerala basins alone contributing
100-130 trillion cubic feet of estimated reserves.

Hydrocarbons Vision – 2025

The Hydrocarbons Vision-2025, presented in the year 2000, laid down the framework which would guide the
policies relating to the hydrocarbons sector for the next 25 years. It includes:
• To assure energy security by achieving self-reliance through increased indigenous production and
investment in equity oil abroad.
• To enhance quality of life by progressively improving product standards to ensure a cleaner and greener
India.
• To develop hydrocarbon sector as a globally competitive industry which could be benchmarked against
the best in the world through technology upgradation and capacity building in all facets of the industry.
• To have a free market and promote healthy competition among players and improve the customer
service.
• To ensure oil security for the country keeping in view strategic and defense considerations.

Hydrocarbon Exploration and Licensing Policy (HELP) was introduced in 2016 which has the four
main facets:
• Uniform license for exploration and production of all forms of hydrocarbon,
• An open acreage policy,
• Easy to administer revenue sharing model and
• Marketing and pricing freedom for the crude oil and natural gas produced.

Non-conventional Energy Resources:

1. Nuclear Energy:
• Nuclear energy has emerged as a viable source in recent times.
• Core Raw materials for nuclear energy Uranium, Thorium, Heavy water, Zirconium, Helium.
• Uranium is a silvery-gray metallic radioactive chemical element. It is only
Uranium naturally formed in supernova explosions.
• Uranium, thorium, and potassium are the main elements contributing to
natural terrestrial radioactivity.

States Mineral rich regions – Uranium

Jharkhand Jadughoda, Bhatin, Narwapahar, Turamdih
Meghalaya Domiasiat, Wahkyn
Andhra pradesh Tumallapalle (Nalgonda)
Lambapur- peddagattu

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 Karnataka Gogi
Rajasthan Rohil

List of Nuclear Power Plants in India

Tarapur Operator: Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL

Location: Maharashtra
Type: Boiling water reactor (BWR) & Pressurized heavy water reactor
(PHWR)
Total capacity (MW): 1,400
Rawatbhata Operator: Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL)
Location: Rajasthan
Type: Pressurized heavy water reactor (PHWR)
Total capacity (MW): 1,180
Operator: Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL)
Location: Tamil Nadu
Kudankulam Type: Water-Water Energetic Reactor (VVER)-1000
Total capacity (MW): 2,000
List of Hydro Power Plants in India
Operator: Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL)
Location: Karnataka
Kaiga Type: Pressurized heavy water reactor (PHWR)
Total capacity (MW): 880
Operational-nuclear-power-plants-in-India-2020
Operator: Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL)
Location: Gujarat
Kakrapar Type: Pressurized heavy water reactor (PHWR)
Total capacity (MW): 440
List of Indian States in Mineral Wealth
Operator: Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL)
Kalpakkam Location: Tamil Nadu
Type: Pressurized heavy water reactor (PHWR)
Total capacity (MW): 440
Operator: Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL)
Narora Location: Uttar Pradesh
Type: Pressurized heavy water reactor (PHWR)
Total capacity (MW): 440

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Distribution of Uranium Across the World
• Largest viable deposits are found in Australia, Kazakhstan, and Canada.
• Olympic Dam and the Ranger mine in Southern Australia are important mines in Australia.
• High-grade deposits are only found in the Athabasca Basin region of Canada.
• Cigar Lake, McArthur River basin in Canada are other important uranium mining sites.
• The Chu-Sarysu basin in central Kazakhstan alone accounts for over half of the country's known
uranium resources.

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 • Thorium is a chemical element with symbol Th and atomic number 90.
• It is one of only two significantly radioactive elements that still occur naturally
in large quantities.
• Thorium-232 is the most stable isotope of thorium and accounts for nearly all
Thorium natural thorium, with the other five natural isotopes occurring only in traces.
• Thorium is estimated to be about three to four times more abundant than
uranium in the Earth's crust and is chiefly refined from monazite sands.
• Thorium is predicted to be able to replace uranium as nuclear fuel in nuclear
reactors, but only a few thorium reactors have yet been completed.
• United States, Australia, and India have particularly large reserves of
thorium.

Sources in India Sources in the world

India has largest reserve
Kerala beach sand: monazite Brazil
Coastal areas of Tamil Nadu, Australia
Odisha, Andhra Pradesh.
USA
Egypt

Renewable Energy
• India has set an ambitious target of reaching 175 GW of installed capacity from renewable energy
sources including 100 GW from solar and 60 GW from wind by the year 2022.
Why renewable energy?
➢ Environmental concern:
➢ India is currently the world’s third largest carbon emitter
➢ According to the Copenhagen Accord, which India signed along with 167 other countries in
2009, 80 % of the world’s proven coal, oil and natural gas reserves must remain in the ground in
order to avoid warming the planet beyond the internationally agreed limit of 2°C rise in average
temperature. Same also applies to INDC and Green India Mission.
➢ So, from an ecological point of view, renewable energy must come up on a large scale and not as
isolated stories of miracles.
➢ Economic point of view:
➢ Coal reserves are depleting and getting expensive.
➢ Many major plants in the country are facing severe coal shortages.
➢ In the last fiscal, India imported over 150 million tonnes of the fossil fuel, widening the country’s
fiscal deficit to further dangerous levels.
➢ Renewable energy will address power shortage challenges, which cost Rs 4.2 lakh crore a year.
➢ From a social point of view:
➢ The government had promised to deliver electricity to the entire population.
➢ But considering that providing electricity to all means providing it for 24 hours of 365 days and
not four hours in a day, the government has missed the target by a long shot.
➢ Renewable energy is the need of the hour and it is capable of delivering what India needs.

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 Break up of Renewable Energy Installed Capacity as on 31.01.2020 (in MW)
• Small Hydro Project (≤ 25MW): 4676.56MW
• Biomass Power: 9861.31 MW
• Waste to Energy: 139.80 MW
• Wind Power: 37607.70 MW
• Solar Power: 34035.66 MW
• Total Capacity: 86321.03 MW

Key Issues with Renewable Power Generation

• Regional Concentration of Renewable Energy Potential
➢ Because Renewable Energy is location-specific and not evenly distributed, there are problems on
scaling up grid connected renewable power.
• Insufficiency and High cost of Evacuation Infrastructure
➢ Utilization of variable Renewable Energy requires a robust transmission infrastructure from
remotely located generating plants to the load centers.
➢ This requires infrastructure such as roads etc as well as land for installation.
• Financial Barriers
➢ Renewable Energy technologies require large initial capital investment.
➢ These technologies need to be supported until technology breakthroughs and market volumes
generated are able to bring the tariff down at the grid parity level.
• Low penetration of renewables for urban and industrial applications
• Policy interventions to incentivize creation of financeable business models for off-grid renewable
sector.
➢ Off-grid renewable sector is much more competitive with conventional power as it avoids
investment in transmission to remote location.
➢ E.g. Rice Husk gasifiers-based electricity generation is one such model.

A. Solar Power
• India lying in tropical belt has an advantage of receiving
peak solar radiation for 300 days, amounting 2300-
3,000 hours of sunshine equivalent to above 5,000 trillion
kWh.
Advantages:
• Solar Energy is available throughout the day which is the
peak load demand time.
• Solar energy conversion equipment’s have longer life and
need lesser maintenance and hence provide higher energy
infrastructure security.
• Low running costs & grid tie-up capital returns (Net
Metering).
• Unlike conventional thermal power generation from coal,
they do not cause pollution and generate clean power.
• Abundance of free solar energy in almost all parts of
country.
• No overhead wires- no transmission loss

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 Government initiatives:
• Ministry of new and renewable energy is the nodal agency to tackle India's renewable energy issues.
• National Solar Mission is a major initiative of the Government of India and State Governments to
promote ecologically sustainable growth while addressing India's energy security challenge.
• The Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA) is a Non-Banking Financial
Institution under the administrative control of this Ministry for providing term loans for renewable
energy and energy efficiency projects.
• National institute of solar energy is created as autonomous institution under MoNRE is apex body
for R&D.
• Establishment of solar parks and ultra-major solar power project and enhancing grid connectivity
infrastructure.
• Promotion of canal bank and canal tank solar infrastructure.
• Sustainable rooftop implementation of Solar transfiguration of India (SRISTI) scheme to
promote rooftop solar power projects in india.
• Suryamitra programme to prepare qualified workforce.
• Renewable purchase obligation for large energy consumer customers.
• National green energy programme and green energy corridor.
• International solar Alliance:
o The International Solar Alliance (ISA) is an alliance of more than 120 countries initiated by India,
most of them being sunshine countries, which lie either completely or partly between the
Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, now extended to all members of UN.
o The Paris Declaration establishes ISA as an alliance dedicated to the promotion of solar energy
among its member countries.
o When the ISA Framework Agreement entered into force on December 6th, 2017, ISA formally
became a de-jure treaty based International Intergovernmental Organization, headquartered at
Gurugram, India.
o Objectives: The ISA’s major objectives include global deployment of over 1,000GW of solar
generation capacity and mobilization of investment of over US$ 1000 billion into solar energy
by 2030.

