SOCIOLINGUISTICS

ENGLISH TEACHER AND LANGUAGE INSTRUCTURE

Written by: SOHAIB ROMI

Language:
Language is a means of communication. It is a means of conveying our thoughts ,ideas, feelings, and
emotions to other people. it is a system of communication based upon words and the combination of
words into sentences.

According to Verderber language is the body of words and the system for their use in communicating
that are common to the people of the same community or nation, the same geographical area, or the
same cultural tradition.

Richards and Platt state that language the system of human communication which consists of the
structured arrangement of sounds (or their written representation ) into larger units.

Linguistics:
Linguistics is defined as the scientific study of language. From different viewpoints, as a science,
linguistics can be divided into several branches, among others, descriptive linguistics and
historical/comparative linguistics (if it is based its methodology), synchronic and diachronic linguistics (if
is based on its aspect of time), and phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics (if it is
based on a language as a system).

Sociolinguistics:
A term sociolinguistics is a derivational word. Two words that form it are sociology and linguistics.
Sociology refers to a science of society; and linguistics refers to a science of language. A study of
language from the perspective of society may be thought as linguistics plus sociology. Some
investigators have found it to introduce a distinction between sociolinguistics and sociology of language.
Some others regard sociolinguistics is often referred as the sociology of language.

Sociolinguistics is defined as: The study that is concerned with the relationship between language
and the context in which it is used. In other words, it studies the relationship between language and
society.

Eastman: “the study that is concerned with the interaction of language and setting”.

Wardhaugh: “ It is the study that is concerned with investigating the relationship between language
and society with the goal of a better understanding of the structure of language and of how languages
function in communication”

Uses of Language:
Language uses as a part of a wide range of routes and for some, extraordinary purposes like compose,
talk, and sign. Individuals work with language, play with language, and acquire individuals living with
language. They court and tempt, purchase and offer, affront and acclaim, all by means of language.
Individuals use language to express their sentiments, feeling and, enthusiasm. For instance, they may
recollect when they were glad, they gather their emotions and encounters in a book called journal. At
the time of using language as an instrument to communicate , they require not consider or mind who
the audience or perusers. They use language just for private purposes. As a way to communicate
articulation, it tells everything that is covered up in people hearts and mind.

Function of Language in Society

=>Informative Function:
The informative function of language involves information of giving and receiving. The general
assumption is that the content is believable and valuable. For example, language is used to offer
opinions, give advice, make announcements, lecture, admonish, or news report, solicit input or ask
questions. Everyday conversations center around information sharing."Informational function which
every one tends to assume is most important"( Leech). In fact, this function concentrates on the
message.
=>Expressive Function:
Language expresses and evokes ideas, thoughts and feelings. Expressive language may or may not
include any real information because the purpose of expressive use of language is to convey emotion.
For example, the expression “Yuck” connotes disgust, but the word itself isn't necessarily used to
inform. Expressive language in literature, music and the performing arts has the power to inspire and
entertain . The speaker or writer tries to express his feelings. He or she reflexes his or her impression.
This function could give a clear image for the personality of the speaker or writer. The best example of
this kind is Poetry and literature . In fact, this function evoke certain feelings and express feelings.

=>Aesthetic Function:
The use of language for the sake of the linguistic artifact itself, and for no purpose. This aesthetic
function can have at least as much to do with conceptual as with affective meaning. The function is
associated with the message-the vehicle-as the poetic or aesthetic function: the sign is taken as an end
in itself. All art understood as art is taken to embody this function, and any object valued for its beauty
rather than for its ideological value or usefulness-whether a gorgeous car, an elegant teapot, or some
acreage of untouched real estate-takes on this function. According to leech this function doesn‟t have
any particular purpose. Here words and sentences are considered as linguistic artifacts. This function
serves neither as a request nor as a message.

=>Directive Function:
language is used a directive whereby we aim to influence the behavior or attitudes of others. The most
straightforward instances of the directive function are commands and requests. This function of social
control places emphasis on the receiver's end, rather than the originator's end of the message: but it
resembles the expressive function in giving less importance, on the whole, to conceptual meaning than
to other types of meaning, particularly affective and connotative meaning. Language is used to establish
and maintain social order. Directive use of language establishes norms of expected behavior in certain
situations. Traffic signs, laws, rules and policies are among the common forms of directive language that
promote health and safety in society.

=>Phatic Function:
Phatic Function is the function of keeping communication lines open, and keeping social relationship in
good repair. This language function correlates with the channel of communication. It is used for
opening, keeping or stopping communication line, to examine whether the communication can take
place, or to get the attention of listener and to make sure whether the listener still follows the line of
communication. In fact, the purpose of this poetic function is to keep social relationship in good repair,
or of maintaining cohesion within social groups, in which the information is only for courteous, not the
real one. The example of this function mostly can be found in greeting (opening the conversation),
introducing, farewell and routine polite questions.

