Construction and Building Materials 302 (2021) 124196

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Effects of nano cotton stalk and palm leaf ashes on ultrahigh-performance

concrete properties incorporating recycled concrete aggregates
Mohamed Amin a, Abdullah M. Zeyad b, Bassam A. Tayeh c, *, Ibrahim Saad Agwa a
a
Civil and Architectural Constructions Department, Faculty of Technology and Education, Suez University, Egypt
b
Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Jazan University, Jazan, KSA
c
Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Islamic University of Gaza, Palestine

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The demand for partial replacement and complementary products of cement to enhance the properties of con­
Palm leaf ash crete and reduce the environmental pollution from the cement industry is recently increasing. Nano cotton stalk
Nano cotton stalk ash ash (NCSA) and palm leaf ash (PLA) are agricultural residues resulting from the burning of cotton stalk and palm
Ultrahigh-performance concrete
leaves used as biomass. This investigation aims to study the effect of using NCSA and PLA as partial replacements
Microstructure
Recycled concrete aggregates
to cement in ultrahigh-performance concrete (UHPC). As partial replacements for cement mass, 0%, 2.5%, 5,
7.5% and 10% of NCSA and 10%, 20% and 30% of PLA were adopted to produce the UHPC. Sixteen mixtures
were prepared to evaluate the new and mechanical properties of UHPC containing the NCSA and the PLA. In
addition, NCSA and PLA morphologies were evaluated using a scanning electron microscope, and thermogra­
vimetric analysis with differential thermal analysis and X-ray diffraction was applied to assess ash characteristics.
Results of the microstructure tests showed that heat treatment of the ash improved its properties by removing
carbon and unburned organic matter with a slight change in the mineral composition of the PLA. The increase in
the cement replacement rates by ashes led to a decrease in the slump flow, whilst the largest slump flow
reduction was recorded in the mix containing 30% of PLA and 10% of NCSA as a replacement of Portland cement
by 14.5% mm compared with the reference mix. The application of replacement rates by 2.5% and 5% of NCSA
and 20% of PLA by cement mass to produce UHPC respectively realised the highest compressive strengths of
161.7 and 170.1 MPa at 90 days. Moreover, the mixture containing 20% of PLA with 5% of NCSA achieved the
highest values of splitting tensile strength, flexural strength and elastic modulus.

1. Introduction
Agricultural waste ash is produced via replacement with coal and
fossil fuels to produce the necessary energy to operate factories [1]. The
global energy production from agricultural waste is approximately 9%
of the total energy [2]. In general, these agricultural wastes are set on
fire in the fields by the farmers and then their ash disposed in landfills or
waterbodies nearby. Advancements in research on ashes that are pro­
duced as a result of combustion of agricultural waste have resulted in
identifying usability of such waste materials in the field of civil engi­
neering and specially in concrete technology [3–6].
Many agricultural residues and waste ash are available: olive stones,
bagasse, straw, cotton stems, grape seeds [7–10]; pine mulch [11]; al­
monds, hazelnuts, nuts and sunflower husks [12–14]; corn, oats and rice
hulls [15–18]; apricots, peaches and cherry stones [10,17]; palm oil
[19,20], coconut shell [21] and sunflower stalk [22]. In addition, agri­
cultural waste ashes are used in engineering applications according to
their chemical composition and physical properties [23,24]. Many re­
searchers have recently focused on studying the use of agricultural ash
waste as a partial substitute for cement. Using such waste as a partial
substitute for cement substantially contributes to reduce global cement
consumption. Thus, the following is reduced. 1) Carbon dioxide (CO2)
emission resulting from limestone calcinations during the clinker
manufacturing process. Previous studies indicate that cement is the
second-largest source of CO2 emissions through an estimated annual
emission of 7% of global emissions in 2015 (CO2 emissions from the
cement industry are estimated at 2.2 gigatons per year) [25,26].
Meanwhile, CO2 emissions are expected to increase by 4% in 2050
depending on the forecasts of the International Energy Agency [27]. 2) It
takes approximately, one ton of limestone, as a raw material and 3.2–6.3

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: btayeh@iugaza.edu.ps (B.A. Tayeh).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.124196
Received 16 April 2021; Received in revised form 7 July 2021; Accepted 7 July 2021
Available online 13 July 2021
0950-0618/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Amin et al. Construction and Building Materials 302 (2021) 124196

Table 1 replacement for cement [32]. The incorporation of cotton straw and
Chemical composition of cementitious materials. palm leaf waste as a SCM is uncommon in concrete application. Some
Properties Cement Nano cotton stalk ash Palm leaf ash researchers have studied the use of palm leaf waste ash (PLA) as a partial
replacement for cement. Similarly, Al-Kutti et al. replaced up to 30% of
CaO 62.34 66.75 16.11
SiO2 20 – 53.11 Portland cement with PLA in the concrete and mortar mixtures. They
Al2O3 6.25 – 3.26 found that replacing 10% of the cement mass would significantly
Fe2O3 3.55 – 3.11 improve the mechanical properties and durability of concrete and
SO3 2.42 – – mortar [32,33]. In addition, only a few researchers have studied the use
MgO 2.12 16.11 6.67
K2O 0.75 10.68 9.71
of cotton straw waste ash (NCSA) as a partial replacement for cement.
Na2O 0.81 – 1.35 Agwa et al. replaced up to 20% of Portland cement with NCSA in the
P2O5 – 6.46 6.68 concrete mixtures and concluded that replacing 10% of the cement mass
Cl – – – enhanced the strength properties and microstructure of concrete [34].
LOI 1.67 – –
The field of concrete industry and technology is undergoing an
accelerated development stage to produce ultrahigh-performance con­
crete (UHPC) with modern environmentally friendly technologies and
700 low cost [35]. Compared with conventional concrete, the UHPC prop­
Constant temperature erties includes high mechanical properties, dense microstructure, long-
600 term durability and high stress-resistance (compressive strength larger
than 150 MPa) [36,37]. The production of UHPC requires the following:
500
remarkably low water-binder ratio of 0.16–0.2, cement content of
Temperature (oC)

400
300
Cool down
200 Heat up
100
0 chanical properties and reducing the pores and durability of the concrete
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (Hour)
Fig. 1. Furnace heating regime.
gigajoules of energy mostly derived from fossil fuels to produce one ton
of clinker. [28,29]. The use of supplementary cementing materials
(SCMs) from agricultural residue ash in the production of cement or
concrete mixes provides a suitable option to reduce emissions, and these
materials can be partial replacements between 10% and 30% of the mass
cement based on their pozzolanic content and binding properties [30].
Huntzinger and Eatmon believed that major refinement and cement
production operations will decline in the future due to the environ­
mental risks of cement production, the desire to eliminate agricultural
waste and the benefits of these materials to green concrete [31]. Several
new crops can be added to the list of agricultural wastes, which can be
used to replace cement partially. Ashes of the combustion process of
biomass resulting from agricultural waste from the cotton straw and
palm leaf can be used as supplementary material or as a partial
600–1000 kg/m3, a large amount of silica fume (10–30 wt-% on cement)
as SCM to fill the pores between the cement particles, highly durable
aggregate, high superplasticizer dosage to provide sufficient steel fibres
to control cracks and improve the resistance to tensile loading [38–42].
The type of SCM and raw materials and special technical procedures are
of crucial importance for UHPC performance. In addition, SCM enhances
the microstructure of the cement paste matrix, thus improving the me­
6 7 8 [43,44]. At present, numerous researchers have sought to study the ef­
fect of SCM, such as granular slag, metakaolin, limestone powder, fly
ash, calcined clay and silica fume, on the properties of UHPC [45,46].
Agricultural wastes ashes have also received considerable research
attention. Many researchers have applied agricultural wastes, such as
palm oil fuel ash, cotton stalk, straw ash, rice husk and bottom ash, as a
partial substitute for cement to produce UHPC [42,47–49]. This article
will focus on the potential use of palm leaf ash, cotton straws and their
combination as partial substitute of cement in concrete. The authors
have identified that these agricultural waste products have not been
studies to their full potential as a SCM and lack of available research is
evident. Incorporating recycled aggregate into concrete, which is mainly
obtained from crushed concrete, is one way to promote sustainable
construction [42,50]. The recycled aggregates, which are obtained from
crushed concrete, are called crushed recycled aggregates (CRA) ac­
cording to RILEM classification type II [51]. Demolition (breaking) of
concrete structures to construct new ones for urban development or due
to natural disasters or expanding traffic routes is common worldwide
[27,52]. Large quantities of concrete waste, which are disposed of in
landfills, are generated during the disposal of concrete buildings

(a) Palm leaf ash (b) Nano cotton stalk ash

Fig. 2. Ashes after heat treatment.

2
M. Amin et al. Construction and Building Materials 302 (2021) 124196

(a) Palm leaf ash (b) Nano cotton stalk ash

Fig. 3. SEM micrographs of ashes.

(a): Palm leaf ash (b): Nano cotton stalk ash

Fig. 4. EDX analysis.

