Electric Power Systems Research 81 (2011) 783–789

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Electric Power Systems Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/epsr

Air temperature effect on thermal models for ventilated dry-type transformers

Moonhee Lee a,∗ , Hussein A. Abdullah b , Jan C. Jofriet b , Dhiru Patel a , Murat Fahrioglu c
a
Hammond Power Solutions Inc., 595 Southgate Drive, Guelph, Ontario, Canada N1G 3W6
b
School of Engineering, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada N1G 2W1
c
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Near East University, Lefkosa, Mersin 10, Turkey

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The temperature of the air surrounding the windings of ventilated dry-type transformers is an important
Received 15 July 2010 factor in the cooling of the windings since they are cooled only by the air. In particular, inner windings
Received in revised form are sensitive to the air temperature in vertical cooling ducts. This study presents air temperature effect
10 November 2010
on the temperatures in foil-type inner winding for the dry-type transformers. A transformer rated at
Accepted 12 November 2010
2000 kVA was selected for the research and temperature distribution was calculated under constant and
Available online 10 December 2010
varying air temperatures inside vertical ducts at three different loads. The 2-D transient heat diffusion
equation was solved using the finite element method by coupling it with the vector potential equation
Keywords:
Air duct temperature
due to non-uniformly generated heat caused by eddy currents in the foil winding. The calculated temper-
Coupled electromagnetic-thermal model atures at constant and varying air temperatures are presented together with experimental values. The
Dry-type transformer numerical and experimental results of this study showed that the air temperature affects the accuracy
Finite element analysis of temperatures in foil-type inner winding greatly.
© 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction dynamics for naturally cooled dry-type transformers. On the other

Air temperature surrounding the windings of ventilated dry-
type transformers plays an important role in cooling the windings.
As the difference between the air temperature and winding’s sur-
face temperature increases, cooling effect increases. It would be
ideal if the surrounding air of all transformer windings maintains
the temperature of the ambient room temperature. This is only pos-
sible when all coil surfaces are exposed to unlimited free space.
However, inner windings are cooled by the air in the vertical ducts,
and thus the air temperature inside the vertical ducts is particularly
critical for ventilated dry-type transformers.
There are two mathematical approaches to obtain transformer
winding temperature distributions including the hottest-spot tem-
perature; the fluid dynamics approach and solving the heat
diffusion equation. The winding temperature distributions using
the fluid dynamics are obtained by fundamental physical laws of
the surrounding fluid, conservation of mass and energy as well as
Newton’s second law of motion [1]. Therefore, three differential
equations must be solved together, and thus thermal models based
on the fluid dynamics require enormous computational effort. The
difficulties of determining boundary conditions for each equation
are another disadvantage of this approach. The temperature dis-
tributions in Refs. [2,3] were calculated by the computational fluid
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 519 822 2441; fax: +1 519 822 9701.
E-mail address: mlee@hammondpowersolutions.com (M. Lee).
hand, obtaining the temperature distribution using the heat diffu-
sion equation only requires the solving of one differential equation.
The heat dissipation by the surrounding fluid is applied to the heat
equation as a boundary condition, i.e. a heat flux by convection
heat transfer. The computational effort involved in solving the heat
equation is less than that of the fluid dynamics equations, and its
accuracy is reasonable. Therefore the heat equation with appro-
priate boundary conditions has been popularly applied to many
mathematical thermal modeling for dry-type transformers [4–6].
Pierce [4] and Dianchun et al. [5] calculated the winding temper-
ature distributions for layer-type windings at steady states with the
aid of finite difference method for ventilated dry-type transformers.
Rahimpour and Azizian [6] calculated the winding temperatures for
cast-resin transformers. Their thermal model was also solved with
the finite difference method under a steady-state condition.
When local surface temperatures for identifying the hottest-
spot temperature and its location are calculated using the heat
diffusion equation with convection and radiation as boundary con-
ditions, the fluid temperature for ventilated dry-type transformers
is specifically important for a convection cooling geometry, parallel
two heated surfaces such as a vertical air duct. The inlet and outlet
air temperatures in the vertical ducts should be known if surface
temperatures of the entire vertical ducts are considered [7]. In other
words, the fluid (air in this case) temperature inside the vertical
ducts varies along the axial length, and thus varying air temperature
should be used in solving the heat transfer equations for obtain-
ing accurate temperature distribution. However, since Stewart and

