Earth & Life Science 11: Plant

and Animal Reproduction.

Submitted By: Group 3 – 11 Freedom
Submitted To: Ms. Karen Villareal
 What is Reproduction?

Reproduction
Procreation - reproduction sustains the species so
that it does not become extinct.
Quality improvement - it allows for the mixing of
genetic materials leading to variation among
individuals in a species.
 Two types of REPRODUCTION Asexual &
Sexual.
 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION - does not involve gametes, instead parts of a mature organism may
develop to new individuals.
• results from mitotic cell division (mitosis). During asexual reproduction one cell, called the parent
cell, divides into two identical daughter cells. The new organisms, called offspring are genetically
identical to the parent cell.

Types of Asexual Reproduction

1. Binary Fission
2. Sporulation
3. Budding
4. Fragmentation
 Binary Fission

 A cell splits into two new

cells of equal size

 Each daughter cell grows

into a new organism

 Occurs in organisms such

as amoeba, euglena,
paramecium, some fungi
and bacteria.
 Sporulation
 Formation of spores

 Spores are small haploid cells

produced by plants

 Spores give rise to new haploid

organisms

 Includes molds, ferns, bryophytes,

pteridophytes
 Budding
 Where an outgrowth arises from a
parent and drops off to develop
into a new organisms.

 Hereditary material in the

daughter cell and parent are
exactly the same.

 Occurs in organisms such as

hydra, jelly fish, sea anemones,
yeast and some fungi.
 Fragmentation

 Multicellular or colonial organisms

is a form of asexual reproduction
or cloning in which an organism is
split into fragments. Each of these
fragments develop into mature,
fully grown individuals that are
clones of the original organism.
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Asexual
Reproduction
ADVANTAGES OF ASEXUAL DISADVANTAGES OF ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION REPRODUCTION
 Retention of useful  Lack of genetic variation.
characteristics/genes/traits.

 Lowered resistance to disease.

 Offspring establish faster/shorter life cycle.

 Loss of hybrid vigor.

 Better chances of survival because of
suitable environment.
 Competition for resources due to
overcrowding.
 Sexual Reproduction &
Genetic Recombination
Sexual Reproduction - In sexual reproduction,
two individuals produce offspring that have
genetic characteristics from both parents.
Sexual reproduction introduces new gene
combinations in a population through
genetic recombination.
Genetic Recombinition - refers to the process
of recombining genes to produce new gene
combinations that differ from those of either
parent. Genetic recombination produces
genetic variation in organisms that
reproduce sexually
ADVANTAGES
• Leads to variations.
• Variations which are desirable often show
hybrid vigor.
• High adaptability of individuals to
changing environmental conditions.
• Variations provide a basis for evolutionary
changes.
DISADVANTAGES
• Fusion is difficult if two individuals are
isolated.
• Some variations may have undesirable
qualities.
• Population growth is slow
 Two types of Sexual Reproduction:
Isogamy & Heterogamy
 ISOGAMY –
• Form of sexual reproduction that involves gametes of similar morphology but different in allele
expression in one or more mating types.
• Gametes are not categorized under male or female but can be denoted as + and –
• In all cases, fertilization occurs when gametes of two different mating types fuse to form a zygote.
TYPES OF ISOGAMY
•Motile cells
•Non – motile
•Conjugation
ISOGAMOUS ORGANISMS
• Basically, isogamy occurs in the lower classes like fungi, algae, etc.
• Examples are Chlamydomonas and Spirogyra (both are green algae)
 HETEROGAMY OR ANISOGAMY - sexual
reproduction that involves the union or fusion
of two gametes, which differ in size and/or
form. The smaller gamete is considered to be
male (sperm cell), whereas the larger gamete
is regarded as female (egg cell).

