WORLD, PHILIPPINE AND STANDARD ENGLISHES 1

Overview of World Englishes, Philippine English and Standard English

Ionell Jay R. Terogo

University of the Philippines Cebu College

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Overview of World Englishes and its Implications to Teaching English

In a technological and global setup and mindset people are adhering to nowadays, it is but

fitting that a “global” language would have been agreed upon by linguists. And usually, what

people picture as the “perfect” language for the job is English.

But Tom McArthur (1998) adopted a more synchronic perspective and thus moving away

from a monolithic concept of English. According to him, English is undergoing a process of

radical change which would eventually lead to fragmentation into a ‘family of languages’. So,

we should not think of English as it is and adopt all its features and conventions prescriptively

but rather use it according to how we interpret and eventually will own it. Here enters “World”

Englishes.

Crystal (2001) firmly believes in two linguistic principles, which most people see as

contradictory, but which for him are two sides of the coin:

I believe in the fundamental value of multilingualism, as an amazing world resource

which presents us with different perspectives and insights, and thus enables us to reach a

more profound understanding of the nature of the human mind and spirit. In my ideal

world, everyone would be at least bi-lingual. I myself live in a community where two

languages – Welsh and English – exist side by side, and I have cause to reflect every day

on the benefits which come from being part of two cultures. A large part of my academic

life, as a researcher in general linguistics, has been devoted to persuading people to take

language and languages seriously, so that as much as possible of our linguistic heritage

can be preserved.
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(And,) I believe in the fundamental value of a common language, as an amazing world

resource which presents us with unprecedented possibilities for mutual understanding,

and thus enables us to find fresh opportunities for international cooperation. In my ideal

world, everyone would have fluent command of a single world language. I am already in

the fortunate position of being a fluent user of the language which is most in contention

for this role, and have cause to reflect every day on the benefits of having it at my

disposal. A large part of my academic life, as a specialist in applied English linguistics,

has been devoted to making these benefits available to others, so that the legacy of an

unfavored linguistic heritage should not lead inevitably to disadvantage.

From Crystal we can deduce that while we value the knowledge of granting ourselves a

new language and thus be connected with the rest of the world through multilingualism, it is but

also valuable that a common language should exist too. One solution linguists deal with is the

use of World Englishes.

World Englishes – an Overview

According to Farrell and Martin (2009) world English is a norm that includes all varieties

of the language. Kachru (1992) proposes that English now comprises “a unique cultural

pluralism and a linguistic heterogeneity and diversity.” He categorizes the usage of English into

three concentric circles: the inner circle, the outer circle and the expanding circle. The inner

circle represents the more traditional bases of English and that it is used as their original mother
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tongue and primary medium of instruction. Countries from the inner circle are United Kingdom,

the United States of America, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. Canagarajah (2006) call the

Englishes of these countries Metropolitan Englishes (ME) to resemble the communities that

traditionally claimed ownership over the English language. The outer circle includes countries

which “have gone through extended periods of colonization, essentially by the users of the inner

circle varieties” (Kachru, 1985) and includes countries like Nigeria, Singapore and India. They

use English as a second national language or a medium of instruction in schools. The expanding

circle, on the other hand, does not have the same effects of colonization as the inner circle; in the

expanding circle, English is used mainly for business and international purposes. Countries of

this circle are China, Greece, Saudi Arabia, and Israel. Crystal concludes that the circle

represents the largest expanding numbers of English speakers in the world today. Graddol (1999)

and Crystal were able to show varied demographic projections of English speakers for the year

2050.

Graddol Crystal

English as sole or first language: 433 million 433 million

English as additional/second language: 668 million 462 million

Canagarajah (2006)

Crystal gave a “conservative” estimate of the multilingual users of the language which is

only about 30 million more than the ME speakers. Graddol on the other hand stated the obvious

and proclaimed that English will be the language of the future in multilingual contexts in many

countries.
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Martin (2012) summarizes and expounds the three world Englishes circles in his research

paper, English and Englishes in the Philippines. She quoted Graddol in 2006 by stating:

 There are approximately 375 million English as a first language (L1) speakers, 375

million L2 speakers, and 750 million English as a Foreign Language (EFL) speakers.