0378-7796/$ – see front matter © 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.epsr.2010.11.008
784 M. Lee et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 81 (2011) 783–789

Whitman [8] reported an experimentally obtained air temperature

differences between inlet and outlet for different winding height
and coil type in 1944, the air temperature variations in the verti-
cal ducts have not received much attention. In particular, previous
research of thermal models for dry-type transformers using the
heat diffusion equation did not detail the surrounding air temper-
ature conditions even though the operating temperatures of the
dry-type transformers is largely affected by the variations of the
air temperature.
The present study focuses on how air temperature inside the
vertical cooling ducts affects the temperature distribution on inner
winding surfaces for ventilated dry-type transformers. The study
compares the winding surface temperatures under constant air
temperatures with those under varying air temperatures inside the
vertical ducts for natural convection cooling. Transformers cooled
by forced air are outside the scope of this study.
The temperatures in the foil winding of ventilated dry-type
transformers were calculated by 2-D (two-dimensional) coupled
electromagnetic-thermal model under constant air temperature
and vertically varying air temperature inside the ducts. The rates Fig. 1. Geometry of two vertical parallel plates with heat fluxes.

of variations of the air temperatures in the vertical ducts were cal-

culated based on the experimental data presented by Stewart and Heat convection and radiation are the boundary conditions of
Whitman [8]. By employing an electromagnetic-thermal coupled (1).
model, non-uniform heat generation caused by the eddy current in
"
qconv = h(Ts − T∞ ) (2)
the foil winding was taken into account when computing the tem-
peratures. The coupled model was solved only for the case of natural " = εT 4 − ˛G
qrad s (3)
cooling and newly developed convection coefficients in the verti-
cal ducts were incorporated in the model. The coupled model was " are the heat transfer rates per unit area at
where q"conv and qrad
applied to a full-size dry-type transformer rated at 2000 kVA, and the surface by convection and radiation [W/m2 ], h is the convec-
the numerical solutions were obtained under time-dependent con- tive heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2 K)], ε is the emissivity of the
ditions by the finite element method (FEM). COMSOL was selected surface,  is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant [W/(m2 K4 )], ˛ is the
for the FEM program. The calculated temperatures at both constant absorptivity, G is the irradiation [W/m2 ], Ts is surface temperature
and varying air temperature conditions were compared with exper- [K], T∞ is ambient temperature [K].
imental values. The effect of the air temperature inside the vertical The heat generation term, Q is defined as power losses divided
ducts is discussed and the factors affecting the air temperatures by the conductor volume.
are indicated. The importance of surrounding air temperature for
ventilated dry-type transformers is emphasized. I2R
Q = (4)
V
where I is current [A], R is resistance [], and V is the conductor
2. Coupled electromagnetic-thermal model
volume [m3 ].
In previous studies [9,10], induced currents have been consid-
2.1.1. Convection coefficients
ered for high frequency transformers or non-linear loads whose
The convection coefficient may be obtained once the Nusselt
eddy current losses are significant. However, even for low fre-
number, Nu is determined. The foil-type inner winding is cooled
quency transformers the induced currents cannot be neglected
largely by natural convection in vertical air ducts, and an expres-
in foil-type winding [11]. They are immensely significant at both
sion for Nu is required for the vertical ducts. The vertical ducts were
edges of foil-type winding resulting in highly non-uniform heat
considered equivalent to two vertical parallel plates with differ-
generation, which can cause localized overheating in the wind-
ent heat fluxes at the surfaces as shown in Fig. 1. For foil winding,
ing. Therefore, when predicting temperature distribution in the foil
the vertical lengths of the plates are much larger than the distance
winding, it is necessary to solve the thermal model coupled with
between the plates, i.e. S/L → 0, and thus, without loss of gener-
the electromagnetic model so that non-uniformly generated heat
ality, it is assumed that the entire region in the vertical ducts is
is taken into account.
fully developed. The following equations are applied for symmetric
isoflux and asymmetric isoflux conditions respectively [1].
2.1. Thermal model
Nuy = 0.144 [Ra∗S (S/L)]1/2 : Symmetric isoflux (5a)
The temperature distribution in foil-type winding can be Nuy = 0.204 [Ra∗S (S/L)]1/2 : Asymmetric isoflux (5b)
obtained by solving the heat diffusion Eq. (1) in 2-D Cartesian coor-
dinates. where Ra∗S
is the Rayleigh number for the isoflux vertical plates, L
    is the height of the vertical plate [m], S is the distance between the
∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂T plates [m], and y implies axial direction.
kx + ky + Q = cp (1)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂t
2.1.2. Thermal radiation
where kx and ky are thermal conductivities in x and y directions Calculating radiation heat transfer between surfaces is difficult
[W/(m K)], Q is the heat source term [W/m3 ],  is the mass density and complicated. Complex geometries like transformers are hard
[kg/m3 ], cp is specific heat [J/(kg K)], T is temperature [K], and t is to solve in particular. Unlike convection heat transfer, the cooling
time [s]. effect on the foil-type inner winding by the radiation heat exchange
 M. Lee et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 81 (2011) 783–789 785

