Science and Materials PDF

SCIENCE AND MATERIALS
N. Thushanthan
JF/CE/20/17/05
NF50505
Science and materials
Abstract
Green building refers to an environmentally responsible and resource-efficient process
throughout the life cycle of a building, from design activities to design maintenance to
innovation and demolition. This practice expands and addresses traditional building design
concerns of the economy, comfort, while new technologies are constantly being developed.
Its general goal is to reduce green structures and green buildings structured environment or
the overall impact on human health and the natural environment.
N. Thushanthan JF/CE/20/17/05 1
Acknowledgement
I feel lucky to have completed my civil engineering studies at the British College of Applied
Studies. It is a college that strives to provide students with excellent and essential new content.
Students go to campus to get better knowledge and there are students. Stimulated to read
well. First of-all, I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to Mr. K. Kajeethan, Lecturer in
Civil Engineering, British College. I would like to thank my parents and colleagues for
assigning tasks and for useful research. I would like to thank my friends for their excellent
encouragement and guidance and for their help and support in completing this in so many
ways. And everyone on campus is friendly and helpful to each other, and finally my
congratulations to all of them.
N. Thushanthan
JF/CE/20/17/05
NF50505
Content
Abstract................................................................................................................................. 1
Acknowledgement................................................................................................................. 2
Content ................................................................................................................................. 3
TASK-A ................................................................................................................................. 6
1. Minimize the construction hazards.............................................................................. 6
2. Risk assessment ........................................................................................................ 9
3. Regulations associated with the following methods. ................................................. 12
TASK- B .............................................................................................................................. 23
1. Material environmental profiling, and lifecycle assessment. ...................................... 23
2. Environmental assessment....................................................................................... 24
3. Waste management plan the materials..................................................................... 25
4. Sustainable construction. ......................................................................................... 26
TASK- C.............................................................................................................................. 29
1. Relevant testing procedures to identify the performance characteristics of selected the
construction. .................................................................................................................... 29
2. Results in terms of the materials properties and regulatory requirements, highlighting
any unexpected results and why these may occur. .......................................................... 32
3. Construction materials with proper examples evaluate the properties and uses of
following construction materials. ...................................................................................... 36
4. Alternative the construction material ......................................................................... 42
TASK- D.............................................................................................................................. 43
1. Define a material selection strategy for human comfort requirements. ...................... 43
2. Identify selected material selected area within the proposed building and explain how
these contribute to a balance indoor environment ........................................................... 48
3. X – Value, U – Value calculation & evaluate the energy loss per second through the
wall in watts. .................................................................................................................... 54
4. Comfortable Lux level and dB level for different places and situations. ..................... 56
5. Use of passive or active strategies can minimize energy, materials, water, and land
use in the proposed project. ............................................................................................ 58
Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 60
Reference ........................................................................................................................... 61
List of figure
Figure 1 minimize risk ........................................................................................................... 9
Figure 2 Excavation ............................................................................................................ 13
Figure 3 Production place ................................................................................................... 14
Figure 4 Mixing concrete ..................................................................................................... 15
Figure 5 Ladders angle ....................................................................................................... 17
Figure 6 Parts of ladders ..................................................................................................... 17
Figure 7 Roof work .............................................................................................................. 18
Figure 8 Roof slap work ...................................................................................................... 18
Figure 9 Cranes parts ......................................................................................................... 19
Figure 10 Concrete truck ..................................................................................................... 20
Figure 11 Excavator ............................................................................................................ 21
Figure 12 Wear safety dress ............................................................................................... 22
Figure 13 Arrangements for chemicals ................................................................................ 22
Figure 14 Building material lifecycle .................................................................................... 23
Figure 15 Lifecycle assessment .......................................................................................... 23
Figure 16 Environmental certificate ..................................................................................... 24
Figure 17 Waste management plan .................................................................................... 25
Figure 18 Recycle of waste management ........................................................................... 26
Figure 19 Sustainable construction ..................................................................................... 27
Figure 20 Most environmental cleans place ........................................................................ 28
Figure 21 Passive environmental house.............................................................................. 29
Figure 22 measured slump test ........................................................................................... 32
Figure 23 Slump corn test ................................................................................................... 33
Figure 24 Strength compressive test concrete test .............................................................. 33
Figure 25 Test concrete tube .............................................................................................. 34
Figure 26 Concrete grade and strength ............................................................................... 35
Figure 27 AIV test ............................................................................................................... 36
List of table
Table 1 Risk assessment .................................................................................................... 12
Table 2 Lux levels ............................................................................................................... 57
TASK-A
1. Minimize the construction hazards
Most of construction workers face many hazards in construction sites and industrial. Every
month maximum 45-50 accidents rated in the construction industrial place and register for
department of workers in construction industry. High, deep excavation, oxygen problems are
very important for hazards for constructional industry.
Main hazards in construction sites
 Working at height
 Electricity
 Noise
 Chemical
 Workers falling
 Asbestos
 Moving items
 Airborne strands and materials
Explain for main hazards in construction industry
 Electricity
 The plug damaged
 Connector damaged
 Cable has repaired
 Burn marks wires
 Keep not maintenance
is that main hazard of working. The electricity hazards are impact for ours body main part
(brain and heart). Sometime workers are dead construction site. We are minimized for
electricity hazards.
 Checked every week for electrical wires and plugs

 Used for sockets and adapters
 Stop using equipment immediately as a fault
 Consider using electrical supply equipment
 Used for underground wires line
 Working for electrical equipment come within 6 meters
So, we are minimized for electricity hazards. And some contractors are joined for not
experience workers. Contractors and engineers checked for experience workers.
 Working at height
Next big hazard in working place. First of porn planned for supervised workers skills,
knowledge, and experience to check the job. Some workers must use the right equipment for
height working. Working at height refers any work person could potentially injuries
themselves. Is that form
 Roof works
 Ships works
 Painting works
 Construction sites
 Do work at height- As checked possible for site, consider for emergency procedures.
 Don’t work at height- Over load ladders, overreach stepladders, used for light weight
ladders.
How to minimize the hazards
 Use railings
 Select for PPE
 Ensured for all distance
 Acceptable points
 Used scaffold
 Used lifts
 Used ladders
 Noise hazard
Next one hazard is, ours is a very sensitively, small sounds are hearing no problems, but our
loud sounds are some damaged for my eyes. Noise hazard is very important. It’s terminated
for ours eyes pods.
 Identifying noising hazards- Looking the signs, shout arm’s length, humming, health
issued.
 Eliminating noise hazards- Maintenance machine, shifts limiting, enclose, used PPE.
 Moving objects
Construction site is ever-changing environment, construction hazards continue to increase a
construction is underway. Many moving objects are used for construction sites. To include
overhead lifting equipment, supply vans, and diggers. It’s a move around usually uneven
terrain.
Minimize moving objects
 Avoid close working

 Fixed lights
 Wear protective equipment
So, we are minimized moving hazards.
 Chemical hazards
Next one hazard is,
 The chemical hazard is most important hazard in construction sites.

 Example for chemical hazards
 Paints
 Drugs
 Cosmetics
 Cleaning chemicals
 Gas cylinders
 Petrol
 Diesel
 Corrosives
 Two types of chemical hazards
 Health hazards
 Physical hazards
 Major routes of exposure
 Inhalation
 Ingestion
 Contact with eyes and skin
 Injection
Minimum 50000 workers deaths of annually year in constructional sites. The dangerous of
chemicals are used for construction sites. The chemicals are storage for minimize the
chemical hazards.
Controlling exposures are
 Engineering controls
 Administrative controls
 Personal protective equipment
 Elimination
2017 government reported 50000 workers are smoking carbon monoxide, dynamite, tobacco
smoking, and electrolytic production so workers are smoked, and impact heart diseases.
 Asbestos hazards
When materials that contain asbestos are damaged, so fibers are released into the air. This
asbestosis these fibers can cause serious diseases such as lung cancer, and thickening.
Asbestosis killed 5000 workers every year.
 Workers falling
Slips, trips, and falls are included workers falling in construction sites. Many workers are
included for slip or trip.
Minimize workers falling
 Slips-wet, weather hazards, surface flooring

 Trips- poor lighting, uncovered cables, steps walking
Minimize working falling
 Clean spills immediate

 Marked for wet area
 Secured mats
 Covered cable
 Keep for working area
 Fitting lights and bulbs
Figure 1 minimize risk
 So how to minimize construction site hazards

 Awareness of the risk and hazards
 Keep tools and equipment
 Good maintenance
 Work-place-clean
 Every week safety meeting
 Wearing safety gears
 Practice for health and safety training
2. Risk assessment
Risk assessment is a term used to describe the overall process to,
 Identification for hazards

 Risk analysis and risk evaluation
 Controlled the risk
Risk assessment, look at construction place, things, situations, processes, etc.…
Importance for risk assessment
 Awareness of hazard
 Identified who be at the risk
 A control program is required
 Minimize injuries and illness
Risk assessments
Severity (S)
4. Catastrophic, may cause death
3. Critical, may cause serious injury or illness
2. Marginal, may cause minor injury or illness
1. Negligible, will not injury or illness
Probability (P)
5. frequently, likely to occur frequently
4. Probable, will occur several times
3. Occasional, likely to occur
2. Remote, unlikely but possible
1. Imp roble, so unlikely it can be assumed that it
NO TASK HAZARDS S P SCO CONTROLS
 Use proper chemical

01 Chemical Affected for body 4 2 8 containers for storage.
storage organs  Protective equipment
used while handling
chemical.
 Laboratory space for
chemical storage.
 Used for clear labeled.
 Good-ventilated areas.
 Not used damaged
bottles.
 Corrosive materials are
put on shelf.
 Access for inside
locked area.
02 Working Fall of materials 2 4 8  Planned and

height organized.
 Carried for risk
Persons fall 4 2 8 assessment.
 Selected for the best
equipment.
 Inspired for every week
for the equipment.
 Used for safety nets.
 Plane for places.
 Minimize to ergonomic
03 Material Workers hit materials 3 4 12 risk factor.
handling  Personal protect
equipment provided.
Incorrectly cutting the 4 3 12  Equipment upgrades.
materials  Minimize sound and
vibrations.
 Every week checked
Back pain 2 3 06 for workers medicals.
 Used best equipment.
04 Concreting Skin damages 3 3 9  Wearing personal

equipment.
Accident 4 3 12  Wear for dust masks.
 Many used for
Improper injuries 3 3 9 machines.
 Cleared and moved
Breathing problems 4 4 16 other items.
 Used for best drivers.
Chemical burn 4 3 12  Clean any time wash
face and eyes.
 Wear shoes and
gloves and glasses.
05 excavation Accident for workers 3 4 12  Use safe digging.

