Case Studies in Construction Materials 17 (2022) e01148

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Case Studies in Construction Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cscm

The effect of openings on the performance of self-compacting

concrete with volcanic pumice powder and different steel fibers
Gamil M.S. Abdullah a, Ibrahim M.H. Alshaikh b, *, Abdullah M. Zeyad c, *,
Hassan M. Magbool c, B.H. Abu Bakar d
a
Civil Engineering Department, College of Engineering, Najran University, Najran, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Science and Technology, Sana’a, Yemen
c
Civil Engineering Department, College of Engineering, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia
d
School of Civil Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 14300 Nibong Tebal, Penang, Malaysia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This study primarily aims at investigating the impact of incorporating volcanic pumice powder
Self-compacting concrete (VPP), with different steel fibers on self-compacting concrete (SCC) beams’ performance with a
Volcanic pumice powder circular opening of a diameter of 20 mm at the centroid. To this end, twenty-one SCCs opened
Steel fiber
beams (100 mm × 100 mm × 500 mm); together with/without steel fiber, were cast and
Workability
Flexural behavior
examined by employing the test of center-point bending. For this study, five different types of
Web opening fiber and various aspect ratios, involving the hook-end fiber type of (60–30 mm), the straight fiber
type of (21–13 mm), as well as the flat-end fiber type of (six varying concrete mixtures made by
adding 1% of a volume fraction), were examined. At a replacement rate of 30% of the cement
mass, VPP has been incorporated into the mixture. The experimental test results confirmed the
performance improvement in deflection, a failure load, and a failure mode due to the existence of
steel fibers in the examined concrete matrix. The presence of steel fibers has significantly
increased the ultimate loads with a range of the gain ratio of 11–49% compared with solid beams
(i.e., SCC beams). Accordingly, the fibers were able to offset the drawbacks, which were triggered
by the opening. Moreover, this study demonstrated the possibility of benefiting from industrial
wastes, such as VPP to reduce the use of cement and manufacture of SCC.

1. Introduction

Regarding reinforced concrete (RC) beams, web openings are typically utilized for ducts and passing pipes, providing water supply,
electricity, sewage, air-conditioning, computer and telephone networks in structures and buildings. These web openings reduce the
beams’ stiffness and strength. Such an adverse effect is dependent on multiple factors like the size of the opening and its geometrical
shape. This web opening effect on the RC beams’ behavior has been studied by numerous researchers [1–6]. These researchers
examined the effect of the size of the web opening on the RC beams’ stiffness and strength [7–11]. However, only limited research has
been conducted to examine the influence of opening size on strengthening or repairing reinforced concrete beams with web openings
[12]. Ahmed et al. [13] and Abbas et al. [14] have conducted a detailed review of the available studies in the area of beams with web
openings, concluding that further investigation is needed to fully comprehend the influence of various parameters on repair efficacy

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: ibrahimalshaikh86@gmail.com (I.M.H. Alshaikh), azmohsen@jazanu.edu.sa (A. M. Zeyad).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2022.e01148
Received 25 February 2022; Received in revised form 17 April 2022; Accepted 9 May 2022
Available online 14 May 2022
2214-5095/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
G.M.S. Abdullah et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 17 (2022) e01148