B. Wind energy:
• India is at 4th position in term of wind power installed
capacity after China, USA and Germany.
• According to the National Institute of Wind Energy,
India’s installable wind energy potential is 302 GW with
towers of a height of 100 meters.
Challenges:
• Land Availability: The prices of ideal sites for projects
have increased after a push for renewable energy.
• Poor transmission and unavailability of grid for power
transmission have impacted the growth of wind
• energy sector.
• Lack of finance capacity: According to a study by Indian
Renewable Energy Development Agency, India needs
around INR 17.5 trillion (US $264 billion approximately),

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 in financing to achieve its target of 160 gigawatts of solar and wind energy by 2022. This could be
solved by tapping green financing mechanism present in market like Green Bond etc.
• Non-payment to developer due to poor financial health of public electricity distribution utilities.

Government Steps to promote wind energy:

• National Offshore Wind Energy Policy
• Guidelines for Development of Onshore Wind Power Projects: To facilitate development of wind
projects in an efficient, cost effective and environmentally benign manner.
• Renewable Purchase Obligation specified in the Electricity Act, 2003 has given fillip to the enhancement
of wind-generator in India.
• Green Energy Corridors Project: Power evacuation and transmission infrastructure for renewables is
being augmented as part of the “Green Energy Corridors” project.

• Greater area available for setting up large projects: one of the primary
reasons for moving towards off-shore projects is the lack of suitable wind
turbine sites on land.
• Higher wind speed: Therefore, the offshore wind power’s electricity
Advantages of generation is higher per amount of capacity installed.
offshore wind • Consistent wind speed: the effective use of wind turbine generating
power over the capacity will be higher at sea than on land.
onshore wind • Less visual impact: As these sites are located far from land they have less
power visual impact which helps with public acceptance issues.
• Close to load centres: The offshore wind farms are usually located near to
the cities and load centres thus transmission losses are minimized.
• Environmental impact: low global warming potential per unit of
electricity generated, comparable to that of onshore wind farms.

Challenges:
• Cost: Costs for foundations, installation, electrical connections and operation and maintenance
(O&M) are a large share of the total for offshore installations compared to onshore wind farms.
• Sustained high-speed wind, high humidity and salt water make every aspect of installation and operation
much more difficult, time-consuming, more dangerous and far more expensive than sites on land.
• Data: the data required for the calculation of off- shore wind potential and identification of suitable sites
is not adequately available. Wind resource map consists of the wind speed and wind density at certain
levels above the sea.

C. Hydro Power Sector:

• India is endowed with large hydropower potential of 1,45,320 MW of which only about 45,400
MW has been utilized so far. Only about 10,000 MW of hydropower has been added in the last 10
years.
Issues faced by hydropower sector:
• Lack of enabling infrastructure - such as roads, bridges to access remote areas where such potential sites
are available.
• Delay due to land acquisition - for dam, power house etc.
• Delay due to environment and forest clearances.
• Rehabilitation and Resettlement - which invite opposition from locals for employment, extra
compensation etc. It also creates law and order problems like blasting, muck disposal.

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 • Cultural/ Religious Issues - sentiments attached with
rivers i.e religious and spiritual beliefs.
• Political will - lacks political traction due to long gestation
period, Interstate issues, especially over Riparian rights.
E.g. Mullaperiyar Dam (between Kerala and Tamil Nadu)
• High Tariff of Hydro Projects - as compared to other
sources of power (conventional as well as renewable
sources) mainly due to construction of complex structures
which have long gestation period, unavailability of loans of
lower interest rate & longer tenures, high R&R cost,
infrastructure etc.
• Financing Issues - High cost of Finance and lack of long
tenure funding for hydropower projects.
• Levying of water cess by the States - e.g. J&K

Hydro Energy Sector: Initiatives So Far

• National Electricity Policy, 2005: The policy lay emphasis
on full development of the feasible hydro potential in the
country.
• Hydro Power Policy, 2008: Under this transparent selection criteria to be followed by the States for
awarding sites to private developers.
• National Rehabilitation & Resettlement Policy, 2007: It aims to minimize displacement and addressing
special needs of Tribal and vulnerable sections who get displaced due to Developmental Projects.
• Tariff Policy, 2016: Policy aims to promote Hydro power generation including Private sector participation
to provide adequate peaking reserves, reliable grid operation and integration of variable Renewable Energy
sources.

Energy security
• It is defined as the uninterrupted availability of energy sources at an affordable price.

Why need energy security?

• India imports 80 percent of its oil needs and is the third largest oil consumer in the entire world.
• India’s energy consumption is expected to grow 4.5 percent every year for the next 25 years.
• Recently due to high International Crude Oil Prices, Current Account Deficit (CAD) inflated because of
higher cost of oil import, raising concerns about long term economic stability in India, highlighting
importance of energy security.

Challenges for India’s Energy Security

• Policy Challenges: Failure to attract international investment in domestic hydrocarbon exploration
• Accessibility Challenge: Presently, 304 million Indians do not have access to electricity and around 500
million Indians are dependent on solid biomass for cooking.
• Infrastructure and skill related challenges: Lack of skilled manpower and poorly developed
infrastructure for developing conventional and unconventional energy. India lacks transportation
infrastructure for making energy accessible
• Economic challenges: Rising fuel subsidies, rising CAD creates difficult conditions for economy.
• External Challenges: India's fragile energy security is under severe pressure from its rising dependence
on imported oil, regulatory uncertainty, international monopolies and opaque natural gas pricing policies

Nationally Determined Contributions as per the Paris Accord

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• As a part of Nationally Determined Contributions as per the
Paris Accord on Climate Change, India has made a pledge that
by 2030, 40% of our installed power generation capacity
shall be from non-fossil fuel sources and also by 2030, reduce
emission intensity of GDP by 33-35 % from 2005 level.
• Economic growth, increasing prosperity, a growing rate of
urbanisation and rising per capita energy consumption has
increased the energy demand of the country.
• In 2015, India decided that 175 GW of renewable energy
capacity will be installed by the year 2022.
o This includes 100 GW from solar, 60 GW from wind, 10
GW from biomass and 5 GW from small hydro power.
• The substantial higher capacity target will ensure greater energy security, improved energy access and
enhanced employment opportunities

Statistics and Fact related energy sector -

• By the year 2040, India’s electricity demand will rise 4.5 times over 2012 levels.
• Clean energy (like renewables, nuclear and hydro) may account for 13.5% of electricity produced by
2040 (from 3.7% in 2012),
• Greater efficiency and technology can cut energy demand in 2040 by 16.6%;
• Up to 90% of this reduction is possible in transport, industry and construction.
• New buildings codes could cut energy use by 50% in new construction.
• If most Indian vehicles were electric by 2030, pollution levels in cities could drop 80%-90%, and
India could save $100 billion, a sum over two times larger than the current defence budget
• By 2040, India’s population is predicted to increase to 1.6 billion, and the rate of urbanisation
(projected average rate of change of the size of the urban population over a given period of time) of
this population will be 47%.
• The share of manufacturing in the country’s gross domestic product will double from its current
levels to 30%.
• As of 2017, nearly 25% of the population is still without access to electricity and 40% without access
to clean cooking fuel.

India’s Demand for Energy

• The country’s demand for energy is set to double by 2040, and its electricity demand may triple.
• Indian oil consumption is expected to grow faster than that of any other major economy (including
China). This makes further improving energy security a key priority for India’s economy.
• India's oil demand is expected to reach 6 million barrels per day (bpd) by 2024 from 4.4 million bpd in
2017, but its domestic production is expected to rise only marginally, making the country more reliant
on crude imports and more vulnerable to supply disruption in the Middle East.
• India's oil refining capacity is expected to rise to 5.7 million bpd by 2024, making it a very attractive
market for refinery investment.

