[ICE LABORATORY REPORT]

[Name: Gehad Essam Mahmoud Zayd]

[ID:19015553 ]

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Table of content

content Titles page

Introduction of friction 2
First lab Total engine friction 3
Engine friction
Different methods to
calculate friction 5

Lab experiment and 8

calculations

Introduction 10
Second lab 11
Types of energies
Energy balance
Lab experiment and 14
calculations

Introduction 20
Dynamometers Eddy current dynamometer 21

References 23

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 First lab: Engine friction

INTRODUCTION OF FRICTION
Friction generally refers to forces acting between surfaces in relative motion. In engines,
frictional losses are mainly due to sliding as well as rotating parts. Normally, engine
friction, in its broader sense, is taken as the difference between the indicated power
(power at piston top as produced by the combustion gases) and the brake power (useful
power).
Friction power = Indicated power – Brake power

Engine Friction is the friction that is caused by everything that goes into the engine
and items that run off of the engine.
We are talking about:

• the bearings for the crankshaft.

• connecting rods and camshaft(s).
• Plus, there is more friction in the valve train, from the lifters, rocker arms and the
valve springs.

Another issue with Engine Friction are the items connected to the engine via drive belts
that is considered accessory loads as:

• the alternator.
• power steering pump.
• water pump.
• air conditioning
compressor.
• sometimes the cooling fan.

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TOTAL ENGINE FRICTION
Total engine friction, defined as the difference between indicated horsepower and brake
horsepower, includes the power required to drive the compressor or a scavenging pump
and the power required to drive engine auxiliaries such as oil pump, coolant pump and
fan, etc.
Total engine friction can be divided into five main components:
❖ Crankcase mechanical friction.
❖ Blowby losses (compression-expansion pumping loss).
❖ Exhaust and inlet system throttling losses.
❖ Combustion chamber pumping loop losses.
❖ Piston mechanical friction.

Crankcase Mechanical Friction

It is about 15 to 20 percent of total engine friction.
It’s divided into 3 types:
✓ Bearing friction Valve
✓ gear friction
✓ Pump and miscellaneous friction.
All crankcase friction losses other than bearing and valve gear losses vary roughly in
proportion to engine displacement and speed.
The bearing friction
Includes the friction due to main bearing, connecting rod bearing and other bearings.
Bearing friction is viscous in nature and depends upon the oil viscosity, the speed, size
and geometry of the journal.
These losses are the result of continuous shear of the oil film in the bearing clearance
so it rises rapidly with increase in speed.

Blow by Losses
Blowby is the phenomenon of leakage of combustion products past the piston and
piston rings from the cylinder to the crankcase.
These losses depend upon the inlet pressure and compression ratio.

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These losses vary as the square root of inlet pressure and increase as the compression
ratios increase. Blowby losses are reduced as the engine speed is increased.

Exhaust and Inlet Throttling Loss

The standard practice for sizing the exhaust valve is to make them a certain percentage
smaller than inlet valves.
This usually results in an insufficiently sized exhaust valve and hence, results in exhaust
pumping loss.

Combustion Chamber Pumping Loop Losses

In the case of pre-combustion chamber engines an additional loss occurs.
This is the loss occurring due to the pumping work required to pump gases into and out
of the precombustion chamber.
The exact value of this would depend upon the orifice size connecting the
precombustion chamber and the main chamber, and the speed.
The Higher the speed the greater is the loss and the smaller the orifice size the greater
is the loss.

Piston Mechanical Friction

It is divided into two types.

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 ❖ Viscous friction.
❖ Non-viscous friction.
Non-viscous friction further divided into:
a) Friction due to ring tension.
b) Friction due to gas pressure forces behind the ring.

The viscous friction depends upon the viscosity of the oil and the temperature of the
various parts of the piston.
The degree to which the upper part of the piston can be lubricated also affects the
viscous friction.
The oil film thickness between piston and the cylinder is also affected by the piston side
thrust and the resulting vibrations.