and failure modes. The presence of web openings will change the simple beam behavior into a more complex behavior of the reduction
of the beam’s cross-section. The failure plane, however, always passes through the opening since it is a source of weakness [13–15].
Ultimate load, shear strength, and crack pattern can all be significantly influenced. Moreover, the presence of openings causes dis­
continuities or perturbations in the usual flow of stresses, resulting in stress concentration and early cracking in the vicinity of the
opening. Special reinforcement or enclosing of the opening close to its peripheral should, therefore, be supplied in an adequate
quantity to prevent premature cracks and failure of the beam [16–18].
Self-compacting concrete, known as SCC, represents a special type of concrete mixture due to the concrete’s high-flow capability.
Self-compacting concrete compacts under its own weight and spreads in spaces; it fills the formwork and encapsulates reinforcement; it
does not produce excessive bleeding or segregation. Also, it does not require mechanical consolidation [19–21]. Additionally,
self-compacting concrete typically comprises a considerable amount of powdered material to sustain a good yield value, while
maintaining a given viscous fresh mixture. Based on previous studies [22,23], in industrial waste, utilizing fine materials, i.e., fly ash,
silica fume, and ground granulated blast-furnace slag is key in the production of SCC, which corresponds to the European Guidelines
for Self-Compacting Concrete, i.e., (EFCAA) [24].
Recently, volcanic pumice powder (VPP) has been included in the list of fine pozzolanic materials used in producing SCC [25–28].
Güneyisi et al. [29] have recently presented a first-hand investigation of the characteristics of SCC mixtures in their fresh state with the
inclusion of VPP. According to the results, raising the VPP replacement ratio to 20% has generally increased the fluidity of SCC
mixtures without losing uniformity and without the occurrence of segregation. Granata [27] conducted an experimental study on the
fresh and hardened properties of SCC with VPP as a filler additive. The results confirmed that VPP can be effectively utilized as a filler
in SCC because of its granulometry and grain properties. All the SCC mixtures, which were manufactured with VPP, showed satis­
factory performance in all the fresh state tests. In addition, the SCC mixtures with VPP showed higher compressive strength compared
to other mixtures. Ardalan et al. [30] investigated the effects of VPP on compressive strength and self-compactibility. The authors
concluded that the SCC, which contains VPP, satisfied the limits for the V funnel and U-box tests. Furthermore, the replacement of
cement mass with more than 30% of VPP resulted in a significant decline in the fresh and hardened test results. A partial replacement of
cement with VPP enhanced the physical and mechanical features of cement mixtures [28,31–33].
Self-compacting concrete, nevertheless, enjoys similar properties as normal concrete in terms of tensile strength weakness and low-
crack resistance. However, by integrating fibers, SCC’s post-peak properties can be improved. Studies have, therefore, sought to
enhance the proportion of the mixture by incorporating fibers into SCC (SCFs) [34–37]. As for the addition of fibers in the mix design of
SCC, steel fibers are more commonly used in the making of concrete as opposed to glass, carbon, and plastic fibers [38].
Previous studies focused on strengthening the opened beams by applying different methods (e.g., [2,6,7,10,12,39,40]). However,
studies on strengthening the SCC opened beams by incorporating steel fibers, are still limited. Therefore, this study aims to examine the
effect of VPP addition with varied steel fibers on enhancing the performance of SCC opened beams. To this end, five various types of
fibers of different aspect ratios and shapes were selected, including the hook-end fiber type of (60–30 mm), the straight fiber type of
(21–13 mm), and the flat-end fiber type of (six varying concrete mixtures made by adding 1% of a volume fraction). Accordingly, VPP
has been utilized as a 30% partial cement replacement. Regarding the assessment of rheological property, as well as workability, slump
flow and L-box tests were carried out to the fresh concrete. Moreover, the load-displacement characteristics, crack patterns and modes
of failure, ultimate load capacity, and structural ductility of the SCC with SCFs mixes were evaluated experimentally by conducting a
center-point bending test to assess the opened beam.

2. Significance of the study

This study has provided several contributions in different aspects, as follows: (1) it provided empirical evidence, which substan­
tiated that industrial wastes like VPP can be used to reduce the use of cement and to produce SCC, (2) it contributes to the development
of new research pathways for improving the properties of VPP-based SCC, (3) it also contributes to understanding the performance of
SCC mixtures that contain steel fibers by investigating the effects of the most common types of steel fibers on fresh and hardened
properties, and (4) it provided an experimental evaluation of opened beams by conducting a center-point bending test.

3. Materials and methods

3.1. Materials

3.1.1. Cement
OPC or ordinary Portland cement has been used in this study in compliance with ASTM C150 [41]. The OPC’s physical properties
and its chemical composition are provided in Table 1 and Table 2, respectively.

Table 1
VPP and cement’s physical properties.
Material Relative density Surface area (cm2/g) Blaine Method Median diameter (µm)

Cement ↱3.10↱ 3.530 ↱9.2

VPP 2.61 3.970 6.3

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3.1.2. Volcanic pumice powder (VPP)

In the context of the current study, VPP has been utilized at a 30% partial replacement of the cement ↱mass. More than 30%
replacement of cement mass with VPP resulted in a significant decline in the fresh and hardened test results [30]. VPP has been
obtained from the quarry for producing lightweight aggregates in the region of Jazan in Saudi Arabia, as illustrated in Fig. 1. The
utilized VPP has been gathered from given waste materials as a result of crushing the volcanic pumice. Next, the gathered VPP passed
through a 150 mm- sieve for big particles removal. After that, the collected VPP was refined using a given balls mill for producing fine
powder of a 4.96 µm-average diameter (Fig. 2). Tables 1 and 2 display the physical properties of VPP, as well as cement, and they
provide the VPP’s chemical composition and cement. The chemical properties of fine VPP followed ASTM C618 [42] specification
requirements according to [33].

3.1.3. Aggregate
In the concrete mix, crushed limestone rock of 12.7-mm maximum size was utilized as gravel and natural sand from the desert was
utilized as sand. Gravel and the utilized ↱sand exhibited 1.1% and 1.6% water absorption. They showed specific gravities of 2.67 and
2.70, correspondingly↱. Gravel and sand fulfilled the specifications of ASTM C33 [43]. The grading of the fine, as well as coarse
aggregate, is shown in Fig. 3.↱

3.1.4. Steel fibers

Five types of fiber were employed for preparing the samples of SCC, including the hook-end type of 60 mm long, i.e., (SF1), the
hook-end type of 30 mm long, i.e., (SF3), the flat-end type of 50 mm long, i.e., (SF2), the microfibers type with the measurement of
21 mm long, i.e., (SF4), and the microfibers type with the measurement of 13 mm long, i.e., (SF5), as well as the hybrid fibers. The
hybrid fibers were used by 0.2% for each type of the above-mentioned types. Moreover, the SF’s volume fraction, which was used in the
current study, was 1% of the concrete volume. The percentage was proposed according to several previous studies, which recom­
mended the addition of 0.5–1.5% of steel fibers to be the most optimum percentage of the ↱volume fraction of concrete so that decline
of the strength and the fresh concrete properties can be avoided [44]. The characteristics of the utilized fibers are provided in Table 3.