Domains of Language Use

Domain:
In sociolinguistics, the term domain is usually used to denote the “social context ofinteraction”. Domain
is an area of human activity in which one particular speech

 variety or acombination of several varieties is regularly used. A domain can be considered as a group
relatedto social situations. Speech communities are made up of a number of domains which
organizeand define social life.

=>Family:
The language used in this domain is informal and it is typical one that is spoken at home.It is the language
that someone is most comfortable with. Family members are obviouslythe main addressee or role relations in the
family domain. The home location would bethe setting and everyday family matters would be the topics.Role
can be changed,mother speaks to father, father speaks to son, sister speaks to brother. Topics can also
bedifferent but the place remains the same. In multilingual community different languagesmay well be
considered appropriate for different role relationships in a domain. Forinstance, in a Pakistani community,
husband and wife may speak in Punjabi but they willspeak in Urdu with their children.

=>Religious:
In this domain, the language used is mostly formal. The addressee and the topics will be changed
according to the situation. The place will be usually a mosque or madrissa.  The topic  will be related to
religion and the addressee will be ‘Qari saab’ or a religious scholar.

=>Educational:

In this domain the language  is usually  formal. The language is used according to the role.The setting can
be a school or any other educational institution. The topic  can be a  math problem or any other
lecture delivered by the teacher.

=>Employment:
In this domain, the setting  will be any workplace, and topic can be related to marketing Or applying for a
job.The use of language will be formal and change according to theRole.
=>Friendship:
In this domain, the setting will be school, college or any other place. The topic can be aconversation, a game or
any other  friendly activity. The language used is usually informal.

Principles of Language use

Politeness:

Wardaugh says that “politeness seems to be very important principle in language use”. It indicates that
people must consider others feelings while they are speaking. Sincepoliteness becomes very important
in speaking people will be very careful in their speech.It is called as language awareness shown through
the general “politeness”, determined socially.

Formality:
Geerts  says that social relationship between speaker and listener affect the languagestyle. Wardaugh
states that speaker apply different style of speaking, for instance, formal  and informal style. Both styles
were used in different conditions. In ceremonialoccasions, speakers use very formal speech  whereas
informal speech  is used inconversation between inmates.

Speech Community

Community:
Group of people with shared activities, practices, beliefs, and social structure.

Speech Community:
For general linguistics, a speech community is all the people who speak a single language and so share
notions of what is same or different in phonology or grammar. This would include any group of people,
wherever they might be, and however remote might be the possibility of their ever wanting or being
able to communicate with each other, all using the same language. Sociolinguists, however, focus on the
language practices of a group of people who do in fact have the opportunity to interact and who, share
not just a single language but a repertoire of languages or varieties.

Lyons (1970) defined it as "All people who use a given language or dialect" This definition was rather
simple and general with the focus on a given language or dialect.

Fishman (1971), a Speech community is a subtype of community “all of whose members share at least a
single speech variety and the norms for its appropriate use”. In this definition, he put forward the
concept of speech variety and norms of usage which was a great step forward.
Characterestic of Speech Community:
=>They speak the same language or dilect.

=>The member of the group must interact linguistically with other member of the community.

=>They may share similar attitude toward linguistic norms.

Five key Elements for Speech Community:

Foundational Condition:
=>Population

=>Area

Improving condition:
=>Facility

=>identification

=>Interation

Aspect May Cause You To Belong In a Speech community And not in Another:
=>Age

=>Social class

=>Education

=>occupation/Hobbies

=>Region/Space

=>Family

=>Religion

=>Gender

=>Ethnicity/Race

Language variety:
Speech variety or Language varity refers to any distinguishable form of speech use by a speaker or group
of speaker.

The distinctive characteristic of speech variety are mainly reflected in its pronounciation, syntax and
vocabulary.

Standard Language:
Standard language or variety is the varity off language which has the heighest status in the community
or nation and which is usually based on speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.

A standar language is generally used in government document, in the news media,and in literature,
described in dictionaries and grammar and taught in schools.

Kachru’s Three Concentric Circles Model

Inner Circle:
The Inner Circle presents the countries where English is the primary language and is used in daily life and
government institutions, such as the United States of America, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia,
and New Zealand.

Outer Circle:
The Outer Circle includes countries that have British colonial ties, and English is widely used in social life
or in the government sector. Most of the countries that belong to this circle are former colonies of the
British Empire, such as India, Malaysia, Singapore, Ghana, Kenya, and others. The use of English in these
countries is English as a second language.