Fig 5. Recycled concrete coarse aggregate used.

possibly due to environmental hazards and damage [53,54]. According
to Eurostat, 2017, construction industry in European Union alone gen­
erates 820 million tonnes annually of wastes annually, which accounts
for 46% of the total waste generated [55]. Similarly, building demolition
waste in the United States was reported to be approximately 569 million
tons in 2017 [56]. Utilisation of building demolition waste in concrete
production through recycling is one of the best disposal methods
[57,58]. Researchers focused on studying the best ways to utilise CRA to
produce normal strength concrete [59,60]. The applications of CRA in
concrete production depends on several important properties, such as
source, aggregate properties of crushed concrete, size distribution, ab­
sorption and abrasion resistance [42,61]. Accordingly, the applications
of CRA in UHPC are still limited and may be rare in this area. This
research aims to strengthen the field of study in the utilisation of CRA to

3
M. Amin et al. Construction and Building Materials 302 (2021) 124196

Table 2 obtained from El-Mansoura and El-Zagazig, Egypt. Palm leaf and stalk
Physical and mechanical properties of aggregates. were burnt in the open air at an average temperature of around 300 ±
Properties Natural river Recycled concrete coarse 5 ◦ C (measured by an infrared thermometer). The palm leaf and nano
sand aggregate cotton stalk ashes were placed in a 600 ◦ C furnace for two hours in
Specific gravity 2.65 2.67 accordance with the recommendations found in the literature
Water absorption (%) 0.76 3.42 [34,62–65]. The palm leaf and cotton stalk were exposed to elevated
Clay and fine materials (%) 0.82 0.95 temperatures using a regulated temperature furnace, which has been
Elongation index (%) – 18.4 heated at a rate of 10 ◦ C/min. The temperature was kept constant for
Flakiness index (%) 17.2
two hours when the desired temperature was achieved. Afterwards, the
–
Impact value (%) – 16.8
Crushing value (%) – 15.4 furnace was cooled at a rate of 1.67 ◦ C/min to avoid any thermal shocks
Los Angles abrasion loss – 21.7 to the specimens. The heating and cooling regimes are shown in Fig. 1.
(%) The tested temperatures were 600 ◦ C. The ashes are were cooled in open
space at room temperature for 30 min after heating. Subsequently, a 75
µm sieve was used for sieving ashes, followed by storage in airtight bags
produce UHPC containing ash of agricultural waste. This investigation
for use as a pozzolanic material.
aims to study the effect of using NCSA and PLA as partial replacements
Fig. 2 illustrates the visual inspection of PLA and NCSA. The physical
to cement in ultrahigh-performance concrete (UHPC). Sixteen mixtures
properties, which were tested by SEM analysis, reveal that PLA and
were prepared to evaluate the new and mechanical properties of UHPC
NCSA are respectively micro and nano porous and irregular as shown in
containing the NCSA and the PLA.
Fig. 3. The chemical compositions of PLA and NCSA were determined by
energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectroscopy analysis as shown in and
2. Research importance
Fig. 4, respectively.
Nano cotton stalk ash (NCSA) is relatively a novel material whose
potency in the development of ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC)
is yet to be explored. In this investigation, agricultural ashes, namely
NCSA and palm leaf ash (PLA) were synthesized with and without Table 3
recycled concrete as coarse aggregate (RCCA). The nano-particles were Proportions of UHPC mixtures Kg per 1 m3.
obtained from combustion process which yielded an ultra-fine material Mixture Cement Sand Recycled Palm Nano SP Water
as SCMs and utilized as a partial replacement for cement in the pro­ ID concrete leaf cotton
aggregates ash straw
duction of UHPC. It is postulated that the synergy of NCSA and PLA as
ash
SCMs is beneficial with or without the RCCA towards the development
of green UHPC. 0PN0 1000 638.7 638.7 0 0 22 180
10PN0 900 626.3 626.3 100 0 22 180
20PN0 800 613.8 613.8 200 0 22 180
3. Materials and methods 30PN0 700 601.3 601.3 300 0 22 180
10PN2.5 875 622.6 622.6 100 25 22 180
3.1. Materials 20PN2.5 775 610.2 610.2 200 25 22 180
30PN2.5 675 597.7 597.7 300 25 22 180
10PN5 850 619.0 619.0 100 50 22 180
3.1.1. Cement 20PN5 750 606.5 606.5 200 50 22 180
An ordinary Portland type OPC (CEM I-52.5 N) cement was used to 30PN5 650 594.1 594.1 300 50 22 180
assisted in UHPC production. Cement tests were performed in accor­ 10PN7.5 825 615.3 615.3 100 75 22 180
dance with BS EN 197-1. Table 1 shows the chemical compositions of 20PN7.5 725 602.9 602.9 200 75 22 180
30PN7.5 625 590.4 590.4 300 75 22 180
cementitious materials. 10PN10 800 611.7 611.7 100 100 22 180
20PN10 700 599.2 599.2 200 100 22 180
3.1.2. Nano cotton stalk and palm leaf ashes 30PN10 600 586.8 586.8 300 100 22 180
In this investigation, palm leaf and cotton stalk were respectively

Fig. 6. Grading curve of sand and crushed recycled concrete as coarse aggregates.

4
M. Amin et al. Construction and Building Materials 302 (2021) 124196

Counts
nano cotton
Nonacalcium Magnesium Potassium Heptakis(phosphate(V)) 15.5 %
21-magnesium Tetracalcium Tetrasodium Phosphate 84.5 %

400

200

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Position [°2Theta] (Copper (Cu))

Fig. 7. XRD of NCSA before heat treatment (300 ◦ C).

Counts
nano cotton
600 Stanfieldite 15.3 %
21-magnesium Tetracalcium Tetrasodium Phosphate 71.0 %
Tetracalcium Dipotassium Cyclo-decaphosphate(V) Hexadecahydrate 13.7 %

400

200

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Position [°2Theta] (Copper (Cu))

Fig. 8. XRD of NCSA after heat treatment (700 ◦ C)

3.1.3. Aggregates
The fine and coarse aggregates used in this study were natural river
sand and recycled concrete coarse aggregate (RCCAs) with maximum
sizes of 4.75 and 19 mm, respectively. The RCAs with 4.75/19 mm
(Fig. 5) grading used in the experimental work were extracted from
failure and crushing of the testing concrete specimens of the materials
and the concrete laboratory of the faculty of Technology and Education
of Suez University, Egypt [66,67] and are classified as aggregates of type
1 according to the standard NF EN 933-11[68]. RCCAs was crushed into
smaller size manually with a hammer, then it was put in the Los Angeles
abrasion machine with the twelve steel balls and the machine was
rotated till required particle size were achieved [69]. RCCAs were then
sieved to maintain similar gradation as of the natural coarse aggregate
(NMAS = 19 mm). The properties of aggregates followed ASTM C33/
C33M-18 and ECP 203-2017. The results of the physical and mechani­
cal properties of the aggregates are presented in Table 2. The grading
curve of the aggregates used is shown in Fig. 6. Both fine and coarse
aggregate (sand and RCCAs) were used in saturated surface-dry
conditions.
3.1.4. Superplasticizer
A superplasticizer (SP) was utilised to improve the flow capability of
fresh concrete, and a polymer-based high-range water reducer of
ViscoCrete-5930 was used 2.2% by weight of binder materials. This
value meets the superplasticizer requirements according to ASTM-C494
Type G and BS EN 934 part 2: 2001, with a specific gravity of 1.09 and a
colour of clear liquid.
3.2. Mix proportions and sample preparation
Ultrahigh performance concrete (UHPC) could be produced from a
wide range of mix compositions, but for high strength levels,

5
M. Amin et al. Construction and Building Materials 302 (2021) 124196

Counts
palm leaf
100 Quartz low 13.4 %
Quartz high 13.1 %
Silicon Dioxide 24.8 %
Calcium Catena-silicate 48.8 %

50

-50

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Position [°2Theta] (Copper (Cu))

Fig. 9. XRD of PLA before heat treatment (300 ◦ C)

Counts
palm leaf
Silicon Oxide - Quartz-type, Amorphous 25.7 %
400
Quartz high 25.1 %
Cristobalite (Ca, Al-bearing) 49.2 %

300

200

100

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Position [°2Theta] (Copper (Cu))

Fig. 10. XRD of PLA after heat treatment (700 ◦ C)

Table 4 Table 6
Pattern List of NCSA before heat treatment. Pattern List of PLA before heat treatment (300 ◦ C).
Ref. Code Score Compound name Chemical Ref. Code Score Compound name Chemical formula
formula
98-004-1446 10 Quartz low Si O2
98-008- 5 Nonacalcium Magnesium Potassium Ca9 K Mg P7 O28 98-003-1088 7 Quartz high Si O2
5109 Heptakis (phosphate(V)) 98-007-5648 7 Silicon Dioxide Si O2
98-002- 4 21-magnesium Tetracalcium Ca4 Mg21 Na4 98-024-0463 4 Calcium Catena-silicate Ca Si O3
0849 Tetrasodium Phosphate P18 O72