3.1.5. Admixtures
In this study, superplasticizer, i.e., (SP) Sicka 1050 has been utilized to produce SCC and SCFs. The properties of SP are displayed in
Table 4.↱

3.2. Mixture proportioning

The design of the original control mix, i.e., (SCC), without fibers, has been carried out as plain SCC by using VPP as a partial cement
replacement by 30%. The SCC mixture’s design method can considerably differ from the normal concrete design. ↱There exist key
requirements for the mixture’s design method to estimate given required weights, including the aggregates’ selection with a maximum
size of (12.7 mm) and the ideal proportion for allowing an easy passing ability, in addition to cementitious materials, with the water
ratio, as well as the mortar, the paste volume fraction to produce SCC with a required slump flow, in other words, without segregation
or bleeding. The concrete mixture design has complied with the ACI 211.1–91 specification [45]. Such steps with an appropriate SP
admixture must be applied in a laboratory to guarantee good fresh properties of SCC. After obtaining the SCC mix, the steel fibers of the
volume fraction 1% were added to the SCC mix for the SCFs production. Table 5 displays the proportions of the concrete mix.
This mixing program commenced by putting sand, gravel, as well as cementitious (i.e., cement and the VPP) in a mixer. Next, dry
materials were mixed for two minutes. Then, 70% of SP water was put in the mixer, and mixing continued for another three minutes.
After this step, the steel fiber has been added to the mixture, and mixing continued for three minutes until the mix was completely
homogenized. When the mixing process was complete, fresh concrete tests have been directly conducted. After that, concrete was
placed into molds without a vibrator. The specimens were stored for twenty-four hours in certain lab conditions, following ACI 308R-

Table 2
VPP and cement’s chemical composition.
Oxide Cement % VPP %

SiO2 ↱20.05 46.5

Al2O3 ↱4.93↱ 17.59
Fe2O3 ↱3.90↱ 7.33
CaO ↱61.57↱ 12.52
MgO ↱0.81↱ 6.94
Na2O ↱0.08↱ 2.58
TiO2 ↱0.24↱ 1.41
K2O ↱1.33↱ 1.17
P2O5 ↱0.08↱ 0.71
SO3 ↱3.06↱ 0.42
MnO ↱0.19↱ 0.14
Cl – 0.01
LOI ↱2.10↱ 1.61
SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 – 76.01

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Fig. 1. Utilized VPP in this study.

Fig. 2. Cement and VPP’s sieve analysis.

Fig. 3. Sieve analysis for the aggregate, including (a) gravel and (b) sand.

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Table 3
The physical properties of the utilized steel fibers.
Steel fibers

Item

SF1 (Hooked-end) SF2 (Flat-end) SF3 (Hooked-end) SF4 (Micro-fiber) SF5 (Micro- fiber)

Diameter (deq ) (mm) 0.92 0.9 0.55 0.35 0.2

Aspect ratio 65 56 55 60 65
Tensile strength (ft ) (MPa) 1160 1160 1160 1100–1300 1100–1300

Table 4
Copolymer-based superplasticizer’s properties.
Properties Information
Chemical base Modified polycarboxylate in water

Density 1.070 kg/L (at +20 ◦ C)

Alkaligehalte ↱< ↱ 0.5% w/w
Chloride Ion Content < 0.1% w/w

Table 5
The proportions of the concrete mixture.
Mixture Water Cement VPP Sand Gravel SP SF1 SF2 SF3 SF4 SF5
(kg/m3)

SCC 220 350 150 795 801 6.5 – – – – –

SCF1 220 350 150 795 801 6.5 78.4 – – – –
SCF2↱ 220 350 150 795 801 6.5 – 78.4 – – –
SCF3 220 350 150 795 801 6.5 – – 78.4 – –
SCF4 220 350 150 795 801 6.5 – – – 78.4 –
SCF5 220 350 150 795 801 6.5 – – – – 78.4
SCF6 220 350 150 795 801 6.5 15.6 15.6 15.6 15.6 15.6

01 R08 [46]. Finally, these specimens were removed from their ↱molds.

3.3. Testing methodology

For the purpose of identifying the SCC properties in the fresh concrete state, both tests of slump flow and L-box were applied,
following the EFCAA [24] as shown in Fig. 4.↱ Besides, both tests of bleeding and segregation were conducted, following ASTM C1610
[47] and ASTM C232 [48]. To guarantee that workability loss does not affect the samples’ results for fresh concrete, the
above-mentioned tests were conducted in 15 ± 5 min of water addition. The hardened concrete tests involved three samples for each

Fig. 4. Fresh state tests of concrete, including (a) Slump fow test; (b) L-box test; (c) Bleeding test; (d) Segregation test.