Expanding Circle:
The Expanding Circle includes countries that introduce English as a foreign language in education, mainly
for the purpose of communicating in English with the Inner and Outer Circles. Such countries include
Turkey, Saudi Arabia, The Emirates, Japan, China, Korea, and others.

Bilingualism

The ability to understand and speak two languages at a time simultaneously is called bilingualism.
Moradi regarding bilingualism probably could be used as common definition of bilingualism. He said that bilingualism
is defined as the use of at least two languages either by an individual or by a group of speaker.
 Grosjean . He said Bilingualism is the regular use of two (or more) languages, and bilinguals are those people who need
and use two (or more) languages in their everyday lives.

Hamers and Blanc . They said people who can speak two languages as native languages can be defined as bilingual.

Types of Bilingualism:

=>Early bilingualism - there are two types: simultaneous early bilingualism and consecutive (or
successive) early bilingualism.
o Simultaneous early bilingualism refers to a child who learns two languages at the same time, from
birth. This generally produces a strong bilingualism, called additive bilingualism. This also implies that
the child's language development is bilingual.
o Successive early bilingualism refers to a child who has already partially acquired a first language and
then learns a second language early in childhood (for example, when a child moves to an environment
where the dominant language is not his native language). This generally produces a strong bilingualism
(or additive bilingualism), but the child must be given time to learn the second language, because the
second language is learned at the same time as the child learns to speak. This implies that the language
development of the child is partly bilingual.

=>Late bilingualism – refers to bilingualism when the second language is learned after the age of 6 or 7;
especially when it is learned in adolescence or adulthood. Late bilingualism is a consecutive bilingualism
which occurs after the acquisition of the first language (after the childhood language development
period). This is what also distinguishes it from early bilingualism. With the first language already
acquired, the late bilingual uses their experience to learn the second language.

=>Passive bilingualism - refers to being able to understand a second language without being able to
speak it. Children who respond in a relevant way in English when they are addressed in French could
become passive bilinguals, as their mastery of oral expression in French decreases.

=> Compound bilingualism (Also called additive bilingualism) Speaker who attached most of their
linguistic element to the same concept. They do not have an independent grammar for their second
language. It is asserted that people can learn a second language in such a way that it will always be
dependent on (i.e., compounded to) the first language. A putative example would be the case of the
student who is taught an English equivalent for every French word. This student might eventually
become a balanced bilingual and his ordinary conversation might become indistinguishable from that of
a native Frenchman. Yet it would be asserted by some psycholinguists that this compound bilingual,
because of the way he originally learned French, would still be translating into English every time he
heard French, and translating out of English every time he spoke French.

=>coordinate Bilingualism:(Also called subtractive bilingualism) The linguistic element in speaker

mind are all related to their own unique concept. Those people who learned two languages in separate
contexts; therefore, the grammars of their two languages would be completely independent. It is even
thought that coordinate bilinguals would have great difficulty in translating because of this separateness
of their two languages.

Dimentions of Bilingualism
 Dimension is a concept according to which objects or individual can be distinguished.There are two
dimensions of bilingualism.First is Psychological dimensions and the other one is behavioral dimensions
of bilingualism.

Psychological Dimention:
According to the competence of both language The dimension of competence enables us to take into
account the relative nature of bilinguality, since it focuses on the relationship between two linguistic
competences, one in each language. A distinction has been made between the balanced bilingual who
has equivalent competence in both languages and the dominant bilingual for whom competence in one
of the languages, more often the mother tongue, is superior to his competence in the other (Lambert,).
Balanced bilinguality should not be confused with a very high degree of competence in the two
languages; it is rather aquestion of a state of equilibrium reached by the levels of competence attained
in the two languages as compared to monolingual competence.Equivalent competence should not be
equated with the ability to use both languages for all functions and domains.Regardless of the state of
equilibrium, bilinguality may differ on other dimensions. For example,age and context of acquisition
may lead to differences in cognitive functioning. This distinction, often misinterpreted in the literature,
has to do with a difference of cognitive organization and not with a difference in the degree of
competence, or a difference in the age or context of acquisition. indeed, an individual who learned both
languages as a child in the same context is more likely to have a single cognitive representation for two
translation equivalents, whereas one who learned an L2 in a context different from that of his L1 will
probably have a coordinate organization, that is, he will have separate representations for two
translation equivalents.The age of acquisition plays a part not only in respect of cognitive
representation but also in other aspects of the bilingual’s development, particularly his linguistic,
neuropsychological, cognitive and sociocultural development. Age of acquisition combines with other
data from the subject’s language biography, such as context of acquisition and use of the two
languages.Indeed, age and context often go together: for instance, early acquisition of two languages
often occurs in the same family context, while later acquisition of the second language often takes place
in a school context distinct from a family context for the first language.A distinction must first be made
between childhood bilinguality, adolescent bilinguality and adultbilinguality.