 Checked for
Rock or soil loose 4 4 16 excavation site and
place.
Falling the loads 4 2 08  Safe access to out and
in the place.
Electrical issues 2 2 04  Bench and shore are
not assumed ground
Vibrates and noise 2 2 04 UN understand.
 Used for strong
Health 4 4 16 barriers in the work
hazards(oxygen) site.
Working being struck 2 2 04
Collapse of the side 3 2 06
06 electrical Shocked 4 4 16  Used the correct cable.

 Maintained and
installed.
Burn 4 4 16  Used best sockets.
 Suitable provider in the
equipment.
 Identified for correct
electrical equipment
used the site.
 Used for RCD.
 Reduced voltage.
07 Personal Dust injuries 3 4 12  Wear safety glasses.

protective  Wear hard hates.
 All workers kept mask
Eye injuries 4 3 12 and clean and kept.
 Safety belts.
Falling 2 3 06
Table 1 Risk assessment
3. Regulations associated with the following methods.

A. Excavation
Excavations is a most hazardous construction operation. Under the excavation standards,
tasks performed the competent person include.
 Classified the soil

 Protect system are inspired
 Designed for structural
 Monitor for the water removal equipment
 Every day inspired the construction sites
Excavations are characterized and included
 Earthwork
 Drainage works
 Underground working
 Well
 Shafts
 Channel
The excavation is most important work of construction work site.
Figure 2 Excavation
Why is planning before excavation

No matter how many trenching, shoring, and backfilling jobs an employer has done in the
past, it is important to approach each new job with care and preparation. Many job incidents
result from inadequate initial planning.
Excavation hazards
 Unexpected collapse
 Damaged for service lines
 Poisonous gases
 Working fall
 Falling materials
 Affected the weathers
 Falling the trees
Precautions of excavation
 Supported by timbering
 More than excavated 1.2meters
 Should not be vehicle, materials, and equipment around the edge of the excavation
 Safety helmet wearing
 Safety shoes, gloves, and dresses wearing
 Good ventilate lights
 Used for service lines
B. Concreting
Concreting is composite material. Composed of fine aggregate bonded with fluid cement that
hardens over time. Past time used based cement binders, lime putty, but some time other
hydraulic cements, calcium aluminate cement or with Portland cement to make concrete.
Mixed with dry Portland cement and water, the mixture forms a fluid slurry that easily poured
and molded. Many workers work hard to create the concrete mix. Most concrete is poured
with reinforcing materials.
Concrete is one of the most frequently used building materials. It’s a world-wild material.
Globally, the ready-mix concrete industry, the largest segment of the concrete market, is
projected to exceed $6000 BILLION IN REVENUE BY 2030.
Ingredients needed to make concreting mix
 Cement
 Water
 Aggregate
 Ingredients
 Mineral admixtures and blended cements
 Reinforcement
Production
Concrete production is the process of mixing together the various ingredients water,
aggregate, cement, produce concrete. In modern usage, most concrete production, takes
place in a large type of industrial facility called a concrete plant. In general usage, concrete
come in two main types, ready mixed and cement mix. A ready-mix plant mixed all the
ingredient except waters, while a central mix plant mixes all the ingredients including waters,
and facilities to dispense the mixed concrete, often to a concrete mixer truck.
Figure 3 Production place
Mixing concrete
Through mixed is essential to produced uniform, high-qualities concretes. Separated pastes
mixed the mixing of the cement and water into a paste before, combined these materials
with aggregate can increased the compressive strength of the result concrete. Generally
mixed in a high-speed, shear type mixer at a w/cm of 0.30 to 0.45 by mass concrete. The
cement paste is include admixtures such as retarders, super plasticizers, figments. The
premixed paste is then blended with aggregates and any items.
Figure 4 Mixing concrete
C. Working at heights
When and individual is working at a height and falls down and injuries himself, it’s called
working at a height. The platform we working on is at the top, working at height.
Example of working
 Roof works
 Scaffolding
 Ladders
What does it take for an employer to work at height?
 Employees need to be trained in the best possible ways.

 Always plan and supervise the work.
 The risk needed to be trained in the best possible ways.
 Weather should be taken into consideration while working.
 Be sure to inspect all equipment that is work.
 Checking to see if the work-place is a safe.
Equipment should be provided to employees working at height
 Harness
 Lanyards
 Height safety kits
 Fall protection equipment
 Fall arrest blocks
 Belts
 Guard rails
 Steel ribbed rail
 Polymer guard rail
The guardrails are a huge frontier. Deter access to dangerous areas while allowing visibility
in a greater way then a fence. Many public spaces are fitted with guardrails. Due to
responsibilities, rails are used to protect people. These rails are placed on steep paths.
Guardrails are widely used in building. Most of the houses are made of wooden rails.
Building codes require no opening in a guard be of a size such that a 4” sphere. The
opening may not exceed 8” or 21” depending on the area of the occupation groups. The
guardrails must be 42” tall and 200 pounds of power.
 Ladders
If you want to use a ladder, how do you use it safely?
 Make sure it is 1 meter above the ground.

 The ladder should be set exactly at a horizontal angle of 1 to 4 horizontal.
 Do not carry unnecessary tools while climbing the ladders.
 A ladder should be designed to support only one person.
 Defects in the ladder should be confirmed immediately.
 Double step ladders should be connected to each other.
 It is best to keep the ladders as close to the wall as possible.
 Avoid loading bricks or other heavy objects sideways.
 All working areas should be kept clean, level, and well lit.
 Ladders can be used safely by removing unwanted building debris.
 Ensure construction materials, tools and equipment are positioned to avoid creating
hazards.
 Wear appropriate safety gear.
 Make sure the fault ladder is made by the same owner, with the same materials.
Figure 5 Ladders angle
Figure 6 Parts of ladders
 Roofs
Roof works are included for working at height. All work on the roofs is very dangerous.
Proper precaution should be taken to reduce the risk. Proper precautionary training should
be provided to those doing roofing works.
Type of method roof access.
 Access scaffold
 Stair towers
 Mobile equipment
 Best ladders
Figure 7 Roof work
Figure 8 Roof slap work
 Platform
It is best to use sliding boards and proper ladders when working on roofs. Before using the
equipment, make sure that there is no danger. Workers should be given more attention
during work. Make sure they are provided with the necessary safety equipment.
 Scaffolding
The scaffolding is used for all man-made buildings and bridges. It is used for construction,
maintain and repair. Unsafe cargo can be life threatening. Scaffolding is also used in wall
arts, exhibition, pipe projects, etc.
Five types of scaffolding used for worldwide
 H- frame scaffolds
 Timber scaffolds
 Bamboo scaffolds
 Tube and coupler components
 Prefabricated scaffolds
D. Moving, lift and handling weights

 Cranes
The crane is machine. These elevators are used to lift the load. It is a tool used for high
security on site. It is always best to check the crane in the place. The operator of the crane
must be a trained person. Mainly used for lifting heavy things and transporting other places.
Figure 9 Cranes parts
Cranes exist an enormous variety of forms, each tailored a specific use. Zip crane is used for
workshops and tower cranes for height construction work.
Types of cranes
 Block and tackle

 Hoist
 Windlass
 Capstan
 Winch
 Cherry picker
E. Site vehicle and moving plants

 Concrete trucks
This concrete truck is used to transport the concrete mixture from the place where it is
prepared the place where it is placed. The purpose of using this machine: to keep cement,
water, silt stones, etc. smooth and time consuming. If this vehicle does not pay attention to
the time the prepared concrete will be weakened.
Figure 10 Concrete truck
 Excavator
Excavator is a construction vehicle. This excavator is used for burying and digging objects.
With 180 and 360 rotating surfaces. There are two types of activities carried out by a driver.
 Pushing back and forth

 Carrying the lower part to the required size
The excavator machine is used more for construction work than for excavation. But the cost
is high. But you can earn more by renting out these machines. Employees using this
machine must ensure that, they have a mandatory license. When working without such a
proper bond you will face many massive problems.
Figure 11 Excavator
The excavator machine is used in many ways in excavation. For example,
 Construction sites
 Snow removed
 Landscaping
 Holes
 Forest work
 Demolition
F. Chemical storage
Chemical storage is the safe storage of hazardous chemical in enclosed boxes or shelves.
Anyways we need chemical for construction work or any other works. This is mandatory for
the safety of the workers. Improper protection against explosions, fire, and toxic gases. It is a
good idea to have a separate room to store chemicals. Knowledge of chemical storage must
be instilled in every employee.
Principles for chemicals storage: -
 Chemicals must be safely stacked in alphabetical order.

 Separation of certain chemicals.
 Proper use of the chemical name of a chemical.
 It is a good idea to have a proper inspection facility as well.
 It is best to have a chemical storage room that is light, dry, and heat free.
 Employer wear safety dresses.
Figure 12 Wear safety dress
Figure 13 Arrangements for chemicals
TASK- B
1. Material environmental profiling, and lifecycle assessment.
Material environmental profiling
Today’s buildings are being damaged by substandard materials. The environment plays an
important role in the selection of the best material. It is widely used in the manufacture of
building materials, or in the construction of building. This includes disassembly creation,
maintenance, and destruction.
Figure 14 Building material lifecycle
Lifecycle Assessment
These includes service and life cycles. It is based on a business. The environment is
severely affected from the formation of the material to the recycling. It is used to predict
emission to the environment. These include resource utilization, human health, and
environmental impacts. There are many cases against LCA in many places. LCA can be
better implemented with better management and supervision.
Figure 15 Lifecycle assessment
2. Environmental assessment
Environmental certificate is a form of development. Icons are used for certification. It may
vary quality from one quality to another. The issuance of these certificates is expected to
minimize the risk to the environment. Primary motivations, many companies who choose to
implement environmental certification schemes are, to provide an ethical product for the
consumers, increase sustainable development, improve the image of the company, gain a
better relationship with stakeholders and to make higher profit. The create competition
between the companies and the quality of the companies.
Positive
 The environment can be better managed.

