Science & Material

SCIENCE&
MATERIALS

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Abstract
Green building refers to a structure and processes that are environmentally friendly and
resource efficient over the life-cycle of a building, from siting to design, construction, service,
maintenance, and demolition. While new technologies are constantly being introduced, this
practice expands and complements the traditional building design issues of economy,
durability, and comfort.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my thanks to Department of Civil Engineering, BCAS campus, Jaffna for
offering me this great opportunity to do the assignment work during the semester1.
First I express my deepest gratitude to our lecturer, Engineer k.kajeenthan whose guidance and
encouragement was very useful to finish this assignment successfully, thanks to course coordinator of
Civil Engineering Department, BCAS campus, Jaffna. And also thanks to library of our Jaffna BCAS
campus. Also, we thanks my parents and colleagues for giving their full support and help in many ways
during the assignment work. My main thanks go to god, because he gave an opportunity to study Civil
Engineering.

A.pavan
J/CE/20/17/07

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Contents

Table of Contents
Abstract............................................................................................................................................. 2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................................................................................... 3
List of figure ...................................................................................................................................... 7
List of Table ...................................................................................................................................... 8
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 1
1.0 Reviewing the regulations and legislation of use at a construction site ..................................... 2
1.1 Plan the site to minimize construction related hazards.............................................................. 2
The best way to minimize construction related hazards in to strictly implement safety measures
from wearing of complete PPE’S for all workers to making a habit of doing housekeeping before
and after work installation of railings, safety signage’s and constant reminder of how important
safety is during tool box meeting.................................................................................................... 2
Regulations ................................................................................................................................... 2
The best way to minimize construction related hazards in to strictly implement safety measures
from wearing of complete PPE’S for all workers to making a habit of doing housekeeping before
and after work installation of railings, safety signage’s and constant reminder of how important
safety is during tool box meeting.................................................................................................... 2
The Regulation gives a typical specialized language to evaluate the presentation of construction
items. It guarantees that dependable data is accessible to experts, open specialists, and
purchasers, so they can think about the presentation of items from various manufacturers in
various nations, ............................................................................................................................. 2
Legislation ..................................................................................................................................... 2
Regulation impact on the use, storage and handling...................................................................... 2
Example ....................................................................................................................................... 3
Chemical storage in the lab ........................................................................................................ 3
Brought together chemical stockpiling is suggested. Chemical stockpiling inside labs ought to be
restricted to those chemicals and amounts important to finish task necessities. Key thought for lab
stockpiling and taking care of include… .......................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
• Whenever the situation allows, isolate toxic chemicals and store in shut cupboards name the
cupboards toxic chemicals or with a comparative notice. ................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
• Representative substance risk preparing and documentation ................................................... 3
• Central chemical storage areas (e.g. rooms) require specific design and equipment such as
construction materials, lightning, ventilation, fire extinguishers and housekeeping procedures such
as aisle space................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
• Separate contrary chemicals that could respond whenever put away together ......................... 3
• Guarantee clear isolation plans are kept up. Chemicals should be isolated when being put
away to guarantee that inconsistent chemicals don't blend if there is a spill ................................... 3
• Never store flammable liquids in fridges or coolers except if they have been modified, for
example sparkle sealed .................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
• Try not to permit chemicals to be presented to the sun, inordinate heat or wellsprings of start.
Error! Bookmark not defined.

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Hazard........................................................................................................................................... 4
How to minimize the hazards ......................................................................................................... 4
1.3 Regulation associated with the following activities .................................................................... 7
Planning the work .......................................................................................................................... 9
Risk assessment & method statement ........................................................................................... 9
Placing Concrete ......................................................................................................................... 10
Compacting Concrete: - Theory ................................................................................................... 11
Guardrails .................................................................................................................................... 11
Ladders ....................................................................................................................................... 12
Roof............................................................................................................................................. 12
Platform ....................................................................................................................................... 13
Scaffolding................................................................................................................................... 13
Excavator .................................................................................................................................... 15
2.0 Discuss the environmental and sustainability factors which can impact on and sustainability
factors which can impact on and influence the material choices for construction project......... 17
2.1 Material environmental specification and life cycle assessment.............................................. 17
Material efficiency ........................................................................................................................ 19
2.3 Produce a waste management plan for a given materials ....................................................... 20
2.4 Plan the 10 story building of business including important sustainable highlights to get a
platinum rating ................................................................................................................................ 20
Building orientation ...................................................................................................................... 22
Using overhang ........................................................................................................................... 22
Building massing ......................................................................................................................... 23
Using solar panels ....................................................................................................................... 23
Day lighting.................................................................................................................................. 25
Natural ventilation ........................................................................................................................ 26
Shades ........................................................................................................................................ 26
3.0 present material decisions for a given structure utilizing execution properties, exploratory
information, sustainability and natural thought ........................................................................ 28
3.1 Relevant testing procedures to identify the performance characteristics of selected
construction materials ..................................................................................................................... 28
3.2.1 Construction materials with proper examples evaluate the properties & uses of following
construction materials............................................................................................................. 33
4 Evaluate the performance of a given building concerning it’s human requirements ...................... 42
4.1.1 Define a material selection for human comfort requirement ............................................... 42
Wellbeing & Prosperity ................................................................................................................ 42
Thermal Solace ........................................................................................................................... 42
Indoor air quality .......................................................................................................................... 42
Visual solace ............................................................................................................................... 42
Sound disturbance....................................................................................................................... 43
4.1.2 Indoor Environment ........................................................................................................... 43

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4.1.3 X-value, U-value calculation & Evaluate the energy loss per second through the wall in
watts 44
1.................................................................................................................................................. 44
+ 0.05......................................................................................................................................... 44
0.123 + 0.35 + 0.01125 + 0.05 ................................................................................................ 44
4.1.5 Passive and Active strategies of Buildings ........................................................................ 46
Wind power ................................................................................................................................. 46
Grey Water Re-Use ..................................................................................................................... 46
Reversible ceiling fan................................................................................................................... 47
Passive Heating........................................................................................................................... 47
Passive Ventilation ...................................................................................................................... 47
Passive Cooling ........................................................................................................................... 48
Day lighting.................................................................................................................................. 48
Applying the strategies: - Residential ........................................................................................... 48
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 49
References ..................................................................................................................................... 50

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List of figure

Figure 2 construction site hazards..................................................................................................... 4

Figure 3 excavator ............................................................................................................................ 8
Figure 4 placing con 1 ..................................................................................................................... 10
Figure 5 Ladder type ....................................................................................................................... 12
Figure 6 Ladder rules ...................................................................................................................... 12
Figure 7 roof work ........................................................................................................................... 12
Figure 8 scaffolding work ................................................................................................................ 13
Figure 9 moving, lifting and handling weight for mobile cranes ........................................................ 14
Figure 10 site vehicle and moving plants for concrete trucks........................................................... 14
Figure 11 site vehicle and moving plants for excavator ................................................................... 15
Figure 12 PPE safety system .......................................................................................................... 16
Figure 13 chemical storage ............................................................................................................. 16
Figure 14 chemical storage ............................................................................................................. 16
Figure 15 material environmental profiling ....................................................................................... 17
Figure 16 life cycle Assessment ...................................................................................................... 18
Figure 17 type of LEED rating system ............................................................................................. 21
Figure 18 LEED points system ........................................................................................................ 21
Figure 19 Building orientation.......................................................................................................... 22
Figure 20 using overhang................................................................................................................ 23
Figure 21 Building massing ............................................................................................................. 23
Figure 22 Using solar panels........................................................................................................... 24
Figure 23 Passive design ................................................................................................................ 25
Figure 24 Day lighting ..................................................................................................................... 26
Figure 25 Slump test ....................................................................................................................... 28
Figure 26 Procedures for slump test................................................................................................ 29
Figure 27 Type of slump ................................................................................................................. 29
Figure 28 Cube test cube ................................................................................................................ 30
Figure 29 Cube test procedures ...................................................................................................... 31
Figure 30 AIV test equipment .......................................................................................................... 32
Figure 31 L section.......................................................................................................................... 37
Figure 32 Channels ......................................................................................................................... 38
Figure 33 Indoor environmental qualities......................................................................................... 43
Figure 34 Grey water uses .............................................................................................................. 47

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List of Table
Table 1 Risk Assessment .................................................................................................................. 5
Table 2 Slump value ....................................................................................................................... 29
Table 3 Slump value ....................................................................................................................... 30
Table 4 Cube crushing force ........................................................................................................... 31
Table 5 Cube value ......................................................................................................................... 31
Table 6 AIV value............................................................................................................................ 33
Table 7 Mild steel strength .............................................................................................................. 35
Table 8 Brick size qualities .............................................................................................................. 36
Table 9 Different type of lux value ................................................................................................... 45
Table 10 Different type of DB value................................................................................................. 46

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Introduction
This module is mandatory for the successful completion of unit three science and material as
part of diploma in civil engineering. This is a first semester module and this includes health
and safety, material test, strength of materials, construction materials and green building
concept. This chapter 4 has been prepared in such a way that the learning outcomes will be
self assessed to assess the knowledge.

At the end of the first hearing we had to evaluate the hygiene and safety regulations, and
learn the laws regarding handling of materials stored in the workplace. At the end of the
second learning we had to discuss environmental factors. In the third learning I was able to
learn material choices, test data, consistency, etc. for a given building using performance
attributes. I was able to learn about assessing current material choices for a given building
performance property, sustainability, and environmental considerations in the final learning.