This means that there are more non-native than native speakers of the English

language.

 There is a massive number of people learning English today. This number may peak

at 2 billion within the decade.

 English learners are increasing in number and decreasing in age. (Martin, 2012)

With this we can safely say that the native speakers do not control the developments of

the English language (Martin, 2012). Also it is sound to note that the acceptance of English as a

very dynamic and varied language of global setup is a fact not just for linguists but for

everybody of different social statuses and educational backgrounds. As we quote Kachru: “It is a

reality that the sun has already set on the Empire but does not set on the users of English.”

Philippine English – an Issue

Another way of grouping world Englishes is dividing them into old, new, and pidgins and

creoles. Kandiah (1998) in his Why New Englishes? made a list of world Englishes groupings.

According to him, the spread is due to colonization and the rise of the ‘global village’:
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Table 1

New, Old, and Pidgin and Creole Englishes

(English-based) Pidgins,
New Englishes Older Englishes Creoles and Decreolized
varieties

 Kenyan English  American English  West African Pidgin

Africa North America Africa

 Nigerian English  Canadian English

 Tok Pisin
Papua New Guinea

 Indian English  English English

South Asia Great Britain

 Lankan English  Scots  Krio

Sierra Leone
 Pakistani English Northern Ireland and the
 Black English Vernacular
USA
 Filipino English  Irish English
Southeast Asia Republic of Ireland
 Hawaii English Creole
 Malaysian English
 Singapore English
Southern Indian and Pacific
 Bislama
Vanuatu
 Australian English
Oceans

 New Zealand English

Etc.
Etc.
Etc.

As it is listed, Filipino English is included in the New Englishes and this new paradigm

coincides with the outer circle group of world Englishes prepared by Kachru.

Tupas (2004) stated basic assumptions as based from the related studies on world

Englishes by Kachru and as seconded in Philippine studies by famous Filipino linguists Bautista

(1997), Gonzalez (1997), Llamzon (1997), Peña (1997) among others. He argues that such a

framework of new Englishes is of affirmation and reiteration. The assumptions are:

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1. The phenomenal spread of English, carried mainly through globalization, has resulted

in the diffusion of the language.

2. Such diffusion has produced different Englishes through sociolinguistic processes

usually referred to as nativization, hybridization, localization, acculturation and/or

indigenization.

3. Such processes are part of the whole project of decolonization among formerly

colonized countries where ‘owning’ English may mean independence.

4. Post-colonial Englishes have been a legitimate medium through which various

significations of nationalism, resistance, and local histories and cultures have been

voiced.

5. Legitimized and institutionalized Englishes are, linguistically and sociolinguistically,

all equal.

(Tupas, 2004)

I honestly do not intend to explain each assumption listed above except that I have to

reiterate a few things as I build a connection between these few assumptions to the Philippine

English context. First, globalization has its great contribution to the widespread of the language

to stress websites, web shows, television, cell phone messages, e-mail, food and product labels,

travel tickets, etc. are in default English with other languages opted in a click or are printed in

smaller fonts. And, Filipinos do not usually argue whenever they see English in texts and labels

because they are expected to know and understand such language. We still have to meet someone
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who strongly contends for everything to be in Filipino. Besides, biases will still rise as to what

specific Filipino language or dialect to adapt. Second, the whole process of ‘owning’ English

roots from our desire to be free from the wings of colonization and thus create a unique,

‘Filipinized’ English which we can boast as our own. As Tupas adds, world Englishes have been

the passageway of nationalism and ethnicity, and as a result, change.