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Fig. 5. The setup of the conducted tests to evaluate the concrete’s mechanical properties, including (a) the compression test; (b) the splitting tensile
test; and (c) the flexural strength test.

compressive, splitting tensile strength, as well as flexural strength (Fig. 5). A standard cylinder of 100 mm diameter ↱↱× 200 mm
height for testing compressive and splitting tensile was utilized in conformity with ASTM C39 [49] and ASTM C496 [50] for
compressive and splitting tensile, respectively. Flexural strength utilized a standard beam of 100 mm × 100 mm × 500 mm under
center-point loading, following ASTM C293 [51]. The tests of compressive and ↱splitting tensile, with flexural strength were conducted
at twenty-eight days↱.↱
In this study, 24 standard beams were made and tested, as illustrated in Table 6. Three specimens for each mixture have been
considered for acceptable accuracy. For the SCC mix, two specimens were made for SCC and SCC1 with and without opening (i.e., solid
beam), respectively, as a reference to be compared with all SCFs beams. The circular opening in the SCFs beams was created at mid-
span (i.e., the centroid of the specimen) by a circular polyvinyl chloride pipe with a diameter of 20 mm, inserted in the beam before the
cast of concrete. Generally, in the beam design, it is preferable that the ultimate strength is determined by bending rather than shear, so
the circular opening was created at mid-span (i.e., the zone of moments). The shear failure of strengthened opened beams is common
with an increase in the opening diameter [12]. Consequently, the opening diameter in this study was carried out using a diameter of
20 mm to make the failure mode a ductile flexural mode.

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Properties of fresh concrete

Table 7 provides the concrete mixture’s fresh state properties, whereby the slump flow test examined the capability of concrete for
deforming under its own weight against the friction of the surface without limitation. The value of slump flow ranged from 500 to
700 mm for SCC as suggested [24]. The mixtures of SCC, and SCF3, with SCF6, conformed to the stated range. The slump flow,
however, for mixtures SCF1, SCF2, SCF4, and SCF5 declined below the stated minimum requirement (500 mm) with marginally
decreased ratios of 11.11%, 4.17%, 2.04%, and 11.11%, respectively. When SF1 fibers (i.e., larger hook-end) were added to the
concrete mixtures, the lowest value slump flow diameter (450 mm) was obtained. These results can be attributed to the end shape and
the highest length compared with all other fiber types. The same state was observed for SF2, where the value slump flow diameter was
480 mm. In addition, the utilization of the shortest fiber (i.e., SF5) exhibited a diameter of 480 mm for slump flow, which can be
attributed to its large surface area, which led to obstructing the flow of fresh concrete [52]. However, the ratio of the L-box ratio
(H2/H1) for the SCC mix was over 0.92, following the EFCAA [24] standards. However, it was restricted in other mixtures. This can be
attributed to the presence of fiber, which leads to the limitation of fresh concrete movement [53,54]. In other words, a possible reason
is that fiber dispersion in the concrete paste resulted in the production of a fiber-cement paste, in which, the cement mortar envelopes
the fibers. To overcome this problem, different dosages of SP can be used for different types of fiber in the development of mixtures in

Table 6
Details of the tested beams.
Specimen ID

SCC SCC1 SCF1 SCF2 SCF3 SCF4 SCF5 SCF6

Fiber’s volume (%) N/A N/A 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Opening diameter (mm) N/A 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
No. of specimens 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Total no. of specimens 24

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Table 7
SCC mixtures fresh state characteristics.
Mixture Slump flow L-box Density Bleeding Segregation
(mm) ratio (kg/m3) (mL/cm2) %

SCC 690 0.92 2336 0.21 9.6

SCF1 450 Restricted 2269 0.19 6.3
SCF2↱ 480 Restricted 2321 0.18 6.5
SCF3 520 Restricted 2315 0.16 5.4
SCF4 490 Restricted 2276 0.12 6.8
SCF5 480 Restricted 2304 0.12 7.4
SCF6 510 Restricted 2219 0.15 5.9

the future, whereas in this study, a fixed dosage of SP was used for all mixtures to examine the effect of different types of fiber. It was
found that the mixture’s workability was adversely influenced by the presence of fibers, leading to less flowability of SCC. The results
agreed with previous findings [44,55]. It can also be observed based on Table 7 that despite adding steel fibers, the fresh concrete’s
density was almost constant due to the increased air content [56].
Table 7 provides the results of bleeding and segregation for SCC, SCF1, SCF2, SCF3, SCF4, SCF5, and SCF6. The incorporation of
fibers has resulted in a substantial decrease in the rates of segregation of SCC, ranging approximately from 22.92% to 43.75%. Utilizing
SFs to SCC, on the other hand, contributed to decreasing the rates of segregation to 14.28%, 16.92%, 20.59%, 27.03%, and 8.47% for
SCF1, SCF2, SCF4, SCF5, and SCF6, correspondingly. The results have established that the SF can be used to reduce the segregation rate
of SCC. Concrete mixtures with smaller hooked-end fibers (i.e., SCF3) exhibited less segregation compared with SCC and all types of
fiber. The low segregation of SCF3 can be attributed to the effects of the end shape of fibers and extensive distribution within the
concrete mixture, which prevents coarse aggregates from moving downward [57]. The incorporation of fibers reduced the SCC rate of
bleeding to 0.21 mL/kg. The ratios of reduction recorded 9.52%, 14.29%, 23.81%, 42.86%, 42.86%, and 28.57% for the corresponding
mixtures SCF1, SCF2, SCF3, SCF4, SCF5, and SCF6, respectively. This reduction can be attributed to the mixture’s composition, which
includes fine pozzolanic elements (i.e., VPP) at a 30% cement mass replacement rate. The viscosity of the mixture increased as a result
of this composition. The results agreed with previous findings by Vakhshouri and Nejadi [58]. However, high resistance to bleeding in
the mixtures containing micro-fibers (i.e., SF4 and SF5) could be related to their high surface areas, which limit water movement
upward in fresh concrete [59]. Fig. 6 shows the relationship between the conducted bleeding and segregation tests for the entire SCC
mixtures.