 Institutional competition creates better companies.
 The size of the affected area can be easily predicted.
 This knowledge you can buy the best quality things.
 Simple market and efficient production will bring more benefits to the employee.
Negative
 Too much sounds.

 Privilege issues for employees.
 Deforestation is taking place.
 Increasing prices of certain grades due to competition.
Figure 16 Environmental certificate
3. Waste management plan the materials.

Waste management, from it is inception to disposal, include waste management,
Included for waste management;
 Technologies
 Mechanisms
 Collection
 Transport
 Disposal
 Monitoring
Waste can be found not only as liquid or solid but also as solid. Facilities to separate it are
also found during this period. Health problems can occur directly or indirectly. But, this is
where many of the problems appear.
Figure 17 Waste management plan
a. Bricks/Rubble
Bricks make a huge contribution to building construction. There is a lot of cost involved in
bricks. We can also use broken bricks to create a way to reduce this cost. The first think we
need to do is anticipate what kind of bandage we are going to build. Then the unbroken,
broken bricks should be separated. Then the construction work should start after removing
the unwanted waste. Dangers can sometimes arise if the waste is not disposed of.
b. Concrete
Concrete work is important in the construction industry. However, some times the concrete
mix may changes and become unwanted. That time, concrete mix can be rearranged and
used for a walkway or other purpose. Can be used to make sidewalks, pots, toys, benches,
etc. with concrete mix.
c. Metal
The metal is considered to be a material that can be easily transformed into other forms.
Example: -
 Can be converted into a flammable liquid.

 Preparation of cleaning solvents.
d. Timber
The wood is non-toxic. When cut or used for any other purpose, it does not produce
unwanted gas. Wood can be used to make chips, sports equipment, temple work and
household items. Timber is a renewable resource.
e. Plasterboard
Plasterboard is a material that can be obtained at a very low cost. It is widely used in
companies and stores. Using plasterboard is a less expensive construction than using
concrete mix.
Figure 18 Recycle of waste management
4. Sustainable construction.
Types of sustainable construction
The aim is to create a healthy environment based on environmental policy. It is purposes
are; reuse, conservation, renewal, protection of the environment, prevention of the spread of
toxins, etc. Reduce the impact of the environment; sustainable development and efficiency
can be minimized through the use of green technology. Material and methods are
considering as standard construction.
 Materials
 Wood
 Bamboo
 Recycle plastic
 Tiers
 Precast concrete slap
 Cork
 Straw balls
 Steel
 Methods
 Automated building system
 Synthetic roofs
 Green roof
 Solar
 Hybrid system
 3D printing
 Goals for sustainable construction

 Low cost
 Benefits
 Environmental protection
 Workers protection
 Expended market
 Promoting sustainability
Figure 19 Sustainable construction
Indoor environmental quality

Designed to provide comport, well-being, and productivity to the occupant. Interior air quality,
heat quality, lamp quality, etc. will be taken into consideration. In this case it is necessary to
choose the coating product that will be applied to the house. Most building materials emit
gases. These include toxic gases and non-toxic gases.
Cost
Price is the most important factor in the construction. New equipment, such as voltage, plays
a major role in cost. Green building often costs 3%. As well as making it more usable. This
building can be guaranteed for more than 20 years. These price change for the production of
labor. Can be significantly impacted by certain aspects of green building design as improved
lighting, reduction of pollutants, advanced ventilation systems and use of non-toxic building
materials.
Figure 20 Most environmental cleans place
Passive design green home
 These buildings incorporate many structures to achieve vitality. Many buildings systems
have been started for this purpose.
 The inflow of hot air coming from outside is less visible.
 Regeneration and ventilation are used for green homes.
 Climate change, despite, indoor, and outdoor temperatures, can benefit greatly by
including store-bought products.
 Used persistent insulation through it is all wholes envelope with no warm crossing
without any thermal bridging.
 The use of windows and entrance control the heat and cold during warming and winter.
 This building can be built from one apartment to several apartments. Can also be built as
family homes.
Figure 21 Passive environmental house
TASK- C
1. Relevant testing procedures to identify the performance
characteristics of selected the construction.
According to the ANSI/ASHRAE standard 55-2010, thermal comfort is defined as “that
condition of mind which expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment and is
assessed by subjective evaluation.” ‘Also known as human comfort, thermal comfort is the
occupants’ satisfaction with the surrounding thermal conditions and is essential to consider
when designing a structure that will be occupied by people. A cold sensation will be pleasing
when the body is overheated, but unpleasant when the core is already cold. At the same
time, the temperature of the skin is not uniform on all areas of the body. There are variations
in different parts of the body which reflect the variations in blood flow and subcutaneous fat.
The isolative quality of clothing also has a marked effect on the level and distribution of skin
temperature. Thus, sensation from any particular part of the skin will depend on time,
location and clothing, as well as the temperature of the surroundings.
Thermal comfort is calculated as a heat transfer energy balance. Heat transfer through
radiation, convection, and conduction are balanced against the occupant’s metabolic rate.
The heat transfer occurs between the environment and the human body, which has an area
of 19ft. if the heat leaving the occupant is greater than the heat entering the occupant, the
thermal perception is “cold.” If the heat entering the occupant is greater than the heat leaving
the occupant, the thermal perception is “warm” or “hot.”
Factors in human comfort
There are six factors to take into consideration when designing for the thermal comfort. Its
determining factors include the flowing:
 Metabolic rate: The energy generated from the human body.

 Clothing insulation: The amount of thermal insulation the person is wearing.
 Air temperature: Temperature of the air surrounding the occupant.
 Radiant temperature: The weighted average of all the temperatures from surfaces
surrounding an occupant.
 Air velocity: Rate of air movement given distance over time.
 Relative humidity: Percentage of water vapor in the air.
The environmental factors include temperature, radiant temperature, relative humidity, and
air velocity. The personal factors are activity level (metabolic rate) and clothing.
The work environment can impact on a person’s performance in a number of different ways
from effects that damage health (heat stress, musculoskeletal disorders); effects that reduce
the individual’s ability to perform a task (poor lighting, distraction); to effects that cause
dissatisfaction, resistance to change and uncooperative attitudes.
Lighting- At its simplest, different levels of lighting are required for different types of work-
close, accurate work such as soldering a control panel will require higher light levels than
walking down a corridor. However, when considering lighting, a number of different factors
need to be considered such as color, contrast, glare and so on.
Thermal comfort- Extremes of temperature (very cold and very hot) can put physiological
stress on an individual. Lack of control of the temperature of a workplace (e.g. in an open
plan office) can lead to job dissatisfaction and increased incidence of stress and long term
sickness absence.
Working space- Work rooms should have enough free space to allow people to move about
with ease.
Noise- For information about controlling noise and about preventing noise induced hearing
loss, when assessing a task, employers should also consider whether noise might interfere
with safety-critical communications. In addition, exposure to high levels of noise can
increase individual experience of stress, as may even relatively low noise levels if
significantly above background/ambient and if experienced over long periods.
Vibration- Whole body vibration (such as experienced in vehicle cabs) can contribute to
lower back pain and fatigue. Some frequencies of vibration can have a negative effect on
visual performance. Relatively uncommon effects of low frequency vibration (infrasound) can
include throbbing in the head (7Hz) and temporary depressed psychological states.
 Lighting
Lighting an environment is often a complex task principally considered during the design
stage of the building (by architects and interior designers). However, lighting should be
designed for the tasks that individuals are carrying out within that environment. Guides to
lighting can seem very complex, technical documents. However, employers can take some
simple steps to ensure people have adequate lighting to carry out their tasks.
Different activities require different levels of light. In general, the more detailed the task, the
greater the light requirement. A process control room should be lit at an illuminance of 300
lux, a corridor or walkway may only require 50 lux, whilst studying an engineering drawing
may require 750 lux (see HSG38 lighting at work).
Where individual are carrying out different activities, they will need control over their local
lighting e.g. a control and instrumentation engineer coming into a process control room lit at
300 lux may need a desk with a lamp to study a wiring diagram.
Studies have shown that giving workers in open plan offices local control of lighting can
increase job satisfaction (and decrease the experience of stress).
Directional sources of light can bounce off reflective surfaces such as display screens and
cause glare. Using blinds, correcting the angle of the source of light and using glare filters
can help control this, as can use of e.g. up-lightings. All sources of light have a particular
color. Some of these, such as sodium, can make colored text and diagrams difficult to read.
Sudden contrasts in light levels e.g. coming out of a well-lit area into a dark area or vice
versa can be a problem because it takes the eye several seconds to adapt to new lighting
conditions. Changes in lighting levels should be made gradually where possible.
Generally lighting is designed when the workplace is empty and without consideration of the
shadows cast by equipment e.g. lighting of yards where trailers and containers may be
parked. Pedestrian walkways in these areas should have specific lighting.
 Working space
People need adequate working space to carry out the tasks they are responsible for. This
means they need sufficient space to move about the work area and to access their work
stations safely. They also need sufficient space to store work equipment including files and
documents that they need to use for their work. Work spaces that are perceived by
employees to be cramped have a negative effect on job satisfaction and efficiency, and on
long-term sickness absence.
In general, workrooms should have enough free space to allow people to move about with
ease. The approved code of practice to the workplace (health, safety, and welfare)
regulations 1992 gives the following guidance:
The volume of the room when empty, divided by the number of people normally working in it,
should be at least 11 cubic meters. All or part of a room over 3.0m high should be counted at
3.0m high. 11 cubic meters per person is a minimum and may be insufficient depending on
the layout, contents and the nature of the work.
2. Results in terms of the materials properties and regulatory

requirements, highlighting any unexpected results and why
these may occur.
A. Slump testing
The laboratory used to measure the stability of concrete is the slump test. It refers to the
shape, quality and workability of the concrete. It is found in the form of a cone shape.
Slump test tools
 Metallic
 Bottom diameter-20cm
 Top diameter-10cm
 Height-30cm
 Steel stamping rod
 Bottom diameter-16mm
 Long with bullet end-0.6m
Figure 22 measured slump test
Procedure of slump test

Instruction to be followed
 First, rinse the molds with water and dry them in the sun.
 Then, place that axis on a horizontal, waterproof surface.
 Fill four layers with fresh concrete and tap well 25times with a stick in each layer. As well
as leveling the surface.
 Next, the axis should be gently pulled vertically and removed from the concrete. It is also
important that the color does not interfere with the cone.
 All surface will shrink due to the effect of gravity.
 During this time, the shrinkage of the concrete around the perimeter is slump.
 The difference in height between concrete and cone is the slump value of the concrete.
 It is measured in millimeters (mm).
Figure 23 Slump corn test
B. Cube test for concrete