Sri Lanka's construction industry has come a long way from the hazardous beginnings of
constructing sample walls, bridges, and small civil work projects. The industry has grown
significantly in recent years, especially since independence. The construction industry, which
employs the country's largest workforce, is responsible for about 11% of all workplace
injuries and 20% of all deaths.

A lifecycle evaluation is a valuable method for determining a system's environmental

efficiency. An systematic method for collecting and observing material, resources, and
related environmental impact inputs and outputs. Unwaveringly ascribe to the smooth
operation of a manufactured product or service system.

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1.0 Reviewing the regulations and legislation of use at a construction

site
1.1 Plan the site to minimize construction related hazards
The best way to minimize construction related hazards in to strictly implement safety
measures from wearing of complete PPE’S for all workers to making a habit of doing
housekeeping before and after work installation of railings, safety signage’s and constant
reminder of how important safety is during tool box meeting.

Regulations

The best way to minimize construction related hazards in to strictly implement safety
measures from wearing of complete PPE’S for all workers to making a habit of doing
housekeeping before and after work installation of railings, safety signage’s and constant
reminder of how important safety is during tool box meeting.

The Regulation gives a typical specialized language to evaluate the presentation of

construction items. It guarantees that dependable data is accessible to experts, open
specialists, and purchasers, so they can think about the presentation of items from various
manufacturers in various nations,
Construction Regulation The Regulation for Construction Undertakings, applies to all
construction ventures, as characterized by the Occupational Wellbeing and Security Act
(OHSA)

Legislation
Construction, including any improvement or modification to genuine property ("land"),
including destruction work to clear a site, is dependent upon the entirety of the standards
and regulations of law, under the expansive, general characterization of Construction Law.
The fundamental standards of law and value influencing genuine property have developed
from an expansive assemblage of essential laws, guidelines, norms, rehearses, custom,
use, codes and innovation.

Regulation impact on the use, storage and handling

When a pile has become so large that workers are unable to deal with or lift it properly, when
workers can't see through or over a mound, or when they can't see through it. When workers
are unable to safely handle a pile for loads with sharp or unforgiving edges, hand and lower
arm protection, such as gloves, is recommended. Prosperity shoes or boots with eye safety
Metatarsal guardians made of metal, fiber, or plastic are used to protect the instep., Maintain
a strategic distance from over-troubling a lift truck since it blocks control and causes spilling,
Don't put extra load on the rear of a fair to allow an over-trouble, Alter the pile to the most
negligible position while traveling, Follow the operational requirements specified by the
truck's designer, and As the situation allows, heap and cross-level each and every stacked
weight precisely. Continue to amass areas free of gathered materials that cause swaying,
blazes, or impacts, or that can attract rodents and other bugs. Set aside materials inside
buildings that are under construction and at any time. storage facilities, compartments, or
tanks, with lifelines and seat lashes Stack lurch near 16 feet high if it is dealt with truly, and
near 20 feet if using a forklift Expel all nails from used wood before stacking Stack and level

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wood on strongly, reinforced propping Guarantee that stacks are consistent and self-
supporting Don't store channels and bars in racks that face standard walkways to swear off
creation a hazard to observers when clearing supplies Stack packs and bundles in
interlocking segments to keep them secure and Stack stashed material by wandering back
the layers and cross-scratching the sacks some place around every ten layers (to oust
packs from the stack, start from the top line first). Stack stagger close to 16 feet high on
the off chance that it is managed really and almost 20 feet if a forklift is used Before
stacking, remove all nails from the used wood. Stack and level wood on clearly supported
propping, making sure stacks are stable and self-supporting. When purging equipment,
avoid storing funnels and bars in racks that face rule walkways to avoid endangering
spectators. To keep packs and packages safe, stack them in interlocking pieces.

Example

Chemical storage in the lab

It is suggested that chemical stockpiles be consolidated. Chemical stockpiles in laboratories
should be restricted to the chemicals and quantities needed to complete task requirements.
The following are some important factors to consider when stockpiling and maintaining a
lab......

Isolate toxic chemicals and store in closed cupboards wherever possible. Mark the
cupboards toxic chemicals or with a comparative note.

Representative substance risk preparing and documentation.

In central chemical storage areas (e.g. rooms), construction materials, lighting,

ventilation, fire extinguishers, and housekeeping procedures such as aisle space are
all needed.

Separate contrary chemicals that could respond whenever put away together.

Guarantee clear isolation plans are kept up. Chemicals should be isolated when
being put away to guarantee that inconsistent chemicals don't blend if there is a spill.

Unless they have been changed, such as sparkle sealed, never store flammable
liquids in refrigerators or coolers.

Allowing chemicals to be exposed to the sun, excessive heat, or wellsprings of start

should be avoided.

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Hazard

➢ Workers working at heights falling from height.

➢ Materials & tools falling over workers from a height.
➢ Items at height fall on workers while storing.
➢ Achieving nearby soil fall while working in ditches.
➢ The cranes & bulldozers are collapsing.
➢ Clash on forklift &trucks workers.

How to minimize the hazards

➢ Providing safety belts for workers working at height.

➢ Provide adequate footwear, gloves and helmets for workers.
➢ Setting up barriers and protecting temporary sites
➢ The device used at the construction site should be properly maintained
➢ Apply Prevention through Design.
➢ How to Conduct and Use a Fall Hazard Risk Assessment Correctly
➢ Use Less PPE (personal protective equipment).
➢ The focus should be on certified systems rather than equipment.
➢ Invest in high-quality training.

Figure 1 construction site hazards

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1.2 Risk Assessment

Severity ( s ) Probability ( P )

4. Catastrophic, may cause death 5. Frequently, likely to occur frequently

3. Critical, may cause serious injury or illness 4. Probable, will occur several times

2. Marginal, may cause minor injury or illness 3. Occasional, likely to occur

1. Negligible, will not injury or illness 2. Remote, unlikely but possible

1. Improbable, so unlikely it can be

assumed that it.
Table 1 Risk Assessment

No Task Hazard S P Score Control

A cave-in Due to loose soil and 3 4 12 Machinery moving

heavy machinery, the soil parts should be
collapsed. avoided. Fingers,
elbows, and arms
Individuals employed in 4 3 12 should be held away
the excavation were hit from the backhoe
by dropping materials. bucket and all other
1. Excavation 4 4 16 pinch points. For doing
Those who fell into the something other than
excavation, both people sampling, wear leather
and vehicles. gloves and steel-toed
3 3 9 boots. Always keep
Close-by buildings are that on your person.
being undermined,
causing them to collapse Using methods such
into the excavation. as stepping, sloping,
4 3 12 shoring, and near
Electric shock, sheeting to cover the
explosion, gas evasion, soil
flooding, and other
hazards to underground
administrations during Get overwhelming
excavation work hardware far from
channel edges.

A few regions where

excavation happens
may have low-level
radiation hazards.
Screen each example
area for radiation
before setting up.

Use cleanser and

water to wash off
residue to stay away
2. Concreting Physical cancer 2 4 8 from skin harm
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Wear a N-95
Skin Damages 3 4 12 respirator at least, to
diminish the inward
breath of concrete
residue

Ergonomic injury impact injury 3 2 6 Where applicable, use

proper lifting
3. materials techniques, such as
lifting/handlin 3 3 9 team lifting, and
g Back injury muscle pulls, sprains wherever possible,
& strains lacerations use mechanical
equipment.

When working with

fabrics, use cut-
resistant work gloves.
Examine the safety
data sheet (SDS) or
4. Chemical Human body organs can be 3 2 6 make a careful note of
storage affected any capability
recommendations.

Keep the outside of

containers clean and
the capacity region
clean.
Fall of materials 3 4 12 A complete inspection
of the elevated place
5. Working at should be submitted
height 4 1 4 by the safety officer for
supervisors
fall of persons
Safety nets should be
placed before stating
execution at heights

Supervisory
coordination of
moving equipment in
6. Mobile Traffic hazards 2 2 4 accordance with the
equipment uniform traffic control
system specifications
manual
Only approved
personnel are
permitted in work
areas.
Set up traffic control
devices and signage

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1.3 Regulation associated with the following activities

1.3.1 Excavation

Excavation is the process of using instruments, equipment, or explosives to move soil, rock, or
other materials. It includes earthmoving, digging, divider shafts, burrowing, and underground
construction. Excavation is used for a variety of purposes, including research, natural regeneration,
mining, and building. Construction is probably the most well-known application for excavation among
these.

There are many type of excavation in this construction works for example…..
❖ Soil strip excavation.
❖ Trench excavation.
❖ Reduce level excavation.
❖ Hole and pit excavation.
❖ Bulk excavation.

I choose the excavation is Trench excavation in this 50 story building foundation work.in the
construction. A trench is a deep excavation with a much longer length than depth. Trenches are
classified as shallow if they are less than 6 meters deep, and deep if they are more than 6 meters
deep.

Trench excavation, also known as footing excavation, is often used to create strip foundations,
covered administrations, and other structures. The method and plant for unearthing, supporting, and
refilling the trench are determined by factors such as the trench's purpose, the ground conditions,
the trench location, the number of checks, and so on,

Trenching and excavation hazards

❖ Worker entrapment due to cave-ins or collapses
❖ Gear or exposed dirt falling on laborers (e.g., machinery being worked on or soil/trash being
piled up too close to the exhumation)
❖ Flooding or water aggregation.
❖ Contact with covered help lines like electrical, gaseous petrol, water, sewage, media
communications, and so on
❖ Openness to a risky environment (e.g., gas, fume, residue, or absence of oxygen).
❖ Hazards associated with the processing of materials (e.g., lifting, struck by, crushed
between, etc.)
❖ Contact with overhead electrical lines.