 TYPES OF HETEROGAMY
• Flagellated or motile – Both gametes may be
flagellated
• Non – motile – does not have flagella
• Oogamy – occurs between animal sex cells
(including human)
 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
 HERMAPHRODITES –
• Organisms having both the male and female reproductive organs.
• Examples are flowers having both stamen and carpel; i.e. Roses, Lilies, etc.
 BISEXUAL REPRODUCTION –
• Occurs between hermaphrodite plants.
• Many plants are self-fertile and the male parts can pollinate the female parts of the same flower
and/or same plant. Some plants use a method known as self-incompatibility to promote outcrossing.
Here, the male organs cannot fertilize the female parts of the same plant; other plants produce male
and female flowers at different times to promote outcrossing.
 FLOWERS –
• In flowering plants, a flower is the reproductive organ which is a specialized shoot consisting of
modified stem and leaves.
• The structure of a flower is described on the next slide.
 Parts & Kinds of Flowers • Dioecious plants - Have
pistilate and staminate
 Sepals Protect the Important terms:
flowers on different plants
unopened flower
The plants are also known as
 Petals May be brightly • Unisexual - Have only one of
male or female plant.
colored to attract insects the reproductive organ:
carpel or stamen i.e. either
• Monoecious plants - Have
 Stamens The male parts male or female flower.
pistilate and staminate on
of the flower (each
one plant. However, pistilate
consists of an anther held • Carpelate Also called
and staminate occur at
up on a filament) pistilate - contains only
different parts of the plants
 Anthers Produce male sex carpels hence a female
e.g. maize
cells (pollen grains) flower
• Complete flower - Has all
• Staminate Also called a
four parts i.e. sepals, petals,
male flower - Contains
pistil and stamen
stamens only.
• Incomplete flower - Do not
have all four parts • At least
one part is missing.
 POLLINATION & FERTILIZATION
 POLLINATION -
• Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of a flower.
• Results in seeds that will grow into new plants.
• Plants have gametes, which contain half the normal number of chromosomes for that plant species.
Male gametes are found inside tiny pollen grains on the anthers of flowers. Female gametes are found
in the ovules of a flower. Pollination is the process that brings these male and female gametes
together.
 POLLEN GRAIN -
• A structure produced by plants containing the male haploid gamete to be used in reproduction. The
gamete is covered by protective layers which perform their role until the pollen grain is capable of
fertilizing when reaching the stigma.
 EMBRYO SAC -
• A cell located at the center of the ovule that contains the haploid egg cell (female gametophyte)
for flowering plants.
TYPES OF POLLINATION: Self Pollination
& Cross Pollination
 FERTILIZATION in Plants
 FERTILIZATION –
• Fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote.
• Zygote – eukaryotic cell produced by the fertilization of two gametes.
 FERTILIZATION IN PLANTS –
• If the pollen grain lands on a compatible stigma, a pollen tube will grow so that eventually
the egg cell, hidden away in the embryo sac, can be fertilized. A tube emerges from the
grain, its growth being controlled by the tube nucleus at the tip of the tube. It may grow
downwards in response to chemicals made by the ovary (a response known as
chemotropism).
• During the growth and extension of the tube, the generative nucleus, behind the tube
nucleus, divides by mitosis to produce 2 male haploid gametes. The pollen tube enters the
ovule through the micropyle and penetrates the embryo sac wall. The tip of the tube bursts
open, the tube nucleus dies and what follows is called double fertilization.
 FERTILIZATION in Plants
• 1 male gamete fuses with the egg cell to produce a diploid zygote.
• 1 male gamete fuses with both the polar nuclei to produce the triploid primary endosperm nucleus.
• Immediately after fertilization, the ovule is known as the seed.
After Fertilization…
1. The zygote divides many times by mitosis to produce an embryo. It differentiates to become a
plumule (young shoot), radicle (young root) and either 1 or 2 cotyledons (seed leaves). It is
attached to the wall of the embryo sac by a suspensor.
2. The primary endosperm nucleus divides many times by mitosis to produce endosperm tissue. In
some seeds this endosperm is a food store for later use by the seed. In others it may gradually
disappear as the cotyledons develop.
3. To accommodate all this growth the embryo sac expands and the nucleus is crushed out of
existence, giving its nutrients to the embryo and endosperm.
 FERTILIZATION in Plants
4. The integuments surrounding the embryo
sac become the tough and protective
testa(seed coat). The micropyle remains
though so that oxygen and water can be
taken in at germination.
5. The water content of the seed decreases
drastically so the seed is prepared for
dormancy.
6. The ovary wall becomes the pericarp - the
fruit wall, the whole ovary now being the
fruit. The function of the fruit is to protect
the seeds and to aid in their dispersal, e.g.
by an animal. That is why they can be
brightly coloured and sweet; animals will
eat them and scatter the seeds either at
the time of eating or when they are passed
out of the gut in defecation, unharmed.
 GERMINATION
 • When conditions are right, the seed will take up water through the micropyle by
imbibition. This triggers the beginning of the growth of the seed.
 • The cell swells and the testa splits. With the addition of water, large molecules of
carbohydrate, protein and fat can be hydrolyzed (broken down) to produce substances
for respiration.
 • The water activates such enzymes as a-amylase to catalyze this digestion.
 • The growing embryo releases a hormone called gibberellic acid and some enzymes
are produced and released in response to this.
 • The soluble products of digestion are delivered to the cotyledons, root and shoot. They
respire aerobically and grow in size.
 • By the time the food store has been used up, the shoot has grown enough to push the
first leaves into the sunlight. Photosynthesis can then start.
 Changes that Occur in a flower after fertilization