Table 7
Table 5 Pattern List of PLA after heat treatment (700 ◦ C).
Pattern List of NCSA after heat treatment (700 ◦ C). Ref. Code Score Compound name Chemical formula
Ref. Code Score Compound name Chemical 98-015- 5 Silicon Oxide - Quartz-type, SiO2
formula 5242 Amorphous
98-002- 17 Stanfieldite Ca3 Mg3 P4 98-008- 24 Quartz high SiO2
3642 O16 9292
98-002- 1 21-magnesium Tetracalcium Ca4 Mg21 Na4 98-007- 13 Cristobalite (Ca, Al-bearing) Al0.1Ca0.05 Si1.9
0849 Tetrasodium Phosphate O72 P18 5491 O4
98-008- 2 Tetracalcium Dipotassium Cyclo- H32 Ca4 K2 P10
2501 decaphosphate(V) Hexadecahydrate O46

6
M. Amin et al.
NCSA-300 °C NCSA-700 °C
14.5
14
13.5
Residual mass (mg) 13
12.5
12
11.5
11
10.5
0 100 200
Fig 11. TGA of PLA and NCSA.
particularly for 28 days strength in the range of 130–160 MPa, the
cement content range in the production of UHPC should vary between
700 and 1000 kg/m3 [42]. Cement of CEM I-52.5 N was used to achieve
high early compressive strength (at test age 1-day), and meet UHPC
requirements [70]. The total binder content and water/binder ratios
used to produce UHPC were 1000 kg/m3 and 0.18, respectively [71–73].
The fine aggregate-to-crushed CRA ratio was maintained at 1:1, and the
SP content was fixed at 2.2% of the cementitious content. The mix
proportions of the UHPC used in this study are given in Table 3. Sixteen
UHPC mixes were prepared. One of the mixes, which contained 1000
kg/m3 of cement, was the reference mix. The same binder content of
1000 kg/m3 was utilised for the UHPCs, where the ultrafine PLA was
used as a partial replacement of cement with 0%, 10%, 20% and 30%,
whilst other ingredients remained. Simultaneously, NCSA was used with
varying percentages of 0, 2.5%, 5%, 7.5% and 10% as the partial
replacement for cement content as shown in Table 3.
The solid materials with coarse and fine aggregates were mixed for 2
min in the first stage. Around half of the mixing water was added and
mixed for 5 min, and the binder materials (cement, PLA and NCSA) were
gradually added to the mix and stirred for 3 min. The other half of the
remaining water and SP were mixed and added to the concrete mix and
stirred for 3 min. The produced concrete was cast in moulds and vibrated
by a table vibrator. The mould samples were left for 24 h and then
removed and soaked in a water tank until the curing age according to
ASTM C192 [74,75].
3.3. Testing methods
The consistency of fresh concrete was assessed using the slump flow
test according to ASTM C 143/C143M-15a. The compressive strength of
the concrete cubes was determined in accordance with BS EN 12390.
The test was performed on 100 mm concrete cubes at the ages of 1, 7, 28
and 91 days. The splitting tensile test was executed on a 150 × 300 mm
cylinder at 28 days according to ASTM C 496. The flexural strength test
was conducted on concrete beams with dimensions of 500 × 100 × 100
mm at 28 days according to ASTM C 78. The elasticity modulus test was
executed on a 150 × 300 mm cylinder at 28 days according to ASTM C
469.
The microstructure of UHPC specimens is obtained using SEM
analysis. The XRD and TGA are used as an additional tool for the semi-
quantitative analysis. The SEM analyses are conducted on the 28th day.
Construction and Building Materials 302 (2021) 124196
PLA-300 °C PLA-700 °C
300 400 500 600 700 800
Temperature ( °C)
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Characterisation of raw materials
The chemical compositions of NCSA, PLA and OPC are shown in
Table 1. In addition, the physical properties of the particle size are
shown in Figs. 2 and 3. Thus, NCSA is finer than PLA powder based on its
average diameter as shown in Fig. 3. Many researchers revealed that the
size of the particles (surface area) has a major role in increasing the
activity and efficiency of the material because the increase in the surface
area leads to an increase in activity [76].
Table 1 shows the chemical composition of PLA and NCSA obtained
from EDX analysis. The NCSA comprised 66.75%, 16.11%, 10.86% and
6.46% of CaO, MgO, K2O and P2O5, respectively. Meanwhile, the PLA
comprised 16.11%, 53.11%, 3.2% and 3.11% of CaO, SiO2, Al2O3 and
Fe2O3, respectively.
4.1.1. XRD analysis
X’Pert High Score Plus software packages were used to identify
compounds and phases in NCSA before and after heat treatment as
shown in Figs. 7 and 8, respectively. Meanwhile, identified compounds
and phases in PLA before and after heat treatment are respectively
shown in Figs. 9 and 10. Tables 4 and 5 show the predominant com­
pounds, reference cod and its score in the NCSA before and after heat
treatment, respectively. Meanwhile, Tables 6 and 7 respectively
demonstrate the predominant compounds, the reference cod and its
scores in the PLA before and after heat treatment. The XRD analysis
showed that the heat treatment at 700 ◦ C did not change the phase of the
chemical compounds of the NCSA. By contrast, the heat treatment at
700 ◦ C slightly affected the chemical compound phase of PLA due to its
high SiO2. Researchers reported that amorphous silica may be affected
and transformed into a crystalline phase when exposed to temperatures
above 600 ◦ C [77,78]. In addition to the CaO, which is typically present
in this type of ash, the XRD analysis shows that the NCSA contains P2O5
within the chemical formula (Ca4 Mg21 Na4P18O72). Researchers indi­
cate that the presence of P2O5 in the chemical composition of alternative
materials to cement may contribute to delaying the sitting time and
weakening the compressive strength of concrete in the early ages
[79,80]. In addition to hindering the dissolution of cement particles at
an early age and delaying the formation of ettringite, this condition also
indicates that P2O5 impurities reduce the hydration reaction of ye’eli­
mite)C4A3Ś([81,82]. Therefore, the SEM images show a large ettringite
formation when the rate of cement substitution is increased by NCSA.
7
M. Amin et al.
Fig. 12. Micrographs by SEM of 20PNx pastes.
4.1.2. Thermal analysis
Figure 11 display the TGA curves, which illustrate the stages of
weight loss. The initial loss phase can be observed between 20 and
150 ◦ C due to the removal of the physically absorbed water within the
sample (moisture evaporation) [83]. The second stage of weight loss
8
Construction and Building Materials 302 (2021) 124196
occurred at a temperature between 190 and 217 ◦ C based on the
chemical compositions of the ashes sample. In general, the ash of agri­
cultural waste used for energy production (biomass ash) contains less
carbon, and higher oxygen and hydrogen [84]. The decarbonisation
stage may also extend to above 600 ◦ C due to the combustion of the
remaining organic matter, especially unburned carbon [83]. The weight
loss reduction of the NCSA and PLA treated at 700 ◦ C may be attributed
to the decrease in the group of hydroxyl alcohol molecules; thus, less
water was absorbed into the silica molecules [85]. Notably, the thermal
analysis reveals that the treatment of biomass ashes at 700 ◦ C substan­
tially contributed to the reduction in weight loss compared with the
burning biomass ashes at 300 ◦ C. This result confirms that most of the
lost weight is due to the removal of carbon and organic residues that
have not been burned at a temperature form 0–300 ◦ C. In addition to the
total mass reduction of carbon and organic residues in favour of the total
mass of other desired elements, the removal of unwanted elements and
parts, such as carbon and unburned organic residues, provides remark­
able contributions to the improvement of the ash properties. Researchers
indicate that the complete removal of carbon from the ash used as SCMs
contributed towards improvement of the properties of fresh and hard­
ened concrete [86].
4.2. Scanning electron microscope
Figure 12(a-n) shows the morphology by the SEM technical for UHPC
pastes. SEM shows the replacement effect of various rates of NCSAs of
0%, 2.5%, 5%, 7.5% and 10% with PLA replacement by 20% of the
cement mass. Compared with the other paste mixes, the micrographs of
20PN0 and 20PN10 highlighted cracks in the specimens, while 20PN2.5,
20NP5 and 20NP7.5 showed compact and dense micrographs of cement
paste. Moreover, interstitial fissures indicate the incomplete hydration
process and fragility of the microstructure by SEM, which reflects on the
properties of concrete considering strength and durability. The
improvement in the morphology of the microstructure may be attributed
to the role of SCMs of PLA and NCSA. Their chemical composition
contributes to a reaction with the produced compounds from the cement
hydration (Ca(OH)2) process to produce the additive gel (CSH). The
addition of NCSA at a ratio of 2.5% and 5% with 20% of PLA was the best
mixture for the formation of the best microstructure (dense and free
from pores and cracks) as shown in SEM. This finding may be due to the
main role of NSSA, which contains a remarkable proportion of CaO, and
its high fineness, which reached the size of a nanometre. On the other
hand, the lower density of the microstructure of the 20PN10 mixture
may be due to the dilution effect in the cement content compared to the
other mixtures. This result corresponds to many previous studies, which
suggest that the high fineness and balanced chemical composition sub­
stantially contribute to the improvement of the microstructure, thus
enhancing the engineering properties of concrete [87–89].
4.3. Fresh properties
The consistency parameter in this study was established whilst pre­
paring all the mixtures according to ASTM C143/C143M-15a (2015)
[90], then the slump flows between 398 mm for (0PN0) and 340 for
(30PN10) were obtained. The effects of PLA and NCSA on the slump flow
of the UHPC mixtures are associated with the content of the ashes as
shown in Fig. 13. The inclusion of NCSA and PLA resulted in a reduction
in the slump flow diameter due to increased water demand caused by the
high surface area of ash. A direct reduction occurred; large replacement
rates result in a large decline in the slump flow diameter. The decrease in
the slump diameter by 14.5% was obtained when 30% of the cement
mass was replaced with 10% NCSA and 20% PLA. Similar results were
also obtained by [34]. Workability reduction is probably due to finer
particles and the nano size of PLA and NCSA compared with cement.
Therefore, the surface area and volume fraction of the binder increase
with PLA and NCSA contents; thus, an additional amount of water is
M. Amin et al. Construction and Building Materials 302 (2021) 124196

400

300

Slump flow (mm) 200

100

Mixture ID

Fig. 13. Slump flow of all mixtures.