Any earthwork, channel, well, shaft, passage, or underground working is considered

excavation. Excavation is one of the most unusual building fields to operate in. The main
motivations for this are local variations in the water table, ground conditions, and the
proximity of underground administrations.

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Figure 2 excavator

The hazards and common risk controls associated with excavating and working in an
excavation are discussed in this topic.

Excavation issues are consistently of significance to SH&E experts in the development

business. We will examine the significance of the Competent Person and recognize their
basic obligations and duties. Before the finish of our meeting each participant should leave
with a reasonable and useful image of what is needed to be delegated a Competent Person
and the issues to be looked in the working environment.

Employee’s duties
Employees must consider their own health and safety, as well as the health and safety of
others who may be affected by their jobs, under the Health and Safety at Work, and Other
Legislation Act 1974.
Employees are expected to use any hardware, machinery, chemicals, transportation, safety
devices, and methods for development as per any data, preparation, and directions given by
the company, according to the Administration of Health and Safety at Work Regulations
1999. Inform the company of any real or potential health and safety hazards. informs the
company of any flaws in the company's health care system
Under the Work at Height Regulations 2005, employees must:
Report to their manager or individual in charge of the work any action or imperfection
identifying with work at height that may jeopardize the safety of themselves or others
utilize any equipment accommodated their utilization as per any preparation or potentially
directions identifying with its utilization, to empower their boss or individual in charge of the
work to consent to their own health and safety obligations.
Under the Manual Taking care of Tasks Regulations 1992, each representative must make
full and legitimate utilization of any arrangement of work gave by their boss.

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Planning the work

There are various hazards that should be viewed as when arranging excavation work, these
are normally:
being struck or caught by the breakdown of the sides
individuals, plant or materials falling into the excavation or falling into overflowed excavations
suffocating if the excavation floods
suffocation/compound/substance presentation made either from ground defilement, harming
existing underground pipelines/sewers or from the movement did in or approach to the
excavation
consumes and electric stun brought about by harming existing underground administrations
the breakdown of close by structures subverted by the excavation
tumble from tallness when getting to and leaving the excavation.
These hazards likewise apply to individuals from general society (counting youngsters)
regardless of whether they are intruding.
At every possible opportunity, the dangers in excavation work ought to be diminished to as
low a level as conceivable utilizing the progressive system of hazard control, ie maintaining a
strategic distance from the hazard before utilizing engineering type controls and utilizing
engineering controls before exclusively procedural controls or individual defensive gear
(PPE).
Any individual who embraces or supervises excavation work must be adequately prepared
or experienced in that sort of work and not imperil themselves or others. Great excavation
practice is to guarantee no area is begun except if it tends to be made protected and secure
before the finish of the move/day.

Risk assessment & method statement

Preceding the initiation of any excavation work the contractual worker ought to embrace a
risk assessment to distinguish the reasonable perils and appropriate risk controls.
For an agenda of the components to be thought of, see our Risk Assessment for
Excavations factsheet.
The aftereffects of the risk assessment will help decide the substance of the strategy
proclamation. The detail remembered for the technique proclamation ought to mirror the
level of multifaceted nature of the excavation works. The data in the technique articulation
ought to be imparted to the agents. This might be through acceptance preparing or tool
compartment talks and consummation ought to be recorded. They should completely
comprehend the arrangement of work before they begin. The utilization of basic drawings
might be of more advantage to them than long composed records in this regard.
Progressively, structure organizations are utilizing 3D graphics to design their work and
these might be utilized to educate agents regarding what the excavation may resemble.
Additionally, 3D recreations are being utilized to show how function is to be completed.
Notwithstanding the strategy proclamation, it is very normal, because of the huge risks
related with excavations, for a license to work to be utilized to control the burrowing and
access to the excavation, since conditions on the day can significantly affect the general risk.
As work advances, chiefs need to routinely watch that the risk controls are set up and that
work is clinging to the risk assessment/strategy proclamation. Changes to the arrangement
of work should just happen after interview and understanding of all gatherings included.

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1.3.2 Concreting
Concrete is a composite material made up of fine and coarse aggregates mixed with a liquid
(solid paste) that binds (cements) over time. Previously, strong clasps made of lime, such as
lime earth, were used. were often used, but they were sometimes combined with other
pressing factor-driven cements, such as calcium aluminates concrete or Portland cement to
outline Portland concrete (named for its visual likeness to Portland stone). Various other
non-such solid exist with various methods for confining total together, joining dark top
cement with a bitumen cover, which is as frequently as conceivable used for road surfaces,
and polymer cements that usage polymers as a folio.

Placing Concrete
The guideline objective in setting is to store the solid as close as possible to its last
circumstance as quick and capably as you can, with the objective that confinement is
avoided and it might be totally compacted.

Figure 3 placing con 1

Somebody encountered in the development of formwork, ideally a dealer, ought to

consistently be holding on when the concrete is being put.
He ought to have a gracefully of reasonable materials, for example, props, jolts and so on to
deal with risky circumstances.
Grout misfortune means that joints were not tight or a few developments has happened
during setting.
The vibrations communicated to the formwork can slacken wedges and fixings so a nearby
watch on all fastenings is important to abstain from releasing. Essentially, wedges ought to
be normally checked and fixed.
All split concrete or grout spillage ought to be cleaned or weakened with splash water
following cementing to make striking and cleaning simpler particularly with steel formwork.
Expel lumber spreaders which were utilized to hold formwork separated as cementing
continues.
Check breaking, unreasonable redirection, level and plumb, and any development.
Concrete ought to be saved at, or as close as conceivable to, its last position.
The concrete ought to be put in uniform layers. Abstain from putting it in huge piles or
slanting layers on the grounds that there is consistently a peril of isolation, particularly with
blends having a tendency to be cohesive.

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In dividers and sections no layer ought to be more than around 450 mm thick. With layers
thicker than 450 mm, the heaviness of concrete on top makes it practically inconceivable
even with vibration-to get the let some circulation into from the base of the layer.
In meager pieces compacted by a vibrating shaft, limit the layers to 150-200 mm. With more
prominent thickness, vibrators must be utilized.
Spot the concrete as fast as could be expected under the circumstances. In any case, not
quicker than the compacting strategy and gear can adapt to.
Where a decent completion is required on sections and dividers, fill the forms at a rate more
noteworthy than 2 meters stature for each hour. Likewise maintain a strategic distance from
postponements and interferences on the grounds that these will cause shading minor
departure from the surface.
Ensure that each layer of concrete has been completely compacted before putting the
following one, and that each new layer is put while the basic layer is as yet receptive to
vibration. This will make the layers "weaves" together.
Dodge the formation of cold joints. Great arranging is fundamental, especially with enormous
pours.
In sections and dividers, the putting must be done so that the concrete doesn't strike the
essence of the formwork; correspondingly, keep away from overwhelming effect against
support, as the power could uproot it.
Continuously ensure that the concrete can be viewed as it is being kept.

Compacting Concrete: - Theory

After concrete has been blended, moved and put, it contains entangled air in the structure or
voids. The object of compaction is to dispose of however much as could reasonably be
expected for this undesirable ensnared air; down to under 1% is typically the point.

The proportion of trapped air is related to the functionality: concrete with a 75 mm slump contains
around 5 % air, while cement of 25 mm slump contains around 20 %. This is the explanation a low-
slump concrete requires more comp dynamic effort either a more drawn out time or more vibrators
stood out and a solid from a higher slump.

1.3.3 Working at heights

.
According to the Occupational Health and Safety Act the Business will give a talented individual to
achieving the work. According to the development guideline each work site should have a fall
security plan that will cover getting ready for working at statures, equipment for working at statures
and rescue methodologies for working at statures.

At the point when development representatives are presented to falling 6 feet or more from an
unprotected edge, OSHA requires establishment of at least one of these three essential fall
counteraction frameworks—a guardrail framework, wellbeing net framework, or individual fall
capture framework—to ensure laborers

Guardrails
Guardrails are commonly 42 inches high and must have the option to withstand a force of in
any event 200 pounds. On the off chance that there is no wall or parapet at any rate 21
inches high ensuring an edge, you should introduce midtrial or screens between the head of
the guardrail and the walking or working surface to forestall fall

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Ladders
The head of the ladder should rest ageist a solid surface and not on fragile or other
dubious material, for instance, concrete or plastic guttering.
The two feet of ladder should lay on a firm parity and can't slip.
On the off chance that the ladder is more than 3m long, or used as a way to deal with
and from a workplace, it should be checked from falling by fixing it at the top or once
in a while at base.
Any ladder should be suitably fixed to hinder slipping.
An incredible handhold should be given to the ladder.
Ladder should be slanted at the right highlight limit the risk of slipping outwards that
is about 1m out at the base for each 4m in height.

Figure 4 Ladder type

Figure 5 Ladder rules

Roof
Work on roofs should not be carried on in atmosphere conditions that sabotage the
security of workers
Wear security links when working in high places
Roof work should simply be attempted by workers who are really and intellectually fit
and
Have the fundamental data and experience for such work.

Figure 6 roof work

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Platform
At the point when work is being done on sloping roofs, sufficient and fitting slithering
boards or roof ladders should be given and firmly checked in position when
practicable.
During extensive work on sloping roofs, workers should be provided with adequate
and adequate barriers or guards to prevent the roof from stumbling.