@Akash_Singhh

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 CH-10 MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
• The manufacturing sector consists of establishments that are involved in the mechanical, physical or
chemical transformations of materials, substances or components to make them into new and finished
products.
• Industries are classified in a number of ways. On the basis of size, capital investment and labour force
employed, industries are classified as large, medium, small scale, and cottage industries.

TYPES OF INDUSTRIES

1. Agro based Industries: Raw material sourced from agriculture sector.

E.g.: Cotton, sugar etc.
On the basis of raw 2. Mineral based Industries: Raw material sources from mining, E.g.: Iron
materials & steel, cement etc.
3. Forest based Industries: Raw material sourced from forest. E.g.: Paper
industry, Timber etc.
1. Basic or key industries: Supply their goods to other industries. E.g.: Iron &
On the basis of input steel
2. Consumer Industries: Produce goods for direct consumption. E.g.
Toothpaste, Television etc.
1. Public sector: Owned & operated by govt. E.g. BHEL, SAIL etc.
On the basis of 2. Private sector: Owned & operated by private individuals. E.g. TISCO, RIL.
ownership 3. Joint sector: Jointly run by state & private players. E.g. OIL
4. Cooperative sector: Owned & operated by the producers and suppliers of raw
materials, workers or both. E.g. Sugar industry in Maharashtra.
1. Labour Intensive Industry: Large no. of skilled unskilled or semi-skilled
labour is employed. E.g. Textile, leather & footwear.
On the basis of mode 2. Capital goods Industry: Manufactures machine tools, heavy electrical
of operation equipment, heavy transport vehicles, mining & earth moving tools etc.
3. Industries with strategic significance: Industries which are critical for the
purpose of earning foreign exchange, research & defense. E.g. Aerospace,
shipping, electronics & telecommunication, defense equipment etc.
On basis of size It refers to the amount of capital invested, number of people employed and the
volume of production.
1. Small scale industries: Use lesser amount of capital investment and
technology, and produce small volume of products. E.g. : handicrafts, cottage
industries etc.
2. Large scale industries: Investment of capital is higher and the technology used
is superior in large scale industries. E.g. : automobile industry, heavy
machinery industry etc..

Factors influencing location of industries in india:

Availability of Raw Materials:

• Raw materials are one of the most important determinants of location of industries.
• Industries using weight-losing raw materials are located in the regions where raw materials are located.
This includes Sugar mills, iron and steel industries, pulp industry, copper smelting and pig iron industries.

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• For example, most of the iron and steel industries are located either near the coal-fields (Bokaro,
Durgapur, etc.) or near sources of iron ore (Bhadravati, Bhilai, and Rourkela) as iron ore and coal both are
weight-losing raw materials.
• Similarly, industries based on perishable raw materials are also located close to raw material sources. E.g.,
sugar mills.
Availability of Power and Energy supply:
• Power supply has to be ensured before the location of any industry as it provides the motive force for
machines.
• However, certain power intensive industries, like aluminum and synthetic nitrogen manufacturing
industries tend to be located near sources of power because they require huge quantum of electricity.
• However, since electricity can be easily transmitted, and petroleum can be transported, these industries
can also be dispersed.
Market:
• The entire process of manufacturing is useless until the finished goods reaches the market.
• Nearness to market is essential for quick disposal of manufactured goods.
• It helps in reducing the transport cost and enables the consumer to get things at cheaper rates.
Capital:
• Modern industries are capital-intensive and require huge investments.
• In India, Big cities like Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi, and Chennai are big industrial centers, where capital is
available for investment.
Transport:
• Transport by land or water is necessary for the collection of raw materials and for the marketing of the
finished products.
• It was the major factor behind the development of Great Lakes-Pittsburg industrial area in the US.
• In India, Kolkata, Mumbai and Chennai were the only major industrial centre earlier, and the industries
shifted to interior locations, only when railway lines were expanded to the hinterlands.
• All major industrial plants are located on the trunk rail routes.
Labour:
• The availability of both unskilled and skilled, or technically qualified manpower, is an important factor
in the location of industries.
• One characteristic feature of the labour factor is its mobility.
• Some of the small-scale industries traditionally associated with labour are glass-work (Ferozabad), brass-
work (Moradabad), utensils (Yamunanagar in Haryana), silk sarees (Varanasi), carpets (Mirzapur), etc.
Water:
• Water is another important requirement for industries.
• Many industries are established near rivers, canals and lakes, because of this reason. Iron and steel
industry, textile industries and chemical industries require large quantities of water, for their proper
functioning.
Site:
• Site requirements for industrial development are of considerable significance.
• Sites, generally, should be flat and well served by adequate transport facilities.
• Large areas are required to build factories.
• Now, there is a tendency to set up industries in rural areas because the cost of land has shot up in urban
centers.
Climate:
• Climate plays an important role in the establishment of industries at a place.
• Harsh climate is not much suitable for the establishment of industries.
• There can be no industrial development in extremely hot, humid, dry or cold climate.

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 Capital and Finance Facilities:
• Establishment of industries involves the daily exchange of crores of rupees which is possible through
banking facilities only.
• So, the areas with better banking facilities are better suited to the establishment of industries.
Government Policies:
• Government activity in different spheres like in planning the future distribution of industries, for reducing
regional disparities, elimination of pollution of air and water and for avoiding their heavy clustering in big
cities, has become no less an important locational factor.
Industrial Inertia:
• Industrial inertia is when a firm remains in its original location even after the initial advantage or alluring
factors that led to them locating there has disappeared.
• Industrial inertia is the predisposition of industries or companies to avoid relocating facilities even in
the face of changing economic circumstances that would otherwise induce them to leave.
• Often the costs associated with relocating fixed capital assets and labour far outweigh the costs of adapting
to the changing conditions of an existing location.

Other social factors:

There are also a number of other factors that may influence Industrial location such as:
• The attitude of the local community.
• Proximity of complementary industry.
• Prospects of development of the region.
• Recreational and social facilities.
• proximity to important metropolitan centres.
• Personal bias of entrepreneurs.
• Historical factor

Major Industrial Regions of India

• Industries tend to concentrate on certain locations because of the favourable locational factors.
• Such regions are classified into eight major and thirteen minor industrial centers.

1. Mumbai-Pune Industrial Region:

• This region extends from Thane to Pune and in adjoining districts of
Nashik and Solapur. In addition, industries have grown at a rapid pace
in Kolaba, Ahmednagar, Satara, Sangli and Jalgaon districts also. This
region owes its origin to the British rule in India.
• The growth of this industrial region is fully connected with the growth
of cotton textile industry in India. As the coal was far from the region,
hydel power was developed in Western Ghats. Cotton was cultivated in
the black cotton soil area of the Narmada and Tapi basins.
• Cheap labour-force came from the hinterland, the port facilities for
export-import and communication links with the peninsular hinterland made Mumbai the
‘Cottonopolis of India’. With the development of cotton textile industry, the chemical industry developed
too.
• Opening of the Mumbai High petroleum field and erection of nuclear energy plants added additional
magnetic force to this region. Now the industrial centres have developed, from Mumbai to Kurla,
Kolaba, Thane, Ghatkopar, Ville Parle, Jogeshwari, Andheri, Thane, Bhandup, Kalyan, Pimpri,
Pune, Nashik, Manmad, Solapur, Ahmednagar, Satara and Sangli.

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• In addition to cotton textile and chemical industries, engineering goods, leather, oil refineries;
petrochemicals, synthetic and plastic goods, chemicals, drugs, fertilizers, electricals, electronics, software,
ship-building, transport and food industries have also developed here.
➢ The partition of the country in 1947 adversely affected this region
because 81% of the total irrigated cotton area growing long staple
Issues faced by the region: cotton went to Pakistan.
➢ Mumbai, the nucleus of this industrial region, is facing the current
limitation of space for the expansion of the industry.
➢ Dispersal of industries is essential to bring about decongestion.