Table 8
Properties of UHPC mixtures.
Mixture ID Compressive Strength (MPa)28 days Splitting Tensile Strength (MPa)28 days Flexural Strength (MPa)28 days Modulus of Elasticity (GPa)28 days

Values Average Values Average Values Average Values Average

0PN0 130.1129.7128.1 129.3 9.659.639.52 9.6 12.3712.3512.18 12.3 45.1745.0344.41 44.87

10PN0 136.7136.4134.6 135.9 9.769.739.61 9.7 12.6712.6612.47 12.6 46.9846.8646.11 46.65
20PN0 142.3142.2140.3 141.6 9.969.949.80 9.9 12.9812.9612.76 12.9 47.5547.4946.59 47.21
30PN0 134.4134.2132.5 133.7 9.349.339.23 9.3 12.2712.2412.09 12.2 46.4646.3545.58 46.13
10PN2.5 139.2138.9136.8 138.3 10.0510.059.90 10.0 12.8812.8512.67 12.8 47.3247.2046.30 46.94
20PN2.5 145.7145.5143.2 144.8 10.1610.159.99 10.1 13.1713.1612.97 13.1 48.1248.0547.17 47.78
30PN2.5 137.4137.0135.1 136.5 9.659.649.51 9.6 12.4612.4512.29 12.4 47.0446.9246.11 46.69
10PN5 142.6142.4140.4 141.8 10.0610.049.90 10.0 13.0613.0612.88 13.0 48.0747.9246.90 47.63
20PN5 152.2151.9149.5 151.2 10.4610.4610.28 10.4 13.6813.6713.45 13.6 49.2549.1548.03 48.81
30PN5 141.0140.7138.6 140.1 9.759.749.61 9.7 12.7712.7612.57 12.7 47.6547.6046.59 47.28
10PN7.5 137.4137.4135.3 136.7 9.869.849.70 9.8 12.7712.7512.58 12.7 47.1546.9846.21 46.78
20PN7.5 143.6143.5141.3 142.8 10.0610.059.89 10.0 13.0713.0712.86 13.0 47.8947.8646.93 47.56
30PN7.5 135.0134.9133.0 134.3 9.559.549.41 9.5 12.4612.4512.29 12.4 46.7046.6045.87 46.39
10PN10 132.0132.0130.2 131.4 9.649.649.52 9.6 12.4612.4612.28 12.4 45.6045.4544.73 45.26
20PN10 139.5139.1137.2 138.6 10.0510.059.90 10.0 12.8712.8612.67 12.8 47.3747.2946.49 47.05
30PN10 130.4130.2128.5 129.7 9.449.439.33 9.4 12.2512.2512.10 12.2 45.2545.0644.42 44.91

adsorbed due to high surface areas, and the quantity of free water in the
mortar decreases [34,91].
4.4. Mechanical properties
The test results of compressive strength, splitting tensile strength,
flexural strength and modulus of elasticity are shown in Table 8.
4.4.1. Compressive strength
Fig. 14 and Table 8 show the results of the compressive strength test
of UHPC samples containing PLA and NCSA. The results generally
indicate that PLA and NCSA as partial replacements of cement have
positive effective on the compressive strength of UHPC during a 90-day
period applied in this investigation. In contrast, a slight decrease in
compressive strength was observed at the early ages of 1 day to mixtures
10PN10, 20PN10 and 30PN10 compared with the reference mixture.
Moreover, the results reveal that PLA can be used as a partial replace­
ment up to 20% of the cement mass, achieving higher compressive
strength than the control mixture. This finding may be a familiar phe­
nomenon for many SCMs during the replacement of large quantities of
cement [40,92]. Compared with the control mixture, the compressive
strength improves in the late ages of 28 and 90 days. The compressive
strength when using PLA as a partial replacement by 0%, 10%, 20% and
30% of cement mass were 142.3, 150.8, 158.4 and 149.1 MPa at 90
days, respectively. SCMs may require a long curing period to complete
the reaction process of calcium hydroxide (CH). The increase in
compressive strength of mixtures containing PLA can be attributed to
several factors. a) The high fineness contributes to the increased activity
of pozzolanic (cementitious) materials. A portion of PLA interacts with
CH to produce additional C-S-H, whilst the other portion acts as a filler
material to fill and close the pores. Both portions contribute to the
improvement of the strength and durability properties of the concrete
[93]. b) A high percentage of active SiO2 (amorphous SiO2) as shown by
the XRD examination, which, in turn, reacts with CH cement products in
the later ages to produce additional C-S-H gel [30]. The diversity of the
properties of agricultural waste ash is an important tributary to
improving the properties of concrete by mixing more than one type of
agricultural waste ash. Therefore, in addition to cement, the ashes of
cotton wastes can be used to produce a ternary binder of PLA and NCSA
to help highly efficient SCMs to produce UHPC [94,95]. In addition to
other oxides of varying proportions for both ashes, the chemical analysis
shows that PLA comprises 53.11% of SiO2, whilst NCSA comprises
62.34% of CaO and 20% of SiO2. Accordingly, the results showed that
the process of combining the PLA (10%, 20% and 30%) with NCSA
(2.5%, 5%, 7.5% and 10%) of cement mass led to the improvement of
the mechanical properties. Compared with the remaining mixtures,
using NCSA as a partial replacement by 5% of the with PLA (10%, 20%
and 30%) of cement mass helped in the realisation of the highest
compressive strength. The compressive strengths were 158.2, 170.1 and
156.7 MPa for 10PN5, 20PN5 and 30PN5 mixes at 90 days, respectively.
This improvement in compressive strength may be attributed to the NSA
containing large amounts of calcium oxide up to 66.75% of its mass,

9
M. Amin et al. Construction and Building Materials 302 (2021) 124196

180 Compared with concrete with high workability, the effect of decreased
160 workability is reflected in the compressive strength, which causes the
Compressive strength ( MPa )

140 formation of additional voids [98,99]. The results above shows that the
120
use of PLA as a partial substitute of cement (10–30% by mass) in con­
crete mixes achieved better results than the control mix at test ages from
100
7 days up to 90-day. In addition to this, the use of a binary substitutes of
80
NCSA with replacement ratio of 2.5–10% along with PLA, mainly aimed
60 to achieve better compressive strength and reduce cement consumption,
40 which was achieved in this study. This may be attributed to the pozzo­
lanic reaction in addition to the packing capacity.
On the other hand, CRA can be used as a substitute for 100% natural
Mixtures ID aggregate for UHPC production. Results in this research show that the
(a) Compressive strength results of UHPC at test age 1-day lowest compressive strength of UHPC when CRA was used as a substitute
180 for natural aggregate was not less than 129 MPa at the test age of 28-
160
days. These results, in turn, support many of previous researches indi­
Compressive strength ( MPa )

cating CRA’s ability to produce high-strength and high-strength con­

140
crete [59,100].
120
The packing process plays an important role in determining the
100
mechanical and durability properties of concrete. It is noteworthy that
80
the mix proportions used in this research includes a high cement content
60 of 1000 kg /m3 and high fine aggregate content, which represented 50%
40 of the total aggregate. It has been reported previously that the higher
cement content acts in two ways, first, the cement hydrates and forms
the hydration gel that provides strength, and second, the unhydrated
Mixtures ID cement acts as a filler, thus increasing the packing efficiency [101]. In
(b) Compressive strength results of UHPC at test age 7-day addition, replacing part of the cement content by 40% of its weight,
180 which did not decrease in compressive strength, is a confirmation of the
160 importance of the filling process on the properties of concrete.
Compressive strength ( MPa )

140
The role played by the filling process is very important in increasing
the impermeability of concrete and improving its durability. According
120
to previous researchers, the use of agricultural waste ash as a partial
substitute for cement contributed to improving the durability of con­
100

80 crete. Aksoğan et al. reported that the use of wheat straw, corn stalk and
60 sunflower stalk ash as a partial substitute for cement led improved the
40 durability properties of concrete by reducing the surface abrasion ratio
and mass loss due to sulphate effect, in addition to increasing its resis­
tance to sulphate [102]. de Sensale reported that the use of rice-husk ash
Mixtures ID
a partial substitute for cement led improved the durability properties of
(c) Compressive strength results of UHPC at test age 28-day concrete by increasing resistance to chloride ion penetration and resis­
180 tant to HCl solution and sulphate attack, in addition to reducing the
alkali-silica reaction [103]. Zeyad et al. reported that the use of palm oil
Compressive strength ( MPa )