between surfaces is minimal. Despite the minimal effect on temper-

ature distribution, the radiation heat transfer between the surfaces
was incorporated into the calculation process since the finite ele-
ment program, COMSOL supports surface-to-surface radiation.
Where the surface-to-surface radiation is not appropriate,
surface-to-ambient radiation was used since the transformer is
assumed to be located in a large room. In this case (6) may be used
to determine the heat flux [1].
" = ε(T 4 − T 4 )
qrad (6)
s ∞

where ε is the emissivity of the surface,  is the Stefan–Boltzmann

constant [W/(m2 K4 )], Ts is the surface temperature [K], and Tw is
the ambient temperature [K].

2.2. Electromagnetic model

The governing equation of the electromagnetic model in 2-

D Cartesian coordinates is derived from the Maxwell’s equations
using the vector potential, A [Wb/m] [12].
∂ 1 ∂A  ∂ 1 ∂A  ∂A
( )x + ( )y = −Js + e
∂x x ∂x ∂y y ∂y ∂t
where x and y are permeabilities in x and y directions [H/m], Js
[A/m2 ] is the source current density applied by the load,  e is the
 
electric conductivity of a material [S/m], and x and y are the unit
vectors for x and y directions.
Since the eddy current density is Je = −  e ( ∂ A/∂ t), where Je is the
eddy current density induced by magnetic fields [A/m2 ], the right
hand side of (7) is the total current density. Therefore, if the applied
source current Js is known, the vector potential is calculated by the
above equation, and the eddy current density is also obtained. Then,
the total current I, consisting of source current and eddy current, is
the integral of the total current density, J.
 were assumed to be installed in an enclosure with sufficient venti-
I= J · ds
s
where J = Js + Je = Js − e ∂A
∂t
The heat generation term, Q is a function of current and resis-
tance as defined in (4). The electrical resistivity is a function
of temperature. Therefore, the changes of the resistivity caused
by temperature variation require recalculation of the conduc-
tor’s resistance. Additionally, the total current density has to be
re-calculated as the electrical conductivity is a function of tem-
perature, i.e. the vector potential Eq. (7) has to be resolved with
respect to the temperature change to obtain more accurate values
of current.
3. Air temperature effect
3.1. Finite element analysis
A ventilated dry-type three-phase transformer operated at
60 Hz was selected for this research project. It was rated at
2000 kVA with 13,800 V for high voltage and 480 V for low volt-
age. Primary and secondary coils were concentrically wound using
aluminium. As shown in Fig. 2, foil-type was used for the inner
winding while disc-type was used for the outer winding. The outer
winding was wound with a rectangular wire wrapped by NOMEX®
paper of DuPontTM , and the inner winding was wound with a bare
foil with inter-layer insulation of NOMEX® paper. For the foil-type
winding, the vertical air ducts were located between every 3–4 foil
turns. There was a 13 mm (0.5 inch) air duct between the foil layers.
One core leg wound with the foil–disc windings in the selected
transformer was modeled in 2-D for the coupled electromagnetic-
thermal problem. The temperature distribution due to winding
(7)
Fig. 2. Foil–disc windings.
losses was only predicted for the foil winding. The transformers
(8) lation area such that the ambient air temperature inside and outside
of the enclosure is the same. The winding was assumed to be cooled
only by natural convection.
Due to the symmetry about the vertical centreline of the core
leg, only the windings on one side of the core were considered
in the analysis as shown in Fig. 3. Both inner and outer windings
were included in the finite element model so that temperature
contribution from the outer winding to the inner winding was
included in numerical calculation. The foil winding domain was
subdivided into 3040 Lagrange triangular elements. Multiple foil
turns between the air ducts were modeled into one conductor layer
in the finite element domains by lumping the turns together in
order to maintain reasonably shaped elements and thus increasing
the quality of the numerical solutions. The thermal conductivities
were calculated for the radial direction in the temperature range
between 0 ◦ C and 327 ◦ C to take into account the insulation between
