Nutritive Aspects of Food Constituents

Food supplies both the energy for all of the body's functions and the building
blocks for growth and maintenance. Even in fully grown adults there is a
requirement for energy and to build and maintain body components that are
being replaced. For example, the human stomach is constantly being lost and
replaced. Also, there is increasing evidence that diet plays a major role in our
defense against disease, including chronic diseases such as cancer and heart
disease. Mental processes and behavioral attitudes appear to be influenced by
nutritional status and specific nutrients.
The food scientist must consider the nutritive aspects of food from two points of
view: first, what nutrients do foods contain and what is a human's requirement
for these; and second, what are the relative stabilities of these nutrients and how
are they affected by food processing, storage, and preparation. The science of
nutrition, concerned with these broad areas, also deals with the physiological and
biochemical phenomena of food utilization as related to health.
The nutrients in food, required in balanced amounts to produce and maintain
optimum health, belong to the broad groups of carbohydrates, proteins, fats,
vitamins, and minerals. Water, not generally classified as a nutrient, must not be
overlooked, because a lack of water even for a short period is life threatening.

FOOD AND ENERGY

Food is the "fuel" which supplies chemical energy to the body to support daily
activity and synthesis of necessary chemicals within the body. The major sources
of energy for humans and other animals are carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. In
addition to supplying energy, these nutrients have other specific functions, but
their conversions to energy are of fundamental importance. The energy value of
foods is measured in heat units called calories.

Calories
A calorie is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of
water one degree Celsius (from 14.5 to 15.5°C). The kilocalorie (1000 calories) is
the unit commonly used in expressing energy values of foods. In an effort to
standardize non-metric and metric measurement under the International System
of Units (SI), the kilo joule is sometimes used in place of the kilocalorie
(kilocalories x 4.2 = kilojoules).
Calories remain, however, the more common unit of nutritionists, and so this
term will be used in subsequent discussions. While the caloric contents of foods
are relatively fixed, a human's caloric requirements vary widely, depending upon
such factors as physical activity, climatic conditions, weight, age, sex, and
individual metabolic differences. It generally is agreed that quite apart from the
other nutritional demands of the body, and except for very young children and
the aged, a daily intake of less than about 2000 kcal represents dietary
insufficiency.

Balance diet
Clearly, diet is a significant concern to the people and terms from the Nutrition
Facts label—proteins, carbohydrates, fats, minerals, and vitamins—are household
words, known to almost everyone but understood by only a few. In much of the
remainder of this essay, we explore these concepts, discussing what they mean in
very basic scientific terms, as well as in terms of their significance in the diets of
humans and other animals.

PROTEINS
Proteins are large molecules built from long chains of amino acids, which are
organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and (in some
cases) sulfur bonded in characteristic formations. Proteins serve the functions of
promoting normal growth, repairing damaged tissue, contributing to the body’s
immune system, and making enzymes. (An enzyme is a protein material that
speeds up chemical reactions in the bodies of plants and animals.)

Proteins in the human body contain about 20 different amino acids, of which the
body is able to manufacture 12 from the foods we eat. The other eight, which the
body requires for protein production but is unable to manufacture on its own, are
known as the essential amino acids.
When a protein contains all of the essential amino acids, it is known as a complete
protein.
Among the best forms of complete protein are fish, red meat, and poultry as well
as eggs, milk, cheese, and other dairy products. Fittingly, a protein that lacks at
least one of the essential amino acids is known as an incomplete protein.
Examples include peas, beans, lentils, nuts, and cereal grains. These can, however,
be combined in such a way as to make a complete protein, beans and rice being a
good example.

CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are natural compounds that consist of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen and whose primary function in the body is to supply energy. When a
person ingests more carbohydrates than his or her body needs at the moment,
the body converts the excess into a compound known as glycogen. It then stores
the glycogen in the liver and muscle tissues, where it remains, a potential source
of energy for the body to use in the future.
Sugars, starches, cellulose, and various other chemically related substances are
part of the carbohydrate group. Most carbohydrates are produced by green
plants in the process of undergoing photosynthesis. Nutritionally, the
carbohydrates include sugar in its various forms as well as another class of food
that people do not always think of as carbohydrates: fruits. Additionally, starchy
foods as potatoes, rice, and wheat products (bread, pasta, and so on) rank as
important carbohydrates, while cereal grains and corn are examples of foods that
contain both starchy carbohydrates and proteins.