160
fuel ash as a partial substitute for cement up to 60% of cement mass led
140
improved the transport properties of high-strength concrete by reducing
120
permeability, porosity, absorption and chloride migration [104].
100

80 4.4.2. Splitting tensile strength

60
40
Mixtures ID
(d) Compressive strength results of UHPC at test age 90-day
Fig. 14. Results of compressive strength test of UHPC.
which was reflected in the early reaction and the gain of compressive
strength higher than the reference mixture. In addition, the ultrahigh
fineness of the NCSA enhanced the following properties: high activity of
nano-particles, fast interaction with CH and capability to fill pores and
micropores [96,97]. The increase in the rates of using the NCSA as a
partial replacement to cement by 10% with the PLA by 10%, 20% and
30% of cement mass led to a slight decrease in the compressive strength
for all ages (1, 7, 28 and 90 days) compared with the 0% NCSA mixture.
In addition to the effect of decreased workability, the decrease in
compressive strength may be due to the cement content reduction.
Tensile strength is one of the basic and important properties of
UHPC. This property is required for the design of concrete structural
members subject to shear, shrinkage and temperature effects. Table 7
and Fig. 15 show the results of 28 days splitting tensile strength test
carried out. PLA was used as a partial replacement of cement with 0%,
10%, 20% and 30%, whilst NCSA was used with varying percentages of
0%, 2.5%, 5%, 7.5% and 10% as the partial replacement for cement
content. UHPC containing PLA shows an increase in splitting tensile
strength up to 20% compared with the control specimen. Compared with
the control concrete, approximately 1.05%–8.33% increase in splitting
tensile strength is observed for UHPC containing PLA and NCSA.
Notably, 20% PLA with 5% NCSA substitution (20PN5) has a higher
splitting tensile strength than the control concrete and other pro­
portions. This increase can be due to the formation of additional C-S-H
gel due to the pozzolanic reaction that enhanced the bonding property.
Similar observations were made by Altwair et al. [105], who observed
an increase of 9% in the tensile strength than the control concrete
specimens when the palm oil fuel ash /cement ratio was 0.4. The in­
crease in tensile strength was also due to the high fineness of the NCSA
and PLA and its pozzolanic reaction with cement [106,107]. By contrast,

10
M. Amin et al. Construction and Building Materials 302 (2021) 124196

11

10

Splitting tensile strength (MPa)

9

Mixture ID

Fig. 15. Results of splitting tensile strength.

15

13
Flexural Strength (MPa)

11

Mixture ID

Fig. 16. Results of flexural strength.

tensile strengths of concrete incorporating high volumes of NCSA and
PLA and as cement replacement (up to 40%) were found to be lower than
those of the control concrete [107,108]. The tensile strength develop­
ment in PLA and control concrete was similar to the compressive
strength development. Moreover, it can be seen that UHPC prepared
using CRA was able to achieve a high split tensile strength of up to 10.4
MPa.
4.4.3. Flexural strength
Table 8 and Fig. 16 show the flexural strength of UHPC with different
proportions of PLA with NCSA. The 28-day flexural strength for control
concrete is 12.3 MPa. Notably, 20PN5 has higher flexural strength than
the other proportions. Compared with the control mix, 20PN5 provided
10.56% high flexural strength. This increase can be due to the densifi­
cation of the microstructure due to the formation of the additional C-S-H
produced by the pozzolanic reaction of the reactive silica in the PLA. The
silica of PLA reacts with the Ca(OH)2 liberated from cement hydration in
the presence of water (pozzolanic reaction). This reaction forms addi­
tional or secondary calcium silicate hydrate (C–S–H) gel, which in­
troduces additional homogeneous densely packed microstructures that
enhance the concrete strength. By contrast, concrete without PLA and
NCSA has a minimal amount of the overall C–S–H gel amount because no
further reaction is observed apart from the hydration process. The role of
calcium silicate hydrate as the primary product of cement hydration,
which provides most contributions to engineering properties of con­
crete, was highlighted by Hu et al [109]. Abdullah et al. [110] reported
that the performance of concrete strength produced through the incor­
poration of palm oil fuel ash is higher than that of plain concrete upon
prolonged exposure to the water supply. By contrast, further addition of
PLA causes a slight reduction in flexural strength beyond 20% replace­
ment level, which is a similar behaviour as that of the compressive and
splitting tensile strength than the other replacement levels as already
reported. Eldegal [111] stated that the flexural strength of UHPC mixes
containing oil palm ash was lower than that of the control mix. However,
a 30% replacement level of cement by oil palm ash exhibited a flexural
strength near that of the control mix. Moreover, it can be seen that UHPC
prepared using CRA is able to achieve a high flexural strength of up to
10.4 MPa at test age 28-day.
4.4.4. Modulus of elasticity
Table 8 and Fig. 17 show the modulus of elasticity test results of
UHPC samples containing PLA and NCSA. The results generally indicate