2. The Hugli Industrial Region:

• Located in West Bengal, this region extends as a narrow belt
running along the river Hugli for a distance of about 100 km from
Bansbaria and Naihati in the north to Birlanagar in the south.
Industries have also developed in Midnapur district in the west.
The river Hugli offered the best site for the development of an
inland river port as nucleus for the development of Hugli
industrial region.
• The discovery of coal and iron ore in Chotanagpur plateau,
tea plantations in Assam and northern parts of West Bengal and
the processing of deltaic Bengal’s jute led to the industrial development in this region. Cheap labour
could be found easily from the thickly populated states of Orissa, Bihar, Jharkhand and eastern part
of U.P.
• Establishment of first jute mill at Rishra in 1855 ushered in the era of modem industrial clustering in
this region. A chain of jute mills and other factories could be established on either side of Hugli River with
the help of Damodar valley coal.
• Kolkata’s industries have established by drawing in the raw materials from adjoining regions and
distributing the finished goods to consuming points. Thus, the role of transport and communication
network has been as important as the favourable locational factors in the growth of this region
• Just after the partition of old Bengal province in 1947, the region faced, for some years, the problem of
shortage of jute as most of the jute-growing areas went to East Pakistan (now Bangladesh). The problem
was solved by gradually increasing home production of jute. Cotton textile industry also grew along
with jute industry.
• Paper, engineering, textile machinery, electrical, chemical, pharmaceuticals, fertilizers and
petrochemical industries have also developed in this region. Factory of the Hindustan Motors Limited at
Konanagar and diesel engine factory at Chittaranjan are landmarks of this region.
• Location of petroleum refinery at Haldia has facilitated the development of a variety of industries. The
major centres of this industrial region are Kolkata, Haora, Haldia, Serampur, Rishra, Shibpur,
Naihati, Kakinara, Shamnagar, Titagarh, Sodepur, Budge Budge, Birlanagar, Bansbaria,
Belgurriah, Triveni, Hugli, Belur, etc.

3. Bangalore-Tamil Nadu Industrial Region:

• Spread in two states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, this region experienced the fastest industrial
growth in the post-independence era.
• This region is a cotton-growing tract and is dominated by the cotton-textile industry. In fact, cotton textile
industry was the first to take roots in this region. But it has large number of silk-manufacturing units,
sugar mills, leather industry, chemicals, rail wagons, diesel engines, radio, light engineering goods, rubber
goods, medicines, aluminium, cement, glass, paper, cigarette, match box and machine tools, etc.

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 • This region is away from the main coal-producing areas of the
country but cheap hydroelectric power is available from
Mettur, Sivasamudram, Papanasam, Pykara and Sharavati dams.
Cheap skilled labour and proximity to vast local market as well
as good climate have also favoured the concentration of industries
in this region.
• Madurai is known for its cotton textiles. Visvesvaraya Iron and
Steel Works is located at Bhadravati. The other important
centres of this region are Sivakasi, Tiruchirapalli, Madukottai,
Mettur, Mysore and Mandya. Petroleum refinery at Chennai
and Narimanam and iron and steel plant at Salem are recent
developments.

4. Gujarat Industrial Region:

• The nucleus of this region lies between Ahmedabad and
Vadodara as a result of which it is also known as Ahmedabad-
Vadodara industrial region. However, this region extends upto
Valsad and Surat in the south and Jamnagar in the west. The
region corresponds to the cotton growing tracts of the Gujarat
plains and the development of this region is associated with the
location of textile industry since 1860s.
• This region became important textile region with the decline
of cotton textile industry in Mumbai. Mumbai has the
disadvantage of paying double freight charges for first bringing
the raw cotton from the peninsular hinterland and then
dispatching the finished products to inland consuming points
in India.
• But Ahmedabad is nearer the sources of raw material as well as the marketing centres of the Ganga
and Satlui plains. Availability of cheap land, cheap skilled labour and other advantages helped the cotton
textile industry to develop. This major industrial region of the country, mainly consisting of cotton textile
industry, is expanding at a much faster rate in providing a greater factory employment.
• The discovery and production of oil at a number of places in the Gulf of Khambhat area led to the
establishment of petrochemical industries around Ankleshwar, Vadodara and Jamnagar. Petroleum
refineries at Koyali and Jamnagar provide necessary raw materials for the proper growth of petrochemical
industries.
• The Kandla port, which was developed immediately after independence, provides the basic infrastructure
for imports and exports and helps in rapid growth of industries in this region. The region can now boast
of diversified industries.
• Besides textiles (cotton, silk and synthetic fibres) and petrochemical industries, other industries are
heavy and basic chemicals, dyes, pesticides, engineering, diesel engines, textile machinery,
pharmaceuticads, dairy products and food processing. The main industrial centres of this region are
Ahmedabad, Vadodara, Bharuch, Koyali, Anand, Khera, Surendranagar, Surat, Jamnagar, Rajkot and
Valsad. The region may become more important in the years to come.

5. Chotanagpur Industrial Region:

• As its name indicates, this region is located on the Chotanagpur plateau and extends over Jharkhand,
Northern Orissa and Western part of West Bengal. The birth and growth of this region is linked with
the discovery of coal in Damodar Valley and iron ore in the Jharkhand-Orissa mineral belt. As both are
found in close proximity, the region is known as the ‘Ruhr of India’.

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• Besides raw materials, power is available from the dam
sites in the Damodar Valley and the thermal power
stations based on the local coal. This region is surrounded
by highly populated states of Jharkhand, Bihar, Orissa and
West Bengal which provide cheap labour.
• The Kolkata region provides a large market for the
goods produced in the Chotanagpur region. It also provides
the port facility to the region. It has the advantages for
developing ferrous metal industries. The Tata Iron and
Steel Company at Jamshedpur, Indian Iron Steel Co., at
Bumpur-Kulti, Hindustan Steel Limited at Durgapur,
Rourkela and Bokaro are the important steel plants located in this region.
• Heavy engineering, machine tools, fertilizers, cement, paper, locomotives and heavy electricals are
some of the other important industries in this region. Important nodal centres of this region are Ranchi,
Dhanbad, Chaibasa, Sindri, Hazaribagh, Jamshedpur, Daltonganj, Garwa and Japla.

6. Vishakhapatnam-Guntur Industrial Region:

• This industrial region extends from Vishakhapatnam
district in the north-eastern part of Andhra Pradesh to
Kurnool and Prakasham districts in the south-east and
covers most of the coastal Andhra Pradesh. The industrial
development of this region mainly depends upon
Vishakhapatnam and Machilipatnam ports.
• Developed agriculture and rich mineral resources in the
hinterlands of these ports provide solid base to the
industrial growth in this region. Coal fields of the Godavari
basin are the main source of energy.
• Petroleum refinery at Vishakhapatnam facilitated the growth of several petrochemical industries.
It uses high quality iron ore from Bailadila in Chhattisgarh.
• One lead-zinc smelter is functioning in Guntur district. The other industries of this region include
sugar, textiles, paper, fertilizers, cement, aluminium and light engineering. The important industrial
centres of this region are Vishakhapatnam, Vijaywada, Vijaynagar, Rajahmundry, Kurnool, Elum and
Guntur. Recent discovery of natural gas in Krishna- Godavari basin is likely to provide much needed
energy and help in accelerated growth of this industrial region.

7. Gurgaon-Delhi-Meerut Industrial Region:

• This region developed after independence, but is one of the fastest growing regions of India. It consists
of two industrial belts adjoining Delhi. One belt
extends over Agra-Mathura-Meerut and
Saharanpur in U.P. and the other between
Faridabad-Gurgaon- Ambala in Haryana.
• The region is located far away from the mineral and
power resources, and therefore, the industries are light
and market oriented. The region owes its development
and growth to hydro-electricity from Bhakra-
Nangal complex and thermal power from
Harduaganj, Faridabad and Panipat.
• Sugar, agricultural implements, vanaspati, textile, glass,
chemicals, engineering, paper, electronics and cycle are

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 some of the important industries of this region. Software industry is a recent addition, Agra and its
environs have glass industry. Mathura has an oil refinery with its petro-chemical complex. One oil
refinery has been set up at Panipat also.
• Gurgaon has Maruti car factory as well as one unit of the IDPL. Faridabad has a number of engineering
and electronic industries. Ghaziabad is a large-centre of agro--industries. Saharanpur and
Yamunanagar have paper mills. Modinagar, Sonipat, Panipat and Ballabhgarh are other important
industrial nodes of this region.