 • Petals, stamen, calyx and style wither

 • Ovary wall changes into pericarp
 • Intergument changes into seed coat/testa
 • Zygote changes into embryo (by mitosis)
 • Primary endosperm nucleus changes into endosperm
 • hole ovule changes into seed
 • Ovary develops and grows into fruit(under the influence of gibberrellic
hormone)
 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION OF ANIMALS

 In animals, there are two individuals involved, male and a female.

 Special organs called gonads (testes and ovaries) produce gametes

(sperm cell and egg cell)

 Testes: Male: Sperm; Ovaries: Female: Ova

 Sperm and ovum fuses to form a zygote and is called fertilization

 GAMETES
Sperm Ovum
 long with a tail and head  spherical
 small  large
 locomotory  stationary
 stores little food  a lot of food stored in yolky cytoplasm
 has acrosome (tip with lytic enzymes)  lacks acrosome
 nucleus prominent but cytoplasm  a lot of cytoplasm
negligible
OVUM • An egg cell (ovum) is one of the
largest cells in the human body and
can just be seen without using a
microscope.

• Each egg cell has a haploid

nucleus - containing only half the
number of chromosomes of a
normal cell nucleus. It has a large
cytoplasm which contains the
nutrients and mitochondria needed
for mitosis (cell division) after
fertilization. And each egg has a
special cell membrane which only
allows one sperm to fertilize it.
 FERTILIZATION IN ANIMALS
There are two types of fertilization in animals: External Fertilization (occurs outside of the body of the
female) & Internal Fertilization (inside the body of the female).

 EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION - External fertilization usually occurs in aquatic environments