Compressive strength is a characteristic of the concrete cube test. During this test it is
possible to determine whether the concreting has been done correctly. Compression
strength varies from 15-30MPa. Depends on water-cement ratio, cement strength, quality of
concrete materials, quality control, etc. the cube test is performed on a cube cylinder.
Compressive strength test of concrete cubes
Figure 24 Strength compressive test concrete test
For cube testing {(15 x 15 x 15) or (10 x 10 x10) cm} two types of samples are used with the
total size of the cube. Mostly (15 x 15 x 15) cm size cube axes are used. Pour the concrete
into this mold and make sure there is no vacuum. After 24hours it is removed, and placed in
water to fix the tests. The surface should be even and smooth. By placing the cement paste,
it is maintained evenly. The compression test should be tested by machine in 7 days or 28
days. The load should be given at the rate of 140kg/cm2 until failure.
Procedure for concrete cube test
 Remove the sample from the water and wipe off any excess water on surface.
 The test machine must also be cleaned.
 The machine must be placed in such a way that the load is applied to the cube mold.
 Place it centered on the machine tray.
 By rotating the movable area, the surface of the model should be touched.
 The load should be given at the rate of 140kg/cm2 until failure.
 Using the maximum load, it is necessary to monitor whether any abnormal factor is
occurring.
Figure 25 Test concrete tube
Concrete grade Strength in n/mm at 14 days Strength in n/mm at 28 days
M10 9 10
M15 13.5 15
M20 18 20
M25 22.5 25
M30 27 30
M35 31.5 35
M40 36 40
M45 40.5 45
M50 45 50
Figure 26 Concrete grade and strength
Top suface area of specimen

Compressive strength of concrete =Top surface area of specimen
C. AIV test for aggregates

 Cylinder measure-75mm
 Steel tamping rod-16×600mm
 Weight-52kg
 Dimension-(450×350×850)mm
Procedure AIV test
 Test sample- 10.0mm-12.5mm.

 Heat the aggregates to a temperature of 1000c-1100c and let cool.
 The cylinder is filled to a depth of 1/3.
 To fill the cylinder, two more layers need to be stacked.
 Excess aggregates must be stopped.
 Estimate net weight in grams.
 Raise the hammer to 380mm and lift it down and take it off.
 15 should hit the barrier with a hammer.
 The crushed aggregate should be removed, masse and aggregated so as not exceed
2.36mm.
Strong- 10-25mm
Weak- less 35mm
Figure 27 AIV test
3. Construction materials with proper examples evaluate the

properties and uses of following construction materials.
A. Concrete
Concrete is a construction material made of cement, fine aggregate and coarse aggregate
mixed in water that hardens over time. Portland cement is the most commonly used cement
for the production of concrete. Construction of a building, used the foundation, columns,
beams, concrete slabs and other load-building bearing elements. In addition to cement,
various types of bonding materials such as lime concrete and bitumen for asphalt concrete
are used for road construction.
Concrete construction phase
 Selecting the size of the material for the selected mix ratio.
 Mixing.
 Practical testing.
 Transport.
 Cast to formwork.
 Vibration for proper contraction.
 Removing the formwork after the appropriate time.
 Treat members with appropriate methods and time required.
Properties of concrete
 Strength
 Workability
 Durability
 Elastic properties
 Impermeability
 Bleeding
 Segregating
 Fatigue
Strength- Tensile, compressive, flexural, shear
Workability- How strong a solid compound can be largely determined by its size; therefore,
the stability of the mixture used is very important so that the concrete can be delivered and
installed quickly and easily. Concrete mixtures that can do this area called “working”
compounds and factors.
Durability- The durability of concrete is the property that determines whether it can
withstand a condition designed to withstand many years of breakage. Concrete may not
have life due to external agents such as the environment or internal agents such as defects
within the concrete. The causes may be physical, chemical or mechanical.
Elastic properties- The elastic properties of concrete vary with the richness of the mixture,
the age of the concrete and the intensity of stress.
Impermeability- This is especially important for properties in reinforced concrete, as water,
frost and air can all reinforce the fibers in the material as a result of corrosion of the steel. A
concrete floor can explode and be damaged from the inside, eventually weakening the
structure, causing safety issues and the need to precisely replace the floor. Contact the best
companies to maintain the best quality of concrete.
Segregation- The coarse aggregate from the remaining concrete masses is called
separation. This occurs and increases even when the concrete mix is too thin, too wet or too
large, and has a hard texture.
Bleeding- After the concrete is laid, it is common for water to rise to the surface in a process
called bleeding. When this is done, it often carries sand and cement parties, which form a
layer of stain called lightness.
Fatigue- Indicates general concrete fatigue when flexible. The lag of concrete to flexibility is
indicated by an already established tolerance limit. The value of this range depends on the
repeatability and strength.
Advantage of concrete
 100% recyclable, the materials needed to make concrete to make concrete are plentiful
everywhere on the world.
 Excellent vibration and sound insulation.
 It can be designed in any shape, color or shape you can imagine.
 Burn, rust or rotten construction materials.
 Maximum energy, heat mass.
 The lowest pavement in its life cycle.
 No off gas.
 Low maintain cost.
 Durability for environmental.
B. Timber
Wood is a type of wood that is processed into beams and planks. This is a timber
production. Trees are used for construction purposes. Finished timbers are supplied in
standard quantities to the industry. Timber is used to build houses and make furniture. There
is a high demand for timber as building materials. Timber must be quality assured before it
can be used for any purpose. When selecting timbers for use, these properties should be
checked to ensure quality. At the same time, make sure the timber is flawless.
Physical and mechanical properties of timber:
 Hardness
 Moisture content
 Workability
 Soundness
 Density
 Strength
 Durability
Advantage of timber
 It will be available soon.

 Safe.
 Easy work.
 It is less expensive.
 It is versatile and visual.
 It is versatile and visual.
 It eats naturally.
C. Reinforcement steel
Reinforcement is provided in combination with plain cement concrete. These structures
therefore from the reinforced cement concrete structure (R.C.C). The tensile property of
concrete structures can be obtained by attaching steel reinforcements. Reinforcement is
strong in both constructions. The tensile property provided by the reinforcement prevents
and reduces the cracking of the concrete under tension loads. The coefficient of thermal
expansion of reinforcement and concrete is subject to similar expansions during temperature
changes. Concrete undergoes minimal stress during temperature variations. The surface of
the reinforcement rods has a proper bond with the surrounding concrete material. Concrete
is one of the two main factors that contribute to the strength of concrete structures. The two
components are assembled and made of concrete compressive strength steel to form the
structural element, which is designed to be strong and resistant to shear force.
Types of steel reinforcement used in concrete construction
 Cold worked steel bars

 Mild steel plain bars
 Hot rolled deformed steel bar
 Pre stressing steel bar
Advantage of steel reinforcement
 Compatibility with concrete: The new concrete is placed on the formwork axis already
prepared with reinforcement. In the process of laying the steel reinforcement floats on
the concrete. Therefore, no special attachment is required with steel reinforcement
formwork.
 Strength of steel reinforcement: Steel rods are strong in nature, they are tough,
wearable and tear resistant during construction operations.
 Bending property of steel reinforcement: Once the steel rods are made to standard
size, it can be bend to the required specifications. So fictitious steel rods are easily
distributed on site.
 Recycled property: The service life of a structure is reinforced with steel after it is
recycled and used for new construction.
 Easily available: There is a steel supplier or manufacturer in every part of the country.
So, steel reinforcement is readily available.
D. Bricks and Blocks

It is always necessary to use the best quality brick in construction. Therefore, the properties
of good bricks should be explored. Generally good bricks have the following properties;
 Bricks
The color of the bricks, should be uniform in size and shape. The constant size of the brick
must be maintained. They should be sound and concise. Air bubbles with cracks and sharp
square edges, stone knots to get rid of imperfections. Bricks should not absorb more than
1/5 of the weight when submerged in water for 24hours. The strength of the bricks should be
in the range of 2000 to 5000 PSI.
Types of bricks
 Concrete bricks
 Fly ash clay bricks
 Fire bricks
 Sand lime bricks
 Burnt clay bricks
 Blocks
Cement or concrete blocks are made with a mixture and placed in a special form. Concrete
blocks can be built on site if needed but make sure they are properly aired. Blocks must be
at least 28days old before being used for construction. They are available in many standard
sizes usually from 0 to cm 0 cm long, 20cm high and 20 to 20cm wide. The following are
10×20×400cm, 10×20×0 cm and 20×20×400cm. blocks are sometimes available in different
weights: usually heavier blocks, stronger. Blocks are used with cement mortar. They need to
be stored and handled well. They should be well soaked in water before use. Stable clay
bricks and cement blocks have low resistance to moisture. Therefore, they should not be
used for preferential foundations or underground constructions.
Advantage of bricks and blocks
 Aesthetic
 Strength
 Fire protection
 Porosity
 Sound attenuation
 Insulation
 Wear resistance
E. Structural steel
Structural steel differs from concrete in its compressive strength and tensile strength. With
high strength, hardness, hardness, and ductile properties, structural steel is one of the most
widely used materials in commercial and industrial building construction. Construction steel
can be made in almost any shape, bold or welded in construction. Structural steel can be
installed as soon as it is delivered to the site, but the concrete must be cured for at least 1-2
weeks to continue construction, turning steel into a suitable building material for tables. The
lowest temperature at which molten carbon steel begins to melt is 1,130C (2,070F). Steel
never becomes more liquid than this temperature. Pure iron (‘steel’ with 0% carbon) begins
to melt at 1,492C (2,7180F), and is completely liquid when it reaches 1,539C (2,8020F). Steel
with 2.17% carbon (2,170C melts completely at 2,1700F) 1,315(c (2,399F) by weight. Steel
with a carbon content of more than 2.1% is no longer steel, it is called cast iron.
 I, H section
The margin profile of this section looks like the letters “I” or “H”. The W format is the most
common code used for this category in the AISC steel construction guide. This section is
used for all types of load combinations except pure rotation. This section (in order) is very
effective in preventing curvature and shrinkage. The most common uses of this category are
beams/girders, columns and bridges in buildings.
Advantage
 Steel high protection compared to solid rectangular or rectangular section.