individual layers that were lumped together. The thermal conduc-
tivities converged to 1.782 W/(m K) for 3 turns and 0.8727 W/(m K)
for 4 turns independent of change in temperature. The initial tem-
perature was assumed to be 25 ◦ C. The numerical results were
collected every 200 s, and the final time was 20,000 s (5.6 h) for
each load test. Fig. 4 shows the temperature changes with time at
the top of the second foil-turn layer from the core leg for the load
of 1500 kVA. The temperature at the steady-state was 102 ◦ C and
the steady-state was reached at about 5400 s (1.5 h).
3.2. Air temperature conditions
The heat dissipation from naturally cooled dry-type trans-
former windings occurs mainly by natural convection heat transfer
between the boundary surfaces and the air. The air flow is induced
786 M. Lee et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 81 (2011) 783–789
Fig. 3. Finite element domains divided into triangular elements.
by buoyancy forces caused by density differences due to air
temperature differences [1]. If the winding surfaces are exposed
to unlimited space, the surrounding air temperature could be
assumed constant from the bottom to the top of the surfaces. How-
ever, the inner windings are cooled by vertical air ducts and the air
temperature in the ducts varies from the inlet to the outlet. In Ref.
[8], the experimentally measured air temperatures in 12.7 mm (0.5
Fig. 4. Calculated temperatures at the top of the second foil-turn layer from the core
leg for 1500 kVA.
Table 1
Measured winding surface temperatures with calculated surface temperatures at
constant and varying air temperatures in the 2nd air duct for different kVAs at 78%
of the height.
kVA Calculated surface temperatures Measured surface
temperatures
Constant air Varying air
temp. temp.
1500 kVA 69.7 ◦ C 92.1 ◦ C 87.4 ◦ C
1750 kVA 79.9 ◦ C 114.1 ◦ C 106.5 ◦ C
2000 kVA 90.5 ◦ C 129.5 ◦ C 129.6 ◦ C
inch) air ducts were presented with respect to the average winding
temperature rises for three different coil heights, 0.32 m (12.5 inch),
0.77 m (30.5 inch) and 1.54 m (60.5 inch). Based on these temper-
ature test data, air temperature variations between the inlet and
the outlet for 0.61 m (24 inch) height coil of this study, the increase
in temperature of the air from inlet to outlet of the ducts in those
experiments was calculated to be 89.5% of average winding tem-
perature rises. For the present numerical study 90% was assumed.
This method of calculating the air temperature of the outlet is only
applicable to 12.7 mm (0.5 inch) ducts having the height between
0.32 m (12.5 inch) and 1.54 m (60.5 inch) since the air temperatures
inside the vertical ducts are highly dependent upon the height and
size of the ducts.
In this study, the finite element model was solved under two dif-
ferent air temperature assumptions in the vertical cooling ducts: (i)
constant air temperature and (ii) varying air temperature. In the for-
mer a constant air temperature inside the vertical air ducts of 25 ◦ C
was assumed. In the varying air temperature analysis the temper-
ature of the air inside the ducts was assumed 90% of the average
winding temperature rise as derived from the temperature test data
by Stewart and Whitman [8]. It was assumed to vary linearly from
the inlet to the outlet. Therefore, the coupled model was solved
for an inlet temperature of 25 ◦ C and the outlet air temperatures
were assumed to be 52.3 ◦ C for 1500 kVA, 75.5 ◦ C for 1750 kVA, and
81.5 ◦ C for 2000 kVA.
4. Results and discussion
The temperature tests were conducted in accordance with the
test conditions and constraints specified in IEEE Std C57.12.91-1995
[13]. Surface temperatures on the foils were measured by short-
circuiting one of the windings while supplying impedance voltage
to the other winding. The short-circuit tests were conducted under
three different load conditions, 1500 kVA, 1750 kVA and 2000 kVA
loads. K-type thermocouples were used to collect the surface tem-
peratures in the centre coil and one of the outer coils as shown
in Fig. 5. Temperatures were recorded by two data loggers from
YOKOGAWA (Model: DR242 and HR2300) every 5 min until they
reached steady state. The vertical surface temperatures from 5 ther-
mocouples in the second air duct and 3 thermocouples in the fourth
