This is hereby to certify that the original and genuine

investigation work has been carried out to investigate about

subject matter and related data collection and investigation has
been completed solely, sincerely and satisfactorily done by
“Aarushi Singh” a student of Class 12th for the academic session
2022 - 2023.

Principal’s Sign…………………

Examiner’s Sign……………… Teacher’s Sign………………

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my teacher
“Mr. K.N. Mishra Sir” as well as our pincipal “Mrs. Vandana Singh” who
gave the golden opportunity to do this project, which also helped me
in doing lots of Experiments and Activities and I came to know about
so many new things . I am really thankful to them.

Secondly I would also like to thank my parents and friends who

helped me a lot in finalizing this project within the limited time.
 Contents
 Abstract
 Aim
 Introduction
 Theory
 Conclusion
Abstract :-
Human beings and other animals have had cancer throughout
recorded history. So it is no surprise that from the dawn of
history, people have written about cancer. The origin of the
word cancer is credited to -
- The Greek Physician “Hippocrates” (460 - 370 BC)
who is considered as the “Father of Medicine”.

Hippocrates used the terms ‘carcinos’ and ‘carcinoma’ to

describe non-ulcer forming and ulcer forming tumors. In Greek
these words refer to a crab, most likely applied to the disease
because the finger like spreading projections from a cancer
called to mind the shape of a crab.

The Roman Physician Celsus (28 - 50 BC), later translated the

Greek term into cancer, Latin word for crab.
Aim :- To study the role of isotopes in treatment of cancer.
Introduction :-
Cancer is one of the most feared diseases in the world and it
affects over 11 lakh people every year in India alone.
Worldwide, more than 10 million people succumb to this
disease every year.
In humans, cell differentiation and proliferation are highly
manipulated and regularized by the cell division mechanism.

Uncontrolled cell division occurs when a process

called contact inhibition fails. In healthy organisms, during
this process, when cells come in contact with other cells, the
process of cell replication ceases.
As a result, contact inhibition becomes a powerful anti-cancer
mechanism, but it is lost in cancer cells. Hence, most types of
cancer have tumours (except for cancers of the blood).
Thus, Cancer is the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells
anywhere in a body. These abnormal cells are termed as cancer
cells or tumor cells These cells can infiltrate normal body tissues.
The branch of science in which we study about cancer is known as
Oncology.
 Causes of cancer :-
Many factors are attributed to causing cancer. The most
probable factors are carcinogens which include :
a. Physical factors :– Ionizing radiation such as X-rays
and gamma rays.
b. Chemical factors :– Such as Tobacco and Smoke.
c. Biological factors :– Viral, Proto and Cellular
Oncogenes.

 Symptoms of cancer :-
Signs and symptoms caused by cancer will vary depending
on what part of the body is affected.

Some general signs and symptoms associated with, but not

specific to, cancer, include:

 Fatigue
 Lump or area of thickening that can be felt under the skin
 Weight changes, including unintended loss or gain
 Skin changes such as yellowing, darkening or redness
 Persistent, unexplained muscle or joint pain
 Persistent cough or trouble breathing
 Persistent indigestion or discomfort after eating
 Persistent, unexplained fevers or night sweats
 Unexplained bleeding or bruising
 Diagnosis of cancer :-
The detection and diagnosis of cancer are very important
before it spreads to other parts of the body. Identification
of cancer genes is pivotal to prevent cancer.
The following methods are used to detect cancer –
1. Biopsy
2. Histopathological Studies of Tissue
3. Radiography Technique
4. Computed Tomography
5. Magnetic Resonance Imaging
6. Molecular Biology Techniques

 Preventions of cancer :-
 Don't use tobacco.
 Eat a healthy diet.
 Maintain a healthy weight and be physically active.
 Protect yourself from the sun.
 Get vaccinated.
 Avoid risky behaviors.
 Get regular medical care.
  Treatment of cancer :-
Commonly, three types of treatment are available for
cancer.
1. Surgery – Surgically removing localized cancerous mass.
2. Chemotherapy – Chemotherapeutic drugs are used to
kill cancer cells.
3. Radiation therapy – In this therapy, radiation is used to
kill the cancer cells.