Different methods to calculate friction

Measurement methods
A true measurement of friction in a firing engine can only be obtained by
subtracting the brake power from the indicated power determined from
accurate measurements of cylinder pressure throughout the cycle.
However,this method is not easy to use on multicylinder engines, both because of
cylinder-to-cylinder differences in indicated power and due to the difficulties in
obtaining sufficiently accurate pressure data.
➢ Measurement of fmep from imep

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 ➢ Direct motoring test
Drive an unfired engine with an electric motor; By measuring the electric
power input to the motor driving the engine it can be a good approximation
of the friction power lost.

Engine temperatures should be maintained as close to normal operating

temperatures as possible, so the test procedure can be:
• Run the engine at normal fired mode.
• When the engine reached steady state condition turn off the engine
• Immediately test the engine using electric motor for brief time (the
time which the engine temperature is as fired temperature).

➢ Willians line
A plot of fuel consumption versus brake output obtained from engine tests
at a fixed speed is extrapolated back to zero fuel consumption.

➢ Morse test
In the Morse test, individual cylinders in a multicylinder engine are cut out

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from firing, and the reduction in brake torque is determined while maintaining the same
engine speed.
The remaining cylinders drive the cylinder cut out. Care must be taken to determine that
the action of cutting out one cylinder does not significantly disturb the fuel or mixture
flow to the others.
Steps:
1. Operate the engine at a constant speed (RPM) and determine the
Brake power that out from the engine.

2. Cut the spark of one cylinder so the engine power and so its speed,
so we increase the speed to the previous value by increasing the
throttle valve opening.

Subs 2 from 1

3. This value “reduction in brake power” represents the value of the

indicated power for the cylinder we cut the spark from it

4. Repeat what we have done on all the rest cylinders.

5.

6.

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In the laboratory we used willians line to calculate the friction
Steps
We will fix the speed N
1. Start the engine, let it warm up and reach steady state.
2. Load the engine with 5 Lb with respecting the const. N(rpm) and
measure fuel mass flow rate.
3. Increase the load to 10Lb and also make sure that the speed is constant
and measure the fuel mass flow rate.
4. Repeat for 15Lb and 20Lb and put the results in the table.
ρfuel = 830 Kg/m3
mof = ρfuel *Qf* Qf*=volume/time volume = 50 mlitre
BP(KW) = load(lb) * N(rpm) * 0.746 / 2800

Results of measurements
Load(lb) 5 10 15
Time 123 89 79
Bp 1.332 2.664 3.996

The table that we use in the graph

Bp (KW) 1.332 2.664 3.996
mof (μkg/s) 830*(50/123) 830*(50/89) 830*(50/79)
=337.4 =466.3 =525.3

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 Graph one: shows the relation between ṁfuel and brake power and the value of friction power(Ptf).

From the above graph that shows the willians line and it tell us
that:
• The relationship between ṁfuel and brake power represents
straight line.
• At ṁfuel =0, Ptf = 3.6 KW it’s small that there aren't many
things that cause friction.
• At Bp = 0, there is a value for ṁfuel because engine
consumes fuel to overcome the friction.

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 Second lab: Energy balance

Introduction
There are many reasons to perform an energy balance study on an engine.
The knowledge of how the energy is lost will help in finding means to improve the
performance of the engine in terms of efficiency and power output.
By improving the efficiency of the engine:
• The result is a higher percentage of the fuel’s energy getting converted into
power output.
• This is noticed as improved performance.
Energy balances studies also help characterize the impact a change has on the overall
system. Once the impact is identified by the energy balance, one can attempt to either
maximize or oppose its use due to the benefits and drawbacks.
These changes include
✓ Variations in fuel.
✓ Physical changes to engine design.
✓ Adjustments of engine settings.