 Can be used for most configuration member applications.
 The availability of a wide range of limited section in steel design manuals allows for
optimal structural design.
 Provides better flexibility for attachments to other primary or secondary members.
Disadvantage
 Loading in the X-X direction is not possible because the section offers much less
construction capacity compared to the Y-Y direction.
 It has an open area, so it offers low torque resistance.
 Channels
The margin profile of this section looks like the letter “C”; so, we call them C shape. The
channel is the most common code used for this type of section in the AISC steel construction
guide, which is often used for uniformly distributed load applications with short torque/
curvature. This section is used as a secondary configuration member, where the load is
transferred to other basic configuration members. The most common applications in the
secondary arrangement of C-shaped/ channels are floor supporting transformers, joists,
berlins for roof trusses, studs for wall construction, and supporting members for ceiling
assemblies.
Advantage
 When flexor is not a critical element, it is a flexible alternative to the I-shape, which saves
almost half the steel.
 Provides greater build capacity when using a multi-member system. Floor joist system,
berlin in roof truss etc.
 To create a virtual I-shaped partition, you can put it backwards.
 Provides good flexibility to bond with other steel members and concrete/brick surfaces.
Disadvantage
 Due to the random geometry of the Y-Y axis, the top edge is very unstable when
mounted without bracing.
 Not suitable for heavy load applications.
 L-section
The margin profile of this section looks like the letter “L”; so we call them L shape. This area
is also known as the “angle” as identified in the AISC steel construction guide and is due to
its ability to provide angular connections. This section is often used for point load
applications to prevent shear, tension and shrinkage. To use this section as a link members,
it is best suited to the basic elements of the built-in member. The most common applications
in this category are bracing on connections between I-shapes and/ or other shapes, truss
members, wires and batons. And/ or built-up member laces, diagonal members in the bridge
girder system, web hardening elements for I-shaped sections, etc.
Advantage
 Provides greater build-up in joints to prevent bolt/ weld shearing.

 It is preferred to be used as a bracing member for trusses as it offers a good mix of axial
bending ability (tension/compression).
 To create a virtual T-shaped section, you can put it backwards.
Disadvantage
 Asymmetric geometry in both X-X and Y-Y direction.

 Very low material: construction efficiency ratio is given as compared to other shapes
sections.
4. Alternative the construction material

A. Asbestos sheet vs AZ sheet
 Asbestos sheet
Properties of Asbestos
 It is simple, smooth and porous.

 It is fire retardant and acid proof material.
 Good insulator of heat and electricity.
 It has high tensile in the direction of its fibers.
 Cut into pieces or drilled.
 It mixed of cement and water, to ensure that it keeps the shape.
Use of Asbestos
 Useful for insulating boilers, furnaces, etc.

 Used as a cover material for fuses and electric switch boxes.
 Used to make fireproof rope and cloth.
 This makes a good wet base layer with bitumen.
 Pipes are used as rainwater pipes from the roof.
 Asbestos cement sheets are cheap roofing materials.
 AZ sheet
Advantage of AZ sheet
 Very competitive mass ratio.

 Increasing the recession, reducing the deflection, allows high-yielding irons to be used
for the economical solution.
 Large width as a result of good installation performance.
 Resistance for corrosion.
Features
 Unlimited design
 Sustainability
 Durability
 Low cost
 Low maintenance
Note: - AZ sheets are more effective than asbestos due to cost, ease of use, and
environmental friendliness.
TASK- D
1. Define a material selection strategy for human comfort
requirements.
Green building design approach is one of the global response to the increasing realization
that the built environment contributes significantly to climate change over the entire buildings
lifecycle. Building accounts for more than40 percent of carbon dioxide emission. Moreover,
the steadily rising energy cost over the past few years help to facilitate the trend towards
sustainability. Taking into account these factors, energy saving measures have become a
requirement in these days.
End-users search for sustainable building concept, with low management cost and energy
usage, which provides structures made from building materials that are in accordance with
ecological point of view. Aside from looking at energy and operating cost, they also take an
increasing concern in work performance levels. Only when people healthy and satisfy they
can optimize their productivity.
Seeing these factors by necessity, means offering both a comfortable and healthy
environment which is essential as a strategy to attract the investors and buyers. Still, there is
no doubt that the comfort and well-being of humans is based to a certain extent on their
subjective perception of some external influences. Seems to support this view and points out
that people respond differently to situations and environments depending on their character
and circumstances. Claims that the factors which will affect human comfort are basically
categorized under physical, intermediary and physiological conditions.
The purpose of this project is to examine the physical conditions with regard to human
comfort and to focus on the building envelop, external and internal influencing factors. The
importance and the impact of these factors on human comfort will then be examined, with a
focus on the effectiveness in the green building design approach. Since the concept of this
approach is increasingly put into practice globally, it is felt that this examination will highlight
areas which need to be taken into account and will be integrated into the design process.
A definition of human comfort and green building design
a. Human comfort
Human comfort can be broadly as the building occupant’s expression of satisfaction with the
thermal environment some of the parameters that affect the users comfort are as follows:
environmental conditions (interior air temperature, lighting intensity and level of noise),
physiological criteria (age, gender, and constitution), intermediary conditions (clothing and
activity) and individuals.
There is a connection between physical and psychological health. They are the factors that
are highly likely to influence the human sense of happiness. In turn, one’s happiness will
impact on people’s expectations, experiences and sense of self-worth. Humans generally
wish to be accepted, respected and to feel secured. Therefore, it is essential for an architect
to understand how people respond to the environment in order to design spaces which can
enhance human health and well-being.
Styles and types of building materials, responses to individual building, light quality and
atmosphere are linked to culture and personal memories which in turn linked to individual’s
character. For instance, a small space may feel comfortable to certain people but
claustrophobic to others. It is difficult to design a building which would be universally
appealing that enhances everyone’s well-being. Nevertheless, certain commonalities can be
identified in regard to comfort and identity. Buildings should be designed to satisfy and fortify
positive feelings as well as enable people to enjoy quite moments of reflection and
relaxation. It plays an important role in increasing occupants’ productivity and health in
buildings.
The building design could influence the human body mechanism to exchange heat with the
environment through convection, radiation and evaporation. As borders has pointed out that
the elements which affect human comfort should be able to be operated and adjusted by the
occupants. In other words, reduce heat loss yet sustaining good air quality is a necessity in
terms of thermal comfort in building design for cold weather.
b. Green building design
Green building is always name as “ecological building” “sustainable building”, or “energy-
efficient building”. Green building design is a concept which emphasize on passive design
strategy by making full use of day lighting, natural ventilation and allowing the insulated
fabric and thermal to work affectively. A green building focuses on reducing building impact
on the environment and occupants’ health while increasing the efficiency of resource use
through better planning, design, construction, management and maintenance.
A green building design approach is “a strategy which united architectural, engineering, site
planning, and landscaping so as to design an energy efficient building which would optimize
the advantage of the environment and to use building materials which is acceptable from a
building ecology point of view.
External factors relevant to human comfort in green building design architecture and open
spaces can help to define peoples’ identity and to define their territory. A good architecture
can create special reference to the locality, high design quality and interactions between
building and its environment. Recognition of the locality help to promote responsibility with
respect to the environment and human beings. Designing with emphasize on natural day
lighting and visuals should begin at the preliminary design stage. By proving these, it can
help to convey a feeling of safety, belonging and security.
c. Day lighting
Day lighting is a significant factor for pleasant interior conditions. Without sufficient day
lighting, people cannot perform well and healthy. Natural light stimulates human’s organism
and control body’s functionality. It is crucial for our visual perception and has a substantial
influence on our work efficiency. Building materials which are transparent or translucent are
essential if we wish to make use of daylight. However, it transmits heat as well as light. This
in turn means that with more daylight, it reduces the dependence on artificial lighting, and
the internal heat loads are decreased as well.
Conventional and innovative day lighting systems that collect, transport and distribute light
deep into buildings and systems that reduce the need for artificial lighting are recommended.
For building plans, this implies a design that is no more than 66ft wide, about 33ft length of
front to back-from any window to any window to any workstation. In other words, a building’s
long axis should be oriented to east-west in order to allow a maximum day lighting from both
south and north facing windows.
The day lighting conditions over the course of the day influence the human hormone balance
and synchronize our “internal clock”. Thus, day lighting strategies, for instance, the
orientation of the building, the proportion of window, the depth of the rooms, glare and ultra-
violet (UV) protection, the design of reflective surface and the coloring of the enclosing
components (walls, floors and soffits) are all the important design features. Passive and
technical measures can be taken into account during design.
Sunlight acts as a link that connect the building occupants with the outside world, facilitating
our essential connection with nature and giving us a sense of time. It is important to realize
that the mood or the perception of a space created by light is just as vital. To put it simply,
people see and feel better whenever there is natural light for reading and working.
d. Visuals and environment