Behavioral Dimention:
when with their monolingual counterparts (of any of the two languages that they speak), bilinguals
will ‘turn off’ or ‘deactivate’ the second language and will only converse with the language their
interlocutor speaks or understands. This is known as the monolingual language mode of the bilingual. It
is these bilinguals who can completely manage to deactivate their second language in such situations
who have made linguists conclude that a bilingual is actually “the sum of two monolinguals”.But
complete deactivation is often a rare case and researches opine that some sort of ‘interference’ always
takes place in the hidden mechanics of bilingualism. Haugen defines ‘interference’ as “the overlapping
of two languages, or application of two systems to the same item.” As Sridhar comments
that“multilingualism involving balances, native-like command of all the languages in the repertoire is
rather uncommon.” This interference could be lexical, phonological or of some other sort.In their
bilingual language mode, the bilingual first chooses a ‘base language’ and then switches to and fro with
the ‘embedded language’. This involves the processes of code-switching and borrowing.Gumperz
defines the former as “the juxtaposition within the same speech exchange of passages of speech
belonging to two different grammatical systems or subsystems.” Johanson defines the latter as “the
copying of a form from one language system into another.” Between the two languages which one to
choose as the base language and which to choose as the embedded, is based upon the setting and the
situation, competency and nature of the interlocutors, type and function of the discourse and several
such reasons. This was a brief overview of the linguistic behavior of many bilinguals.

Reasons to be Bilingual:

1) An edge in the job market

Being bilingual can be a significant career advantage.

2) A fatter retirement account

Since bilinguals have the potential to earn more than monolinguals within in their respective
professions.

3) A better understanding of your native language

Our first language comes to us so naturally that we don’t often think deeply about its organization.
“When you’re able to compare two languages,” Lichtman says, “you learn that there are other possible
ways of doing things, such as structuring a sentence or expressing tense. So, ultimately, you gain a better
understanding of how your first language is constructed.”

4) More fulfilling travel experiences

Being bilingual makes travel easier and more exciting and allows for more personal interactions. “You
can get much deeper into the places you visit if you know the language,” Lichtman says. “Otherwise,
you’re just a tourist.”

5) Other languages come easier

Once you learn a second language, learning the third or fourth is easier, Lichtman says. And she should
know. Lichtman speaks four languages.

6) A global perspective
Learning another language raises the awareness that other countries and groups of people do things
differently. “When you acquire a new language, you don’t just learn vocabulary,” Barbe says. “You learn
to put that language in the context of a different culture.”

7) A bigger brain
The brain calisthenics associated with using two or more languages have a visible effect, Faretta-
Stutenberg says. So bilingual brains look and work differently than monolingual brains. Bilinguals have
better executive function—basically, an easier time switching between tasks and filtering out
unnecessary information.

8) A sharper memory as you age

Lifelong bilingualism has been shown to slow the detrimental effects of natural aging on neurological
efficiency. “As bilinguals age, they outperform monolinguals in cognitive functions, such as recall of
episodic memories.

9) Broader education options

Knowing a second language expands your study abroad horizon because some programs have language
requirements, Barbe says. That’s also true of many Ph.D. programs, so speaking a second languages
provides an edge when applying for graduate school. Strid notes that bilingualism also opens access to
new sources of information, including foreign language speakers and literature and research articles that
aren’t published in English.

10) Newfound meaning

The saying “lost in translation” is reality. “Some ideas and words that occur in one language are difficult
to express in another language,” Strid says. For example, English cannot easily express levels of respect
found in languages such as Korean or Japanese.

Language Acquisition:
First language acquisition refers to the way children learn their native language. Second language
acquisition refers to the learning of another language or languages besides the native language.

For children learning their native language, linguistic competence develops in stages, from babbling to
one word to two word, then telegraphic speech. Babbling is now considered the earliest form of
language acquisition because infants will produce sounds based on what language input they receive.

Causes of Bilingualism:
There are several reasons people become bilingual

1. Choice. Of course, sometimes becoming bilingual is purely motivated by an interest in languages. This
is my case. I became fascinated by words and language at a young age and started studying other
languages in school. I continue to learn as much as I can about language and acquire as many language
skills as I can for purely selfish, intellectual reasons, in addition to my Spanish translation projects.

2. Geography. The choice is a relatively uncommon reason for becoming bilingual, however. Geography

plays a bigger role, worldwide. In many areas of the world small regions are home to several disparate
groups speaking different languages, and being able to function in daily life often means having to learn
a second or third language.