Scaffolding

planned, built, raised and kept up in order to forestall breakdown or incidental

dislodging Based on a firm and level establishment Erected on a firm ground fit for
supporting the heaviness of the framework and any heap prone to be put on it.
Given scaffold sheets that are appropriately bolstered and lay on in any event three-
backings
Supported and integrated with a perpetual structure or in any case balanced out

Figure 7 scaffolding work

1.3.4 Moving, Lifting and handling weight

Mobile cranes
The crane ought to have the decision to lift the heap on a site It ought to be of such a size
accordingly, that it very well may be utilized securely on a site Crane's assessment
affirmations ought to be incredible The crane ought to be fitted with an adjusted safe weight
pointer which ought to be in satisfactory working sales The business ought to guarantee that
the driver is organized and experienced in the development of such a crane being utilized
The crane ought to be site in a protected spot, so It is well away from unearthing and
overhead electrical links It is on level ground which can take its full weight and alongside its
most unprecedented weight The driver has an away from of the site.

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❖ The crane should be able to lift the load on a site.

❖ The crane should be fitted with an automatic Safe Load Indicator, which should be in
good
❖ Working order.
❖ The employer must ensure that the driver is well qualified and competent in the use
of the vehicle.
❖ The type of crane being used.
❖ The crane should be placed in a secure location.
➢ The driver has a good view of the construction site.
➢ It is well away from excavations and overhead power lines.
➢ It is on level ground which can take its full weight and together with its
maximum load.

Figure 8 moving, lifting and handling weight for mobile cranes

1.3.5 Site vehicle and Moving plants

Concrete truck
“Moving the solid blend is portrayed as the moving of cement from the blending plant to the
structure site. The essential objective in moving cement is to ensure that the water-concrete
proportion, droop or consistency, air substance, and homogeneity are not transformed from
their normal states. Concrete conveyed from a blender is needed to be dispatched to the
constructions for arrangement. This managing may convey disconnection and loss of droop,
if the partition is long”….

Figure 9 site vehicle and moving plants for concrete trucks

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Strategies for transporting and putting concrete which are utilized generally are

1. Release straightforwardly into structures through short chute

2. Barrows
i. Wheel burrows and handcarts.
ii. Power barrows
3. Dumpers and trucks
4. Monorail system
5. Elevating towers and hoists
6. overhead cable ways or Skips operated by cranes
7. Belt conveyers
8. Concrete pumps and pneumatic placers

Excavator
A tractor is a construction tool that is used to tunnel or transport massive objects. It has two
sections: a driving base and an incredible blast arm with a burrowing attachment. The supervisor sits
in a small taxi attached to the base, controlling the weapon.

The base has two arrangements of articulating tracks that are appended to the side of the
excavator. The tracks work like wheels to move the unit, however give a bigger surface zone
that makes in a more steady base for the machine. On head of the base is a platform that
rotates between in the range of 180° and 360
The administrator sits inside the cab and has two arrangements of controls. One set pushes
the real unit ahead and in reverse, and the other set moves the unit on the flat arrangement
and controls the arm. These controls decide the edge and speed of the developments of the
arm and pail along the vertical pivot. An excavator is intended for use on construction
destinations and is very costly to buy. Numerous littler construction organizations rent or
lease these units to keep away from the costly overhead expenses.
All operators are required to get a permit for the sheltered activity of this machine. Inability to
acquire this capability can bring about a building site being shut by the work environment
wellbeing and security examiner until a legitimate declaration holder is accessible to work
the gear. What's more, numerous protection arrangements are void if the hardware isn't
worked by an appropriately authorized administrator.

Figure 10 site vehicle and moving plants for excavator

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1.3.6 Chemical storage

The storage of controlled substances or hazardous materials in chemical stores,

chemical storage cupboards, or similar devices is known as chemical storage.
Chemical storage devices are often used in workplaces that involve the use of non-
hazardous or potentially hazardous chemicals. Legitimate storage is essential for the
protection of research facility workers as well as their access. Inadequate chemical
storage can result in workplace safety hazards such as proximity to heat, fire, blast,
and petrochemical spillage
Must wear safety PPE (Personal Protective Equipment)

Figure 11 PPE safety system

Adhere to the guidelines furnished on the names when working with pastes, paints,
and solvents.
Work with paste, paint, or solvents in well-ventilated regions in order to forestall
develop
Of hazardous condition to substance fumes Utilize proper individual defensive
equipment and dress to representatives working
In the US, the capacity and handling of conceivably hazardous materials must be
unveiled to tenants under laws oversaw by the Occupational Safety and Wellbeing
Organization (OSHA).

Figure 13 chemical storage

Figure 12 chemical storage

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2.0 Discuss the environmental and sustainability factors.

2.1 Material environmental specification and life cycle assessment

2.1.1 Material environmental profiling

The Environmental Profiles Methodology is a systematic approach for defining and
evaluating the environmental impact of building materials during their life cycle, which
includes extraction, manufacturing, usage, and maintenance, as well as disposal. The
diagram below depicts the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) process.

Figure 14 material environmental profiling

Designers can demand accurate and equivalent environmental information about rival
building materials, and manufacturers can present credible environmental information about
their goods, thanks to Environmental Profiles. This means that designers can rely on
Environmental Profiles to provide a "level playing field" for all material types.
The aim of a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is to measure the environmental impacts of
material inputs and outputs, such as energy usage or air pollution, over the course of a
product's entire life cycle in order to assist consumers in making environmentally friendly
decisions. LCA is traditionally a "cradle-to-grave" method, beginning with the collecting of
raw materials from the earth to make the product and ending with the disposal of the
product.
Certified environmental profile
Many manufacturers want to show how their product compares to those in the industry and
how they can enhance their product's environmental efficiency. This is accomplished by
developing Certified Environmental Profiles for individual products.
Greenhouse gas emissions
The release of greenhouse gases into the environment is caused by a variety of human
activities (e.g., the release of carbon dioxide during fuel combustion). These gases may
cause damage to the earth's atmosphere or become stuck there, leading to global climate
change.

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Recycling
Glass, plastic, aluminum, cardboard, and paper (which includes glossy magazines,
envelopes with plastic windows, and sticky notes) can all be recycled quickly. Recycling bins
may accept commingled waste (i.e., all materials are collected in one bin) or may require
segregated waste, depending on the waste hauler (i.e. one bin for paper, one bin for plastics,
etc.) Materials are saved by recycling items.
Reuse (waste)
Similar to recycling, reuse refers to finding new uses for items instead of sending them to
landfills. Can furniture be reused in another department of the company? Can electronics be
donated to charity? Even using an empty soda bottle to make a hummingbird feeder is a way
to reuse items instead of trashing them.
Solid waste
All products that flow from a building to their final disposal are considered waste. Paper,
grass clippings, food waste, and plastics are all examples. Responsible stewardship aims to
divert as much waste from landfills as possible. This can include things like paper recycling,
mulching or composting grass clippings, and repurposing large pieces like furniture.
Sustainability
Sustainability and sustainability refer to the creation and maintenance of conditions that
enable humans and nature to coexist in productive harmony while meeting the social,
economic, and other needs of current and future generations.
Sustainable purchasing
Purchasing managers should develop purchasing strategies and initiatives that prioritize
products made from recycled content, certified wood, and quickly renewable materials, as
well as items that are energy efficient, non-toxic, long-lasting, and processed, harvested,
and/or extracted locally. Purchasing managers should also give preference to vendors who
support source reduction by using reusable or mini-sources.

2.1.2 Lifecycle assessment

“The life cycle assessment (LCA) is a well-known test for determining the probable natural
weights and resources consumed in each movement of an item or organization in a deftly
chain. Despite the fact that its use is mostly concerned with assessing the natural effect of
things, a few studies have also used an LCA for metropolitan regions. Since data is gathered
in LCA, for all methodology that have been perceived as appropriate to fuse inside the
picked structure limit, its application at the city level induce a drawn-out technique requiring a
great deal of data. Thusly, assessing the carbon impression at the city level by LCA isn't
recommended as a result of its”
Nature is multifaceted. In either case, LCA has a high level of specificity and can provide
responses to activities as well as important data for strategy developers interested in
enhancing environmental exhibits and comprehending the capability of GHG relief work at
the city level.

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Figure 15 life cycles Assessment

2.2 Advantages of getting environmental certification (HNB BANK)

Natural accreditation is a sort of ecological guideline and improvement where an association

can deliberately choose to follow predefined methodology or objectives set out by the
certificate organization. Most certificate organizations have a logo (by and large known as
anecolabel) which can be applied to things ensured under their standards. This is seen as a
kind of corporate social obligation allowing associations to convey their obligation to restrict
the perilous impacts on the earth by resolutely following a great deal of distantly set and
assessed targets.

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Advantages

1. Cost
2. Efficiency
I. Energy efficiency
II. Water efficiency
III. Material efficiency
3. High ROI rates

1. Cost
“Green structures consolidate remarkable development fuses that guarantee able utilization
of advantages such water and vitality. For instance, by utilizing task lighting methodology
and a great deal of sunlight, green structures hugely decrease the extent of force utilized in
lighting frameworks; This awards clients to extra however much 33% of their water and
vitality bills. Given that working and upkeep expenses can address however much 80% of
the lifetime expenses of a construction, diminishing such expenses basically develops the
advantage of building proprietors who gather lease from their structures. Notwithstanding the
way that developing a green design might be impalpably more over the top than their non-
green assistants, the lessened development and reinforce expenses of green structures
make them significantly more reasonable in the long run”…

2. Efficiency
Energy efficiency
These structures are more vital than those made of blocks. They only use renewable energy
sources such as solar, hydro, and wind to provide warmth and electricity while also helping
to boost indoor air quality.
Water efficiency
Green buildings have no idea what "squandered" means; they reuse rainwater and dark
water, for example, for can flushing.