4.2. Hardened concrete properties

4.2.1. Compressive strength

These mixtures’ compressive strength, including SCC, SCF1, SCF2, SCF3, SCF4, SCF5, and SCF6 at the 28-day age are illustrated
Table 8 and shown in Fig. 7. All concrete mixtures with fibers were higher in compressive strength as opposed to the corresponding SCC
mixture. This strengthened compressive strength for concrete with fibers has occurred as a result of inhibiting the development of
cracks, which depends on the bond’s strength (i.e., the confinement impact) of steel fiber, within the concrete matrix [55,60,61]. The
SCF3 (the smaller hooked fiber type) exhibited the highest compressive strength versus the remaining mixtures. The SCF6 (the hybrid

Fig. 6. The relationship in between the obtained results of segregation and bleeding.

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Table 8
Results of compressive, as well as splitting tensile strengths results.
Concrete Mixtures

SCC SCF1 SCF2 SCF3 SCF4 SCF5 SCF6

Compressive Strength (MPa) 39.1 44.6 44.3 47.6 45.0 43.4 40.9
Splitting Tensile Strength (MPa) 3.20 3.93 3.82 4.06 4.35 4.16 4.08

Fig. 7. Results of mechanical properties (a) Compressive strength and (b) Splitting tensile strength.

fiber type), however, exhibited the smallest compressive strength amongst the entire fiber mixtures (Fig. 7). On the other hand, the
compressive strength of the SCF3 mixture recorded increased ratios of 21.74%, 6.73%, 7.45%, 5.78%, 9.68%, and 16.38% compared
with SCC, SCF1, SCF2, SCF4, SCF5, and SCF6, respectively. The results revealed that there is a small difference in the observed
compressive strength between the mixtures: SCF1, SCF2, SCF4, and SCF5. This increase in compressive strength has been observed in
previous studies [55,60–62]. According to the findings of the tests, the compressive strength of concrete mixtures with hooked-end
fibers increases as the steel fiber length decreases from 60 mm (i.e., SF1) to 30 mm (i.e., SF3). It may be attributed to the high sur­
face area of fibers, which increases the fiber-matrix cohesive forces. On the contrary, the concrete mixtures with longer straight fibers
(i.e., SF4) showed a higher compressive strength compared with the smaller straight fibers (i.e., SF5). This can be attributed to the
length of the SF5 being 13 mm, which is nearly equal to the maximum size of aggregate (12.7 mm); this, in turn, did not help achieve
well-homogenized hardened properties. However, using SF5 contributed to boosting the compressive strength capability by over 10%
compared with SCC. Moreover, there were marginal effects when compared between long hooked-end fiber (i.e., SF1) and flat-end
fiber (i.e., SF2) in terms of the compressive strengths.

4.2.2. Splitting tensile strength

Splitting tensile strength (the given indirect tensile) for a variety of samples of concrete has been established after a curing period of
28 days. The average of the three-cylinder in every type of concrete mix has been measured as illustrated in Table 8 and Fig. 7. There
was a substantial improvement in splitting tensile strength with utilizing the SF while producing SCF versus SCC mixes. The results
showed that splitting tensile strength has risen by 22.81%, 19.38%, 26.88%, 35.94%, 30.0%, and 27.5% for the following mixtures:
SCF1, SCF2, SCF3, SCF4, SCF5 and SCF6 concrete mixtures, correspondingly, compared with SCC mixture. Therefore, the incorpo­
ration of SF in the SCC resulted in a substantial improvement of splitting tensile strength, as shown in Fig. 7. The SCF4 (the larger
Microfiber type), on the other hand, exhibited the greatest splitting tensile strength in comparison with all mixes. Consequently, all the
utilized fibers contributed to boosting the splitting tensile strength’s capability by over 19.38%. The fiber content in the mixtures has,
therefore, improved the characteristics of tensile strength because the concrete matrix cracks were inhibited and bridged - the bridging
force mainly depended on the incorporated fiber type [55,60,61,63,64]. The influence of fiber geometrical parameters on splitting
tensile strength follows the same pattern as compressive strength. The splitting tensile strength of concrete mixtures with hooked-end
fibers increases as the steel fiber length decreases from 60 mm (i.e., SF1) to 30 mm (i.e., SF3). On the contrary, the concrete mixtures
with longer straight fibers (i.e., SF4) showed a higher splitting tensile strength compared with the smaller straight fibers (i.e., SF5).
Moreover, there were marginal effects when compared between long hooked-end fiber (i.e., SF1) and flat-end fiber (i.e., SF2) in terms
of splitting tensile strength.