11
M. Amin et al.
55
50
Modulus of Elasticity (GPa)
45
40
35
30
25
20
Mixture ID
Fig. 17. Results of modulus of elasticity.
that the use of PLA and NCSA as partial replacements of cement have
effective roles on the modulus of elasticity of UHPC during the 28-day
period applied in this investigation. The modulus of elasticity of all
mixes is in the range of 45.17–49.25 GPa. The PLA and NCSA, as
respective partial replacements of cement 20% and 5%, show high
modulus of elasticity. Muthusamy and Zamri [112] studied the modulus
of elasticity at different curing conditions. The specimens containing
20% palm oil fuel ash exhibited a higher modulus of elasticity value than
the control concrete specimen throughout the curing age. The superior
performance of the specimen containing PLA is due to the utilisation of
ash, which is a pozzolanic material that chemically reacts with calcium
hydroxide Ca(OH)2 released during cement hydration. The silica from
the pozzolanic material that reacts with Ca(OH)2 and water produces
calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) gel results in a dense internal structure of
the concrete, which increases the elasticity modulus of the concrete
[113]. The increase in modulus of elasticity was also due to the high
fineness of the NCSA. This finding resulted in densely packed micro­
structures with a higher modulus of elasticity values than the control
mix. The internal structure of the control mix revealed the production of
a minimal amount of CSH gel and the presence of Ca(OH)2. The use of
100% cement (control mix) produces a small amount of CSH gel, and the
Ca(OH)2 remains unused unlike mixes containing PLA. The obtained
findings are also in good agreement with the results acquired by New­
man and Choo [114] and Sideris et al. [115]. Their results highlighted
the increase in modulus elasticity of concrete through the inclusion of
pozzolanic ash and the changes in the microstructure of paste.
Compared with different replacement levels, a higher reduction in
modulus of elasticity at 30% PLA with 7.5% and 10% NCSA replacement
than the control concrete is still observed [107,116]. Moreover, it can be
observed that the use of CRA replacing 100% of the natural coarse
aggregate in UHPC achieved elastic modulus of a maximum of 48 GPa
and a minimum of 44 GPa for the 20PN5 and 30PN10 mixture,
respectively, at a test age of 28 days.
5. Conclusions
This study aims to present scientific analysis results of using PLA and
NCSA as a partial replacement for cement to produce UHPC with recy­
cled coarse crushed aggregate. The following results were obtained as
follows.
1- Microscopic studies (SEM) revealed the shape and size of grains of
PLA and NCSA. In addition to the chemical composition (EDX), the
12
Construction and Building Materials 302 (2021) 124196
CaO comprises 16.11% and 66.75% whilst SiO2 comprises 53.11%
and 0% in the PLA and NCSA compositions, respectively. K2O, which
is the second most abundant major oxide, comprises 9.71% and
10.68% of PLA and NCSA, respectively.
2- The treatment temperature at 700 ◦ C did not change in the mineral
structure of the NCSA. By contrast, a slight change was observed in
the mineral structure of the PLA because it contains SiO2, which is
affected at 600 ◦ C. This finding is indicated in the results of the XRD
and TGA/DTA analysis.
3- The inclusion of NCSA and PLA resulted in a reduction in the slump
flow diameter due to increased water demand caused by the high
surface area of ash. A direct reduction occurred; large replacement
rates lead to a substantial decline in the slump flow diameter. The
highest decrease in the slump diameter of 14.5% was obtained when
30% of the cement block was replaced with 10% NCSA and 20% PLA.
4- Inclusion of PLA as a partial substitute for cement by up to 20% and
NCSA up to 5% by mass of cement has a positive role in increasing
the compressive strength to 151.2 MPa compared to the control mix
that showed a compressive strength of 129.3 MPa.
5- Binary replacement of two types of agricultural waste ash (PLA +
NCSA) as a partial replacement of cement in UHPC may be done up
to 40% of the mass of cement. The mixture 30PN10 achieved
compressive strength of 129.7 MPa compared to 129.3 MPa for the
reference mixture at test age 28-days.
6- CRA has a potential to replace 100% of natural aggregates to produce
UHPC. In this study the authors achieved compressive strength up to
170 MPa at test age 90-day when they replaced 100% natural
aggregate in their mix by CRA.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
References
[1] A.R. de Azevedo, M.T. Marvila, B.A. Tayeh, D. Cecchin, A.C. Pereira, S.
N. Monteiro, Technological performance of açaí natural fibre reinforced cement-
based mortars, J. Build. Eng. 33 (2021), 101675.
[2] H.M. Hamada, B.S. Thomas, B. Tayeh, F.M. Yahaya, K. Muthusamy, J. Yang, Use
of oil palm shell as an aggregate in cement concrete: a review, Constr. Build.
Mater. 265 (2020), 120357.
[3] A.A. Raheem, B.D.J.J.o.B.E. Ikotun, Incorporation of agricultural residues as
partial substitution for cement in concrete and mortar–A review, (2020) 101428.
M. Amin et al.
[4] A.S. Nik, A. Bahari, B. Amiri, Nanostructural properties of cement–matrix
composite, J. Basic Appl. Sci. Res. 11 (2011) 2167–2173.
[5] A. Bahari, A. Sadeghi-Nik, F.U.A. Shaikh, A. Sadeghi-Nik, E. Cerro-Prada, E.
Mirshafiei, M. Roodbari, Experimental studies on rheological, mechanical, and
microstructure properties of self-compacting concrete containing perovskite
nanomaterial, Structural Concrete.
[6] A.M. Heniegal, M.A. Ramadan, A. Naguib, I.S.J.C.S.i.C.M. Agwa, Study on
properties of clay brick incorporating sludge of water treatment plant and
agriculture waste, 13 (2020) e00397.
[7] V. Minkova, S. Marinov, R. Zanzi, E. Björnbom, T. Budinova, M. Stefanova,
L. Lakov, Thermochemical treatment of biomass in a flow of steam or in a mixture
of steam and carbon dioxide, Fuel Process. Technol. 62 (1) (2000) 45–52.
[8] V. Minkova, M. Razvigorova, E. Bjornbom, R. Zanzi, T. Budinova, N. Petrov,
Effect of water vapour and biomass nature on the yield and quality of the
pyrolysis products from biomass, Fuel Process. Technol. 70 (1) (2001) 53–61.
[9] A.E. Pütün, N. Özbay, E.P. Önal, E. Pütün, Fixed-bed pyrolysis of cotton stalk for
liquid and solid products, Fuel Process. Technol. 86 (11) (2005) 1207–1219.
[10] D. Savova, E. Apak, E. Ekinci, F. Yardim, N. Petrov, T. Budinova, M. Razvigorova,
V. Minkova, Biomass conversion to carbon adsorbents and gas, Biomass
Bioenergy 21 (2) (2001) 133–142.
[11] W. Intiya, U. Thepsuwan, C. Sirisinha, P. Sae-Oui, Possible use of sludge ash as
filler in natural rubber, J. Mater. Cycles Waste Manage. 19 (2) (2017) 774–781.
[12] M. Ahmedna, W. Marshall, R. Rao, Production of granular activated carbons from
select agricultural by-products and evaluation of their physical, chemical and
adsorption properties, Bioresour. Technol. 71 (2) (2000) 113–123.
[13] H. Haykiri-Acma, S. Yaman, S. Kucukbayrak, Gasification of biomass chars in
steam–nitrogen mixture, Energy Convers. Manage. 47 (7–8) (2006) 1004–1013.
[14] A. Aygün, S. Yenisoy-Karakaş, I. Duman, Production of granular activated carbon
from fruit stones and nutshells and evaluation of their physical, chemical and
adsorption properties, Microporous Mesoporous Mater. 66 (2–3) (2003) 189–195.
[15] A. Marcilla, S. Garcıa-Garcıa, M. Asensio, J. Conesa, Influence of thermal
treatment regime on the density and reactivity of activated carbons from almond
shells, Carbon 38 (3) (2000) 429–440.
[16] M. Fan, W. Marshall, D. Daugaard, R. Brown, Steam activation of chars produced
from oat hulls and corn stover, Bioresour. Technol. 93 (1) (2004) 103–107.
[17] W. Tsai, C. Chang, S. Lee, Preparation and characterization of activated carbons
from corn cob, Carbon 35 (8) (1997) 1198–1200.
[18] B.A. Tayeh, R. Alyousef, H. Alabduljabbar, A. Alaskar, Recycling of rice husk
waste for a sustainable concrete: a critical review, J. Cleaner Prod. 127734
(2021).
[19] A.M. Zeyad, M.A.M. Johari, Y.R. Alharbi, A.A. Abadel, Y.M. Amran, B. Tayeh,
A. Abutaleb, Influence of steam curing regimes on the properties of ultrafine
POFA-based high-strength green concrete, J. Build. Eng. (2021), 102204.
[20] A.M. Zeyad, M. Johari, B.A. Tayeh, A.M. Saba, Ultrafine palm oil fuel ash: from an
agro-industry by-product into a highly efficient mineral admixture for high
strength green concrete, J. Eng. Appl. Sci. 12 (7) (2017).
[21] X. Liu, L. Liu, Y. Osaka, H. Huang, Z. He, Y. Bai, S. Li, J. Li, Study on
desulfurization performance of MnO 2-based activated carbon from waste
coconut shell for diesel emissions control, J. Mater. Cycles Waste Manage. 20 (3)
(2018) 1499–1506.
[22] M. Jalali, F. Aboulghazi, Sunflower stalk, an agricultural waste, as an adsorbent
for the removal of lead and cadmium from aqueous solutions, J. Mater. Cycles
Waste Manage. 15 (4) (2013) 548–555.
[23] N. Hilal, T.K.M. Ali, B.A. Tayeh, Properties of environmental concrete that
contains crushed walnut shell as partial replacement for aggregates, Arabian J.