Material efficiency
Green buildings are worked from common, non-dangerous and reused materials that are
cheap and environmentally cordial, for example, bamboo, straw, reused metal or cement ...
and so on.

3. High ROI rates (Return on investment)

Taking into account that these buildings are for the most part normal, they have colossal rate
of profitability rates and properties in these buildings sell at significant expenses.
ROI has a wide scope of uses; it very well may be utilized to quantify the benefit of a
corporate security, when choosing whether or not to put resources into the acquisition of a
business, or assess the aftereffects of a land exchange of profitability rates and properties
in these buildings sell at significant expenses.

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2.3 Produce a waste management plan for a given materials

Reusing construction materials

a) Brick:- Sort the old bricks into heaps to decide the amount of reusable bricks you
have. Utilize one heap for full-size and sound bricks; one heap for full-size however
chipped bricks; one heap for half bricks that are primarily solid yet broken, and one
heap for little brick pieces and brick chips.
Construct a brick way, no-nonsense filling, Build a natural brick seat, Build a brick
spice winding, make handle holder

b) Concrete: - Reused concrete can be utilized in a significant number of similar ways

as you would utilize new materials, like rock, clearing materials, and totals.
Recovered concrete can be utilized in walkways giving a walk capable surface and
simultaneously giving holes to rain water to arrive at the dirt, Concrete asphalts can
be broken set up and utilized as a base course for a black-top asphalt through a
cycle called rubblization, Concrete waste can be utilized to make clearing squares,
pots and seats for local area use,

c) Metal :-Transform clean metal food jars into luminaire and LED pendant light covers
by punching or penetrating
Rather than discarding a table base when its glass top breaks, reuse the base,
making another table..

d) Timber: - Clean and untreated wood can be re-processed, chipped or ground, to

make amble, built board, heater fuel, or mulch.

e) Plasterboard :- Plasterboard in drywall can be reused into a wide range of business

sectors, for example, new drywall fabricate, concrete production, and farming

2.4 Sustainable practices and considerations.

Although selecting materials requires careful consideration, it's also necessary to think about the big
picture. Materials are just one part of the sustainability puzzle; several other factors must be
considered, such as energy efficiency, water use, and social and ecological consequences.

Making the 'right' material choice is no longer just about structural efficiency; it's about striking a
balance between a variety of factors, including:

Efficient design
By efficiently designing and specifying materials, the demand for materials can be decreased,
resulting in a lower environmental impact.

Fitness for purpose

In addition to meeting the necessary structural performance requirements (e.g., strength and
deflection), materials selection should take into account materials that require little maintenance and
can withstand potential adaptation, which can greatly minimize the environmental impact of the
structure over its lifetime.

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Environmental/recycled content
We may determine a building material's possible cradle to grave effects by using lifecycle analysis
and environmental product declarations. This will cover subjects such as raw resource use, embodied
carbon, water use, emissions effects, and so on.

Local context
Material specifications that are suitable for the climate and the capabilities of the local labor force
should be considered. This is especially relevant in remote areas and developing countries, where
using new or unfamiliar materials and maintaining them can be difficult.

Responsible sourcing
It's important to think about the material's chain of custody and the product supplier's environmental
credentials in addition to choosing the best material. This requires timber certification to ensure that it
comes from a legitimate source and forests that are responsibly maintained. Environmental
certifications such as ISO 14001, EMAS, BES 6001, and others can be obtained for other products.

Fabrication process
Consider how the building will be designed to minimize construction waste, such as by the use of pre-
fabrication and common material units.

End of life/deconstruction
This is an aspect of the design process that is often ignored or treated as an afterthought, but material
end-of-life management can have a huge impact on a structure's overall impact.

First and foremost, consider whether products can be reused in their original form, repurposed, or, if
that is not feasible, how they can be recycled in such a way that waste goes to landfill is kept to a
bare minimum.

BIM can also be viewed in the sense of decommissioning, demolition, and disposal (eg
Deconstruction Information Modeling).

Contractors may benefit from a plan that saves time and materials, as well as the satisfaction of not
generating needless waste. Here are five techniques that are having the most effect on the design of
sustainable buildings.
❖ Prefabricating materials in controlled environments.
❖ Construction waste management.
❖ Manage the site for improved environment.
❖ Lean manufacturing to reduce energy.
❖ Material selection.

The USGBC uses a point system, with the majority of points coming from a building's design, position,
and orientation, as well as its materials to a lesser extent. LEED certifications are aided by both of
these factors. Lean production, on the other hand, does not give contractors any points but does help
to reduce the amount of resources used on a job site.

Another hot topic on building sites is water conservation. Using recycled water on the work site is one
way to help minimize water use. This will help you save money on the amount of material you need
for the work site. You can also use low-flush toiletry systems to save water, do daily water audits to
see how it's being used, and use recycled water.

Wasted time accounts for a significant majority of the time spent on a construction site. It's the little
things that can wreak havoc on a plan. Off-site engineering capabilities are one thing to think about.
This means you can design the majority of a house or building off-site and then assemble it on-site
until the majority of the work is done. This not only saves time, but it also saves money.

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Aside from the potential for development over natural environments, the construction industry uses a lot
of resources. Construction heavy machinery still relies heavily on fossil fuels, and even inefficient
electricity usage may lead to excessive fossil fuel burning further down the energy supply line. In reality,
the construction industry consumes 36 percent of all energy consumed globally.

Materials fabrication and transportation may have a major effect on carbon emissions. Mining for raw
materials has the potential to pollute local water supplies. Concrete production has produced over 2.8
billion tons of CO2; a number that will only increase as 4 billion tons of concrete is poured per year.

Green buildings, on the other hand, do come with lower maintenance costs. In fact, research indicates
that integrating the most cutting-edge sustainable technology into construction processes could save the
world €410 billion per year in energy costs.

There are also direct cost savings for your business; for example, by eliminating waste, you can lower the
fees paid by your waste management company. You will save money on petrol by converting to more
fuel-efficient cars.

CSR, or the notion that corporations should help good causes, has sparked more interest than ever
before. There's no doubt that CSR creates positive press, but it can also affect customer behavior; when
costs are equal, 91 percent of customers are more likely to turn to a business that is associated with a
good cause

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LEED Rating System

The US Green Building Council (USGBC) developed the LEED (Leadership in Energy and
Environmental Design) rating system in 2000. Sustainable locales receive 23.63 percent, water
efficiency 9.1 percent, vitality and air 31.82 percent, materials and properties 12.73 percent, indoor
natural quality-13.63 percent, plan advancement 5.45 percent, and territorial need 3.64 percent in
the LEED rating system. The LEED assessment deviates from the standard.

This system grants rating of buildings as ensured, silver, gold, and platinum.
It utilizes basic agenda organization to rate building performance. The rating system contains
one component, indoor air quality (IAQ) the board during construction that expressly
addresses construction laborer security and wellbeing.

The aim of this portion is to protect construction workers and building tenants from possible
air quality problems while the project is being built or remodeled. The task receives one
LEED credit for effective use of an IAQ the board plan, which is virtually meaningless and
highlights the rating system's minimal consideration for construction specialist protection.

It ought to be noted, notwithstanding, that different components inside the rating system which are
intended to improve the wellbeing and strength of the end-client, for example, the utilization of low-
producing materials, may profit the security and soundness of construction laborers.

Figure 16 LEED rating system

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Purpose of the LEED Rating System

This improves product quality and saves development cost.

This improves For customers, the use of better indoor environmental design and
healthy materials are a natural benefit
Through the LEED rating system, we are able to optimize sustainable development in
every aspect of the project

Purpose of the LEED Rating System

This improves product quality and saves development cost.

This improves For customers, the use of better indoor environmental design and
healthy materials are a natural benefit
Through the LEED rating system, we are able to optimize sustainable development in
every aspect of the project

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Sustainable features
The selection of sustainable building materials is an important system in the design and construction
of a structure. A designer and/or manufacturer may reduce the impact of construction projects on the
environment by carefully selecting building materials, for example, by considering the overall life
cycle of the materials. Disappointment in current materials selection techniques was discovered
during an investigation of existing materials selection techniques.
.
➢ Making a built environment adaptation that is strong to climate change
➢ Wiping out the utilization of non-sustainable resources..
➢ Eliminating air, soil and water pollution.
➢ Making healthy and open indoor and urban situations.
➢ Protecting and enhancing natural ecosystems and cycles.
➢ Supporting a move towards understanding and implementing ‘positive
development’
➢ Supporting the transformation of 'waste' into useful resources
➢ Supporting decentralized power and water frameworks.