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4.3. Flexural characterization

4.3.1. Load deflection curves

The load-displacement (mid-span displacement) curves for all beams are illustrated in Fig. 8. Three specimens’ average has been
taken. The load-displacement behavior has initially involved the given uncracked beam and a curve growth in the given segment is
sharply linear (i.e., first-segment) up to the appearance of the first flexural cracking. The load-displacement behavior’s slope declined
as a result of the concrete cracking, thereby exhibiting a specific nonlinear behavior (i.e., second segment). Next, the same status
continued until the failure of beams. For SCC and SCC1 specimens, in their second-segment slopes, there was a sudden decrease in the
force of resistance because of the crack’s large extent, then it was split into two pieces. The presence of the opening (i.e., SCC1) has led
to a decrease in the load and deformation capacity compared with SCC beams as displayed in Fig. 8 -Table 9. These results also showed
that the deflection of the SCC1 beams has unexpectedly stopped, indicating the occurrence of the brittle failure mode at the given
opening zone of the beam. The load-displacement curves of the beams SCC and SCC1, were, however, changed suddenly to form a
vertical line due to the increased width of the cracks in the beams. In contrast, all SCFs specimens exhibited ductile failure, whereby the
deflection of the entire specimens persisted with a small increase in the given applied load, as shown in Fig. 8, The result agreed with
those of previous findings [25,26,56,62,63]. As we can see after the first segment, these curves started to separate from each other.
What we understand from the first segment of curves is that the existence of fibers exerted a considerable influence on the
improvement of the beams’ load capacity despite the openings. As observed in Fig. 8 the load-displacement curves’ shapes of the entire
specimens of SCFs were similar (except for SCF1 and SCF3). Besides, the load-displacement curve’s second segment for the examined
SCFs specimen was much higher compared with the SCC and SCC1 beams, suggesting that the specimen’s deformation capacity and its
ductility were enhanced as well by the presence of fibers. Concerning the hooked fibers’ length effect, the use of large hooked-end fiber
(i.e., SF1) in SCF1 beams exhibited the highest flexural capacity compared with all SCFs beams. This indicates that the hooked end
fiber with the higher aspect ratio has provided greater energy absorption capacity compared with other types of fiber due to a
distinctive bonding performance using a variety of steel fibers with the concrete matrix in maintaining load at the cracks. These results
agreed with previous findings, which were reported by [65]. However, using flat-end fibers and hybrid fibers (i.e., SCF2 and SCF6)
showed similar flexural behavior. The use of small micro-steel fiber (i.e., SF5) in the SCF5 beams showed a slightly higher flexural
capacity than the SCF4 (i.e., the large micro-steel fiber type). It is worthwhile to observe that after the first given drop in the load
capacity, another increase occurred in load capacity in the second segment of a load-displacement curve of the SCF3 beams (i.e., small
hooked-end fiber). The results are quite consistent with previous findings reported in [25,66].

4.3.2. Crack patterns/ failure modes

The crack patterns and the failure modes for all SCFs specimens are displayed in Fig. 9. The control specimens (i.e., SCC) failed by
the rapid expansion of the major flexural cracks from the tension side (i.e., bottom surfaces) directly toward the applied load point at
the compression side (i.e., top surfaces) at the mid-span of the beam. As the load grew, cracks became wider, and they propagated
toward the load point and with a sudden decline in the resisting force, the beam split up into two pieces and collapsed, indicating a
normal concrete beams’ flexural failure mode. A single-point load was applied to the beam’s mid-span and, therefore, the max stresses
and moment were produced in the beam’s section at the opening location. The two beams SCC and SCC1 exhibited nearly a similar
behavior regarding crack patterns and modes of failure, excluding the beam with the opening (SCC1), which failed at a prior stage
compared to the solid beam (SCC). Single cracks started from the tension surfaces, and they passed through the opening center, directly
to the compression surfaces. In contrast, the failure mode for the entire SCFs beams did not split up into two pieces, as displayed in
Fig. 9(a - f). The failure was, therefore, ductile with a high deflection, which is due to a random distribution of the steel fibers in the
concrete matrix. Besides, the fiber content improved the flexural characteristics by exerting a massive influence on the controls of
cracks because it hindered and bridged concrete matrix cracks (see Fig. 10), whereby the bridging force mainly relied upon the fiber
type [55,63,64]. For SCF1, one inclined crack (i.e., at approximately 45◦ relative to a horizontal direction) first appeared at the beams’
bottom surface and expanded when load grew until failure, but its growth is very slow. The crack has achieved a maximum limit before
the end of the beams’ cross-sections; however, the area all around the opening has not exhibited new cracks (Fig. 9(a)). As the loading
progressed, flexural cracks no longer appeared; only the present flexural cracks expanded. For SCF2 and SCF3, single vertical cracks
started and occurred at the bottom surfaces, and they continued to pass through the center of the opening. The space in between the
opening top and point load has undergone major cracks as displayed in Fig. 9(b and c). For SCF4, SCF5, and SCF6, vertical cracks
started and occurred at the bottom surfaces, and they continued to expand away from the opening as shown in Fig. 9(d, e, and f).