Medgyes (1999) in his article, When the Teacher is a Non-native English Speaker, quotes

Widdowson and Norton in saying:

English is an international language which implies that it is not a possession which

[native speakers] lease out to others, while still retaining the freehold. Other people

actually own it (Widdowson, 1994).

English belongs to all the people who speak it whether native or non-native, whether ESL

or EFL, whether standard or nonstandard (Norton, 1997).

So Philippine English, like any other world Englishes, is distinct and has been through

linguistic and sociolinguistic processes unique in its own national and ethnic context. So the

issue of Filipinos “trying hard” to be English speakers should be null and that Filipinos have

their own way of speaking English as if they own it. There is no strict compliance to the

standards of the American, British or Australian languages but rather an open and more patriotic

Philippine English to adhere and be glad about.

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Standard English vs. World English

As we go back to Martin (2012) in his summary of world Englishes facts and as he also

quotes Graddol (2006), there are more non-native than native speakers of the English language

and as a result, there are more non-native than native teachers of English in the world today.

Also, there is a massive number of English learners and so the demand for teachers increases. In

the Philippines, this fact is evident for we do not hire English teachers from countries natively

following Metropolitan Englishes. Aside from it is impractical, schools, colleges and universities

sought the competence and confidence within our sea of teachers and so the idea of hiring native

English-speaking teachers (NESTs) has not come to the senses of school administrators.

Now the concern about non-native English-speaking teachers (non-NESTs) is that they

may not be “reliable” in teaching a language they do not own. But, this notion is to be scrapped

knowing that again no one owns the English language. The issue now is this – how to teach

English in a world English setting?

I believe that in order to teach world Englishes, teachers and students must get an

understanding first of Standard English. Farrell and Martin (2009) concluded that Standard

English is hard to define. For one thing, there is no world-recognized governing body that

dictates what should and should not be included in such a standard and thus different versions of

a rule come about. They refer to McArthur’s (2003) three identifying characteristics of Standard

English:

1) It is easiest to recognize in print because written conventions are similar worldwide.

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2) It is usually used by news presenters.

3) Its usage relates to the speaker’s social class and education.

But Farrell and Martin cited a relevant question about the teaching of English in this

setting:

Has rapid change in the status of English as a global language left the classroom practices

of many English language teachers lagging behind learners’ desires or even their needs?

(Farrell and Martin, 2009)

The Canadian authors stated that teachers need to create a balanced approach to

instruction that suits their particular contexts and students’ needs. The standards or the world

Englishes may be considered but the teacher regardless if NEST or Non-NEST must notice the

learner’s language needs and desires.

First, I will show you the consequences of teaching standard English as Tollefson (2002)

states them and I will be citing some concrete classroom examples I have encountered as a

beginning teacher:

 Standard English is a native-speaker model which may be unattainable for many

second language learners. Therefore, it may be unrealistic to use a native-speaker

model for language learners who, by definition, can “never become native-speakers

without being reborn” (Cook, 1999).

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To show discipline to the scholarship of the English language and at the same time hand

over respect to other students who are foreign to the language they confidently converse with, I

implemented the “Oops, English Please” policy. I included in the rule that correct and straight

English should be adopted by everyone but my Korean students are having a hard time talking -

to the point that they are afraid to share their ideas in the fear that they will be reprimanded for

not doing well in speaking English. But as a teacher I have been a propagator of matter rather

than form so I made changes to the rules and became more considerate to Korean students or

students coming from the countries in the expanding circle.

 Insisting on Standard English can devalue other varieties of English that exist around

the world.

I have made it a habit to correct students’ faulty sentence construction especially when

they speak in class. I sought that as an English teacher, I have the task to teach them of the right

and wrong pronunciations, spellings, syntax rules and word or collocation usage. I usually hear

students of Filipino nationality saying “next next week” to mean a week after next week. I

corrected them but they just simply answered me with a nod with a subtle implication that that is

what they mean. Apparently, students got the idea that though they did not speak it right, they

were still able to get their message across. “Next next week” is part of Philippine English and

correcting it although most people use it would devalue the Philippine English variety.