where both eggs and sperm are released into the water. After the sperm reaches the
egg, fertilization takes place. Most external fertilization happens during the process of
spawning where one or several females release their eggs and the male(s) release sperm
in the same area, at the same time. The spawning may be triggered by environmental
signals, such as water temperature or the length of daylight. Nearly all fish spawn, as do
crustaceans (such as crabs and shrimp), mollusks (such as oysters), squid, and
echinoderms (such as sea urchins and sea cucumbers). Frogs, corals, mollusks, and sea
cucumbers also spawn.
EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION IN ANIMALS
 Advantages and Disadvantages
 ADVANTAGES
• Large numbers produced
therefore many offspring per
breeding season
• Female does not suffer
gestation stress
• Mother does not need to care
for the young except in a few
species
• The surviving individuals are
highly selected for better survival
 DISADVANTAGES
• Many predators surround the eggs
before and after fertilization
• Fewer chances of fertilization/a lot
of gametes wasted
• Embryo development at mercy of
environment
• Large numbers of female gametes
are required therefore female gets
much exhausted
 FERTILIZATION IN ANIMALS
 Internal fertilization - occurs
most often in terrestrial animals,
although some aquatic
animals also use this method.
Internal fertilization may occur
by the male directly depositing
sperm in the female during
mating. It may also occur by
the male depositing sperm in
the environment, usually in a
protective structure, which a
female picks up to deposit the
sperm in her reproductive tract.
 Advantages and Disadvantages
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• more chances of fertilization • number of gametes fewer
• fewer predators of hence less number of offspring
oval/fertilized egg protected in • less adapted for sudden
females body change of environment after
• stable internal environment birth
• fewer gametes required • in mammals females suffer
gestation stress
 HOW GENES WORK?
 The function of genes is to provide the information needed to make molecules called proteins in
cells.[1] Cells are the smallest independent parts of organisms: the human body contains about 100
trillion cells, while very small organisms like bacteria are just a single cell. A cell is like a miniature and
very complex factory that can make all the parts needed to produce a copy of itself, which
happens when cells divide. There is a simple division of labor in cells—genes give instructions and
proteins carry out these instructions, tasks like building a new copy of a cell, or repairing the
damage.[6] Each type of protein is a specialist that only does one job, so if a cell needs to do
something new, it must make a new protein to do this job. Similarly, if a cell needs to do something
faster or slower than before, it makes more or less of the protein responsible. Genes tell cells what to
do by telling them which proteins to make and in what amounts.
 Proteins are made of a chain of 20 different types of amino acid molecules. This chain folds up into
a compact shape, rather like an untidy ball of string. The shape of the protein is determined by the
sequence of amino acids along its chain and it is this shape that, in turn, determines what the
protein does.[6] For example, some proteins have parts of their surface that perfectly match the
shape of another molecule, allowing the protein to bind to this molecule very tightly. Other proteins
are enzymes, which are like tiny machines that alter other molecules.[7]
 HOW GENES WORK?
 The information in DNA is held in the sequence of the repeating units along the DNA chain.[8] These
units are four types of nucleotides (A,T,G and C) and the sequence of nucleotides stores
information in an alphabet called the genetic code. When a gene is read by a cell the DNA
sequence is copied into a very similar molecule called RNA (this process is called transcription).
Transcription is controlled by other DNA sequences (such as promoters), which show a cell where
genes are, and control how often they are copied. The RNA copy made from a gene is then fed
through a structure called a ribosome, which translates the sequence of nucleotides in the RNA
into the correct sequence of amino acids and joins these amino acids together to make a
complete protein chain. The new protein then folds up into its active form. The process of moving
information from the language of RNA into the language of amino acids is called translation.[9]
 If the sequence of the nucleotides in a gene changes, the sequence of the amino acids in the
protein it produces may also change—if part of a gene is deleted, the protein produced is shorter
and may not work anymore.[6] This is the reason why different alleles of a gene can have different
effects on an organism. As an example, hair color depends on how much of a dark substance
called melanin is put into the hair as it grows. If a person has a normal set of the genes involved in
making melanin, they make all the proteins needed and they grow dark hair. However, if the alleles
for a particular protein have different sequences and produce proteins that can't do their jobs, no
melanin is produced and the person has white skin and hair (albinism).[10]
 HOW GENES WORK
 Genes are copied
Main article: DNA replication
 Genes are copied each time a cell divides into two new cells. The process that copies DNA is called DNA
replication.[8] It is through a similar process that a child inherits genes from its parents when a copy from
the mother is mixed with a copy from the father.
 DNA can be copied very easily and accurately because each piece of DNA can direct the assembly of
a new copy of its information. This is because DNA is made of two strands that pair together like the two
sides of a zipper. The nucleotides are in the center, like the teeth in the zipper, and pair up to hold the
two strands together. Importantly, the four different sorts of nucleotides are different shapes, so for the
strands to close up properly, an A nucleotide must go opposite a T nucleotide, and a G opposite a C. This
exact pairing is called base pairing.[8]
 When DNA is copied, the two strands of the old DNA are pulled apart by enzymes; then they pair up with
new nucleotides and then close. This produces two new pieces of DNA, each containing one strand from
the old DNA and one newly made strand. This process is not predictably perfect as proteins attach to a