8. Kollam-Thiruvananthapuram Industrial Region:

• This is comparatively small industrial region and spreads over
Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Alwaye, Emakulam and
Allapuzha districts of south Kerala. The region is located far away
from the mineral belt of the country as a result of which the industrial
scene here is dominated by agricultural products processing and market
oriented light industries.
• Plantation agriculture and hydroelectricity provide the industrial
base to this region. The main industries are textiles, sugar, rubber,
match box, glass, chemical fertilizers, food and fish processing, paper, coconut coir products, aluminium
and cement. Oil refinery set up in 1966 at Kochi provides solid base to petrochemical industries.
Important industrial centres are Kollam, Thiruvananthapuram, Alluva, Kochi, Alappuzha and
Punalur.

DISTRIBUTION OF MAJOR INDUSTRIES – INDIA AND WORLD

IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY

• It is a basic industry and provides inputs to the other industries such as automobiles, locomotives, rail
tracks, ship building, bridges and a host of other industrial and commercial activities.
• Before 1800 A.D. iron and steel industry was located where raw materials, power supply and running
water were easily available.
• Later the ideal location for the industry was near coal fields and close to canals and railways.

Factors affecting location of iron & steel industry

1. Raw material availability:

• The essential bulk inputs of iron & steel industry are iron ore (gross/weight-losing raw material), fuel
(coal; weight-losing), limestone (flux) & water (required for cooling & worker safety).
• These bulk inputs, especially iron ore and coal, have a significant influence on the location of the
industry.
Other raw material like dolomite (refractory material), manganese, chromite (stainless steel making)
are required only in small quantities.
• Mostly large integrated steel plants are located close to source of raw materials, as they use large
quantity of heavy and weight losing raw materials. E.g: Concentration of Iron and steel industry in
Chota Nagpur region - Presence of Iron ore & coal in this region. TISCO at Jamshedpur.

2. Other Factors:
• China is the leading producer and consumer of iron and steel in the world.
• But most of the Chinese iron and steel industry depends on imported iron ore from Australia, Brazil
and imported cocking coal from Australia and Indonesia. This is because of the poor quality of

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 both iron ore and coal in China. Despite the raw material imports, Chinese steel is highly competitive
in the global markets due to the ‘economies of scale’ production and cheap labour.
• Availability of electricity and water for cooling. Eg: Bokaro steel plant on banks of river Damodar,
Visveswaraya steel plant.

3. Minimising transportation costs:

• Steel plants are located close to the ports to effectively import raw materials and export finished
product.
• For mini steel plants which use electric furnaces and operate at a smaller scale, access to markets is
more important than inputs.
• These are less expensive to build and operate and can be located near markets because of the
abundance of scrap metal, which is the primary input.

• With the beginning of the 20th century, colonial powers like

Osaka – Kobe Region, Japan
Great Lakes & St. Lawrence •
Region, USA
• Hence Pittsburgh started importing iron ore from the Lake Superior
Ruhr Region, Germany
Ural Kuznetsk Region, Russia •
Japan, with no significant iron ore or coal resource base,
began to set up iron and steel plants near the ports in Osaka.
• Lake Superior region of Michigan has significant iron ore deposits
but has no coal or markets nearby.
• The only profitable way to exploit the ore was to transport it in bulk
to distant blast furnaces on the lower Great Lakes — to places like
Cleveland and Chicago.
On the other hand, Pittsburgh’s (Pennsylvania) iron and steel industry
was facing a shortage of local iron ore but had abundant coal reserves.
region of Michigan and Minnesota and started exporting coal to
Duluth in Minnesota (Lake Superior region).
• In the USA, the industry cropped up in the cities of Pittsburgh,
Buffalo, Cleveland, Detroit, Chicago that used imported coal from
Canada (through Saint Lawrence Seaway) and Appalachian
coalfields.
• Ruhr has been one of the major industrial regions of Europe for
a long time.
• Coal and iron and steel formed the basis of the economy. But after
the 1950s, the demand for coal declined (due to competition from
cheaper imported coal and oil), and the iron ore was also exhausted.
• However, the iron and steel industry thrived using imported ore
brought by Rhine River waterway to the Ruhr from deeper water
ports such as Rotterdam (Netherlands).
• The Ruhr region is responsible for 80 per cent of Germany’s total
steel production.
• The future prosperity of the Ruhr is based less on coal and iron ore
and more on the automobile industry.
The Ural-Kuznetsk industrial combine was formed in the early
1930s.
• The Ural of Russia is rich in iron ore deposits.
• Kuznetsk Basin in Western Siberia is rich in coal
• deposits.
• Coal from Kuznetsk Basin is sent to the Ural region by Railways.

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 • The returning wagons after emptying coal, bring iron ore from the
Ural region. In India too, steel plants were set up at Vishakhapatnam,
Ratnagiri and Mangalore.
• Nearness to market is important for mini steel plants in order to
minimize transportation cost.
Bokaro – Rourkela Combine, • Bokaro Steel Plant steel plant was set up in 1964 at Bokaro with
India Russian collaboration.
• This plant was set up on the principle of cost minimisation by creating
Bokaro-Rourkela combine.
• It receives iron ore from the Rourkela region and the wagons on
return take coal to Rourkela.
• Other raw materials come to Bokaro from within a radius of about
350 km.
• The Damodar Valley Corporation supplies water and hydel power.

Important Plants Location

Tata Iron and Steel Jamshedpur, Jharkhand
Corporation (TISCO)
Visvesvaraya Steel Plant Bhadravati, Karnataka
Bhilai Steel Plant Chhattisgarh
Durgapur Steel Plant Durgapur, West Bengal
Bokaro Steel Plant Jharkhand
IISCO Steel Plant Asansol, West Bengal
Salem Steel Plant Tamil Nadu
Rourkela Steel Plant Odisha
Visakhapatnam Steel Visakhapatnam, AP
Plant

Challenges For Indian Iron & Steel Industry:

• Low productivity: Per – capita labour productivity in India is at 90-100 tonnes which is one of the lowest
in the world (labour productivity in Japan, Korea is about 600-700 tonnes per man per year).
• External competition from cheap imports: Domestic iron & steel industry faces an unfair competition
from dumping of cheap steel in the Indian market by the industries of China and Japan.
• Low potential utilisation: The potential utilisation of iron and steel industrial units with units rarely
utilising more than 80% of their potential capacity.
• Inadequate capital and technological investment: Most of the industrial units set up in India have been
established with help of foreign aid as the huge amount of capital requires is not domestically available.
• Shortage of metallurgical coal: Although India has huge reserves of high grade iron ore, the reserves of
high grade coking coal for smelting iron are limited.

COTTON TEXTILE INDUSTRY

• A cotton mill houses spinning or weaving machinery for the production of yarn or cloth from cotton.
• Till the industrial revolution, cotton cloth was made using hand-spinning techniques (wheels) and looms.
• In 18th century, power looms facilitated the development of cotton textile industry, first in Britain
and later in other parts of the world.

Cotton textile industry in india:

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• Tropical climate and abundant yield of cotton crop are the
main reasons for development of cotton textile industry in
India.
• India was famous worldwide for the production of muslin,
a very fine variety of cotton cloth, calicos, chintz and other
different types of fine cotton cloth.
• With the beginning of the industrial revolution, Indian
cotton textiles industry was decimated due to competition
from the mill industry of Britain.
• In 1854, the first modern cotton mill was established in
Mumbai which eventually developed into a hub for cotton
textile industry.
• This industry around Mumbai grew tremendously in the 1870s
due to a spurt in demand in the wake of the American Civil
War.
• Indian industries made rapid strides during WW I due to a
rise in demand for industrial goods. The cotton textile industry
was concentrated in the cotton belt of Rajasthan,
Maharashtra & Gujarat.
• Localization of textile mills largely depends on raw material
assemblage, uninterrupted power supply and nearness to
market. The Indian cotton textiles industry
• This industry is located in almost every state in India, where now has a three-tier structure:
one or more of the locational factors have been favourable. 1. Low capital but labour intensive
• Uninterrupted supply of raw cotton from large cotton- hand spun khadi sector,
growing areas of West India benefited the industry in centres 2. An intermediate, labour-intensive
like Ahmedabad (Manchester of India), Nagpur, Surat, Indore sector of handlooms and power
and Coimbatore. looms,
• At present, the industry is also getting diffused to regions 3. The large scale mill sector which is
nearer to the large urban centres and ports to gain easy access capital intensive.
to domestic and foreign markets.