3. Migration. Obviously, when you move to another country altogether, you will have to learn to speak
the dominant language of that country if you want to take part in society. Migration accounts for a very
large proportion of bilinguals, in fact, though many of them do not become fluent so much as simply
capable in their adopted language, and still use their native language at home.

4. Religious or Professional Reasons. Some religions regard their traditional language to be holy, and
even when they are practices in new areas or when the original language has fallen into disuse, those
seeking to pursue religious studies must still learn the holy language. Similarly, many professions are
dominated by a language – for example, in computer science, English – and being successful in those
fields might require fluency in that language.

Diglossia:
" The term diglossia was adapted from French diglossie by the American linguist Charles Ferguson to
describe societies in which a classical form of a language is used for certain domains

Diglossia is the term used to describe a situation in which:

a) two speech varieties are used within a single speech community, and
b) each speech variety is used in specific domains, with little overlap between domains in which the two
speech varieties are used.

Domains:
The key term in the above definition is domain "domain is defined as a combination of specific times,
settings and role relationships, for example:

•Family domain: chatting at home with family members

•Friends domain: chatting about non work issues with colleagues meeting friends at a social gathering
•Religious domain: preaching or praying in a place of worship conducting religious ceremonies such as
weddings and funerals
•Employment domain: talking about work related issues with colleagues in the usual work location ,office,
factory, farm, etc"
•Education domain: giving a lecture at university teaching a class at elementary-primary school
•etc" there is no fixed list of domains).

In a diglossic situation, one speech variety is used in domains such as education,employment, formal

religion, preaching, liturgy, public speeches and television news broadcasts" this is known as the
High variety , where the other speech variety is used in domains such as family, friends, informal
meetings, and entertaining television broadcasts such as soap operas" this is known as the
Low variety.

Loan Words:
 A loanword, is a word permanently adopted from one language (the donor language) and
incorporated into another language without translation.

A word directly taken into one language from another one with little or no translation.

 Examples of loanwords in the English language include café (from French café, which means
"coffee".

Borrowing:

Borrowing is the process of importing linguistic items from one linguistic system into another, a process
that occurs any time two cultures are in contact. The term ‘borrowing’ describes a process in which one
language replicate linguistic features from another language, either wholly or partlyperiod of time.

Example: Television “tele” from Greek (far off) and “visio” from Latin (to see), Pizza from Italy.

Code switching: (Clause and sentence level)

In many situations, a speaker may shift from one code to another, intentionally or unintentionally. This
shift may be from one language to another, from one dialect to another, or from one style to another
for many different reasons. A bilingual teacher in class may switch his or her language in order to
elaborate a certain point they are explaining. Sociolinguists refer to this shift as 'code-siwitching.

Woolard, She defines code-switching as 'the investigation of an individual’s use of two or more language
varieties in the same speech event or exchange'.

Hymes defines code-switching as “a common term for alternative use of two or more languages,
varieties of a language or even speech styles”.

Example: Good morning students, How are you, “sab teek ho, aj hm kia prngy”

Types of Code Switching:

Intra sentential: When we use different varity of language with in the sentence e.g I like him,kion k
o bahot mehnati hain. Intra sentential is based on the clause level.
Inter sentential: It is based on sentence level, when we speak one sentence in one language and
other in another language.e.g o bahot acha larka hain, because he always obeys his parents.

Extra sentential/Tag switching: This is the switching of either a single word or a tag phrase (or
both) from one language to another.e.g Aj sham hm market chalynga Right?

Dominent language in code switching are called Matrix and minor language are called Embadded.

Code Mixing:(Words and Phrase Level)

Code-mixing is the other phenomenon closely related to code-switching. It usually occurs when
conversant use both languages together, switch between two language to the extent that they change
from one tongue to the other in the course of a single utterance. Code mixing takes place without a
change of topic and can involve various levels of language such as phonology, morphology, grammatical
structures or lexical items.

Types:

Intra sentential: When we mix words with in the sentence e.g I like jalebi. This is also called Laxical
level.

Phonalogical level: Based on the pronounciation of words.e.g o iskool(which is an English word but
pronounciation is wrong) nhi jata hain.

Morphological Level: Based on grammer level e.g Teacharo (we make plural here but
wrong) ko bula k lao.

Hybrid Level: Mixing of two compound words (indefindent words) e.g Railgadi(Rail is an English
word and gadi is an urdu world) chal rahi hain

Prosodic Level: Based on style of speaking or the pronounciation of other language like his own
mother tongue e.g I am filling Form (here the Form we pronounce it Foram)

Domenent Language in Code Mixing is called Base Language And minor Language is called Supra or
Source Language.
 (Effects of Bilingualism)

(1) Language Conflect:

Conflict plays a role in many social sciences. Linguistically, conflict between different ethnic groups
often results from language contact. Problems viewed as political, economic or sociological in nature are
often actually rooted in linguistic conflict.