In green building design, emphasis is placed on providing outdoor views from all
workstations. The research shows that if the occupants able to enjoy the outside view during
the workday, it is more conductive to physical and mental health than working in a
windowless environment. Trees can help to absorb carbon dioxide from the air and store it
can carbon. It can also provide shade to buildings, reducing heat gains and thus, improving
the internal environment. In other words, contact with nature is beneficial to the well-being of
humans. The building should be planned and designed so as to be visually as well as
physically well connected with the outdoors.
When designing the external works, emphasis should be put on to create and preserve
natural habitats by providing extensive lawns, keep the area is natural state, trees and
hedges, green roofs, and green facades. In some cases which the area of plot is small,
rooftop planting can replace ground sealed by construction work,
Environment plays an important role in satisfying basic human needs and quality of life. It
can help to reduce stress and also can speed up recovery. In addition, it can affect humans
on a psychological and physical level by acting as a recuperative and stimulating factor for
our creative functions. In densely developed cities, it is critical for human health to strike a
balance between making space accessible to people and preserving flora and fauna.
According to some studies, dealings with nature will affect human’s mental health, whereas
leisure activities in nature directly benefit to physical health.
The Influence of the Building Envelope on Human Comfort in Green Building Design
Building envelope acts as a boundary that separates the interior and exterior of a building
through which thermal energy is transferred. It also serves the function of protecting users
and occupants against climate change such as solar radiation, precipitation and wind so as
to create safe, healthy and secure interior space. However, the role of building envelope
becomes more complex as the demand for comfort increases. A building should enable
people to feel safe and comfortable by reducing potential dangers. To increase human
comfort, the well-being and health of occupants in aspects such as material properties,
safety and security, sound, interior air, and interior climate must be taken into consideration
during the design stage.
e. Material Properties
The choice of material for building envelope will affect human comfort in the building. The
designers should take great care when specifying materials in regards of the impact these
materials have upon human’s feeling about spaces and buildings. Functionality that reflect
regional climate as well as cultural preferences, local vegetation and high-technology
material need to be incorporated in the design. Materials are always describe as cold or
warm. Based on scientific basis, metal for example, are good conductors of heat and
therefore take the heat quickly from the body. On the contrary, wood is a poor conductor and
hence feels relatively warm to touch. These physical sensation correspond to psychological
states, such as a timber paneled room would feel warmer and more comfortable to inhabit
than a predominantly metal one.
Different kind of wall material, construction and thickness are likely to differ in the value of
thermal conductivity. U-value is a measure of the fabric heat loss which take into account
mechanism like conduction, radiation and convection of heat transfer. The same can be said
that the lower the u-value, the better the insulation - the lesser energy needed to maintain
comfort, the lower the environmental impact. Insulated walls reduce energy cost and
increase comfort with levels of minimal effort. To achieve sustainability in building design,
consideration should be given to low embodied energy, material manufactured that is on
waste, easy to disassembly and used to recycle in the end of the building life span,
transportation to the construction site and strategies or method that are often used in
architectural practice.
Protection Factors on Occupants ’Well Being and Health
Building should keep users safe and secure both within the building and its environment by
protecting them from accidents, intruders, fire, and natural dangers. Accordingly,
contributions to the subjective perception of safety and secure by providing a good layout,
lighting, social controls, presence of other people and good visual links are necessary. A
designer can provide these features by considering the specification of material, fire
protection concept, natural dangers, clarity and peoples ’activities during design stage.
Creating pleasant acoustic conditions is also one of the important protection factors. Noise
pollution and acoustic conditions will influence the well-being of people and can affect their
health. Noise between usage units and plus disturbance such as noises from building
services and unfavorable room acoustic should be avoid through precautionary building
physics and room acoustic measures. Constructional sound insulation and room acoustic
measures should be included in the room acoustics report as a guidance.
Besides the above aspects, interior air and climate are also the fundamental elements to
increase the well-being and health of the occupants. A poor interior air quality will cause
some bodily symptoms and lower the productivity. Moreover, thermal comfort has a major
influence on the human heat balance and direct effect on energy consumption of buildings. It
should be optimized through constructional and passive measures. For example, it can be
done through specifying the construction methods, thermal insulation, moisture control, and
coordination of window proportion, ventilation concept and also the protection against
overheating by providing sun shading devices.
Internal Factors Which Support Human Comfort in Green Building Design

The primary function of building is to provide a suitable internal environment for the purpose
of the building. The effects of poorly designed buildings, whether in terms of limited natural
ventilation or poor thermal comfort, would affect the health of building occupants. In order to
achieve an acceptable level of human comfort, the indoor environment for human implies a
temperatures 16-25 degree Celsius.
f. Ventilation
Natural ventilation is another approach which will provide a healthy and comfortable internal
environment by removing polluted indoor air and replace with the ‘fresh’ air from outside
through openings. It would be cozy if the air can be circulated naturally from the outside to
the inside of the building. People will have sensations such as the warmth of the unfiltered
sunlight, smells and acoustic stimulus by direct contact with outside air. It can have a
positive effect on the quality of the habitable room, in that, natural ventilation system are
particularly user friendly from the emotional pint of view. Thus, habitable rooms should
always include opening the facade whenever possible. There are three main mechanisms in
natural ventilation, for instance, single sided where air comes in from a window, cross
ventilation where air crosses a space from one side to another which the effect of wind
pressure causes the air to enter on the windward facade and pass through the building and
lastly providing a stack effect exiting path, resulting from the temperature differences
between the indoor and outdoor air, where the hot air rises and exits the opening near the
roof or providing openings at the 2 sides of the wall. Cross ventilation is defined as the flow
of air through a building due to a wind-generated pressure drop across it.
These processes are ‘natural’ and are provided by pressure gradients and temperature
differentials which in turn create pressure differences. They do not require large quantities of
energy to run the powerful fans which used in mechanically ventilated buildings. Natural
ventilation is the most energy efficient way of supplying essential fresh air to a building.
When it is insufficient, then other cooling options may be possible.
g. Thermal comfort
Human body functions as a heating and cooling mechanism. It can, to some extent,
efficiently and automatically adjust to the environmental conditions that vary from optimum.
Our body functions to lose heat at a certain rate to reasonably cooler air and surfaces.
Nevertheless, if such action is either too slight or excessive, it will lead to occupant
discomfort and physiological stress. Human heat balance, humans ’body temperature, needs
to be around 37ÂÂ C; this is a prerequisite for well-being. Humans emit heat through the
following mechanisms: firstly by exhalation and through evaporation of skin, secondly by
convection of heat from body surface to the surrounding air, thirdly by conduction of heat
from the body to immediate objects and lastly by radiation of heat to the nearby objects and
the surfaces enclosing the room. On the other hand, heat transfer in building in three modes,
which are conduction, convection, and radiation.
If the temperature of the surrounding area drops, the body will first allow the extremities to
cool in order to protect the functions of the brain, heart and other vital organs. It is essential
to transfer the internal heat generated to the environment in order to get a constant
temperature. If the temperature of the interior air is not consistent, the risk of accidents
increases and manual dexterity, productivity and mental abilities decrease quickly. In
regards of this, a thermally comfortable environment is primarily due to physical influencing
factors such as the temperature of the interior air and the average temperature of the
external air, the humidity of the interior air and the movement of the air. Building functions to
admit and conserve heat when the external environment is cold and to thwart the penetration
when the external environment is warm.
Conclusion
Human comfort is not only a strategy in green building design for the purpose of attracting
the investors and buyers, but also an approach which determines occupant’s health and
well-being. This paper has discussed the factors that contribute to human comfort and has
briefly presented the importance and the influence of the factors towards peoples ’comfort in
certain aspects of building design. These include the building envelope, interior and exterior
factors which consist of day lighting, visuals and environment, material properties, protection
factors, ventilation, and thermal comfort. The effectiveness of the approach towards users
’comfort has also been highlighted, particularly with regard to the human comfort and well-
being lead to the increasing of productivity. In discussing the effectiveness of the approach,
it has concluded that although the desired degree of comfort can be a highly subjective
perception, some commonalities can be identified. This can assist in optimizing the design
for a better human comfort. Green buildings always offer a high level of comfort and healthy
indoor climate while depending on renewable energies and low energy embodied resources.
It should be noted that human comfort is only one of the approach in green building design.
Other approaches such as energy efficiency and renewable energy should be taken into
account in design, however, are lied outside the parameters of this paper due to the limited
scope and a more thorough research could be done in this area. This would be particular
interest to the professionals who incorporate the environmental engineering studies in their
design.
2. Identify selected material selected area within the proposed

building and explain how these contribute to a balance indoor
environment
Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ) is most simply described as the conditions inside the
building. It includes air quality, but also access to daylight and views, pleasant acoustic
conditions, and occupant control over lighting and thermal comfort. It may also include the
functional aspects of space such as whether the layout provides easy access to tools and
people when needed and whether there is sufficient space for occupants. Building managers
and operators can increase the satisfaction of building occupants by considering all of the
aspects of IEQ rather than narrowly focusing on temperature or air quality alone. Americans
spend the majority of their time indoors; not surprisingly, studies have shown an increase in
worker productivity when improvements are made to a space’s IEQ.
 Acoustics
A space with good acoustics allows for confidential conversation among collaborating
workers without affecting those engaged in individual, focused work. It is not too loud, does
not echo too much, and controls excess noise pollution from both indoor and outdoor
sources.
 Adequate ventilation and exhaust

Adequate ventilation and exhaust is important to prevent build-up of odors, carbon dioxide,
allergens and toxins in indoor air. Provide separate exhaust for copy, printing, break rooms,
and food preparation areas. Flush out occupied spaces prior to occupancy. Use energy
efficient or variable drive fans for enhanced air movement. Consider bringing in more fresh
air into the building. Ensure the building management staff is conducting preventive
maintenance on all building exhaust systems (restrooms, garage exhaust fans, etc.). Seal
ventilation duct opening during construction or renovations to reduce dust and particle build-
up.
 Adhesives
Adhesives are substances used to bond one surface to another. They include bonding
primers and adhesive primers for plastics. Adhesives often emit high levels of harmful
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), so care must be taken to ventilate spaces when using
them. Many low or no-VOC adhesive products are also available and should be used where
feasible.
 Air Delivery Monitoring
It is important to provide adequate ventilation for occupied spaces. However, care should be
taken to prevent energy waste by over-ventilating. Monitoring systems can be installed to
generate alarms when unhealthy levels of carbon dioxide are detected - a sign that
additional fresh, outside air needs to be brought in to restore healthy indoor air quality.
 ASHRAE
ASHRAE (formerly, the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning
Engineers) is the governing body which creates and releases the standards regarding indoor
air quality, thermal comfort, and energy efficiency.
 Binder
Binders are used to hold together two or more ingredients. They are similar to adhesives and
must also be used with care. Binders can have high levels of harmful Volatile Organic
Compounds (VOCs), which can be dangerous to human health and the environment. Lower
VOC binders are preferable, and all spaces where binders are applied should be well
ventilated.
 Building Commissioning
The process that focuses on verifying and documenting that the facility and all of its systems
and assemblies are planned, designed, installed, tested, operated, and maintained to meet
the Owner's Project Requirements. This means testing all systems (HVAC, lighting controls,
domestic hot water systems, etc.) to ensure they function as intended. Proper commissioning
saves energy, reduces risk, and creates value for building operators. It also serves as a quality
assurance process for enhancing the delivery of the project.
 Cleanliness
Building cleanliness is both the process of removing dirt and contaminates from the building
as well as the process of maintaining this state. Keeping the facility clean decreases the
occurrence of “sick building syndrome” and uses less toxic chemicals in the process.
Occupants are also more likely to express satisfaction and lose less productivity due to
absenteeism in a well-cleaned building.
 Combined Sewer Overflow