3.0 Present material decisions for a given structure utilizing execution

properties, exploratory information, sustainability and natural thought
3.1 Relevant testing procedures to identify the performance characteristics of
selected construction materials
3.2 Results in terms of the materials properties & regulatory requirement,
highlighting any unexpected results & why these may occur

1.0 Slump Test

❖ Purpose of the slump test
➢ Concrete slump value is utilized to distinguish the usefulness which shows the
concrete : water proportion. Elements like properties of materials will influence
this worth.
➢ 200 mm in separation across and it has a smaller opening at the most elevated
purpose of 100 mm
❖ Experimental setup

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Figure
Figure2524
:- Slump
Slump Test
test

❖ Procedures
Apply oil in the wake of cleaning the internal mass of the form
The form ought to be put on the smooth non-permeable plate
Fill the form with the readied solid blend in roughly four equivalent layers
Pack each layer with 25 strokes of the adjusted finish of the tamping pole in a
uniform way over the cross segment of the shape for the resulting layers the
tamping ought to infiltrate in to the basic layer
Expel the solid which floods and level the surface with a trowel.
Clean the mortar or water spilled out between the form and the base plate
Raise the form from the solid quickly and gradually vertical way

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Estimation the droop as the distinction between the stature purposes of the form
and that of the example being tried

Figure 25 Procedures for slump test

Over the operation should be completed in a non-vibrate or stun-free environment within

2 minutes of the testing.

❖ Observation
Table 2 Slump value

Trial Slump value

T-1 110
T-2 120

Average slump value = 110+120

= 115 mm

❖ Type of slump

Figure 26 Type of slump

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Table 3 Slump value

Quality Slump value ( mm ) Slump value ( inch )

Very low workability 0 – 25 0-1
Low workability 25 – 50 1-2
Medium workability 50 – 100 2-4
Height workability 100 - 175 4-7

2.0 Cube test for concrete

❖ purpose of the cube test

Compressive strength is the testing of the ability of an object or structure
❖ Test system

Figure
Figure 28 :-27 Cube
Cube test
Test cube
Cube

❖ Procedures
To prevent concrete from adhering to the side of the solid form, the mold and
base plate must be spotless and coated with oil. The base plate is secured to
the form with a screw and nut.
Fill in the cube shape with concrete in three layers.
Every layer must be compacted for multiple times. This procedure is
completed deliberately and compaction is done consistently to all surface of
the concrete.
Compaction may also be done with the aid of a computer. The outside of the
concrete must be smoothed so that it is at the same level as the shape's
upper hand.
Cubes which are made at building site must be secured with plastic spread
for a time of 24 hours before the molds can be disassembled
After remolded, the concrete shapes are submerged in water for restoring.
Compression quality test must be done for concrete at age 7, 14, and 28 days
by utilizing pressure test machine.

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Figure 28 Cube test procedures

❖ Observation

Table 4 Cube crushing force

Sample Number Crushing Force

Sample-01 690
Sample-02 702
Sample-03 695

❖ Calculation

Table 5 Cube value

Sample Number 01 02 03
Crushing force 690 702 695
(KN)
Compressive 30.6 31.2 30.88
strength( MPa )

Average Compressive strength = 30.89MPa

Conclusion
Expected compressive strength = 30 MPa
Actual average compressive strength greater than expected compressive strength all
3 cubes result also individually satisfied. Therefore, results are more reliable

C-20 C-35 :- Reinforced Concrete

C-15:- Mass Concrete
C-40 C-60 :- Prestressed Concrete
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3.0 AIV test for aggregates

Purpose of the AIV test

Discover the protection from smashing under
effect Equipment
➢ Tamping bar
➢ Aggregate sway test machine
➢ Cylindrical metal measure
➢ Sieves (12.7mm,10mm and 2.36mm)
➢ Oven
➢ Balance

Figure 29 AIV test equipment

Procedure
Using 12.5 mm and 10.0 mm IS sifters, sift the liquid. The aggregates went through
a 12.5 mm sifter and were hung on a 10.0 mm strainer, which compressed the test
material. Pour the aggregates just to about a third of the depth of the estimating
chamber.
➢ Compact the material by giving 25 fragile blows with the adjusted completion
of the packing bar.
➢ Add two additional layers along these lines, with the goal that the chamber is
full.
➢ Strike off the excess aggregates.
➢ Determine the net heap of the aggregates to the nearest gram (W).
➢ Bring the impact machine to rest without wedging or getting together fair and
square plate, square or floor, so it is rigid and the guide sections portions are
vertical.
➢ Fix the cup firmly in place on the machine's foundation, place the entire test
in it, and conservatively apply 25 delicate strokes with the packing bar.
➢ Raise the sledge until the lower face of the sledge is 380 mm above the
outside of the total test in the cup, then let it fall openly on the total example.
Give 15 such blows with a period between progressive falls of less than one
second.
➢ Remove the squashed total from the cup and strainer it through 2.36 mm IS
sifters until no further noteworthy sum goes in one moment. Gauge the
division passing the strainer to a precision of 1 gm. Additionally, gauge the
part held in the sifter
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Table 6 AIV value

Type Classification
< 10 very strong
10 – 20 Strong
20 – 30 Satisfactory
>35 Weak

3.2.1 Construction materials with proper examples evaluate the

properties & uses of following construction materials

1. Concrete
Concrete is a mixture of a few different materials. This heterogeneous material
solidifies into a stone-like mass at the solidified state.
Concrete quality can be classified into the following categories.
➢ Compressive quality :- As per English norm, the quality of a chamber example is
equivalent to seventy five percent of the quality of the block example
➢ Rigidity :- The elasticity of normal concrete extents from around 7 to 10 percent of
the compressive quality
➢ Flexural quality :- The flexural quality of plain concrete is completely needy upon
the rigidity. In any case, more prominent than the quality in strain
➢ Shear quality :- The normal quality of concrete in direct shear shifts from about
portion of the compressive quality for rich blends to about 0.8 of the compressive
quality for lean blends.
The degree of compaction has a significant impact on the quality of concrete
generated by a given blend. Along these lines, it's critical that the blend's quality be
such that the concrete can be transported, set, and finished efficiently and without
isolation.
Components influencing the usefulness of concrete are
➢ Water Content
➢ Blend Extents
➢ Size of Totals
➢ State of Totals
➢ Evaluating of Totals
➢ Surface of Totals
➢ Utilization of Admixtures
➢ Utilization of Beneficial Cementations Materials

Flexible Characteristics Concrete isn't fully adaptable to any form of packing, and the
discoloration doesn't correspond to the concern at any stage of stacking. The
extravagance of the mix and the force of the friction affect the flexible properties of
concrete.
Toughness is a property of concrete that allows it to withstand the conditions for
which it was designed without decaying over time. External specialists emerging from
the earth or internal operators operating inside the concrete may cause a lack of
sturdiness.

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Advantages

➢ Concrete fixings(cement, total, water) are anything but difficult to get at wherever
➢ The Concrete is a material of warm protection.
➢ The components of concrete can be dispatched effectively wherever
➢ It is a fire-contradicting material
➢ The Compressive quality of concrete is very tallness
➢ Mixing and setting of concrete are straightforward
➢ The strength of concrete is high
➢ Concrete is a semi-liquid material, So it will in general be cast to get any necessary
shape

2. Timber

➢ Strength- The wood should be able to withstand the loads, whether they are applied gradually
or abruptly. It should be able to withstand direct compression as well as transverse
compression.

➢ Durability - A healthy wood should be able to withstand the effects of fungi, insects, chemicals,
physical, and mechanical agents. The timbers are divided into three groups based on their
toughness.
➢ (a) Class 1 – Timbers having average life of 120 months and over,

➢ (b) Class 2 – Timbers having average life of 60 to 119 months and,

➢ (c) Class 3 – Timber having average life of 59 months and below.

➢ Weather resistance-A healthy wood should be able to withstand weathering effects such as rot.
Resistance to the elements - A good wood should be resistant to weathering effects such as
alternate drying and wetting, alternative heating and cooling due to temperature, wind effects,
and so on.

➢ Fire resistance- The timber should offer sufficient resistance against fire so that it does not
easily ignite. It helps in fire protection of buildings.

➢ Elasticity-When a load that causes deformation is removed, the timber should be able to
reclaim its original shape. When it comes to bows, carriage shafts, sporting goods, wooden
beams, and wooden floors, this property is essential.

➢ Workability-The wood should be easy to deal with and not clog the saw teeth. It should also be
able to be planed or smoothed quickly.

➢ Toughness and Abrasion- A good timber should be capable of offering resistance to shocks
to mechanical wear.

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Reinforcement steel (HYS & MS)

Mild Steel Bar

Surface of the gentle steel bar plain and round fit as a fiddle and utilized in the unique
reason, for example, dowels bars at the development joints.

Table 7 Mild steel strength

Extreme strength Yield strength Elongation

Up to 20 mm 410 250 23%
20-50mm 410 240 23%

High Yield Strength Bar

HYS are cold curved steel bar with drags, ribs, projection or distortion on a superficial
level. It is widely and significantly utilized for fortification purposes in the
development.