Contacts between different languages have inevitably resulted in conflicts between speakers of those
language

Language conflicts can be brought about by changes in an expanding social system when there is contact
between different language groups (Inglehart and Woodward) 

The contact between two ethnic groups occours between group that have different digree of
Tension,resentment,different point of views, culture background ete thus one of the group might seems
unfamiliar to the other group. Under certain condition this may degenerate into intense conflect,
ending with violence.

(2) Language Attitude:

People have attitudes/feelings/beliefs about language in general, their language, and the language of
other people. They may feel that an unwritten language is not a 'real' language. They may feel shame
when other people hear their language. They may believe that they can only know one language at a
time. They may feel that the national language is the best language for expressing patriotism, the best
way to get a job, the best chance at improving their children's future.

Attitudinal studies aid in identifying how people of one language group view the personal character and
social status of speakers of another language and how they form associations about other languages. 

Attitudes are personal beliefs, but there are patterns of attitudes throughout a community. Similar
people will have similar attitudes and a profile of the community can be developed.
 (3) Language maintenance:

Language maintenance refers to the situation where a speaker, group of speaker or a speech community
continuous to use their language in same or all spheres despie competetion with the dominant or
majority language to become the main language in these spheres.

Language maintenance is the degree to which an individual or groups continues to use their
language,particulary in bilingual or multilingual area or among imigrant group whereas language shift is
the process by which a new language is acquired by new community usually resulting with the loss of
the community’s first language.

Facrors that affect Language maintenance:

If language maintenance does not occur, there can be several results. One is language death; speakers
become bilingual, younger speakers become dominant in another language, and the language is said to
die. Thespeakers or the community does not die, of course, they just become a subset of speakers of
another language. The end result is language shift for the population, and if the language isn't spoken
elsewhere, it dies.

How Language can be Maintained:

1) A language can be maintained and preserved, when it's highly valued as an important symbol of

ethnic identity forthe minority group.

2) If families from a minority group live near each other and see each other frequently, their interactions
will help tomaintain the language.

3) For emigrate individuals from a minority group, the degree and frequency of contact with the

homeland cancontribute to language maintenance.

4) Intermarriage within the same minority group is helpful to maintain the native language.

5) Ensuring that the minority group language is used at formal settings such as schools or worship places
will increaseslanguage maintenance.

6) An extended normal family in which parents, children and grandchildren live together and use the

same minoritylanguage can help to maintain it.

7) Institutional support from domains such as education, law, administration, religion and the media can

make adifference between the success and failure of maintaining a minority group language.
 (4) Language shift:

Language shift is language transfer or language replacement where by a speech community of a
language to speaking another language. It’s happens when the language of the wider society
(majority)displaces the minority mother tongue language over time in migrant communities or in
communities under military occupation. Therefore when language shift occurs, it shifts most of the time
towards the language of the dominant group, and the result could be the eradication of the local
language.

Factor cause Language shift:

1. Economic, social and political factor:
1-The dominant language is associated with social status and prestige.
2-Obtaining work is the obvious economic reason for learning another language.
3-The pressure of institutional domains such as schools and the media.

2. Demographic factors:
1-Language shift is faster in urban areas than rural.
2-The size of the group is some times a critical factor.
3-Intermarriage between groups can accelerate language shift.

3. Attitudes and values:
Language shift is slower among communities where the minority language is highly
valued, therefore when thelanguage is seen as an important symbol of ethnic identity its
generally maintained longer, and visa versa.

(5)LANGUAGE DEATH:

Language death is a process in which the level of a speech community's linguistic competence in

their language variety decreases, eventually resulting in no native or fluent speakers of the variety.
Language death can affect any language form, including dialects. Language death should not be
confused with language attrition (also called language loss), which describes the loss of proficiency in
a first language of an individual.

Types of Language death:

 Gradual language death: the most common way that languages die . Generally happens when the
people speaking that language interact with speakers of a language of higher prestige. This group of
people first becomes bilingual, then with newer generations the level of proficiency decreases, and
finally no native speakers exist.
 Bottom-to-top language death: occurs when the language starts to be used for only religious,
literary, ceremonial purposes, but not in casual context.

 Top-to-bottom language death: happens when language shift begins in a high-level environment
such as the government, but still continues to be used in casual context.

 Radical language death: the disappearance of a language when all speakers of the language cease
to speak the language because of threats, pressure, persecution, or colonisation.