A combined sewer system conveys both sanitary sewage and storm water in one piping
system. During normal dry weather conditions, sanitary wastewater collected in the combined
sewer system is diverted to the wastewater treatment plant before it enters natural waterways.
During periods of significant rainfall, the capacity of a combined sewer may be exceeded.
When this occurs, excess flow, a mixture of storm water and sanitary wastewater, is
discharged at CSO points, typically to rivers and streams.
 Construction Air Quality Management
Construction activities can threaten the indoor air quality of an occupied space. Precautions
should be taken to protect the health of construction workers as well as the health of
occupants. These precautions include ensuring that airborne particles from construction
activities are isolated from the permanently installed HVAC equipment; flushing out toxins
before occupancy; ensuring absorptive materials are kept dry and that the facility is kept free
from mold; and using construction materials low in harmful VOCs.
 Day lighting
Daylighting uses natural daylight as a substitute for electrical lighting. While it will likely be
counterproductive to eliminate electrical lighting completely, the best proven strategy is to
employ layers of light - using daylight for basic ambient light levels while providing occupants
with additional lighting options to meet their needs. An effective daylighting strategy
appropriately illuminates the building space without subjecting occupants to glare or major
variations in light levels, which can impact comfort and productivity. In order to provide
equitable access to daylight ensure the space is optimized to disperse daylight well. Locate
private offices toward the core of the space and specify low workstation panels. Use glass
walls and light-colored surfaces on walls and desks to disperse daylight throughout the space.
In all daylighting strategies, it is important to consider glare and to take steps to minimize it.
Find more strategies below:
 Entryway Systems / Walk-off Mats
Toxins are tracked into a building on occupants ’shoes. Entryway systems, like grates, grills,
and walk-off mats can greatly reduce the amount of outside dirt, dust, and particulates brought
into the building. This makes for a cleaner environment, and cuts down on the amount of
cleaning necessary to maintain a high level of cleanliness in the facility.
 Ergonomics
Ergonomic workspaces are designed to facilitate work while minimizing stress and strain on
the body. They also accommodate user preferences and comfort. They include height-
adjustable desks that can be easily moved around on casters, fully adjustable chairs, monitor
arms, keyboard trays, footrests and document holders. It is important to train employees on
how to adjust their workspaces to maximize comfort and health.
 ETS (Environmental Tobacco Smoke) Control
ETS is another term for secondhand smoke. It consists of cancer-causing airborne particles
emitted from the burning end of cigarettes, pipes, and cigars, and is exhaled by smokers.
Good indoor air quality is assured by not allowing ETS to enter the air breathed by non-
smokers. This is often achieved by banning smoking within the facility and within a certain
distance from openings in the building envelope (often 20-25 feet). Buildings can also install
separate HVAC systems to isolate areas within a facility where smoking is allowed.
 Finish
A finish is the final covering material in an arrangement of building components. It can refer to
the finish on the floor, countertop, wall, or piece of furniture. Similar to adhesives and binders,
finishes must also be used with care. They can emit high levels of harmful Volatile Organic
Compounds (VOCs), which can be dangerous to human health and the environment. Lower
VOC finishes are preferable, and all spaces where finishes are applied should be well
ventilated.
 Flush Out
The odors and toxins released from recently installed building materials and finishes - such as
flooring, paints, caulks and sealants, cabinets and work surfaces made from composite lumber
products - reduce indoor air quality. To increase indoor air quality, large amounts of outdoor
air can be forced through a recently completed building for a period of 3 to 90 days so that the
majority of emissions from the newly installed materials can be removed from the building
before occupancy.
 Glazing
Tinted glass and glass with a reflective coating are glazing alternatives that reduce heat gain.
One example, low-e glass, has a thin metal coating to allow light to pass through the glass;
heat remains on the side where it is originating (it keeps the sun’s heat out of the building and
mechanical heating inside the building). Low-e coatings contribute to energy efficient window
assemblies.
 Guiding Principles for Sustainable Federal Buildings
The Guiding Principles for Sustainable Federal Buildings and Associated Instructions are a
set of sustainable principles for integrated design, energy performance, water conservation,
indoor environmental quality, materials, and resilience aimed at helping Federal agencies and
organizations:
 Healthy Buildings
Health, as defined by the World Health Organization in its 1948 constitution, is "a state of
complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or
infirmity". This definition of health has been expanded in recent years to include (1) resilience
and the ability to cope with health problems and (2) the capacity to return to an equilibrium
state after health challenges.
These three health domains - physical, psychological, and social - are not mutually exclusive
but rather interact to create a sense of health that changes over time and place. The challenge
for building design and operations is to identify cost-effective ways to eliminate health risks
while also providing positive physical, psychological, and social supports as well as coping
resources.
 Healthy Cleaning
A good healthy cleaning program uses processes and products with a low-environmental
impact while still being effective at removing dirt and contaminants from the building. In
addition, it protects the health of the cleaning staff. Healthy cleaning encompasses the use of
non-toxic, biodegradable chemicals and recycled cleaning products, and uses cleaning
equipment that has little to no environmental impact. It may also include daytime cleaning, the
training of employees, use of microfiber cleaning cloths, and the use of concentrated cleaning
chemicals that require less packaging.
 Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)

Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) refers to the state of the air within a space. A space with good indoor
air quality is one that is low in toxins, contaminants and odors. Good air quality possible when
spaces are well ventilated (with outside air) and protected from pollutants brought into the
space or by pollutants off-gassed within the space. Strategies used to create good IAQ include
bringing in 100% outside air, maintaining appropriate exhaust systems, complying with
ASHRAE Standard 62.1, utilizing high efficiency MERV filters in the heating ventilation and air
conditioning (HVAC) system, installing walk-off mats at entryways, prohibiting smoking with
the space and near operable windows and air intakes, providing indoor plants, and using only
low-emitting / non-toxic materials and green housekeeping products.
 Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ)
Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ) is most simply described as the conditions inside the
building. It includes air quality, but also access to daylight and views, pleasant acoustic
conditions, and occupant control over lighting and thermal comfort.
 Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
Integrated Pest Management is a process used to reduce or discourage the growth of pest
populations. IPM protects human health and the surrounding environment and improves
economic returns by employing the most effective, least-risk management option. It uses non-
toxic products such as cleaning and physical barriers to entrance before resorting to chemical
means. Pests include plants, fungi, insects, and / or animals.
 Low-Emitting
Materials used in buildings often contain compounds that have a negative effect on indoor air
quality (IAQ) and the earth’s atmosphere. These compounds can be present in adhesives,
sealants, paints, flooring, carpets, composite wood and agrifiber products, furnishings, and in
ceiling and wall systems. Low-emitting materials release only small amounts of these
compounds into the surrounding air over time. Strategies for selecting low-emitting options
include ensuring material compliance with the ANSI / BIFMA X7.1 standard for furniture
emissions. Non-profit certification programs that verify conformance with the standard
including but not limited to SCS Indoor Advantage on government site opens in new window,
Certified Green, Green guard, and any other program that uses the open ANSI standard.
 Moisture Control
Moisture control is the process of regulating where, when and how much water and water
vapor collect in a building. Mold and other air borne contaminates develop when there is too
much moisture.
 Noise Pollution
Noise pollution is the presence of unwanted or unpleasant noise. Noise pollution comes from
improperly functioning HVAC equipment, street noise, or the conversations of others.
Besides the fact that it is obnoxious and distracting, noise pollution can be detrimental to
human health. It is therefore important to consider ways to eliminate noise pollution in project
planning.
 Occupant comfort
Workspaces should be designed and operated to support the functional and environmental
needs of occupants. Design for thermal comfort should be based on ASHRAE Standard 55.
Design for air quality should be based on ASHRAE 62. Occupant comfort should be
assessed frequently once a building is occupied, using ASHRAE’s Performance
Measurement Protocols for Commercial Buildings.
 Occupant Control
Workspaces should be designed to allow for occupant control over lighting (light switches,
occupant or daylight sensors with override capability, etc.) and thermal comfort (operable
windows, individual thermostats, and underfloor air diffusers). Building operators should
provide information about control use to occupants.
 Over-cooling
Many office buildings are being overcooled, particularly during the summer. Overcooling has
both negative energy and occupant comfort consequences.
 Over-heating
Overheating refers to the accumulation of warmth in a building to the extent where it causes
occupant discomfort. It can also affect worker productivity and health. Overheating can occur
during winter months, as well as in summer months.
 Plants
Plants not only contribute to the appearance of the office and provide aesthetic value but
they can help reduce air pollutants and introduce more oxygen to increase air quality.
 Views (to the Outside)
Building occupants with access to outside views have an increased sense of well-being.
Keeping employees happy and healthy is good for business, as happy employees show
higher productivity and increased job satisfaction, resulting in less employee turnover. In
order to provide equitable access to views, it is recommended that private offices are located
toward the core of the space and that low workstation panels are installed to allow for
maximum daylight penetration. Use glass walls and partitions to enable views out from
interior spaces.
 Worker Productivity
Productivity is the quality and / or quantity of goods or services produced by a worker. Good
indoor environmental quality - access to views, comfortable temperatures, comfortable
lighting, good acoustics, and ergonomic design, etc. - supports employees ’ability to do a
good job. On the other hand, compromised IEQ hinders their ability to work. It makes good
business sense, then, to keep employees happy, healthy, and productive. This, in turn,
creates more and higher quality output for organizations.
3. X – Value, U – Value calculation & evaluate the energy loss per

second through the wall in watts.
Thickness (A) = 2.5 × 0.1 × 5

= 3cm
= 3 × 10-2m
Thickness (B) = 2.25cm

= 2.25 × 10-2m
Thermal conductivity (K) = 0.1Wm-20C-1

Rsi = 0.123
Rso = 0.05
Ra = 0.18
Thermal conductivity (U) = 2Wm-20C-1
1
𝑈=
𝑇𝑎 𝑇𝑏
𝑅𝑠𝑖 + 𝐾𝑎 + + 𝑅𝑠𝑜
𝐾𝑏
1
𝑈=
0.03 0.0225
0.123 + 0.1 + + 0.05
𝑑𝑥
1
𝑈=
0.123 + 0.3 + 0.01125 + 0.05
1
𝑈=
0.48425
U = 2.065Wm-20C-1
1
R =
𝑈
1
R =
2.065
𝑅 = 0.4842W-10C
HL = UAΔT
HL = 2.065 × 50 × 19
HL = 1961.75W
4. Comfortable Lux level and dB level for different places and