Geosci. 13 (16) (2020) 1–9.
[24] H. Hamada, A. Alattar, F. Yahaya, K. Muthusamy, B.A. Tayeh, Mechanical
properties of semi-lightweight concrete containing nano-palm oil clinker powder,
Phys. Chem. Earth, Parts A/B/C 121 (2021), 102977.
[25] R. Kajaste, M. Hurme, Cement industry greenhouse gas emissions–management
options and abatement cost, J. Cleaner Prod. 112 (2016) 4041–4052.
[26] J. Pedraza, A. Zimmermann, J. Tobon, R. Schomäcker, N. Rojas, On the road to
net zero-emission cement: Integrated assessment of mineral carbonation of
cement kiln dust, Chem. Eng. J. 408 (2021), 127346.
[27] I.E.A. International Energy Agency, Organisation for economic co-operation and
development, in: K.W.E.S. 2020 (Ed.) Paris, France, 2020.
[28] S. Supino, O. Malandrino, M. Testa, D. Sica, Sustainability in the EU cement
industry: the Italian and German experiences, J. Cleaner Prod. 112 (2016)
430–442.
[29] M.U. Hossain, C.S. Poon, M.Y.K. Wong, A. Khine, Techno-environmental
feasibility of wood waste derived fuel for cement production, J. Cleaner Prod. 230
(2019) 663–671.
[30] B. Lothenbach, K. Scrivener, R. Hooton, Supplementary cementitious materials,
Cem. Concr. Res. 41 (12) (2011) 1244–1256.
[31] D.N. Huntzinger, T.D. Eatmon, A life-cycle assessment of Portland cement
manufacturing: comparing the traditional process with alternative technologies,
J. Cleaner Prod. 17 (7) (2009) 668–675.
[32] W. Al-Kutti, M. Nasir, M.A.M. Johari, A.S. Islam, A.A. Manda, N.I. Blaisi, An
overview and experimental study on hybrid binders containing date palm ash, fly
ash, OPC and activator composites, Constr. Build. Mater. 159 (2018) 567–577.
[33] W. Al-Kutti, A.S. Islam, M. Nasir, Potential use of date palm ash in cement-based
materials, Journal of King Saud University-Engineering Sciences 31 (1) (2019)
26–31.
[34] I.S. Agwa, O.M. Omar, B.A. Tayeh, B.A. Abdelsalam, Effects of using rice straw
and cotton stalk ashes on the properties of lightweight self-compacting concrete,
Constr. Build. Mater. 235 (2020), 117541.
13
Construction and Building Materials 302 (2021) 124196
[35] B.A. Tayeh, A.S. Aadi, N.N. Hilal, B.A. Bakar, M.M. Al-Tayeb, W.N. Mansour,
Properties of ultra-high-performance fiber-reinforced concrete (UHPFRC)—a
review paper, AIP Conf. Proc. AIP Publishing LLC (2019), 020040.
[36] B.A. Tayeh, B.A. Bakar, M.M. Johari, Mechanical properties of old
concrete—UHPFC interface, Concrete Repair, Rehabilitation and Retrofitting III:
3rd International Conference on Concrete Repair, Rehabilitation and Retrofitting,
CRC Press, Cape Town, South Africa, 2012, p. 373.
[37] B.A. Tayeh, B.H.A. Bakar, M.A. Megat Johari, A. Zeyad, Flexural strength
behavior of composite UHPFC-existing concrete, Advanced Materials Research,
Trans Tech Publ (2013) 32–36.
[38] N.T. Tran, T.K. Tran, D.J. Kim, High rate response of ultra-high-performance
fiber-reinforced concretes under direct tension, Cem. Concr. Res. 69 (2015)
72–87.
[39] B.A. Tayeh, B.A. Bakar, M.M. Johari, Characterization of the interfacial bond
between old concrete substrate and ultra high performance fiber concrete repair
composite, Mater. Struct. 46 (5) (2013) 743–753.
[40] A.N. Mohammed, M.A.M. Johari, A.M. Zeyad, B.A. Tayeh, M.O. Yusuf, Improving
the engineering and fluid transport properties of ultra-high strength concrete
utilizing ultrafine palm oil fuel ash, J. Adv. Concr. Technol. 12 (4) (2014)
127–137.
[41] B. Graybeal, Ultra-high performance concrete, United States 2011.
[42] M. Amin, B.A. Tayeh, I.S. Agwa, Effect of using mineral admixtures and ceramic
wastes as coarse aggregates on properties of ultrahigh-performance concrete,
J. Cleaner Prod. 273 (2020), 123073.
[43] M.S. Meddah, M.A. Ismail, S. El-Gamal, H. Fitriani, Performances evaluation of
binary concrete designed with silica fume and metakaolin, Constr. Build. Mater.
166 (2018) 400–412.
[44] B.A. Tayeh, Effects of marble, timber, and glass powder as partial replacements
for cement, J. Civ. Eng. Constr. 7 (2) (2018) 63–71.
[45] R. Yu, P. Spiesz, H. Brouwers, Development of an eco-friendly Ultra-High
Performance Concrete (UHPC) with efficient cement and mineral admixtures
uses, Cem. Concr. Compos. 55 (2015) 383–394.
[46] W. Huang, H. Kazemi-Kamyab, W. Sun, K. Scrivener, Effect of replacement of
silica fume with calcined clay on the hydration and microstructural development
of eco-UHPFRC, Mater. Des. 121 (2017) 36–46.
[47] A.H. Alani, N.M. Bunnori, A.T. Noaman, T. Majid, Durability performance of a
novel ultra-high-performance PET green concrete (UHPPGC), Constr. Build.
Mater. 209 (2019) 395–405.
[48] M.A. Mosaberpanah, S.A. Umar, Utilizing rice husk ash as supplement to
cementitious materials on performance of ultra high performance concrete:–a
review, Mater. Today Sustain. 7 (2020), 100030.
[49] S. Pyo, H.-K. Kim, Fresh and hardened properties of ultra-high performance
concrete incorporating coal bottom ash and slag powder, Constr. Build. Mater.
131 (2017) 459–466.
[50] S. Marinković, V. Radonjanin, M. Malešev, I. Ignjatović, Comparative
environmental assessment of natural and recycled aggregate concrete, Waste
Manage. 30 (11) (2010) 2255–2264.
[51] T. RILEM, 121-DRG “Specifications for Concrete with Recycled Aggregates”
Materials and Structures 27, 173, RILEM, 1994.
[52] N. Makul, R. Fediuk, M. Amran, A.M. Zeyad, G. Murali, N. Vatin, S. Klyuev, T.
Ozbakkaloglu, Y.J.C. Vasilev, Use of recycled concrete aggregates in production
of green cement-based concrete composites: a review, 11(3) (2021) 232.
[53] A. Zulkati, Y.D. Wong, D.D. Sun, Mechanistic performance of asphalt-concrete
mixture incorporating coarse recycled concrete aggregate, J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 25
(9) (2013) 1299–1305.
[54] N. Makul, R. Fediuk, M. Amran, A.M. Zeyad, S. Klyuev, I. Chulkova, T.
Ozbakkaloglu, N. Vatin, M. Karelina, A.J.C. Azevedo, Design strategy for recycled
aggregate concrete: a review of status and future perspectives, 11(6) (2021) 695.
[55] J.-L. Gálvez-Martos, D. Styles, H. Schoenberger, B.J.R. Zeschmar-Lahl,
Conservation, Recycling, Construction and demolition waste best management
practice in Europe, 136 (2018) 166-178.
[56] M.S. Aslam, B. Huang, L.J.J.o.e.m. Cui, Review of construction and demolition
waste management in China and USA, 264 (2020) 110445.
[57] A. Rao, K.N. Jha, S. Misra, Use of aggregates from recycled construction and
demolition waste in concrete, Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 50 (1) (2007) 71–81.
[58] M. Abed, R. Nemes, B.A. Tayeh, Properties of self-compacting high-strength
concrete containing multiple use of recycled aggregate, J. King Saud Univ.-Eng.
Sci. 32 (2) (2020) 108–114.
[59] A. Akhtar, A.K. Sarmah, Construction and demolition waste generation and
properties of recycled aggregate concrete: A global perspective, J. Cleaner Prod.
186 (2018) 262–281.
[60] B.A. Tayeh, H. Hanoona, M. Alqedra, M. Arafa, S. Shihada, Investigating the
effect of sulfate attack on compressive strength of recycled aggregate concrete,
J. Eng. Res. Technol. 4 (4) (2017).
[61] K. Rahal, Mechanical properties of concrete with recycled coarse aggregate,
Build. Environ. 42 (1) (2007) 407–415.
[62] K.A. Mujedu, M.A. Ab-Kadir, M. Ismail, A review on self-compacting concrete
incorporating palm oil fuel ash as a cement replacement, Constr. Build. Mater.
258 (2020), 119541.
[63] H.M. Hamada, A. Alya’a, F.M. Yahaya, K. Muthusamy, B.A. Tayeh, A.M. Humada,
Effect of high-volume ultrafine palm oil fuel ash on the engineering and transport
properties of concrete, Case Stud. Constr. Mater. 12 2020 e00318.
[64] H. Mohammadhosseini, R. Alyousef, N.H.A.S. Lim, M.M. Tahir, H. Alabduljabbar,
A.M. Mohamed, Creep and drying shrinkage performance of concrete composite
comprising waste polypropylene carpet fibres and palm oil fuel ash, J. Build. Eng.
30 (2020), 101250.
M. Amin et al.
[65] A.M. Zeyad, M.A.M. Johari, B.A. Tayeh, M.O. Yusuf, Pozzolanic reactivity of
ultrafine palm oil fuel ash waste on strength and durability performances of high
strength concrete, J. Cleaner Prod. 144 (2017) 511–522.
[66] Y. Wang, P. Hughes, H. Niu, Y. Fan, A new method to improve the properties of
recycled aggregate concrete: Composite addition of basalt fiber and nano-silica,
J. Cleaner Prod. 236 (2019), 117602.
[67] E. Meng, Y. Yu, X. Zhang, Y. Su, Experimental and theoretical research on the
mechanical performance of totally recycled concrete under triaxial compression
after high temperatures, Constr. Build. Mater. 261 (2020), 120012.
[68] B. EN, 933-11. Tests for Geometrical Properties of Aggregates Part 11:
Classification Test for the Constituents of Coarse Recycled Aggregate, London, UK
(2009).
[69] H.-B. Le, Q.-B. Bui, Recycled aggregate concretes–a state-of-the-art from the
microstructure to the structural performance, Constr. Build. Mater. 257 (2020),
119522.
[70] B.S. Institution, Part 1: Composition, specifications and conformity criteria for
common cements, BS EN BSI Group Headquarters, UK, London, 2013.
[71] P. Aghdasi, C.P. Ostertag, Green ultra-high performance fiber-reinforced concrete
(G-UHP-FRC), Constr. Build. Mater. 190 (2018) 246–254.