 Linguicide (also known as sudden death, language genocide, physical language death, and biological
language death): occurs when all or almost all native speakers of that language die because of
natural disasters, wars etc.
 Language attrition: the loss of proficiency in a language at the individual level.

Effect of Language death:

The social effect of language loss can eventually lead to extinction of culture and tradition. In the event
that a native group no longer participates in cultural traditions that it had previously held on. The
cultural rituals of a people are carried out in the native language.

Dialect:

Any variety of a language characterized by systematic differences in pronunciation, grammar, and

vocabulary from other varieties of the same language is called a dialect.

Everyone speaks a dialect – in fact, many dialects at different levels. The people who speak a certain
dialect are called a speech community. Some of the larger dialectal divisions in the English speaking
world: British English vs. American English vs. Australian English (along with others). Northern American
English, Southern American English, etc.

Regional Dialect:
This type of dialect is associated with speakers living in a particular geographic location. The evolution
of languages into various dialects is influenced by factors including time, place, and socio-culture. Even
with in each country around the globe itself, there are multiple dialects based on geographic location.

Social Dialect / Sociolect:

This is a type of dialect that is associated with speakers belonging to a given demographic group,
whether it is gender, age group, religion, ethnicity, and socioeconomic class. For example, individuals
who attend different educational institutions have learned different ways of speaking, including
grammar, words, formality, and syntax. In addition, various professions have their own expressions,
including technical terminology and other casual words that might be difficult for someone to
understand if they do not work in the same field.

Idiolect:

A dialect spoken by one individual is called an idiolect. Everyone has small differences between the way
they talk and the way even their family and best friends talk, creating a “minimal dialect”.

Accent:

• An accent is a certain form of a language spoken by a subgroup of speakers of that language which is
defined by phonological features.

• Everyone has an accent, just as everyone speaks a dialect. It’s not a question of “having” or “not
having” an accent or dialect, it’s a question of which accent or dialect you speak with.

• Note that you can speak the same dialect as someone else while using a different accent (though
frequently the two vary together). Thus people from Boston and Brooklyn use about the same dialect,
but their accents are radically different.
 Pidgin:

Pidgin is a type of simplified language which came into existence as a result of contact between two or
more languages in order to find a means of communication. This situation mostly occurs in trade,
plantation and colonization. Pidgin is said to be language with simplified syntax, word order etc. because
it is constructed in an unplanned way.

Pidgin is a language system that developed among people that don‟t have common language to share, it
is a language of contact situation where there is no common language to use.

When you critically examine the pidgin, there are two things involved: one is the circumstances in which
it has been developed (i.e. the contact situation). Secondly, the purpose of its development is to have a
common language among the contact people. It is obvious to say that the contact condition brought
pidgin into existence and the purpose of having common language among people that keeping or
maintaining its existence.

Creole:

A creole is a naturalized stable language that came into existence through mixed parent languages. It is a
language that developed or derived from pidgin. When a language has its origin from an extended
between more communities, one of which is European language then it is called a creole. Creole
integrates characteristics from the all the parent languages to establish the mother tongue of a
community. Creole has native speakers, unlike pidgin it is first language to children of the community
where it has been spoken, it is a mother tongue to children. This language is invented by children, and
became a primary language to them. It is has a grammatically structured form and many of its
vocabularies were derived from the superstrate language. Literally, superstrate means any stratum or
layer superimposed on another, and linguistically is the major language in which pidgins are based and
has large number of vocabularies i.e. dominant language.

Todd defined creole this way “A creole arises when a pidgin becomes the mother tongue of a speech-
community”.

Register:

Register often refers to the degree of formality of language, but in a more general sense it means the
language used by a group of people who share similar work or interests .
Imagine that you're going to be introduced to a very important person who you have never met. Maybe
it is the Queen of England. When you meet her, would you say: 'Hey, dude! What's up?' Probably not.
You would say something more formal such as 'It is an honor to meet you, Your Highness.' On the other
hand, you wouldn't call your best friend 'His Royal Highness.' Instead you would be fine using
the informal address, 'dude.'
In every situation you encounter, you use speech appropriate to the person to whom you are speaking
and his or her context. The language you use when talking to your friends is not the same language you
would use when meeting someone as important as the Queen. This difference in language formality is
called register.
 Formal registers can include everything from an academic essay to wedding vows. The academic essay
is formal because it includes polished speech, complex sentences, and precise vocabulary. The wedding
vows are an example of extremely formal language that must be said the same way each time as part of
a ritual.
Informal registers. Informal language occurs between people who know each other well and who speak
without trying to be 'proper'. Sometimes this includes speaking in slang and other times it's simply a
more casual delivery. For example, you might say, 'Could you bring us more coffee, please?' to a waiter
at a fancy restaurant, but at your favorite hangout you might say, 'Can I get a little more coffee here?'
when you've reached the bottom of your cup.