Factors Affecting Cotton Textile Industry:

1. Raw material :
• In India and the U.S., the industry is coterminous with the cotton-growing tracts.
• For example, Ahmedabad (Manchester of India), Solapur, Nagpur & Coimbatore (Manchester of South
India) are located in the areas of large-scale cotton cultivation.
• In the U.S., the industry is concentrated in the cotton-growing southern states.
• Since the cotton industry is not a weight losing industry, it isn’t always necessary to set up the industry
close to the cotton-producing areas.
• E.g. Cotton textiles industry in Kanpur (market, local investment), Kolkata (port), Manchester (market,
coal, water) & Bangladesh (cheap labour, government support).

2. Transportation
• The most favourable location for setting up the cotton textile industry is the one that is well connected
with cotton- producing areas and markets.
• This is because raw cotton and finished cloth can be transported without adding much to the total cost
of production.

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 • In India, dispersal of the industry from the old nuclei (Mumbai, Ahmedabad) started after 1921 with
railway lines penetrating into the peninsular region (Madurai, Bengaluru).

3. Access to market
• With a tropical and sub- tropical climate, all parts of India provide vast market potential for the cotton
textile industry.
• For example, West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Kerala and Odisha do not grow cotton and still
has cotton textile industry. This is because raw cotton and finished cloth can be transported without
adding much to the total cost of production.

4. Power
• The first modern cotton mills were powered by constant flow of water.
• From the 1780s onwards, steam engines drove the cotton mills.
• This enabled new mills to be built in urban contexts. E.g. Manchester.
• The development of hydro- electricity favoured the location of the cotton textile mills away from the
cotton-producing areas.
• For example, the growth of this industry (away from Mumbai) in Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore, Madurai
and Tirunelveli) is largely due to the availability of hydroelectricity from Pykara dam.

5. Climate
• The air in the cotton mill has to be hot and humid (18°C to 26°C and 85% humidity) to prevent the
thread from breaking.
• Hence the coastal regions in the tropics and subtropics are preferred locations. E.g. Mumbai and
Southeastern U.S.
• However, electricity-based temperature and humidity controllers enable the mills to be set up in a wide
range of locations.

6. Labour
• The industry has shifted from areas of high labour cost (UK, Germany, Japan) to those with low
labour cost (India, China and Bangladesh).
• Bangladesh has very little cotton production but is a significant producer of textiles mainly due to
the availability of very cheap labour (poverty & poor working conditions).
• The labour cost factor played a crucial role in establishing the industry at Madurai, Tirunelveli and
Coimbatore.

Challenges For Indian Cotton Textile Industry:

• Scarcity of cotton growing regions: Indian cotton textile industry suffered a lot after partition because
most of the long staple cotton growing areas went to Pakistan.
• Cotton crop is highly vulnerable to vagaries of monsoon: Crop (Kharif crop) is heavily dependent on
the erratic monsoon season. Approximately 62% of India’s cotton is produced in rainfed areas and only
38% on irrigated lands. Hence, India suffers from both overproduction and shortages.
• Low labour productivity: On an average, a worker in India handles about 2 looms as compared to 30
looms in japan and 60 looms in USA.
• Obsolete machinery: Most of the textile mills are old with obsolete machinery. This results in low
productivity and inferior quality.
• Competition in foreign market: The Indian cotton textile goods are facing stiff competition in foreign
markets from Taiwan, South Korea and Japan whose goods are cheaper and better in quality.

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• Good spinning sector but weak weaving, knitting and processing sector: Since the mid- eighties, the
spinning sector has received a lot of attention. India’s spinning mills are competitive at the global level
and capable of using all the fibres produced.

WOOLLEN TEXTILE INDUSTRY

• Wool and Woollen Textiles Industry is a rural based, export-oriented industry in which the organized
sector, the decentralized sector, and the rural sector complement each other.
• Best quality wool is obtained from sheep and goats in dry and cooler climates. Hot and humid climate
in India is not ideal for wool production.

Woollen Textile In India:

• The main concentration of woollen textile industry is found in Punjab, Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh.
• These states account for about three-fourths of the total spindle capacity. Gujarat, Karnataka, West
Bengal and Jammu and Kashmir are next in order of importance.

Factors Affecting Woollen Textile Industry

•The woollen industry is not weight losing.

•Hence mills can be established at faraway places from wool producing areas.
Raw material •For example, mills in the northern hemisphere import fine quality wool from
faraway places like Australia and New Zealand.
• As wool is non-perishable and lightweight, it can be transported over longer
distances economically through waterways.
Transportation • Mills that work on imported wool are usually located close to the ports to reduce
transportation costs. E.g. mills in Mumbai and Chennai.
• The woollen industry is primarily market-oriented.
• Wool fabrics hold more air which makes them excellent insulators against cold.
Access to market • Hence most of the woollen apparel industry is located in the temperate coastal
regions of the northern hemisphere.
• Industry located in the tropics is mostly export- oriented.
Power Just like cotton, woollen industry also need power supply for mill units.
Labour On the other hand, cheap labour plays an essential factor in the establishment of mills
in the tropics.

Challenges For Indian Woollen Textile Industry:

• Shortage of raw wool: India does not produce sufficient quantity of fine quality raw wool. Also the
productivity of Indian sheep is very low. On an average, an Indian sheep yields only 0.86 kg of wool
per annum against 4.08 kg yielded by an Australian sheep.
• Lack of Market: Most parts of India have tropical and sub-tropical climate which restricts the demand
for woollen clothes. The southern part of the country enjoys warm weather throughout the year and
people do not require woollen clothes at all. Even in the northern parts of India, the winter season lasts
only for four to five months in a year and it is only during this period that woollen clothes are required to
some extent.
• Lack of Modern Equipment: Most of the equipment in woollen textile industry, like other textile
industries, is obsolete and outdated as a result of which, its products are not able to cope with the ever-
changing designs and patterns, especially in the international market.
• Low Quality: Leaving aside a few exceptions, Indian woollen goods are considered to be of low quality
in the international markets which results in lack of demand.

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 JUTE TEXTILE INDUSTRY
• Jute industry is the second most important textile industry in India after cotton.
• The British setup the first jute industry in India in 1855 in the Hooghly valley near Kolkata.
• As of 2018, there are 97 jute mills in India.
• West Bengal (71) has the highest number of jute mills, followed by Andhra Pradesh (12).
• All the mills in West Bengal are located in a narrow belt about 100 km long along river Hooghly.
• The remaining mills are located in Uttar Pradesh (3), Bihar (3), Orissa (3) and Assam (2).
• The mills in Uttar Pradesh (sugar and cement industry) and Andhra Pradesh (Paddy) were set up to
meet the increasing local demand for gunny bags.
• Also, there is the availability of local fibres like Mesta (important commercial fibre crop after cotton and
Jute. Jute and Mesta fibre together is known as raw jute).

Factors Affecting Jute Textile Industry:

• India is the world’s largest producer of jute and WB alone accounts for 72%
Raw material of India’s jute production.
• Soil and climatic conditions in the delta region are ideal for jute cultivation.
• Hooghly is well connected through waterways (Ganga-Bhagirathi - Hooghly
Transportation Waterway - National Waterway 1) and rail with the jute growing areas.
• Kolkata port helps in the import of machinery and export of finished jute products.
Access to market • There is a vast domestic market throughout India for jute products (gunny bags).
Power • Thermal stations in the Hooghly basin (come under Damodar Valley Corporation)
use coal from Raniganj coalfields (~170 km).
• The Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta region has a very high population density, and
Labour most of the population here is poor.
• Cheap labour is also available from the surrounding regions of Bihar and Uttar
Pradesh.

Challenges For Jute Textile Industry:

• After partition, most of the jute producing areas went to Bangladesh while most of the jute mills
remained in India.
• This problem was overcome to a large extent by extending the area in India under jute and mesta.
• However, domestic production is simply not enough to satisfy the demand of Indian jute mills.
• The constant increase in rice cropped area in the delta region further complicates the situation.
• India imports significant quantities of jute fibre from Bangladesh to meet the shortfall.
• Antiquated technology and machinery, shortage of power and industrial sickness affect production.
• Newly established factories in Bangladesh are posing a tough competition.
• Adoption of synthetic alternatives (polythene, nylon) has resulted in the decline of demand for jute.