nucleotide while they are building and cause a change in the sequence of that gene. These changes in
the DNA sequence are called mutations.[11] Mutations produce new alleles of genes. Sometimes these
changes stop the functioning of that gene or make it serve another advantageous function, such as the
melanin genes discussed above. These mutations and their effects on the traits of organisms are one of
the causes of evolution.[12]
 The Process of Genetic The genetic engineering process
Engineering A small piece of circular DNA called a plasmid? is
extracted from the bacteria or yeast cell.
 How does genetic engineering work?
A small section is then cut out of the circular
 To help explain the process of genetic
engineering we have taken the example of plasmid by restriction enzymes, ‘molecular
insulin, a protein? that helps regulate the scissors’.
sugar levels in our blood.
The gene for human insulin is inserted into the gap
 Normally insulin? is produced in
the pancreas?, but in people with type in the plasmid. This plasmid is now genetically
1 diabetes? there is a problem with insulin modified.
production.
The genetically modified plasmid is introduced
 People with diabetes therefore have to
into a new bacteria or yeast cell.
inject insulin to control their blood sugar
levels. This cell then divides rapidly and starts making
insulin.
 Genetic engineering has been used to
produce a type of insulin, very similar to our To create large amounts of the cells, the
own, from yeast and bacteria? like E. coli?.
genetically modified bacteria or yeast are grown
 This genetically modified insulin, ‘Humulin’ in large fermentation vessels that contain all the
was licensed for human use in 1982. nutrients they need. The more the cells divide, the
more insulin is produced.
 The Process of Genetic Engineering
The genetic engineering
process.
 When fermentation is
complete, the
mixture is filtered to
release the insulin.
 The insulin is then
purified and
packaged into
bottles and insulin
pens for distribution
to patients with
diabetes.
 Background: What is A GMO?
 GMOs, or genetically modified organisms are organisms whose genetic material has been altered
using genetic engineering. Genetic engineering is the modification of an organism's phenotype
by altering its genetic make-up. Genetic engineering is primarily performed by simple mating or
gene recombination. A latter section in this module elaborates further on how genetically
modified crops are created. . GMOs range from micro-organisms like yeast and bacteria to
insects, plants, fish and mammals. Genetically modified crops (GM crops) are those engineered to
introduce a new trait into the species. Purposes of GM crops generally include resistance to
certain pests, diseases, or environmental conditions, or resistance to chemical treatments (e.g.
resistance to a herbicide). Other purposed of genetic modification of crops is to enhance its
nutritional value, as seen in the case of golden rice.
 The use of GM crops is widely debated. At the moment there is no known harm in consuming
genetically modified foods. GM foods are developed – and marketed – because there is some
perceived advantage either to the producer or consumer of these foods. This is meant to translate
into a product with a lower price, greater benefit (in terms of durability or nutritional value) or
both.
 GM foods currently available on the international market have passed risk assessments and are
not likely to present risks for human health. In addition, no effects on human health have been
shown as a result of the consumption of such foods by the general population in the countries
where they have been approved.
 The Risks and Benefits of GMO.
 Risks and Benefits
 Research studies present conflicting arguments as to whether consuming GM crops is beneficial or
harmful to human health. With every alleged GMO health risk, there are counterarguments either
opposing health risk claims or suggesting GMOs provide more benefits than harm. The most notable
GMO risks to humans are the potential development of allergens to GM related crops and toxicity from
GM crops. However, studies also show GM crops have benefits including the increased nutritional value
in foods.
 Additional Risks and Benefits
 Producing and consuming GM crops is associated with increased endocrine disruption, reproductive
disorders, and accelerated aging. There is evidence that the increased use of glyphospate-based
herbicides on GM crops is linked to endocrine disruption. While not directly a result of the crop, it's a
consequence of making the crops resistant to the herbicides. More research needs to be done over
these potential risks.
 GM crops also contributed to an increase in the number of functional foods or nutraceutical foods with
added benefits. Nutraceutical is applied to isolated nutrients, dietary supplements and herbal products,
specific diets, processed foods, and GM crops. Several nutraceutical foods include tomatoes, soybeans,
and golden rice. Modified genes can be more specific and controlled to produce particular health
advantages. Nutritionists expect higher nutrient content and an increased amount of nutrients (proteins,
fatty acids, minerals, trace elements and vitamins) along with less anti-nutritional factors from GM crops.
 The Risks and Benefits of GMO
 Additional Risks and Benefits
 Tomatoes are genetically modified with increased lycopene. Nutritionists suggested an association
between increased consumption of lycopene and reduced risk of prostate cancer. However, the
Food and Drug Administration concluded there is little scientific evidence to reliably back this claim.
Studies associated soybean proteins with antihypertensive properties such as lowering blood
pressure. Scientists claim Golden Rice contains more Vitamin A. Studies showed Golden Rice leads
to decreased rates of childhood blindness due to the increased consumption of Vitamin A.
 Capacity of Golden Rice lines with varying carotene content to supply the recommended nutrient
intake of vitamin A. In rice-based societies,Golden Rice stands a very good chance of being able to
deliver the recommended daily allowance of vitamin A (after conversion from β-carotene) to all
children. The diagram (right) shows that even with a very low dietary intake of vitamin A from other
sources (green), Golden Rice varieties with a low β-carotene content (orange) could fully provide
the daily needs of these children. Varieties with higher β-carotene content would make sure that an
even larger proportion of the population reached the recommended levels
THE END! Thank you for
listening.