air duct are presented in this section together with finite element
results.
The calculated surface temperatures in the second air duct at
constant air temperature are compared with the calculated tem-
peratures at linearly varying air temperature along the height of
the duct at steady state for 1500 kVA, 1750 kVA and 2000 kVA in
Figs. 6–8, respectively. The experimental temperatures are dis-
played together with the calculated values. Both calculated and
measured temperatures increase with vertical height due to a
decrease in convective cooling from lower air temperatures at
the bottom of the duct (length = 0.0 m) to higher ones at the top
(length = 0.61 m). Table 1 shows the measured surface tempera-
tures and calculated surface temperatures at constant and varying
 M. Lee et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 81 (2011) 783–789
Fig. 5. Radial distribution of thermocouples in foil winding (horizontal view of coils).
Fig. 6. Calculated vertical surface temperatures at both constant and varying air
temperatures in the 2nd air duct for 1500 kVA load together with the experimental
values.
Fig. 7. Calculated vertical surface temperatures at both constant and varying air
temperatures in the 2nd air duct for 1750 kVA load together with the experimental
values.
787
air temperatures in the second air duct at 78% of the height for
the loads of 1500 kVA, 1750 kVA and 2000 kVA. The difference
between measured and calculated air temperature in the second
air duct was 0.1–4.7 ◦ C while that for constant air temperatures
was 17.7–39.1 ◦ C.
The surface temperatures calculated with varying air tem-
peratures are in good agreement with the experimental values,
particularly in the middle of the vertical length. In the case of
constant temperature, the difference between measured and cal-
culated surface temperatures is greater with increasing distance
from the bottom of the air duct and with higher load. The highest
temperature difference is about 40 ◦ C near the top of the duct for
the load of 2000 kVA.
The calculated surface temperatures for both constant and vary-
ing air temperatures in the 4th air duct for 1500 kVA, 1750 kVA and
2000 kVA loads together with the experimental values at steady
state are presented in Figs. 9–11, respectively. The measured sur-
face temperatures and calculated surface temperatures at constant
and varying air temperatures in the fourth air duct at 78% of the
height for the different loads are shown in Table 2. The largest dif-
ference between measured and calculated temperature for varying
Fig. 8. Calculated vertical surface temperatures at both constant and varying air
temperatures in the 2nd air duct for 2000 kVA load together with the experimental
values.
788 M. Lee et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 81 (2011) 783–789
Fig. 9. Calculated vertical surface temperatures at both constant and varying air
temperatures in the 4th air duct for 1500 kVA load together with the experimental
values.
Fig. 10. Calculated vertical surface temperatures at both constant and varying air
temperatures in the 4th air duct for 1750 kVA load together with the experimental
values.
Fig. 11. Calculated vertical surface temperatures at both constant and varying air
temperatures in the 4th air duct for 2000 kVA load together with the experimental
values.
Table 2
Measured winding surface temperatures with calculated surface temperatures at
constant and varying air temperatures in the 4th air duct for different kVAs at 78%
of the height.
kVA Calculated surface temperatures Measured surface
temperatures
Constant air Varying air
temp. temp.
1500 kVA 74.1 ◦ C 95.3 ◦ C 88.0 ◦ C
1750 kVA 85.2 ◦ C 117.9 ◦ C 107.8 ◦ C
2000 kVA 97.2 ◦ C 134.5 ◦ C 132.6 ◦ C
air temperatures was 10.1 ◦ C and the smallest was 1.9 ◦ C. The tem-
perature differences for constant air temperatures for the fourth air
duct were much larger. They ranged from 13.9 ◦ C to 35.4 ◦ C. The cal-
culated temperatures assuming varying air temperature in the duct
compare well with the experimental values at all loads whereas the
calculated temperatures assuming constant air temperature differ
considerably from the measured ones. These figures also show the
temperature differences are getting larger with increasing distance