Energy balance equation

mof is mass flow rate of the fuel (Kg/s)

QH.V is the heating value of the fuel (KJ/Kg)
Pb is the Brake Power of the engine (KW)
Qc.w is the heat loss to the coolant (KW)
QEX is the heat loss from the exhaust (KW)

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Qsurr is a loss to surroundings that cannot be calculated (friction, oil, radiation)

Types of energies
Fuel power
This is the Power which we take from Fuel.
This power is resulted from the chemical reaction of fuel which gives us the heat and
explosion we need.

ṁfuel = V̇ * ρ

Measurements
Fuel flow rates (mf) were measured with:
▪ Flow meters.

▪ Measuring the volume of fuel consumed and the specific time of consumption.

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Brake power (Pb)
Brake power is the measure of an engine's power without the loss in power (P tf).

Measurements
First: measuring brake torque using dynamometers

second: measuring engine speed (ω) using tachometers

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Coolant losses (Qc.w)
This is the heat loss to the coolant. We may name it losses but actually we need to do
it to reduce the temperature of the engine. To measure the energy transferred through
conduction of engine components, the losses to the coolant, are calculated by:

h is manometer reading in (mm)

cp is the specific heat at constant pressure (for water = 4.186 KJ/Kg.k)
Measurements
Heat loss to the engine coolant was usually measured by finding the difference in
coolant temperature at the engine’s inlet and outlet.

Exhaust losses
It is the heat that is released from the exhaust system which contains heat that can be
used in any other process in the car. The losses through the exhaust were determined
by measuring the air and fuel flow rates, and determining the exhaust gas
temperature

Cp ex is the specific heat at constant pressure (if not given assume it = 1.13 KJ/Kg.k)
Cd is coefficient of discharge (0.658)
ρair assume 1.23 kg/m3
Ao is area of orifice ( value is 0.001353 m2)

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 Measurements
For measuring losses to the exhaust:
▪ Finding the mass flow rate of the exhaust by direct measurement
▪ From adding the air and fuel flow rates into the engine, then
maximum heat can be found from cooling the exhaust to ambient temperature.
Air flow rates were measured with either some kind of flow meter or by a pressure
change (manometer) in a flow element.

Losses to surrounding (Q surrounding)

This term we can’t measure it but we can calculate it from the difference of the fuel
power and the other losses. This type of losses may go to:
✓ The oil
✓ Friction
✓ By radiation from the cylinder block
✓ Anything we cannot calculate easily

Measurements in the laboratory

Steps
1. Start the engine
2. Open the throttle valve until the speed reach 1000 rpm
3. Wait while the engine is running until you reach steady state
4. Read all the data shown in the table from the indicators
5. Repeat the same procedures with load varying between (5, 10, 15) lb.

NO. Speed Load Hcw Tc,i Tc,o Hw_air Tex Vfuel Time
(RPM) W(Ib) (mm) (°C) (°C) (cm) (°C) (sec)

1 1000 5 38 34.3 36.1 1.8 44 50*10^- 100

6
2 1000 10 38 38.4 40.1 1.8 60.8 50*10^- 88
6
3 1000 15 38 41 43 1.8 70.4 50*10^- 75
6

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 Using the above equations to calculate the different energies
Tamb = 25 oc
mair = ρair*Cd*Ao*sqrt( 2g*hw*ρw / ρair) =
1.23*0.658*0.001353*sqrt(2*9.8*1.8*(1000/1.23)) = 0.01855 kg
mex = mair+mof =0.01855+ mof

Power Qfuel = Bp=T*W Qc_w =ṁcw Qex = ṁex Qsurr = Qfuel-(Bp+

ṁfuel*H.V *dTcw*CPcw *CPex*(Tex-Ta) Qc_w+ Qex)

830*(50/100) 1332.14 W 2477.01 W 407.18 W 13670.17 W

1 *43.1=
17886.5 W

830*(50/88) 2660 W 2339.4 W 767.21 W 14558.96 W

2 *43.1=
20325.57 W

830*(50/75) 3996 W 2752.23 W 972.94 W 16127.5 W

3 *43.1=
23848.67 W

Curves shows the change in energy by changing in load

Fuel power vs load

1 2 3
load 5 10 15
Qfuel 17886.5 W 20325.57 W 23848.67 W

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 Fuel power vs load
30000

25000

20000
Qfuel (W)

15000

10000

5000

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
load (Ib)

From the above graph we find that:

➢ The engine consumes 15 KW at no load to overcome friction.
➢ Fuel power increases by the increase of load.