LIPIDS
All fats and oils are lipids; these substances are distinguished by the fact that they
are soluble only in compounds made of non-polar molecules. Water is an example
of a polar molecule, because the oxygen and hydrogen atoms tend to occupy
opposite “ends” of the molecule, with one end exerting a negative electric charge
and the other end a positive one. Therefore, water molecules tend to stick closely
together.
On the other hand, oil molecules, which consist of carbon and hydrogen, are non-
polar, because the atoms of the two elements do not tend to drift to opposite
ends of the molecule. As a result, oil has the slippery texture for which it is
known.
With their affinity for non-polar molecules, lipids are soluble, or capable of
dissolving, in oily or fatty substances but not in water. In the body, lipids, like
carbohydrates, supply energy, only in different ways and on a different time table.
When burned, a gram of lipid actually produces about three times as much energy
as a gram of carbohydrate, but this energy release takes place much more slowly.
Among the other functions performed by lipids in the body are protection of
organs from shock and damage and the provision of insulation for the body, for
instance, from toxins.

VITAMINS AND MINERALS

Vitamins are organic substances that, in extremely small quantities, are essential
to the nutrition of most animals and some plants. In particular, they work with
enzymes in regulating metabolic processes, but they do not in themselves provide
energy; thus, vitamins alone do not qualify as a form of nutrition. Much the same
is true of minerals, except that they are inorganic substances.
And whereas vitamins are usually chemically complex (the formula for vitamin A,
for instance, is C20H29OH), minerals may be as simple as a single element—for
instance, iron or calcium.
Though the body can produce some vitamins, in general, vitamins and minerals
are substances that the body is incapable of making for itself. Therefore, for
optimal health, it is necessary to include them in the diet on a regular, if not daily,
basis. They also have in common the fact that the body needs them only in very
small quantities, for which reason they are sometimes known as micronutrients.
Vitamin A, for example, is a substance necessary to the functioning of the eye’s
retina in adjusting to light, and thus proper vitamin A levels are essential for night
vision. Without vitamin
A, a person can be afflicted with a condition known as night blindness, as well as
with dryness of the skin. Vitamin A is also essential to bone growth. This vitamin
occurs naturally in such foods as green and yellow vegetables, eggs, fruits, and
liver and particularly in fish liver oils, such as cod liver oil.
Calcium, a mineral, helps build strong bones and teeth. It also has a role in the
normal functioning of nerve and muscle activity. Ninety-nine percent of the
body’s calcium is stored in the skeleton and teeth, while the remainder circulates
in the bloodstream, where it helps make possible muscle contractions. Bones are
70% calcium by weight, which gives them their strength and rigidity. Calcium,
which is even more prevalent than iron, is the most abundant metallic element in
the human body. Good dietary sources of calcium include milk and milk products,
eggs, such leafy green vegetables as spinach, and sardines.

Food Pyramid
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) has developed a diagram, called the
food pyramid, to illustrate the components needed in a healthy diet. The bottom
and widest level of the pyramid contains the cereal foods, such as breads, pastas,
and rice. Primarily carbohydrates, these foods are a major source of energy, and
therefore the USDA recommends 6-11 servings of 1-2 oz (30–60 g) from this food
group. As to the exact number of servings, this is a function of such variables as
age, gender, weight, and degree of regular physical activity.
The second level of the food pyramid, which is smaller than the first, consists of
fruits and vegetables. These foods, which are also primarily carbohydrates, are
especially important in supplying vitamins and minerals. A secondary function is
the delivery of indigestible fiber, which improves the functioning and health of
the large intestine, or colon. From this group, the USDA recommends 5-9 servings
a day.
At the third level of the pyramid are
proteins, including meats, eggs, beans, nuts,
and milk products. According to the USDA,
the percentage of these foods in one’s diet
should be much smaller than the percentage
of carbohydrates.
Smaller still is the quantity of servings at the
top level, which contains the lipids. The small space allotted to this food
emphasizes the fact that fats and oils should be consumed in small quantities for
optimum health.