4.3.3. Ultimate load capacity

Table 9 illustrates the specimens’ ultimate load capacity. At failure, ultimate damages were concentrated in the bottom surface of
beams and around the opening. The control beam (i.e., SCC), which has no opening, has utterly failed when the given applied load was
8.29 kN. The results indicated that the opening presence in SCC1 beams resulted in a reduction in the given load capacity by 18.25%
compared with SCC beams. The results established that fibers improved the strength of the beams. The peak load capacities were
12.32, 9.67, 9.23, 10.08, 10.76, and 9.73 kN for these mixtures: SCF1, SCF2, SCF3, SCF4, SCF5, and SCF6, correspondingly. The given
ultimate loads in SCFs beams were higher versus the solid beams (i.e., SCC beams) by increased ratios, which ranged from 11% to 49%
(as shown in Table 9) although there are openings, which triggered a decrease in the compressive stress block area. Also, the increasing
ratios ranged from 19.9% to 86.3% for the SCFs beams compared to SCC1 beams (without fibers). Furthermore, the greatest peak load
was obtained in the SCF1 (i.e., the long hooked-end fiber type) with increased ratios that ranged from 14.49% to 75.75% versus all the
mixtures. In addition, SCFs beams showed more deflection than the SCC beam by well over 4.7, 4.2, 4.4, 3.3, 4.7, and 5.9 times of these

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Fig. 8. Load–displacement curves of all beams.

Table 9
Ultimate load capacity, displacement results, performance factors of test specimens.
Specimen ID SCC SCC1 SCF1 SCF2 SCF3 SCF4 SCF5 SCF6

Pu (kN) 8.29 7.01 12.32 9.67 9.23 10.08 10.76 9.73

SF = Pu /Pu(SCC− control) – 0.85 1.49 1.16 1.11 1.22 1.30 1.17
Δu (at failure) (mm) 0.926 0.752 5.349 4.835 5.068 4.051 5.343 6.398
DF = Δu /Δu(SCC− control) – 0.81 5.78 5.22 5.47 4.37 5.77 6.91
PF = DF ∗ SF – 0.69 8.61 6.06 6.07 5.33 7.5 8.08

Fig. 9. Crack patterns and failure modes of SCFs mixtures (a) SCF1; (b) SCF2; (c) SCF3; (d) SCF4; (e) SCF5; (f) SCF6.

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Fig. 10. Fracture surface and crack bridging by steel fibers for typical SCF beams.

mixtures: SCF1, SCF2, SCF3, SCF4, SCF5, and SCF6, correspondingly, as shown in Table 9. This can be attributed to obstructing and
bridging the cracks of the concrete matrix through the presence of fibers, which hugely relied upon the type of fiber.
As indicated in Table 9, the efficacy of various steel fibers was measured using normalized strength factors (SF), deformability
factors (DF), and overall structural performance factors (PF), which indicated the capability of the given structural element of enduring
inelastic deformation after reaching load-carrying capacity [6]. Table 9 illustrates that the opening in the beam with a diameter of
20 mm, has diminished the SCC1 beam strength and deformation with a reduction of 15% and 19%, respectively, along with overall
structural performance factors by 31%. The use of 1% of the volume fraction of various steel fibers SF1, SF2, SF3, SF4, SF5, and SF6 was
able of restoring the beam’s strength completely (i.e., SF) up to 1.49, 1.16, 1.11, 1.22, 1.30, and 1.17, respectively. Regarding the
deformability factors, SCFs beams showed more DF than the SCC beam by well over 4.37 times. The use of 1% various steel fibers
resulted in a greater PF than 1.0 (i.e., more efficient than the reference SCC beam without the opening). However, utilizing SF1, SF2,
SF3, SF4, SF5, and SF6 was capable to increase the PF up to 8.61, 6.06, 6.07, 5.33, 7.5, and 8.08, respectively. Moreover, if we consider
the combined strength, in addition to the deformation performance (PF), the results are expected to be highly promising.