situations.
The table below provides recommended light levels from the IESNA Lighting Handbook and
LPD levels from the IECC 2021 (using the Space-By-Space Method for calculations). Check
your local jurisdiction for other or more stringent requirements. The US General Services
Administration provides lighting levels and LPDs for US Government buildings, which can be
used as a guide for other types of buildings. The LPD levels should continue to drop with
subsequent codes and as LED lighting becomes more energy efficient. The required light
levels are indicated in a range because different tasks, even in the same space, require
different amounts of light. In general, low contrast and detailed tasks require more light while
high contrast and less detailed tasks require less light. Please keep in mind that this chart is
not comprehensive. The IESNA Lighting Handbook has pages and pages of various
categories. If you have a very specific need, we recommend further research.
IECC 2021
ROOM TYPE LIGHT LEVEL LIGHT LEVEL LIGHTING POWER
(FOOT CANDLES) (LUX) DENSITY (WATTS
PER SF)
Cafeteria – eating 20 – 30 FC 200 – 300 lux 0.40
Classroom – general 30 – 50 FC 300 – 500 lux 0.71
Conference room 30 – 50 FC 300 – 500 lux 0.97
Corridor – general 5 – 10 FC 50 – 100 lux 0.41
Corridor – hospital 5 – 10 FC 50 – 100 lux 0.71
Dormitory – living 20 – 30 FC 200 – 300 lux 0.50

quarters
Exhibit space 30 – 50 FC 300 – 500 lux 0.31
Gymnasium – 20 – 30 FC 200 – 300 lux 0.90

workout
Gymnasium – sports 30 – 50 FC 300 – 500 lux 0.85
Kitchen 30 – 75 FC 300 – 750 lux 1.09
IECC 2021
ROOM TYPE LIGHT LEVEL LIGHT LEVEL LIGHTING POWER
(FOOT CANDLES) (LUX) DENSITY (WATTS
PER SF)
Laboratory ( class 50 – 75 FC 500 – 750 lux 1.11

room)
Laboratory 75 – 120 FC 750 – 1200 lux 1.33

(professional)
Library – stacks 20 – 50 FC 200 – 500 lux 1.18
Library – reading 30 – 50 FC 300 – 500 lux 0.96
Loading dock 10 – 30 FC 100 – 300 lux 0.88
Lobby – office 20 – 30 FC 200 – 300 lux 0.84
Locker room 10 – 30 FC 100 – 300 lux 0.52
Lounge/ breakroom 10 – 30 FC 100 – 300 lux 0.59
Mechanical/electrical 20 – 50 FC 200 – 500 lux 0.43

room
Office - open 30 – 50 FC 300 – 500 lux 0.61
0.74
Office – private 30 – 50 FC 300 – 500 lux
Parking - interior 5 – 10 FC 50 – 100 lux 0.15
Restroom/toilet 10 – 30 FC 100 – 300 lux 0.63
Retail sales 20 – 50 FC 200 – 500 lux 1.65
Stairway 5 – 10 FC 50 – 100 lux 1.05
Storage room – 5 – 20 FC 50 – 200 lux 0.38

general
Workshop 30 – 75 FC 300 – 750 lux 1.26
Table 2 Lux levels
5. Use of passive or active strategies can minimize energy,

materials, water, and land use in the proposed project.
Lighting in our living and workplaces is critically important for our ability to accomplish tasks
efficiently and safely. In addition, proper light levels prevent eye strain, which allows us to
work comfortably for longer periods of time. This article covers proper lighting levels and will
include various lighting concepts during the conversation. If you need to brush up on the
basics of lighting, check out our Properties of Light article. While intensity of light is important
for reducing eye strain, architects and designers must also consider color temperature.
Temperature affects human alertness - humans are more alert under the blue light of midday
and more relaxed under the warmer light of morning and evening. We cover light
temperature in out article about circadian lighting. There are two main concepts that
architects need to understand when planning lighting levels in their buildings: Light Levels
and Lighting Power Density. Since we are concerned mainly with accomplishing tasks in our
buildings, we need to understand the Illuminance, or the amount of light that is hitting a
surface. In an office, we might want to understand the amount of light that is hitting our desk;
however, in a gymnasium or corridor we may be more interested in the amount of light hitting
the floor.
Illuminance is measured in foot candles (FC) or lux. 1 FC is the amount of light that hits a 1
square foot surface when 1 lumen is shined from 1 foot away - this equates to 1 lumen per
square foot. 1 lux is the amount of light that hits a 1 square meter surface when 1 lumen is
shined from 1 meter away - this equates to 1 lumen per square meter. 10 lux is roughly 1
FC.
Diagram of Foot Candle vs Lux - Illumination
Diagram of Foot Candle vs Lux - Illumination
We need to provide enough light to allow people to accomplish see their tasks, but not so
much light that it is hard to see the tasks - over lighting is just as bad as under lighting.
Detailed tasks like drafting require more light, while general tasks like walking can be
accomplished with less light. The most cited reference for lighting levels is the IESNA
Lighting Handbook, which is published by the Illuminating Engineering Society. The lighting
levels listed below come from the Handbook as well as various other lighting references.
Lighting power density is the amount of power used by lighting per unit of building area. In
the United States, LPD is measured in watts per square foot. Included in the watt
measurement is all power consumed by light fixtures, ballasts, controls, transformers, etc. -
essentially, if the component or device is involved in lighting, it must be included in the
calculation.
Lighting power density is established by local and international codes. The values listed
below for LPD come from the 2021 version of the International Energy Conservation Code
(IECC 2021) and are based on the Space-By-Space method of calculation. Please keep in
mind that certain cities or states may have codes that require LPDs to be a certain
percentage of BELOW the IECC and that different jurisdictions use different versions of the
code. Always make sure to check your local codes before establishing LPD criteria for your
project. There are two ways to calculate the lighting power density. The first way is to use an
LPD that applies to the full building based on the type of building (school, museum, office,
etc.) - this method is very basic and is called the Building Area Method. The second way is
to calculate the LPD based on each specific room and is called the Space-by-Space method
- this method is much more accurate and may result in a lower LPD number, which is helpful
when applying for utility incentives.
Many utility incentive programs require the design team to improve upon the lighting power
density baseline required by local codes. For instance, a utility incentive program may
require a 15% (or more) improvement over the baseline LPD in order to receive a lower
electricity rate.
Conclusion
By the time I did this work, I was able to gain additional knowledge about it Item volume by
searching the internet and books. I was when I was doing this work Gained additional
knowledge of construction materials, properties and applications of the structure
Construction Material Behavior, Building Services, Wood Behavior, Construction Steel And
the reinforced concrete and thermal performance of the building. Searching websites more
and more books expand my knowledge and motivate me to search more and more Materials
and technologies are improving day by day. After this work, I have got a clear idea of the
volume, and got an idea that there are a lot of ingredients the fast growing science and
technology were introduced due to their importance will be updated anytime.
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 https://search.yahoo.com/search?fr=mcafee&type=E210US885G0&p=Champoux%2C+
Y.%2C+and+Allard%2C+J.F.%2C+%22Dynamic+tortuosity+and+bulk+modulus+in+air+s
aturated+porous+media%2C%22+Journal+of+Applied+Physics%2C+vol.+70%2C+no.+4
%2C+1991%2C+pp.+1975-1979.
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%2C+and+Bazley%2C+E.N.%2C+%22Acoustical+properties+of+fibrous+absorbent+mat
erials%22+Applied+Acoustics%2C+vol.+3%2C+1970%2C+pp.+105-116.
 https://search.yahoo.com/search?fr=mcafee&type=E210US885G0&p=Fahy%2C+F.%2C
+Foundations+of+Engineering+Acoustics%2C+Academic+Press+London%2C+(2001).
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saturated+porous+media%2C%22+Journal+of+Fluid+Mechanics%2C+vol.+176%2C+19
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+08+Standard+Test+Method+for+Impedance+and+Absorption+of+Acoustical+Materials
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SCIENCE AND MATERIALS

 Checked every week for electrical wires and plugs

 Avoid close working

 The chemical hazard is most important hazard in construction sites.

 Slips-wet, weather hazards, surface flooring

 Clean spills immediate

Figure 1 minimize risk

 So how to minimize construction site hazards

 Identification for hazards

NO TASK HAZARDS S P SCO CONTROLS

 Use proper chemical

02 Working Fall of materials 2 4 8  Planned and

04 Concreting Skin damages 3 3 9  Wearing personal

05 excavation Accident for workers 3 4 12  Use safe digging.

Collapse of the side 3 2 06

06 electrical Shocked 4 4 16  Used the correct cable.

07 Personal Dust injuries 3 4 12  Wear safety glasses.

Table 1 Risk assessment

3. Regulations associated with the following methods.

 Classified the soil

The excavation is most important work of construction work site.

Why is planning before excavation

Figure 3 Production place

Figure 4 Mixing concrete

 Employees need to be trained in the best possible ways.

Equipment should be provided to employees working at height

 Make sure it is 1 meter above the ground.

Figure 5 Ladders angle

Figure 6 Parts of ladders

Figure 7 Roof work

Figure 8 Roof slap work

D. Moving, lift and handling weights

Figure 9 Cranes parts

 Block and tackle

E. Site vehicle and moving plants

Figure 10 Concrete truck

 Pushing back and forth

The excavator machine is used in many ways in excavation. For example,

 Chemicals must be safely stacked in alphabetical order.

Figure 12 Wear safety dress

Figure 13 Arrangements for chemicals

Figure 14 Building material lifecycle

Figure 15 Lifecycle assessment

 The environment can be better managed.

 Too much sounds.

Figure 16 Environmental certificate

3. Waste management plan the materials.

Figure 17 Waste management plan

 Can be converted into a flammable liquid.

Figure 18 Recycle of waste management

 Goals for sustainable construction

Figure 19 Sustainable construction

Indoor environmental quality

Figure 20 Most environmental cleans place

Passive design green home

Figure 21 Passive environmental house

 Metabolic rate: The energy generated from the human body.

2. Results in terms of the materials properties and regulatory

Figure 22 measured slump test

Procedure of slump test

Figure 23 Slump corn test

B. Cube test for concrete

Figure 24 Strength compressive test concrete test