Diverse Evaluation of twisted bar

➢ Fe 415 (1.25) 14.5% :- Because of higher uniform prolongation, it very well may
be utilized in RCC fills in just as in quake inclined zone.
➢ Fe500 (1.08) 12% :- High erosion opposition, incredible curve capacity and
extraordinary obstruction on elements stacking
➢ Fe 550 (1.06) 10% :- Used in RCC development presented to beach front, marine
or underground condition. monetarily infeasible for the basic man employments.
➢ Fe600 (1.1) 10% :- Give better sturdiness and more quality for enormous
development. monetarily infeasible for the regular man employments

Brick and Block

Bricks are to be sorted into numerous kinds which rely upon their Creation forms,
Quality, the crude material is going to utilize and furthermore their utilizing reason

Type of Bricks

1. Burnt clay Bricks

2. Solid Bricks / Concrete Brick
3. Fly Ash Bricks
4. Fire Bricks
5. Sand Lime Bricks
6. Sun-Dried Bricks

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Burnt clay Bricks

Table 8 Brick size qualities

Type Size Crushing Water Use of this

Strength Absorbing Brick
19x9x9 cm 105 kg/cm2 15% – 20% for
First class Superior work
24 hours
19x9x9 cm 70 kg/cm2 22% for 24
Second class Internal wall
hours
19x9x9 cm 105 kg/cm2 15% - 20% for
Third class Superior work
24 hours
They are low quality bricks and not utilized in the structure, in totals they
Fourth class are squashed and utilized

Concrete Blocks

The concrete block is one of the types of block that is made from solid concrete. These
blocks are positioned against a wall, providing a fair proximity. If colors are used during the
production process, it results in a variety of hues

Properties of Solid blocks — Quality In the utilization of solid squares for the dividers of
buildings. In compressive quality very much made cement doesn't contrast significantly from
normal structure stone

While blocks shift by type, their essential basic property is compressive strength. The
American Solid Establishment's (ACI) Distribution 318, "Construction law Prerequisites for
Basic Cement," contains the auxiliary property norms for concrete and 7-day and 28-day
testing strategies used to guarantee that the blocks produced meet or surpass building
regulations all through the US. ACI's 228.1R-03, "Set up Techniques to Gauge Solid
Strength," plots the norm set up strength tests that gauge solid strength during development
or gauge solid strength during the assessment of existing blocks structures.

Advantage

➢ Concrete homes are likewise incredible for zones that are inclined to high breezes,
typhoons and tropical storms
➢ good fire resistance
➢ The insulation of a concrete home makes it with the goal that warm air from a
radiator and cold air from focal cooling won't escape without any problem
➢ water resistance
➢ Long Durability.

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5.Structural steel

Structural steel is a mainstream material utilized in the development business

particularly for building high rises, spans, burrows, towers, mechanical buildings and
street obstructions as a result of the properties they have.
Some significant properties showed by structural steels are low weight, high strength,
usability and consistency of properties.
Structural steels come in different shapes including squares, hexagons and rounds.
They likewise come in structures, for example, I-areas, H-segments, Channels and L-
segments.
Carbon is a typical component in practically all structural steels as it gives strength.
Different components, for example, manganese, sulfur, phosphorus, aluminum and
copper are added to iron and carbon to make structural steels of wanted properties
including strength, pliability, weld ability and consumption opposition.
Steel through fortifying bars can likewise be joined with cement to frame
strengthened concrete cement (RCC) which gives both compressive strength (by
virtue of concrete) and elasticity (by virtue of steel).
Both steel and cement have comparative extension and constriction properties when
presented to warmth and cold. They likewise show diverse strength properties.

L-Sections
Angle beams are L-shaped, with two legs that meet at a 90-degree angle. Leg sizes can be
equal or unequal. For example, an L-pillar with unequal legs could have one leg measuring
2x2x0.5 and the other measuring 6x3x0.5. Because of their shallow structural depth, L-
beams are often used in floor construction.

Figure 30 L section

H-Sections
When builders can't find a structure on a shallow foundation, they use bearing heaps to
design a deep foundation system. To pass loads through the heap to the top, bearing heaps
are H-shaped. In dense soils with a lot of obstruction at the tip, bearing heaps perform best.
A single heap can support more than 1,000 tons of weight

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Channels
The cross-section of structural C channels, also known as C beams, is C-molded. The top
and bottom ribs of a channel are linked by a web. C-molded beams are a low-cost choice for
short- to medium-term structures. Originally designed for spans, channel beams are now
well-known for their use in marine docks and other structures.

Figure 31 Channels

I- Sections
An I Beam, also known as a H beam or a universal beam, is made up of two horizontal
components, the ribs, and one vertical component, the network. The web is designed to
withstand shear forces, while the horizontal ribs prevent the bulk of the beam from bending. I
shape is extremely effective at carrying shear and bending loads in the web's plane at that
stage. The construction industry has grown significantly.

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Advantages

➢ Steel Edges are Light Yet Solid.

➢ Basic Steel Edges will Permit you To Quick Form
➢ Steel is a Spending Choice
➢ Basic Steel in an Ecologically Friendly Way

3.2.2 Effects of loading structural materials and compare the behaviors &
performance of materials that could be used for the same functions.
Timber vs plastic
Timber
A tree is made up of three parts: the trunk, crown, and roots. The trunk's job is to support the
crown while also transporting water and nutrients from the roots to the leaves through
branches and back to the roots. The roots are responsible for anchoring the trees in the soil,
absorbing moisture and mineral substances, and delivering them to the trunk.
Defects in timber
Various defects occurring in timber are grouped into following five categories:
Defects due to conversion.
1) Defects due to fungi.
2) Defects due to insects.
3) Defects due to natural forces.
4) Defects due to seasoning.
After stone, timber is the oldest building material used by humans. Despite its complex
chemical makeup, wood has excellent qualities that make it suitable for human use. It is
conveniently machinable and adaptable to fabrication into an infinite range of sizes and shapes
using basic on-site construction techniques.
❖ Exceptionally strong relative to its weight.
❖ A good heat and electrical insulator.
❖ It’s a renewable and is biodegradable resource.
However, it also has some draw backs of which the user must be aware it is a “natural”
material and is available in limited amount.
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Preservation
The term "timber preservation" refers to the process of preserving wood from fungi and
insects in order to extend its existence. Before applying preservatives, the wood should
be well seasoned. The following are some of the most commonly used preservatives.
❖ Tar
❖ Paints
❖ Chemical salt
❖ Creosote
❖ As co
Physical properties
Specific gravity
Wood's key strength properties are inextricably linked to its fundamental gravity (SG).
For the main widely used structural species, higher allowable design values are given
to sections with narrower growth rings (more rings per inch) or more thick late wood,
ranging from approximately 0.30 to 0.90.

Environmentally friendly
The most environmentally friendly construction material is timber. Timber has a low
energy requirement for processing and is a net carbon absorber. Timber is a
sustainable resource that can be generated on a continuous basis by well-managed
forests with minimal negative effects on soil and water quality.

Because of the porosity of timber, wood has a poor warm conductivity. Warm
conductivity decreases as wood thickness decreases. Wood's warm conductivity is
about twice as high when it's facing the grain as it is when it's facing away from it. Pine,
for example, has a warm conductivity of 0.22 W/moC against the grain and 0.14
W/moC opposite the grain. Increasing the amount of moisture in the wood,

Plastic
Plastics are a versatile material that can be used in a variety of customer and modern
applications. Plastic products benefit from the advantages of light weight due to the
moderately low thickness of most plastics. A few plastics can even be made to lead
power when required, despite the fact that most have excellent thermal and electrical
protection properties. They are resistant to a variety of substances that cause erosion.
In a drawn-out application, this is the most intense temperature at which a material can
reliably work. Service that never stops Temperature ensures the material's integrity and
security for the part's regular operation in its intended use.
Foods grown from the ground are short-lived items which effectively use during the
postharvest stage. The utilization of low temperature is presumably the main methods
for broadening the capacity life of postharvest produce. Changing the gas environment
inside a nook containing the put away produce can likewise diminish the breath rate
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and along these lines further broaden the capacity life. Adjusted gas environments can
be latently made and kept up by adaptable film bundling, an interaction known as
altered climate bundling (MAP). In a fixed bundle containing produce, a changed
environment is made normally because of O2 take-up and CO2 creation in the
respiratory interaction. In the end, consistent state convergences of O2, CO2 and the
third gas N2 are set up latently at a given temperature when the paces of O2 utilization
and CO2 creation of the yield equivalent the paces of pervasion of these gases through
the bundle.

Advantages of Plastics
1. Extreme adaptability and customization capability to meet specific specialized
requirements.
2. Lighter load than contending materials lessens fuel utilization during transportation
3. Great wellbeing and cleanliness properties for food bundling.
4. Durability and longevity.
5. Resistance to chemicals, water and impact.

Plastics are delegated protecting materials having average surface resistivity’s of 1016
- 1017 ohms/sq. The electrically conductive plastics industrially accessible today are
composite materials of electrically protecting base pitches and electrically conductive
fillers or strengthening specialists.

Consistency is the overall portability or capacity of newly blended cement to stream. It

incorporates the whole scope of ease from the driest to the wettest potential blends.
Plastic consistency demonstrates a condition where applied pressure will bring about
nonstop twisting without burst. A plastic combination has attachment and doesn't
disintegrate. It streams drowsily and without isolation. Functionality is the property of
newly blended solid that decides the simplicity with which it tends to be blended, set,
solidified, and completed to a homogeneous condition. It is inseparable from
placeability.

This is effectively clarified from a substance viewpoint. All plastic materials are
polymers, artificially talking. Polymers comprise of extremely long chains of sub-atomic
units which thus comprise of carbon as the characterizing component. This is quite
often joined with hydrogen. Different components incorporate nitrogen and oxygen and
in remarkable cases additionally fluorine and chlorine. The long sub-atomic chains
guarantee the polymers are solid and strong and don't decay in water. Polymers can
likewise be incredibly adaptable and malleable, a significant property not given by
mineral materials, like mud and limestone, and just partly by metals

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4 Evaluate the performance of a given building concerning it’s human

requirements
4.1.1 Define a material selection for human comfort requirement
The degree to which a structure offers a supportive atmosphere for its inhabitants is
one of the most important considerations when building it.
Solace in the built environment is influenced by a variety of factors that, if not
handled properly, may leave inhabitants feeling helpless, uneasy, or even cause
mischief and ill health.