Brake power (Pb) vs load

1 2 3
load 5 10 15
Bp 1332.14 W 2660 W 3996 W

Brake power (Pb) vs load

4500
4000
3500
3000
Bp(W)

2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
-500 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
load (Ib)

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From the above graph we find that:
➢ At no load brake power equal zero means that the car stops.
➢ There is a linear relationship between brake power and load.

Coolant losses (Qc.w) vs load

1 2 3
load 5 10 15

Qc.w(w) 2477.01 2339.4 2752.23

Coolant losses (Qc.w) vs load

3000

2500

2000
Qc.w

1500

1000

500

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
load (lb)

From the above graph we find that:

➢ At no load there are coolant losses because the engine is working.
➢ The coolant losses were big, then decreased then increased.

Exhaust losses vs load

1 2 3
load 5 10 15
Qex(W) 407.18 767.21 972.94

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 Exhaust losses vs load
1200

1000

800
Qex(W)

600

400

200

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
load (lb)

From the above graph we find that:

➢ At no load there are few exhaust losses.
➢ The exhaust losses increase by the increase in load.

Losses to surrounding (Q surrounding) vs load

1 2 3
load 5 10 15
Q surr(W) 13670.17 14558.96 16127.5

Losses to surrounding (Q surrounding) vs load

18000
16000
14000
12000
Q surr(W)

10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
load (lb)

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From the above graph we find that:
➢ There is losses in surrounding from the no load state due to friction.

All energies vs load

From the above graph we find that:

➢ The highest power is fuel and surrounding.
➢ The lowest energy is exhaust.
➢ At no load the exhaust and brake powers are similar.

the percentage of each type of losses to the fuel power at a load(10lb)

Power Qfuel Bp Qc_w Qex Qsurr
Load= 10 20325.57 2660 2339.4 767.21 14558.96
percentage 100% 13.087% 11.5% 3.77% 71.63%

▪ Surrounding power is the biggest power in the engine that

means that there are measurement errors that is because the
engine doesn’t reach the steady state.

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 Dynamometers
Introduction
A dynamometer or "dyno" for short, is a device for simultaneously measuring
the torque and rotational speed (RPM) of an engine, motor or other rotating prime
mover so that its instantaneous power may be calculated, and usually displayed by the
dynamometer itself as kW or bhp.

Dynamometers can be broadly classified into two types. They are:

1. Power Absorption Dynamometers: Power Absorption dynamometers measure
and absorb the power output of the engine to which they are coupled. The power
absorbed is usually dissipated as heat by some means.
Examples of power absorption dynamometers:
✓ Prony brake dynamometer.
✓ Rope brake dynamometer.
✓ Eddy current dynamometer.
✓ Hydraulic dynamometer, etc.

2. Power Transmission Dynamometers: In power transmission dynamometers

the power is transmitted to the load coupled to the engine after it is indicated on
some scale. These are also called torque meters.

Eddy current dynamometers

An eddy current dynamometer is an electromechanical energy conversion device, which
converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. It fundamentally uses Faraday’s Law
of electromagnetic induction as its working principle.
A schematic of the dynamometer is shown below.