 Teaching Standard English may promote discrimination.

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A rather cute and chubby Korean student pronounces words funnily. Instead of saying

“lizard”, he says “rizarde”, “railroad” to “wailwod” interplaying with the l’s, r’s and w’s. One

time, I asked him to enunciate the word “properly”. He shouts “pwopahrly” and the class was

laughing. Although I know that the class was just bursting into laughter because of the cute

mannerism the Korean student usually does when speaking, the hidden connotation of criticism

can be scooped. We cannot expect the foreign student to speak the word well because for one,

his speaking mechanism, the mouth, is not adaptable yet to Standard English. Besides, we cannot

enforce him to speak fluently right away for he has just started learning the English language. It

will take a lot of time and patience before he can flawlessly deliver the word.

With this, Farrell and Martin emphasize that teachers can inform their practices about

different varieties of English that exist and that they can follow a balanced approach to teaching

English. This approach will have these key considerations:

 Teachers need to carefully consider their teaching context (McKay, 2002).

 After choosing their target of instruction based on that context, teachers should vaule

their learners’ current English usage (El-Sayed, 1991).

 Teachers need to prepare learners for future international English encounters by

exposing them to other varieties of English (Matsuda, 2003).

 Also, teachers should teach strategic competence when interacting with speakers who

speak other varieties of English.

(Farrell and Martin, 2003)

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In all honesty, I have always asked my students to think outside the box. In literature, I

always make it a point to remind them that for example, the short story we are discussing and

learning may be one but the interpretations we can get out from reading the short story may be

limitless. As the teacher, I am around not to explain a one-sided take of the story but rather I am

a facilitator in order to grant opportunities for learners to share their ideas and thoughts about

angles of the story that they got. The same thing goes with teaching English in general. As a

realization, I just thought that language may have these rules that we need to follow but in the

end we will not know that they will relatively change. What is important is we are learning

English and its set of rules with the understanding that there are exemptions always to consider.

One exemption is that the rules may not be the same in all contexts. For example, spelling rules

are not considered in e-mail messaging. Korean English may be simplistic and made possible

through the chunking of words and phrases but pragmatics plays a dominant role. Having the

message delivered to the receiver and the receiver says he understands it then that makes English

a lot easier.

While giving strategies to allow learners to speak with other nationalities (as cited in key

considerations), teachers should also use strategies for enhancing English in a world English

setting. Swain, Kirkpatrick and Cummins (2011) recommend the following for teaching L1 to

learners:

 Make content comprehensible by building from the know, providing translations for

difficult grammar and vocabulary, and using cross-linguistic comparisons when

necessary.
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 Focus of student process and product in task completion. However, English should be

used to the extent possible in performing the final product.

 For classroom routines such as giving instructions and maintaining discipline, English

should be used.

(Swain, Kirkpatrick and Cummins, 2011)

Conclusion

This paper glorifies world Englishes as a partner in a progressive and relative world.

With the rise of world English, other countries, including our third-world country the Philippines

will be able to rocket up the pedestal with its own Philippine English to symbolize the

Filipinization of language, rules and setups. Also, teachers should consider standard English as a

way to understand deeply the formation of world English. In order to better prepare students for

the global world and to show them that their own English is valued, a balanced approach to

teaching English should be implemented (Farrell and Martin, 2009). Key considerations are

aligned to better suit the needs of learners in the classroom context. We are envisioning real

world interactions that would be accessible in just one click of technology and one wink from

globalization.
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Crystal, D. (2003). What is Standard English? Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English

Language, 24-26.

Farrell, T. C. and Martin, S. (2009). To Teach Standard English or World Englishes? A Balanced

Approach to Insruction. English Teaching Forum, Number 2, 2009, 2-9.

Graddol, D. (2006). English Next. London: British Council.

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