Parts of human comfort

➢ individual elements,
➢ wellbeing and prosperity,
➢ thermal solace,
➢ indoor air quality,
➢ visual solace,
➢ Sound disturbance

Wellbeing & Prosperity

When people have the emotional, social, and physical assets they need to pass a particular
mental, social, or potentially physical examination', solace is strongly associated with health.
Rather than simply physical comfort within a community, well-being encompasses a variety
of factors such as job and relationship status.

Thermal Solace
Thermal solace is a state of mind that expresses contentment with one's thermal
surroundings, or when one isn't too hot or cold.
People's ability to work efficiently, job satisfaction, and the probability of becoming a
customer are all affected when they are dissatisfied with their thermal environment. As a
result, it's important that the techniques for creating a great indoor environment are included
in the building design.

Indoor air quality

Human comfort can be affected by the type of ventilation used in a building. Ventilation is
essential in buildings to remove "old" air and replace it with "fresh" air, as well as to avoid
overheating. For more details, see Ventilation.
We all need to breathe to live, and if the air is polluted or contains airborne illnesses, we will
become sick. Airborne hazards like carbon monoxide or longer-term indoor threats like radon
discharge may be a concern, but it's the poisonous fine burning particles, mainly from traffic
outflows and some power plants, that pose the greatest health risk to people.

Visual solace
Visual solace is likewise a significant factor that includes the arrangement of regular light,
outer perspectives, decrease of glare, etc.

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Sound disturbance
Noise levels and types in a building may also have a negative impact on tranquility.
Unwanted noise or an unsettling effect that can have a negative impact on one's well-being
or personal happiness is referred to as noise irritation.

4.1.2 Indoor Environment

The conditions inside the building are referred to as Indoor Natural Quality (IEQ). It
includes not only air quality, but also access to sunshine and views, wonderful
acoustic conditions, and resident control over lighting and thermal comfort.
It may also include practical aspects of the space, such as whether the design allows
for easy access to equipment and people when needed, and whether there is enough
space for occupants.
Building managers and administrators can improve building occupant satisfaction by
addressing all aspects of IEQ rather than focusing solely on temperature or air
quality.

It includes
➢ air quality
➢ sunlight and viewpoints
➢ charming acoustic conditions
➢ tenant control
➢ over lighting
➢ Thermal solace
➢ Building Authorizing
➢ Neatness
➢ Development Air Quality Administration

Figure 32 Indoor environmental qualities

Figure 34 :- Indoor Environmental Qualities

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4.1.3 X-value, U-value calculation & Evaluate the energy loss per second
through the wall in watts

Thickness ( A ) = 2.5+0.1x7 Thickness ( B ) = 2.25 cm

= 3.2cm = 2.25x 10-2 m

= 3.2x10-2 m

Thermal conductivity ( K ) =0.1 Wm-2oC-1 Thermal conductivity ( K ) = 2 Wm-2oC-1

RSi = 0.123

RSo = 0.05
Ra = 0.18

1
𝑈= 𝑇𝑎 𝑇𝑏
𝑅𝑆𝑖 + 𝐾𝑎 + 𝐾𝑏 + 𝑅𝑆𝑜

1
𝑈 = 0.123 + 0.032 0.02 + 0.05
+ 25
0.1

2
1
𝑈=
0.123 + 0.32 + 0.01125 + 0.05
𝑈= 1

0.50425
𝑈 = 1.983 𝑊𝑚−2𝑜𝐶−1

1
𝑅=
𝑈
1
𝑅=
1.983
𝑅 = 0.5042𝑊−1𝑜𝐶

𝐻𝐿 = 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇

𝐻𝐿 = 1.983 × 50 × 19

𝐻𝐿 = 1883.85 𝑊

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4.1.4 Comfortable Lux level & dB level for different places and situations
4.1.4.1 Comfortable Lux level for different places and situations

Table 9 Different type of lux value

Room Type Lux level

Entrance Hall 100

Reception Desk Area 300

Bed Room 50-100

Restaurant & Meeting Area 50-200

Churches 100-300

University or College lecture Theatres 300

Museums 50-300

Cinema Theatres 200

Auditorium 100-150

Bookshops & Pharmacy 500

Electrical & Furniture shop 750

Super Market 750

Meeting Rooms 300-500

Kitchen 150-300

Library 150-300

Corridor 50-100

Restroom & Toilets 100-300

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4.1.4.2 Comfortable dB level for different places and situations

Table 10 Different type of DB value

Room Type dB value

Office ,Private work Room 40-45

Theater, Recording Studio 25-30

Bathrooms, Open Office, Reception 45-55

Kitchen, Computer Rooms, Work Shop 45-55

Library, Bedrooms, Prayer Rooms 25-30

Class Room, Living Room, Lecture Hall 30-35

4.1.5 Passive and Active strategies of Buildings

Active strategies used to limit vitality materials water and land use
To keep systems satisfying, dynamic methods use purchased noteworthiness (checking
force and flammable gas). Mechanical structure parcels such as cooling, heat siphons,
wonderful warming, heat recuperation ventilators, and electric lighting are all part of these
ways of thought. Dynamic structures also combine systems that generate energy, such as
solar-powered electric vehicles.

Solar electrical power

Solar photovoltaic (PV) modules that absorb energy from the sun and convert it to electrical
power are used to generate filled electrical power. Sun-based modules may be incorporated
into the course of action as cladding pieces or awnings, installed on the rooftop, or mounted
on the shore ward’s abutting the structure for use in structures. GPS signals can be found
after the sun's technique for flawless pre-production.

Wind power
Wind energy is produced by using turbines or windmills to collect wind energy and convert it
to electrical energy.

Grey Water Re-Use

Grey water is a term used to depict water that has been used for showering, washing, and
hand-washing. It now and again joins wastewater from kitchen sinks and dress, dependent
upon neighborhood by-laws. Dim water Reuse incorporates the variety and treatment of this
water for use in lavatory flushing, outdoors water framework and created wetlands,
diminishing the overall enthusiasm for consumable (drinkable) water. Channel Water
Warmth Recuperation can be reasonably joined with Dim water Reuse for perfect
essentialness and resource profitability,

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Figure 33 Grey water uses

Reversible ceiling fan

Ceiling fans with reversible blades are used to circulate indoor air and can be used in both
warm and cold seasons. In the winter, warm air is drawn from the rooftop into the included
space, while cool air is drawn from the floor up toward the housetop. To aid evaporative
cooling, air is directed down into the included space in the middle of the year.

Passive strategies used to limit vitality materials water and land use
There is a balance between warming and cooling implementation for several passive
strategies. The type of structure and operation determine which techniques can have the
greatest overall impact on vitality execution.
Passive Heating
Using building configuration to bridle sunlight-based radiation and catch the inner
warmth benefits is the most passive way to add free warm vitality to a building.
Passive solar heating provides a covered envelope all around with different
components that minimize vitality losses and saddle and store solar-based increases
to counteract suppleness vitality requirements.
Components that add to passive sun oriented heating include the following
➢ Orientation
➢ Building shapes
➢ Space planning
➢ Mixed mode heat recovery ventilation ( HRV )
➢ Thermal mass
➢ High performance insulation
➢ Minimized infiltration
Passive Ventilation
To bring open air into a room, passive ventilation methodologies use naturally
occurring wind current examples around and within a building. Pneumatic force
comparisons are created in the body by wind and lightness caused by air
temperature differences.

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Consumed spaces Buildings can be intended to upgrade these characteristic wind

currents and exploit them as opposed to neutralize them,

Components that add to passive Ventilation include the following

➢ Operable windows
➢ Buffer spaces & double facades
➢ Building shapes
➢ Space planning
➢ Strategic architectural features
➢ Orientation

Passive Cooling
Passive cooling strategies prevent the system from overheating by blocking sun-
oriented gains and evacuating interior warmth gains (utilizing cooler open air for
ventilation, putting away overabundance heat in warm mass)
For the time being, nighttime cooling relies on common ventilation to extract heat
from the building mass that has accumulated during the day. The cooler evening air
cools and flushes the house's warm structure/mass.

The following components contribute to passive cooling:-

➢ Fixed/Operable external shading
➢ Low window to wall area ratio
➢ Thermal mass
➢ Passive ventilation
➢ Stacked windows
➢ Passive evaporative cooling

Day lighting
Day lighting increases the use and delivery of standard diffused sunlight in a
structure's interior, reducing the need for fake electric lighting.

The following components contribute to Day lighting:-

➢ Space planning
➢ Window size & placement
➢ Interior surface colours & finishes
➢ Strategic architectural features
➢ Light selves

Applying the strategies: - Residential

In the Vancouver market, the majority of private projects are medium- and large-scale
structures. In the Vancouver climate, evening occupancy and comparatively low inside heat
rises in private spaces result in a warming prevailing private vitality profile.

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Conclusion
By the time of doing this assignment I was able to gain extra knowledge relevant to the
subject module by searching on internets and books. When I’m doing this assignment I
gained more knowledge about Properties and uses of construction materials, Structural
behavior of construction materials, Building services, behavior of timber, structural steel
and reinforced concrete and thermal performance of building. The searching in websites
and books widen my knowledge and induced me to search more and more as the
materials and technologies are improving day by day. After doing this assignment, I have
got clear idea on the module and also got an idea that there are many materials and
technologies introduced due to the rapidly growing sciences and the importance to be
updated any time.

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