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The constructional aspects of the eddy current dynamometer are shown in the above
figure.
It consists of the outer frame as the stator, which is also called a stationary member of
the machine.
The stator consists of windings, which are placed in stator slots.
When the stator windings are excited, a stator magnetic field is produced in the stator
coils. In the case of high rated machines, 3 phase windings are placed in the stator
slots.
• The stator windings are made of copper.
• The stator is made of a magnetic material like cast iron or silicon steel in case
of delicate applications.
• The rotating member is called a rotor, which is kept below the stator coils. The
rotor is placed on a shaft so that it can rotate. Rotor windings are placed on the
rotor slots.
In the case of heavy machines, three-phase rotor windings are used to be kept on
rotor slots.
The rotor must be connected to the prime mover, such that when the prime mover
rotates, it provides the mechanical input to the device.
A D.C supply is used to excite the stator windings.
In the case of large machines, rectifier units are used to achieve this DC supply. For
large machines, oil is used for cooling and insulation of the stator windings. This is
important to dissipate the heat generated.
Once current meter as shown in the diagram is used to measure the current produced
and torque induced.
A pointer is connected by an arm to the stator, which can measure the torque generated
in the rotor. And with the knowledge of speed, by using this torque value, we can
calculate the power generated in the machine.
Dynamometer Working
An eddy current dynamometer works on the principle of
Faradays’ Law of electromagnetic induction.
As per the law, whenever there is a relative displacement
between a set of conductors and a magnetic field, an emf is
induced on the set of the conductor. This emf is called
dynamically induced emf. In the case of the dynamometer,
when the stator poles are excited with a DC supply which is
connected to the stator.

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When the DC supply is connected, the stator coils are excited and a magnetic field is
produced in the stator coils. In the case of a three-phase machine, we obtain a 3-phase
rotating magnetic field, in the stator coils when the coils are excited with the three-phase
supply. When the prime mover rotates the rotor, the rotor coils rotate and interact with
the stator magnetic field.
It must be noted that in this the stator magnetic field is static in nature. Since the
excitation is DC, we get a static magnetic field.
When the rotor coils cut the stator magnetic field, an emf is induced since in this case
the magnetic field is static, and the conductors are rotating. So, there is a relative
displacement between the magnetic field and the conductors.
Features of Eddy Current Dynamometer
It must be observed that the eddy current dynamometer is different from than
conventional mechanical dynamometer. In this case, when the rotor of the
dynamometer cuts the stator magnetic field, an emf is induced on the rotor conductors.
It causes eddy currents to flow in the rotor conductors. The direction of the eddy
currents is opposite to the change in the magnetic flux and is generated in the rotor.
The rotor opposes the force exerted due to the magnetic flux, but due to the prime
mover input, it keeps rotating. And since there is no physical contact between the
magnetic field and the conductors, the losses produced are very less as compared to a
conventional generator.
Unlike in a conventional mechanical dynamometer, in an eddy current dynamometer, an
arm is connected to the body of the stator. At the end of the arm, a pointer is connected,
which can measure the torque produced in the rotor winding. By knowing the speed of
the rotor, the amount of power can be known, as the power is equal to the product of
torque and speed.
Dynamometer Advantages
The advantages of eddy current dynamometer are
1. It is more efficient as compared to conventional mechanical dynamometer
due to low frictional losses.
2. Its structure is simple
3. It can be operated more conveniently as compared to conventional
dynamometers
4. It has a fast dynamic response because of low rotational inertia.
5. Due to the absence of huge windings, the number of copper losses is less.
6. It can be connected to an external control unit easily to monitor the flow of
currents and even control it.
7. The braking torque is very high
8. It is highly precise and stable.

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Dynamometer Disadvantages
The disadvantages of eddy current dynamometer are
1. It can’t produce torque at zero speed.
2. Comparatively smaller in size, which reduces its strength and reliability.

Applications
The major applications are
❖ Performance testing of the internal combustion engine.
❖ Used in small power motor.
❖ Automobile transmission parts.
❖ Gas turbines.
❖ Water turbines.

References
1. https://www.sathyabama.ac.in/sites/default/files/course-material/2020-
10/UNIT-II_0.PDF

2. https://www.elprocus.com/what-is-eddy-current-dynamometer-construction-
its-
working/#:~:text=An%20eddy%20current%20dynamometer%20works,called
%20is%20dynamically%20induced%20emf.

Thank you

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