4.4. Structural ductility

Structural ductility involves the concrete’s ability to withstand enormous deformations without being crashed before failure.
Structural ductility is generally measured by an index or factor (μ) in relation to absorbed energy (E) and deformation parameters (i.e.,
displacements (Δ), and rotations (θ), with curvatures (∅)). The comparison in this study among the examined specimens is based on
the ductility of displacements and energy. Ductility factors (i.e., the displacement ductility (μΔ ) and energy ductility (μE )) were
determined as the ratios of Eu and Δu to the failure load divided by Ey and Δy at the ultimate loads [67–70]. In this study, the Δy and Ey
used in Table 10 were calculated as shown in Fig. 11. Table 10 shows a comparison of displacement ductility values (μΔ ) and energy
ductility values (μE ) of tested specimens. The results indicated that the SCC1 beams led to an increase in the μΔ and μE by 2.14% and
8.24%, respectively, compared with SCC beams despite the presence of the opening in SCC1. This can be attributed to stiffness re­
ductions, which can cause an increased deflection under load due to the existence of web openings in beams. These results agreed well
with the findings of [11]. The results showed that the presence of fibers improved the μΔ and μE of the beams. The enhancements in μΔ
for SCFs beams were recorded between 81.28% and 617.11%, whereas the enhancements in μΔ for SCFs beams were recorded between
82.42% and 978.02%. The hybrid fiber concrete (SCF6) accomplished the highest μΔ and μE compared with the single-fiber concrete (i.
e., SCF1 to SCF5 mixtures). This is because of incorporating varying fiber types, thereby achieving the greatest bridging of the cracks.
The results agreed with previous results reported by [25,71]. Moreover, the μΔ and μE of concrete mixtures with steel fibers increases as

Table 10
Comparing the tested specimens’ displacement ductility values (μΔ ) and energy ductility values (μE ).
Specimen ID SCC SCC1 SCF1 SCF2 SCF3 SCF4 SCF5 SCF6

Δy (at PU) (mm) 0.495 0.394 1.225 0.455 1.496 0.313 0.489 0.477
Δu (at failure) (mm) 0.926 0.752 5.349 4.835 5.068 4.051 5.343 6.398
μΔ = Δu /Δy 1.87 1.91 4.37 10.63 3.39 12.94 10.93 13.41
Increasing ratio – 2.14% 133.69% 468.45% 81.28% 591.98% 484.49% 617.11%
Ey (until PU) (kN.mm) 2.313 1.545 10.155 2.114 10.882 1.407 2.316 2.172
Eu (until failure) (kN.mm) 4.211 3.043 48.167 29.864 36.085 21.083 25.996 42.620
μE = Eu /Ey 1.82 1.97 4.74 14.13 3.32 14.98 11.22 19.62
Increasing ratio – 8.24% 160.44% 676.37% 82.42% 723.08% 516.48% 978.02%

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G.M.S. Abdullah et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 17 (2022) e01148

Fig. 11. Estimate of Δy and definition of energy ductility E (a) Estimate of Δy and Ey ; (b) Estimate of Eu .

the steel fiber length increases from 30 mm (i.e., SF3) to 60 mm (i.e., SF1) for hooked-end fiber and from 13 mm (i.e., SF5) to 21 mm (i.
e., SF4) for micro-fiber. This might be attributed to the increased pull-out forces with increases in fiber length. In addition, there were
significant effects when compared between hooked-end fiber (i.e., SF1) and flat-end fiber (i.e., SF2) in terms of μΔ and μE . The flat-end
fiber showed increased ratios, reaching up to 143% and 198% in μΔ and μE , respectively, compared with hooked-end fiber (i.e., SF1).

5. Conclusion

The main aim of this study involves experimentally examining the opening impact on the self-compacting concrete (SCC) per­
formance using volcanic pumice powder and varying steel fibers under center-point loading. The conclusions are drawn as follows:

1. All the SCF mixtures’ compressive strength has increased. The increase ratios ranged between 4.60% and 21.74% versus the SCC
mixture. Moreover, splitting tensile strength has significantly increased in SCF mixtures by up to 35.94%.
2. The use of large hooked-end fiber type (i.e., SF1) in SCF1 beams exhibited the highest ultimate load capacity compared with all the
SCFs beams. The increased ratios reached up to 33%. This also showed that the hooked-end fiber type with a greater aspect ratio has
the capability of providing a greater energy absorption capacity compared with other types of fiber. The increased ratios reached up
to 128%.
3. The control specimens failed by the rapid expansion of major flexural cracks from the tension side. Accompanied by an unexpected
decline in the resisting force, the beam split up into two pieces. The beam, therefore, collapsed, indicating a normal flexural failure
mode for the concrete beams. By contrast, the failure mode of the entire SCFs beams did not split up into two pieces due to the
existence of steel fibers in the concrete matrix.
4. The results indicated that the opening’s presence in SCC1 beams has resulted in a load capacity reduction of 18.25% compared with
SCC beams. In contrast, the ultimate loads in SCFs beams were higher compared with solid beams (i.e., SCC beams) by increasing
ratios ranging from 11% to 49%. The increased ratios ranged from 19.9% to 86.3% for SCFs beams compared to SCC1 beams
(without fibers).
5. The SFCs mixtures were able to completely restore the beam’s strength up to 1.49 times (i.e., SF). Regarding deformability factors,
SCFs beams showed more DF than the SCC beam by well over 6.91 times. The SFCs mixtures were able to boost the PF up to 8.61
times compared with the SCC mixture.
6. The results showed that the presence of fibers improved the μΔ and μE of the beams. The enhancements in μΔ for SCFs beams were
recorded between 81.28% and 617.11%, whereas the enhancements in μΔ for SCFs beams were recorded between 82.42% and
978.02%.

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Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgments

The authors are thankful to the Deanship of Scientific Research at Najran University for funding this work under the Research
Collaboration Funding program grant code (NU/RC/SERC/11/11).

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