DISTRIBUTION OF MAJOR INDUSTRIES IN INDIA

SUGAR INDUSTRY
• Approximately 80% of the world's sugar is produced from sugarcane in tropical and subtropical
climates with the remaining 20% derived from sugar beet.
• In the 2018-2019 crop year, sugar production was 179 million metric tons (MT) in India.
• India (33 MT) became the world's largest sugar producer in 2018/2019.

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• It overtook Brazil (29.5 MT) for the first time in 16 years.
• Brazil, Thailand, Australia, India are the leading exporters of
sugar.
• Uttar Pradesh is the leading sugarcane producing State. Sugar
production in U.P. in 2018-19 is estimated to be around 13.5
MT.
• Sugar production in Maharashtra in 2018-19 is estimated to
be around 11.5 MT. In Feb 2020, for better use of surplus
sugar stock, GOI approved an increase in the price of ethanol
to be procured by public sector oil marketing companies
(OMCs) from sugar mills for blending with petrol.
• The decision will help in further increasing the ethanol blend
levels in petrol from the current 6%.
• For 2019 - 2020, India expects sugar production to drop to
26%. This is because of droughts in 2018 and floods in 2019 in
Maharashtra.

Factors affecting sugar industry

• The quality of sugarcane plays the most important role in production costs.
Raw material • Fifty per cent cost of production is accounted for by sugarcane alone.
• Hence the sugarcane mills are confined to the sugarcane growing regions of
the tropics (hot, humid, less windy areas).
• Sugarcane is highly perishable significantly weight losing raw material.
• Once the sugarcane is harvested, the cane starts to dry up, and the sucrose content
Transportation starts to decline rapidly.
• It is prohibitively expensive to transport sugarcane over long-distances.
• Hence the sugar mills are always located close to the cane growing areas (Hence
the cane is always grown close to the mills ― usually within a 100 km radius).
• Sugarcane is a water- intensive crop with a crop season of 12 to 18 months.
Water • The germination to ripening phase is itself close to a year.
• Hence the availability of water year-round is a critical factor for cane cultivation.
• Sugarcane is not harvested year-round & the crushing season varies from 4 to
Labour 8 months.
• Hence the availability of seasonal labour is critical for both harvesting and
processing.
• In India, harvesting and milling is done by migrant workers.

Challenges For Sugar Industry:

• The Indian sugarcane has low sucrose content and gives poor yields compared to the global average.
The production cost of sugar in India is one of the highest in the world.
• Since the harvesting can be done only in a particular season, the crushing is confined to a limited
period, and the sugar factories remain idle for the rest of the period.
• Most of the machinery used in Indian sugar mills, particularly those of UP and Bihar are old and obsolete.
Due to low profitability, the industry is unwilling to modernize.
• Low rate of recovery: the average rate of recovery in India is less than 10 per cent compared to other
major sugar-producing countries (14- 16 per cent).

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 Sugar Industry – North Vs South

North India (Sutlej- Ganga plain from Punjab to
Bihar)
• Low yield and productivity.
• High summer temperatures ranging from 30°
to 35°C and Loo (dry, scorching wind in May
and June with a desiccating effect) leads to
low growth and fibrous crop.
• In winter months (December and January)
the crop is likely to be damaged by severe cold
and frost.
• Hence it must be harvested before frost
season.
• Perennial rivers and large scale irrigation
facilities.
• The crushing season ranges from 4 to 8
months.
South India (Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil
Nadu, Andhra Pradesh)
• The tropical climate gives a higher yield per unit
area as compared to north India.
• No winds like 'loo' during summer.
• Reasonably high temperature during winter.
• Frost-free climate throughout the year.
• High maritime influence = moderate climate =
decreased crop duration and higher sucrose
content.
• Non-perennial rivers.
• Irrigational facilities have improved over time.
• Yearlong crushing (factories keep running
throughout the year)

• Has more mills than the south but they are of • Mills are comparatively large and modern.
comparatively smaller size and use antiquated
technology.

PETROCHEMICAL INDUSTRIES
• Crude petroleum is refined to get various petroleum products like
LPG, petrol, diesel, naphtha, polymers, synthetic fibres, surfactants,
and other compounds.
• These industrial units are located along the western coast of the
country because of proximity to the crude oil producing regions of
the India and Gulf states.
• Few of the industrial units are also located in the north east to exploit
the reserves of Brahmaputra Valley.
• Industries manufacturing nylon and polyester yarns are located at
Kota, Pimpri, Mumbai, Modinagar, Pune, Ujjain, Nagpur and
Udhna.

Factors affecting petrochemical industries:

• These industrial units are located along the western coast of the country because of proximity to the crude
oil producing regions of the India and Gulf states.
• Mumbai is the hub of the petrochemical industries. National Organic Chemicals Industries Limited
(NOCIL), established in private sector in 1961, started the first naphtha based chemical industry in
Mumbai.
• Similarly, Digboi, Guwahati are the locations in the north east where crude petroleum reserves are found.
• Other centres are Barauni, Mathura etc. which are located along the pipelines set up to transport raw
materials.
• Synthetic fibres are widely used in the manufacturing of fabrics because of their inherent strength,
durability, washability, and resistance to shrinkage.

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• Industries manufacturing nylon and polyester yarns are located at Kota, Pimpri, Mumbai, Modinagar,
Pune, Ujjain, Nagpur and Udhna.

Challenges faced by petrochemical industries:

• High import cost of the raw material, i.e. crude oil and natural gas, from petroleum exporting countries.
• High cost of energy and feedstock and the consequent impact on demand.
• The manufacturing units mostly use obsolete form of technology and are not able to produce optimally.
• High excise duty on synthetic fibres to promote the natural fibre industry.

FERTILISER INDUSTRY
• Fertiliser industry is one of the eight core industries. The
significant contribution made by the chemical fertilisers can
be seen from the impact of green revolution on Indian
agriculture.
• The localisation of fertiliser industry is closely related to
that of petrochemicals. About 70% of units producing
nitrogenous fertilisers use naphtha as basic raw material.
That’s why they are located near oil refineries.
• In recent years, transportation cost of raw materials through
pipelines has facilitated the widespread distribution of
fertiliser plants.
• The Hajira – Vijaipur - Jagdishpur gas pipeline has given
birth to plants at Vijaipur, Jagdishpur, Babrala etc.
• Phosphatic fertiliser plants are dependent on mineral
phosphate which is largely imported but reserves are also
found in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Jharkhand.

Challenges Faced By Fertiliser Industry

• Urgent need to bridge demand supply gap: During the last one-and-a-half decade or so, hardly any
investment has been made for adding to indigenous urea production capacity. As a result, indigenous
production of fertilisers is not sufficient to fulfill local demand.
• High import dependence: insufficient indigenous production leads to high import dependence. In
phosphate and potash, acute lack of natural resources leads to high dependence on imports which makes
Indian industry highly vulnerable. Thus, we depend on imports to the extent of 85-90% in phosphates,
95% in sulphur and 100% in potash. The high import dependence often leads to our exploitation in
international market which is cartelized by a few suppliers.
• Increasing imbalance in fertiliser use: subsidised urea prices coupled with costly Phosphatic and Potash
fertilisers have encouraged farmers to apply excess of urea. This has resulted in harmful impact on soil
fertility in the long run.
• Shortage of gas and its high price: Gas is the predominant feedstock in production of fertilizers in India.
Gas based plants account for about 80% of total urea production capacity of 22 million tons. Fertilisers
get top priority in gas allocation. LPG is at number two and power gets the third slot. Yet, requirements
of fertilizer plants are far from fully covered. The situation will only deteriorate in years ahead

AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY
• India has emerged as Asia's fourth largest exporter of automobiles, behind Japan, South Korea and
Thailand.
• The country is expected to top the world in car volumes with approximately 611 million vehicles on
the nation's roads by 2050.

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 • The Economic progress of this industry is indicated by
the amount of goods and services produced which give
the capacity for transportation and boost the sale of
vehicles.
• There is a huge increase in automobile production with a
catalyst effect by indirectly increasing the demand for
a number of raw materials like steel, rubber, plastics,
glass, paint, electronics and services.