Standard Language:
”The standard language is a type of written or spoken language which has been accepted in society as the dominant
linguistic pattern and is used by educated people and the upper classes of society."

Standard language is used on formal occasions such as when teaching in schools, in the press, on radio and
television and in the course of formal interviews and conversations. The standard language enjoys such a high
degree of social prestige that it is adopted or imitated by many people and social groups in the country

Standard language is an idealized variety of a language that is considered the dominant or prestige
variety within a language. It is the version of a language that is held up by prescriptive grammarians and
language purists as correct.
The standard version of a language is not actually spoken by anyone. Its function is "to bind people
together or to provide a common written form for multidialectal speakers" (Fromkin and Rodman ).

Since languages always change over time, no one will ever truly speak the standard form for long, if
indeed it is ever actually used in day-to-day situations. There are three major points to notice about
standard language:

 The standard dialect serves a function: binding people together with a common written form
 Standard forms are grammatical forms. They are not bizarre ways of talking or writing that some
mad professor thought up.
 Any variety of a language could be chosen to achieve this function; it wouldn't have to be the
variety that has been labeled as standard.
 Language Planning:
 All conscious efforts that aim at changing the linguistic behaviour of a speech community
(Mesthrieet )

 Overt directed purposeful language change brought about in order to solve some identified
problem (Lewis).

Status Planning:
Decisions and activities aimed at changing the functions or uses  of languages (or language
varity) with in a particular speech community.
Example: the decision to use Hebrew as a medium of instruction in Jewish schools in Palestine
from the end of the 19th century.

Curpos Planning:
Decisions and activities required to fit the forms and structures of languages to the assigned
functions.
Examples: designing an orthography, creating new words, publishing dictionaries.

Acquisition Planning:
Decisions and activities required to enable current or potential users of the language to
implement the status and corpus decisions including activities aimed at helping people to learn
the language or to acquire specific skills (such as literacy) in the language.

Examples: Mother Tongue Education programmes, language revitalization activitie.

Prestige Planning:

Decisions  and  activities  aimed  at  creating positive attitudes  towards the language which are vital
to the long term success of other language planning activities.

The Process of language Planning:

The American Linguist Einar Haugen suggested that Language Planning typically consist of four stages.
=>Selection:

Selection describes the process of choosing a certain language variety to be used for certain functions in
asociety at the national level this includes the choice of a national or official language, at the local level
this includes choosing which dialect of a language to use as the medium of instruction in a Mother
Tongue. Education programme in local primary schools in the context of bible translation it includes
deciding which languages to start a bible translation project in and which dialect to choose in situations
where various dialects are spoken.

=>Codification:
Having selected a variety for a certain range of functions this variety is then codified in terms of how it  is
written (Graphization) its grammar (grammatication) and its vocabulary (lexicalization)

Graphization:
 Where a language variety is being used in a  written form for the first time the development of
an orthography is a crucial activity. The orthography must adequately represent the structure of the language
(including its phonology if an alphabetic or syllabic system is chosen) it must be easy to read and write and it
must be acceptable to the community For these reasons orthography development should involve
collaboration between linguists literacy specialists and community representatives.

Grammatication:
 Codifying the rules of the grammar typically occurs in the case of national languages and Languages which
are learned as a second language but this activity does not always happen with languages which are only
used in a local context by mother tongue speakers A linguist may write a grammar of a minority language but
this will be descriptive (documenting as far as possible the variation in how the language is spoken rather than
prescriptive (defining how the  language should be used).

Lexicalization:
 Language contact is an almost universal phenomenon and a typical result of language contact is borrowing of
words and expressions. In situations where a language is being promoted to an official function of some kind
(e.g educational, religious) lexicalization often involves making decisions about which words are authentic
and which words are loan words. This is particularly the case where language is associated with a particular
ethnic or political identity.

=>Implementation:
Implementation typically involves materials production (BOOKS NEWS PAPER ETC.) This is usually done by
the state in the case of national languages and by a combination of local communities (through language
committees or similar organizations and government or religious organizations in the case of local languages
Implementation can also include activities such as language festivals and other cultural events. language
development projects usually involve a wide range of implementation activities.

=>Elaboration:
Elaboration (also called modernization) covers all aspects of corpus planning which the language is
developed to meet the needs of modern society. One important are is the development of  vocabulary
(Lexicalization) in particular terms for technological items such as mobile phones and computers. New
words may already be in use either borrowings from another language, extensions of meaning of
existing words or (less often) neologisms. In bible translation projects new terms may be needed for a
number ofcultural and theological concepts.