from the bottom of the winding and with higher load.
As shown in Figs. 6–11, the calculated temperatures under vary-
ing air temperature conditions derived from the test data are in
good agreement with the experimental values, especially in the
middle of the vertical ducts. However, the calculated temperatures
are higher than experimental values at the top of the second vertical
ducts. The reason may be the air temperature assumption based on
the experimental data provided by Stewart and Whitman [8]. Their
data were collected with transformer coils under uniform heat gen-
eration condition. In foil-type winding, more active air movement
occurs around the top portions since more heat is generated there
by induced currents resulting in increased convective heat transfer,
and thus lowers surface temperatures. Research on the air temper-
atures inside the vertical ducts for natural convection should be
carried out intensively in order to achieve more accurate predic-
tion of surface temperatures. Air temperature changes along the
height should be measured at many locations in vertical ducts for
different size and height.
Further the difference between the calculated surface temper-
atures at constant and varying air temperatures increased with
higher loads. Since the air temperature inside the vertical ducts is
higher for elevated temperature transformers. It is suggested that
air temperature changes should receive more attention when high
temperature units are considered in order to calculate tempera-
tures accurately.
The assumptions made for the air temperature in Section 3.2
may not apply to the vertical cooling ducts located in the trans-
former windows. The air flow may be quite different from the
transformer nose because of the core yokes. In addition, the core
yokes are another heat source and thus the air temperature may be
higher than that in the nose. The vertical ducts in the transformer
window should be investigated for more accurate temperature pre-
diction of all around the windings.
5. Conclusion
Vertical cooling ducts are very important when calculating the
temperatures of transformer windings. However, the importance
of the fluid temperature inside cooling ducts was often neglected
in spite of its great effect on determining the surface temperatures
of transformer windings. This work studied the air temperature
inside the cooling ducts and showed how it affects the winding tem-
peratures for a ventilated dry-type transformer. The temperature
distributions in foil winding for the transformer were calculated
by 2-D transient coupled electromagnetic-thermal finite element
 M. Lee et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 81 (2011) 783–789
analysis under two different air temperature conditions inside the
vertical cooling ducts; constant and varying air temperatures that
increased from bottom to top. The varying air temperatures were
determined with respect to the average winding temperature rises
based on the test data. The coupled model was applied to the dry-
type transformer at three different loads, 1500 kVA, 1750 kVA and
2000 kVA and solved by the FEM. The calculated surface temper-
atures under both air temperature assumptions were compared
together with experimental values.
The calculated temperatures at varying air temperature agreed
well with experimental values except for the very top portions
of the foils. The difference between the calculated temperatures
at constant air temperatures and at varying air temperatures
increased as the distance from the bottom of the vertical ducts
and the load of the transformer are increased. The numerical
and experimental results of this study showed that air tem-
perature affects the accuracy of temperatures in foil-type inner
winding greatly. Therefore, varying air temperature inside verti-
cal ducts should be applied when the temperature distribution
in the foil winding is calculated by the heat diffusion equation.
Research on the air temperatures inside the vertical ducts for
natural convection should be conducted for different size and
height of the vertical ducts. The air temperature changes inside
the ducts should be formulized so that they can be used to cal-
culate temperatures in foil-type winding for ventilated dry-type
transformers.
789
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