Factors affecting location of automobile industry:

• The automobile industry tends to be located near iron
and steel producing centres because steel is the basic
raw material used in this industry.
• The proximity of places producing tyres, tubes,
storage batteries, paints and other ancillary
industries is considered to be an added advantage.
• Port cities also find favour with this industry because of
the import and export facilities offered by such places.
• Of late, automobile industry has become market
oriented and prefers those locations which offer ready
market for the manufactured vehicles.
• Under the Government plans for decentralization of industries, some locations in remote and industrially
backward areas are given priority.

Challenges Faced By Automobile Industry:

• Stricter environmental safeguards: to counter the global environmental concerns, national and
international policies are heading towards a strict regime of emission standards, fuel categorisations, use
of biofuels and electric vehicles.
• Infrastructure constraints: automobile plants need investment in terms of land, capital and skilled
labour. Availability of these resources has been an issue recently, especially land acquisition problems.
Ex: in Bengal and Orissa.
• Diverse market base: in India, the consumer base of the industry is highly diverse because of varying
terrestrial and socio-economic reasons. The industry must improve its product portfolio to serve the needs
of middle income urban population and large rural populace.
• Lack in R&D: Lack of research and development in fuel efficient technologies, emission standards and
production cost reduction.

LEATHER & FOOTWEAR INDUSTRY

• The Indian leather industry accounts for around 12.93 per cent of the world’s leather production of
hides/skins.
• The country ranks second in terms of footwear and leather garments production in the world and accounts
for 9 per cent of the world’s footwear production.
• India’s leather industry has grown drastically, transforming from a mere raw material supplier to a value-
added product exporter. It is a significant industry with huge employment and export potential.

Factors Affecting Location Of Leather Industry:

• Leather tanneries are distributed mainly along the predominantly rural regions of Uttar Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Haryana and Punjab.

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• Footwear manufacturing units are localised around the leather tanneries from where they can source
raw materials at low transport cost.
• Tanneries also require large quantities of water and regular power supply. So, locations near water
bodies and with power availability are preferred.

Challenges Faced By Leather Industry:

• Logistics: The costs and time involved in getting goods from factory to destination are greater in India
than those in other developing countries. For leather and footwear industries, logistics efficiency is very
important as it is an industry with bulky inputs and outputs.
• Strict labour regulations: Labour costs, India’s source of comparative advantage in this sector, also seem
not to work in its favour. The problems are well-known such as - regulations on minimum overtime pay,
onerous mandatory contributions towards pension and insurance products, lack of flexibility in part-time
work and high minimum wages in some cases.
• Tax and tariff policies: Policies of the state governments impose high tariffs and taxes on footwear
and leather industries eroding their export competitiveness. However, these policies are being
gradually amended to incentivise investment and promoting exports.
• Reduction in global demand: the global demand for footwear is shifting from leather footwear to non-
leather footwear owing to host of reasons like physical comfort, aesthetics and price affordability which
work in favor of non-leather shoes as opposed to leather shoes.

KNOWLEDGE BASED INDUSTRIES

• The advancement in information technology has had a
profound influence on the country’s economy.
The Information Technology (IT) revolution opened up new
possibilities of economic and social transformation.
• The IT and IT enabled business process outsourcing (ITES-
BPO) services continue to be on a robust growth path.
• Indian software industry has emerged as one of the fastest
growing sectors in the economy. The software industry has
surpassed electronic hardware production.
• The Indian government has created a number of software
parks in the country.
• India’s software industry has achieved a remarkable
distinction for providing quality products. A large number
of Indian software companies have acquired international
quality certification.
• A majority of the multinational companies (MNCs) operating
in the area of information technology have either software
development centres or research development centres in India.
• A major impact of this growth has been on employment
creation, which is almost doubled every year.
NITI Aayog - INDIA@75: India’s manufacturing sector:
• India’s manufacturing sector has evolved through several phases – from initial industrialization and license
raj to liberalization and the current global competitiveness. In 2017, the manufacturing sector contributed
only about 16% of India’s GDP.
• India is the fifth largest manufacturer in the world with a gross value added (GVA) of INR 21,531.47
billion in 2017-18
• The sector registered a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of around 7.7 % between 2012-13 and
2017-18

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 Potential or Opportunity:
• India has three Ds (Democracy, demography and demand) for the growth of the manufacturing sector.
• Demographic dividend - 65% of India’s population is below the age of 35 – an advantage when compared
to other counties.
• Spillover effect - Studies have shown that every job created in the manufacturing sector has a multiplier
effect in creating 2 to 3 jobs in the service sector.
• Domestic demand - High domestic demand, increasing middle class and young population and high
returns make India attractive for the manufacturers.
• Low cost manpower -The manpower cost is low when compared to other nations.
• Absorb huge labor force – Labor intensive manufacturing sector is ray of hope for India to absorb its
huge unemployment.

Issues and challenges faced by manufacturing sector

• The reluctance of Banks to extend financial loans.
• Biased trade regime
• Small enterprises are of disproportionate size and age of industrial units: Indian MSMEs suffer from
the ‘bane of dwarfism’ as mentioned in Economic Survey 2018-19.
• Low Productivity: According to McKinsey report
• Low spending on R&D - only 0.9% of GDP on R&D
• Tough competition due to the cheap imports from China
• Black money and corruption
• Investment and consumption crisis.
• Unfavorable land and labour laws
• High transportation cost accompanied by poor transport facilities.
• Geo-economic challenges like trade war, US-Iran tensions, Covid-19 etc.
• Less Labour productivity
• Risky and expensive Intellectual Property Protection and Enforcement
• Poor Infrastructure facilities.
• Red Tapism and policy paralysis.
• Service sector driven growth
• Import-oriented economy.

Government initiatives
• Make in India initiative aims to make India the global manufacturing hub. It also aims to increase the
sector’s GDP share to 25% from the existing 16%.
• Start-up India initiative to promote entrepreneurship and nurture innovation
• Micro Units Development and Refinance Agency (MUDRA) and Stand-up India to facilitate access to
credit.
• Major infrastructure projects, such as the setting up of industrial corridors, to boost manufacturing.
• Skill India aims to create jobs and promote entrepreneurship within India
• National Manufacturing Policy (NMP) provides for Technology Acquisition and Development Fund
(TADF) that facilitates the acquisition of clean, green and energy-efficient technology by MSMEs.
• Special economic zones (SEZs).
• Zero Effect Zero Defect
• Industrial corridor
• Labour code reform 2020
• Special focus on North east region

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• Sharm Suvidha is a web portal that provides a single platform for all labour law compliances.

Global best experience

• China: China is currently one of the dominant players in the global economy and its growth is mainly
because of its manufacturing sector.
• South Korea: South Korea has become a high-tech manufacturing country by giving higher emphasis
on the purchase of technology and subsidies on R&D investments made by the public and private
players.

Way Forward according to NITI AYOG @75

• Demand generation, augmentation of industrial infrastructure and promotion of MSMEs
• Mega public projects such as Sagar- mala, Bharatmala, industrial corridors, and the Pradhan Mantri Awas
Yojana (PMAY) can stimulate domestic manufacturing activities e.g. Madhepura Electric Locomotive
Project, a joint venture between the Indian Railways and the French multinational Alstom, provides a good
example of how mega projects can be leveraged to boost domestic production.
• Portal to monitor projects beyond a given threshold so that any roadblocks are identified and addressed
on a real time basis.
• Liberalize further FDI in manufacturing → Harmonize Indian quality standards with global standards
in many sectors. (Task to be given to QCI, BIS)
• Review of standards of engineering education and its linkages with industry and prepare employable
workforce.

Ways to addressing the issues of MSMEs

• Setting up of mega parks and manufacturing clusters in labour intensive sectors with common
facilities to reduce costs and improve quality.
• Workers of industrial units in the new mega parks should have decent accommodation within
reasonable proximity of the work place.
• An expert committee should examine sector-specific pain points and make its recommendations within
three months.
• The Department of Public Enterprises (DPE) should ensure registration of all public sector units
(PSUs) on the Trade Receivables Discounting System (TREDS) portal.
• Initiate a small business research programme in some select ministries for encouraging R&D in
MSMEs.

@Akash_Singhh

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