[72] N.M. Azmee, N. Shafiq, Ultra-high performance concrete: from fundamental to
applications, Case Stud. Constr. Mater. 9 (2018), e00197.
[73] M.G. Sohail, R. Kahraman, N. Al Nuaimi, B. Gencturk, W. Alnahhal, Durability
characteristics of high and ultra-high performance concretes, J. Build. Eng. 33
(2021), 101669.
[74] L.K. Askar, B.A. Tayeh, B.H. Abu Bakar, Effect of different curing conditions on
the mechanical properties of UHPFC, Awam International Conference on Civil
Engineering (AICCE’12) and Geohazard Information Zonation (GIZ’12), 2012.
[75] L.K. Askar, B.A. Tayeh, B.A. Bakar, A. Zeyad, Properties of ultra-high performance
fiber concrete (UHPFC) under different curing regimes, Int. J. Civ. Eng. Technol.
(IJCIET) 8 (4) (2017) 965–974.
[76] A.M. Zeyad, A.J.A.J.o.G. Almalki, Role of particle size of natural pozzolanic
materials of volcanic pumice: flow properties, strength, and permeability, 14(2)
(2021) 1-11.
[77] S.A. Memon, I. Wahid, M.K. Khan, M.A. Tanoli, M.J.S. Bimaganbetova,
Environmentally friendly utilization of wheat straw ash in cement-based
composites, 10(5) (2018) 1322.
[78] A.M. Zeyad, M.A.M. Johari, B.A. Tayeh, M.O.J.J.o.C.P. Yusuf, Pozzolanic
reactivity of ultrafine palm oil fuel ash waste on strength and durability
performances of high strength concrete, 144 (2017) 511-522.
[79] Z. Sun, C. Guo, W. Zhou, J. Zhu, Influence of phosphogypsum on physical
properties and hydration process of Portland cement, World Build Mater. 31
(2010) 4–7.
[80] Y. Huang, J. Qian, X. Kang, J. Yu, Y. Fan, Y. Dang, W. Zhang, S. Wang, Belite-
calcium sulfoaluminate cement prepared with phosphogypsum: influence of
P2O5 and F on the clinker formation and cement performances, Constr. Build.
Mater. 203 (2019) 432–442.
[81] J.W. Bullard, H.M. Jennings, R.A. Livingston, A. Nonat, G.W. Scherer, J.
S. Schweitzer, K.L. Scrivener, J.J. Thomas, Mechanisms of cement hydration,
Cem. Concr. Res. 41 (12) (2011) 1208–1223.
[82] T. Ifka, M. Palou, J. Baraček, F. Šoukal, M. Boháč, Evaluation of P2O5 distribution
inside the main clinker minerals by the application of EPMA method, Cem. Concr.
Res. 59 (2014) 147–154.
[83] Z.S. Tai, S.K. Hubadillah, M.H.D. Othman, M.I.H.M. Dzahir, K.N. Koo, N.I.S.T.
I. Tendot, A.F. Ismail, M.A. Rahman, J. Jaafar, M.H. Abd Aziz, Influence of pre-
treatment temperature of palm oil fuel ash on the properties and performance of
green ceramic hollow fiber membranes towards oil/water separation application,
Sep. Purif. Technol. 222 (2019) 264–277.
[84] S. Munir, S. Daood, W. Nimmo, A. Cunliffe, B. Gibbs, Thermal analysis and
devolatilization kinetics of cotton stalk, sugar cane bagasse and shea meal under
nitrogen and air atmospheres, Bioresour. Technol. 100 (3) (2009) 1413–1418.
[85] Z.R. Gajera, K. Verma, S.P. Tekade, A.N. Sawarkar, Kinetics of co-gasification of
rice husk biomass and high sulphur petroleum coke with oxygen as gasifying
medium via TGA, Bioresour. Technol. Rep. 11 (2020), 100479.
[86] A.M. Zeyad, M.M. Johari, B.A. Tayeh, M.O.J.C. Yusuf, b. materials, Efficiency of
treated and untreated palm oil fuel ash as a supplementary binder on engineering
and fluid transport properties of high-strength concrete, 125 (2016) 1066-1079.
[87] A.S. Faried, S.A. Mostafa, B.A. Tayeh, T.A. Tawfik, Mechanical and durability
properties of ultra-high performance concrete incorporated with various nano
waste materials under different curing conditions, J. Build. Eng. 43 (2021),
102569.
[88] A.S. Faried, S.A. Mostafa, B.A. Tayeh, T.A. Tawfik, The effect of using nano rice
husk ash of different burning degrees on ultra-high-performance concrete
properties, Constr. Build. Mater. 290 (2021), 123279.
[89] S. Shahidan, B.A. Tayeh, A. Jamaludin, N. Bahari, S. Mohd, N.Z. Ali, F. Khalid,
Physical and mechanical properties of self-compacting concrete containing
14
Construction and Building Materials 302 (2021) 124196
superplasticizer and metakaolin, IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. IOP Publishing
(2017), 012004.
[90] C. ASTM, Standard test method for slump of hydraulic-cement concrete, ASTM
International West Conshohocken, PA, 2012.
[91] M. Safiuddin, J. West, K. Soudki, Flowing ability of the mortars formulated from
self-compacting concretes incorporating rice husk ash, Constr. Build. Mater. 25
(2) (2011) 973–978.
[92] M.M. Johari, J. Brooks, S. Kabir, P. Rivard, Influence of supplementary
cementitious materials on engineering properties of high strength concrete,
Constr. Build. Mater. 25 (5) (2011) 2639–2648.
[93] A.M. Zeyad, M.M. Johari, B.A. Tayeh, M.O. Yusuf, Efficiency of treated and
untreated palm oil fuel ash as a supplementary binder on engineering and fluid
transport properties of high-strength concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 125 (2016)
1066–1079.
[94] W. Meng, M. Valipour, K.H. Khayat, Optimization and performance of cost-
effective ultra-high performance concrete, Mater. Struct. 50 (1) (2017) 1–16.
[95] J. Zhang, Y. Zhao, The mechanical properties and microstructure of ultra-high-
performance concrete containing various supplementary cementitious materials,
J. Sustain. Cem.-Based Mater. 6 (4) (2017) 254–266.
[96] Z. Rong, W. Sun, H. Xiao, G. Jiang, Effects of nano-SiO2 particles on the
mechanical and microstructural properties of ultra-high performance
cementitious composites, Cem. Concr. Compos. 56 (2015) 25–31.
[97] E. Ghafari, H. Costa, E. Júlio, Critical review on eco-efficient ultra high
performance concrete enhanced with nano-materials, Constr. Build. Mater. 101
(2015) 201–208.
[98] M. Berra, F. Carassiti, T. Mangialardi, A. Paolini, M. Sebastiani, Effects of
nanosilica addition on workability and compressive strength of Portland cement
pastes, Constr. Build. Mater. 35 (2012) 666–675.
[99] A.M. Zeyad, B.A. Tayeh, A.M. Saba, M. Johari, Workability, setting time and
strength of high-strength concrete containing high volume of palm oil fuel ash,
Open Civ. Eng. J. 12 (1) (2018).
[100] M. Amin, B.A. Tayeh, I.S.J.J.o.C.P. Agwa, Effect of using mineral admixtures and
ceramic wastes as coarse aggregates on properties of ultrahigh-performance
concrete, 273 (2020) 123073.
[101] S. Chu, C.S. Poon, C. Lam, L.J.C. Li, B. Materials, Effect of natural and recycled
aggregate packing on properties of concrete blocks, 278 (2021) 122247.
[102] O. Aksoğan, H. Binici, E.J.C. Ortlek, B. Materials, Durability of concrete made by
partial replacement of fine aggregate by colemanite and barite and cement by
ashes of corn stalk, wheat straw and sunflower stalk ashes, 106 (2016) 253-263.
[103] G.R.J.C. De Sensale, C. Composites, Effect of rice-husk ash on durability of
cementitious materials, 32(9) (2010) 718-725.
[104] M.M. Johari, A. Zeyad, N.M. Bunnori, K.J.C. Ariffin, B. Materials, Engineering and
transport properties of high-strength green concrete containing high volume of
ultrafine palm oil fuel ash, 30 (2012) 281-288.
[105] N.M. Altwair, M.M. Johari, S.F.S. Hashim, Influence of treated palm oil fuel ash
on compressive properties and chloride resistance of engineered cementitious
composites, Mater. Struct. 47 (4) (2014) 667–682.
[106] C. Jaturapitakkul, J. Tangpagasit, S. Songmue, K. Kiattikomol, Filler effect and
pozzolanic reaction of ground palm oil fuel ash, Constr. Build. Mater. 25 (11)
(2011) 4287–4293.
[107] M.Z. Al-mulali, H. Awang, H.A. Khalil, Z.S. Aljoumaily, The incorporation of oil
palm ash in concrete as a means of recycling: a review, Cem. Concr. Compos. 55
(2015) 129–138.
[108] A. Awal, S.K. Nguong, A short-term investigation on high volume palm oil fuel ash
(POFA) concrete, in: Proceedings of the 35th Conferenece on our World in
Concrete and Structure, 2010, pp. 185–192.
[109] C. Hu, Y. Han, Y. Gao, Y. Zhang, Z. Li, Property investigation of
calcium–silicate–hydrate (C–S–H) gel in cementitious composites, Mater. Charact.
95 (2014) 129–139.
[110] K. Abdullah, M. Hussin, A. Awal, Effect of curing regime on properties of
lightweight concrete containing palm oil fuel ash, Proc. 2009 Int. Conf. Building
Science and Engineering, 2009, pp. 1-10.
[111] O.E.A. Eldagal, O. Elmukhtar, Study on the behaviour of high strength Palm Oil
Fuel Ash (POFA) concrete, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Malaysia (2008).
[112] K. Muthusamy, N. Zamri, Mechanical properties of oil palm shell lightweight
aggregate concrete containing palm oil fuel ash as partial cement replacement,
KSCE J. Civ. Eng. 20 (4) (2016) 1473–1481.
[113] M.N.A.A. Zawawi, K. Muthusamy, A.P.A. Majeed, R.M. Musa, A.M.A. Budiea,
Mechanical properties of oil palm waste lightweight aggregate concrete with fly
ash as fine aggregate replacement, J. Build. Eng. 27 (2020), 100924.
[114] J. Newman, B.S. Choo, Advanced Concrete Technology Set, Elsevier, 2003.
[115] K. Sideris, P. Manita, K. Sideris, Estimation of ultimate modulus of elasticity and
Poisson ratio of normal concrete, Cem. Concr. Compos. 26 (6) (2004) 623–631.
[116] V. Sata, C. Jaturapitakkul, K. Kiattikomol, Influence of pozzolan from various by-
product materials on mechanical properties of high-strength concrete, Constr.
Build. Mater. 21 (7) (2007) 1589–1598.