Note :- Many chemical drugs have side effects in cancer

patients like hair loss. So, interferons are injected into
cancer patients to develop immunity against these side
effects.

Theory :-
The use of radioactivity in medicine has been developed over a
century. The discovery of radioisotopes and their interactions
with living cells and tissue has led to the emergence of new
diagnostic and therapeutic modalities.
The CERN-MEDICIS infrastructure, recently inaugurated at the
European Center for Nuclear Research (CERN), provides a
wide range of radioisotopes of interest for diagnosis and
treatment in oncology.

In the treatment of cancer, radiation can be administered to

the malignant tissues in several different ways :
For example, needles of radium or cobalt-60 can be implanted
directly into the tumor, or radioisotope in liquid form can be
injected, knowing that it is likely to concentrate in a specific
tissue.

However, by far the most important therapeutic technique is

teletherapy (or beam therapy) in which the source of radiation
remains outside the body and the beam of radiation is directed
at the tumor through the overlying tissue. The source of
radiation may be an X-ray tube, a "supervoltage" machine such
as a betatron or a linear accelerator, or a radioisotope which
emits high energy gamma-rays.

The two isotopes commonly used for this purpose are :

cobalt-60 and cesium-137.

Radiation treatment of malignant growths is not, of course, a

novel procedure. Both radium implants and X-rays generated
at medium voltages (up to 250 kV) have been used all over the
world for many years.

However, large scale production of radioisotopes in atomic

reactors has made radiotherapy available for the first time in
less developed areas of the world. Moreover, the treatment has
been simplified and, in many cases, made more effective.

An isotopic source, of course, has its disadvantages as well.

Unlike an X-ray set or an accelerator, the radiation from an
isotopic unit cannot be turned off, so it is necessary to
surround the radioactive source with a massive container of
lead or other heavy material. This container is provided with
an opening of variable dimensions (the collimator) through
which the working beam emerges, the opening being closed by
a shutter when no radiation is required.
The design of an isotopic teletherapy unit is essentially a
question of the container, the shutter and the collimator.

Another disadvantage of an isotopic source is that its activity

decreases continuously owing to radioactive decay. In due
course the intensity of the radiation emitted falls to such an
extent that the source has to be replaced altogether.

Obviously the isotope chosen should have as low a rate of

decay as possible so that replacement of the source is needed
only at long intervals.

Cobalt-60 has a "half-life" of 5.3 years, while the "half-life" of

cesium-137 is about 30 years. The main requirements of an
isotope for use in teletherapy may thus be summarized
as follows:
(i) It must have a long half-life
(ii) It must emit high energy gamma rays
(iii) It must be available in large quantities and
(iv) It must be available with high "specific activity" so that
radioactive material emitting a very high intensity of radiation
can be concentrated in a source of small physical dimensions.

For practical purposes, Co-60 and Cs-137 are the only isotopes
which satisfy these requirements to a sufficient extent.

Of these, more than half are new cases, having been diagnosed
for the first time during the year. If present trends continue,
about one forth of the nation's citizen's will sooner or later
develop cancer.
Conclusion :-
Now a days, lot of people suffer from unavoidable disease
known as cancer.
Cancer is likely to damage important or vital organs or tissue
in any or all part of the body. Causing serious disease and often
death.
Cancer still tolls huge numbers of lines. In spite of effective
treatment, basic understanding of the causes and factors
responsible for cancer. In most of the people suffering from
cancer, some hypothesis trolls which are as follows :

1. Cancer remain unidentified in initial stage.

2. Carcinogens induces cancer which are prevent in
environment due to pollution.
3. Normal genes of body become defective and cause cancer.
4. Lack of awareness in public to identify the cancer.
5. The cancer is an incurable disease but it can be treated by
combination of surgery, drugs and radiation therapy.
We have to always avoid the hypothesis regarding cancer and
we should diagnose the cancer for it’s treatment followed by
it’s prevention.
We should always avoid radiation therapy because there is a
lot of risk that it can damage other parts of our body.