Fat and the balance Diet

What we have just described is the orthodox view of nutrition in the start of
twenty-first century. By that time, however, physicians, nutritionists, dieticians,
and other specialists had begun to question the emphasis on carbohydrates in the
USDA food pyramid and other mainstream diets. For a young person, whose body
is still growing, the food pyramid is a good
dietary plan. But for a person past the early
twenties, particularly those who are overweight
or suffering from a condition such as diabetes,
other approaches may be needed.
The average adult is considerably overweight
for his or her height and age group, a fact for
which a number of practices can be blamed.
Among these practices is inactivity.
Things have changed a great deal since our
ancestors spent their whole lives in a flurry of
physical activity, hunting animals for food and remaining ever on the move. Our
bodies themselves—a product of natural selection that took place over countless
generations —knows nothing about this change. They are still programmed to
perform as they did 10,000 years ago, storing fat for use in lean times.
Thus, inactivity breeds obesity, a condition that cannot be addressed successfully
by diets aimed simply at reducing consumption. In such a situation, the body
simply holds on to its fat more fiercely, and this is one reason why a starvation
diet is less than useless as a means of bringing about healthy weight loss. Starving
oneself also reduces lean muscle mass, which further slows the metabolism and
makes it still harder to burn fat. In fact, one of the best ways to lose weight is by
combining resistance exercise (i.e., weight lifting) with proper eating.
Then, of course, there are the things people eat: junk food and fried foods, for
instance.
Eating junk food, pumped full of chemicals and white sugar, is like dumping
garbage into a gas tank. As for fried foods, an American seldom realizes how
much is in his or her diet until making a visit overseas. In Germany, for instance,
virtually nothing is fried, and though people eat hearty meals with plenty of
sausage, potatoes, bread, and beer, obesity is far less of a problem in Germany
than in America. (Furthermore, the American traveler is likely to have far better
bowel movements on the high-fiber German diet than on the greasy, fatty, salty
American diet.)

The Case for Proteins

As healthy as a diet based on the food pyramid is, an overweight adult who stuck
religiously to it most likely would remain overweight, even if he or she combined
it with a regular program of aerobic exercise (e.g., jogging). Thus, by the late
twentieth century, numerous experts across a wide spectrum of health
professions began to challenge the old orthodoxy that held up carbohydrates as
the central component of a healthy diet. Instead, a growing body of opinion
favored diets that rely more on proteins and even healthy fats, such as those in
broiled or grilled salmon or olive oil.
Whereas carbohydrate consumption can help an athlete gain a burst of energy,
for most people carbohydrates are simply the raw materials for fat, which the
body will store when it discovers that it does not need the carbohydrates
themselves as an immediate source of energy.
Furthermore, the brain has a mechanism for signaling the body that it has
consumed enough protein, whereas there is no such mechanism where
carbohydrates are concerned. To test this, try eating a meal of just protein:
chances are that you will feel you have had enough fairly quickly. On the other
hand, try eating a meal of just starches; you will find that you can eat and eat and
eat, piling on calories as you do.

Malnutrition
As we noted earlier, corn has both protein and carbohydrate components, but
this does not mean that a diet heavy in corn and corn products is a healthy one.
Such a diet was not uncommon among people in Mexico and other parts of Latin
America. It is quite possible to eat cheaply from a diet that relies primarily on
corn. Yet someone who does so is at risk of serious health problems, because corn
is lacking in two essential amino acids, lysine and tryptophan.
This is just one example of malnutrition, a condition that develops when the body
does not obtain the right amount of the vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients it
needs to maintain healthy tissues and organ function.
Malnutrition occurs in people who are either undernourished or over nourished.